I
Encyclopedia Britannica;
D I C T I 6 NARY
O F
ARTS, SCIENCES,
AND
MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE;
Conftrufted on a Plan,
B Y WH IC H
THE DIFFERENT SCIENCES AND ARTS
Are digefte'd into the Form of Diftinft
TREATISES or SYSTEMS,
The History, Theory, and Practice, of each,
according to the Lateft Difcoveries and Improvements;
AND full EXPLANATIONS given of the
VARIOUS DETACHED PARTS OF KNOWLEDGE,
WHETHER RELATING TO
Natural and Artificial Obje&s, or to Matters Ecclesiastical,
Civil, Military, Commercial, &c.
Including Elucidations of the mod important Topics relative to Religion, Morals,
Manners, and the Oeconomy of Life :
TOGETHER WITH
A Description of all the Countries, Cities, principal Mountains, Seas, Rivers, &c.
throughout the World;
A General History, Ancient and Modern^ of the different Empires, Kingdoms, and States;
An Account of the L i v E s of the mod Eminent Perfons in every Nation,
from the earlieft ages down to the prefent times.
Compiledfnm the -writings of the befi Authors, in fever ai languages ; the moj] approved DiSlionaries, as -well of general fcience at of its parti¬
cular branches; the TranfaSions, 'Journals, and Memoirs, of Learoed Societies, hath at home and abroad', the MS. Leflures of
Eminent Profejfors on different fciences ; and a variety of Original Materials, furnijhed by an F.xtenfive Correfpondence.
THE THIRD EDITION, IN EIGHTEEN VOLUMES, GREATLT IMPROVED.
ILLUSTRATED WITH FIVE HUNDRED AND FORTY-TWO COPPERPLATES.
VOL. I.
INDOCT! BISCANT, ET AMENT MFMlNtSSK EERtTU
EDINBURGH,
PRINTED FOR A. BELL AND C. MACFARQJIHAR.
MDCCXCVII.
dBntereti in ©tattoncrsf ipail in Cetma of tfje aa of parliament*
T O T H E
KING.
- . , • A'r "v t'ri . ' ^
SIR,
When the Proprietors of the Encyclopedia
Britannica refolved to publifh a new and improved
Edition of that Work, they naturally requefted per^
miffion to lay it at the feet of their Sovereign.
Your Majesty’s gracious compliance with that
requeft, whilft it incited them to employ their utmoft
efforts to make this Edition not altogether unworthy
of Your Royal Protection, procured for their under¬
taking the favour of that Public by which Your
Majesty is revered as the Father of Your People,
and the enlightened Patron of Arts, Sciences, and
Literature.
That
iv DEDICATION.
That by the Wifdom of Your Councils, and the
Vigour of Your Fleets and Armies, Your Majesty
may be enabled foon to reftore Peace to Europe;
that You may again have leifure to extend Your Royal
Care to the Improvement of Arts, and the Advance¬
ment of Knowledge; that You may Reign long over
a Free, a Happy, and a Loyal People; and that the
Sceptre of the British Empire may be fwayed by
Your Majesty’s Defcendants to the lateft Pofterity,
is the earned: prayer of
YOUR MAJESTY’S
Moft dutiful Subjects,
And devoted Servants,
Andrew Bell
£zN!f»USK3m,'i
1797" I •
Colin M acfar qjuh ar»
P R E FAG E.
The utility of fcience, and the delight which it affords to the human mind, are ac¬
knowledged by every man who is not immerfed in the groffeft ignorance. It is to the
philofopher that the hulbandman, the archite£t, the carpenter, and the feaman, &c.
are indebted for the principles of thofe arts, by which they furnifh us with moft of
the accommodation^ and with all the elegances, of civilized life ; whilft the pleafure
experienced in the very progrefs of philofophical refearch is fuch, as both reafon and
revelation intimate, not obfcurely, will conftitute part of our happinefs in a future date.
Small, however, would be the attainments of any man in fcience, were they confined
within the limits of his own refearches. Our knowledge of corporeal nature originates
in thofe perceptions which we have by the organs of fenfe; and which, treafured up in
the memory, we can, by the powers of reafon and imagination, varioufly modify, ar¬
range, and combine, fo as from a number of particular truths to form to ourfelves ge¬
neral principles. But thefe principles would be few indeed, had each individual no
other materials of which to form them than the perceptions furnilhed immediately by
his own fenfesw It has long been a matter of general regret, that the progrefs of fcience
has been flow and laborious ; but it never could have commenced, or could have only
commenced, were every man obliged to begin his career from his own fenfations, with¬
out availing himfelf of the difcoveries of others who have travelled over the fame ground
before him.
To this narrow field, however, philofophical inveftigation is not confined. By
means of the arts of writing and drawing, the difcoveries of one individual may be
made acceflible to another, and the fcience of every age and of every country treafu'
red up for the ufe of ages and countries the moft remote. Hence arifes the utility of
what is generally called literature, or the knowledge of the languages, cuftoms, and
manners, wrhich have prevailed among the various nations of the earth. Without this
knowledge the fcience of the ancients would be locked up from the moderns j and
even the difcoveries of modern nations would be inacceflible to each other.
With all the aid which can be furnifhed by one age or nation to another, the la¬
bours of the philofopher-ftill prefent themfelves as immenfe and difficult. His objedfc
comprehends univerfal nature, of which nothing can be known but by fenfation and
refledtion ; but the objedts of fenfe are all individuals, almoft infinite in number, and
for ever changing : fo that inftead of a fyftem of fcience, the firft view of the corporeal,
world woifld lead us to imagine, that from our moft diligent refearches nothing could
be obtained but a vaft collection of particular truths. Such a collection, whilft it
would burden the memory, could be of little advantage to-the arts of life ; for we are-
very feklom brought, on different occafions, into circumftances fo perfedtly ftmilar, as
to require, without the ftnalleft variation, the fame condudt..
But
VI
PREFACE.
But though all the objecls offenfe, of memory, and of confcioufnefs, are unqueftion-
ably individuals diftinct from each other, the contemplative mind of man obferves
among them various refembiances and analogies. It obferves, that the fenfation com¬
municated to the fight by fnow is fimilar to that communicated by milk, paper, chalk,
and a thoufand other objeds; that all external obj'eds are folid, extended, divifible,
and of fome figure ; that the path defcribed by a planet round the fun refembles
that defcribed by a cannon ball over the furface of the earth ; and that many
of the adions of brutes are fimilar to thofe which we are impelled to perform by the
internal feelings of delire and averfion.
This view of nature, quiefcent andadive, fuggefted to the philofopher the expedi¬
ency of ftudying the vaft multitude of objeds which compofe the univerfe ; not indi¬
vidually, but in groups clafled together according to their perceived refembiances or
analogies. He faw that his labour would thus be at Once fhortened and rendered ini
finitely more ufeful; but he likewife faw, or ought to have feen, that it would by no
means be taken wholly away. Much cautious attention is requifite to clafs objeds in
human fyftems as they are in fad clafied in the fyftem of nature. Analogies are a|)t
to be miftaken for refembiances ; a refemblance in a few particulars for a refemblance
in all; and events, which have in reality very little in common, to be attributed to
the fame or to fimilar caufes. ■ Tbefe' miliakes can be avoided only by a painful in-
dudion of fads, by means of experiments accurately made on individual objeds ; and
it was but very lately that indudion was employed as the inftrument of fcientific re-
fearch.
In ancient Greece, where philofophy firft afiumed a fyftematie form, all the objeds
of human thought were ranged under ten categories or predicaments ; and every
thing which could be affirmed or denied of thefe categories was fuppofed to be com¬
prehended under five clafles called predicables. Among the Greek philofophers,
therefore, the ufe of indudion was to alcertain the category to which any particular
objed belonged ; after which, nothing more was to be done but, by a fhort procefs of
fyllogiftic reafoning, to affirm or deny of that objed whatever could be affirmed or
denied of its category.
To this ancient arrangement of human knowledge many infuperable objedions have
been urged. But it mull be confeffed, that the arrangements which have been propo-
fed in its Head, by the fages of modern times, have little claim, to.greater perfedion.
Locke clafled all things under three categories; substances, modes, and ideas.
Hume reduced the number to two; impressions and ideas. The former of thefe
philofophers admitted of only four predicables, all different from thofe of the ancients;
the latter at firil extended the number to feven, but afterwards reduced it to three ;
among which none of the ancient predicables are to be found, and only one of thofe
which had been admitted by Locke.
These different clafiifications of knowledge are the natural confequences of mens at¬
tempting what the greateil powers of the human intelled will never be able to accom-
plilh. It certainly was the aim of Arillotle, or'whoever was the inventor of the categories
and the,predicables, to delineate the whole region of human knowledge, actual and
poffible -, to point out the limits of every diltridt ; and to affign to every thing which
can be'the objedl of human thought its proper place in the vail; arrangement. Such
an attempt evinces the ambition of its author ; nor has the ambition been much lefs of
fome of thofe by whom the rail] arrogance of the Stagyrite has been moil feverely
eenfured. Locke fays exprefsly, that as the objedis of our knowledge are confined to
fubflances, modes, -Ai\(\ ideas, fo we can difcover nothing of thefe, but, ijl, their identity
or divcrfiiy; zd, their relation ; 3d, their co exiflence or nec.effhry connection ; and, ytb,
their real exigence: while Hume declares, with fome hefitation indeed, that we can
know nothing hut the refeniblance, contiguity in time or place, and caufation of our im-
preffions and ideas.
These
F REF A C E.
These attempts, as well modern as ancient, to contract the whole furniture of the
human mind into the compafs of a nut-fhell, and to give at once a complete chart-of
knowledge, have been cenfured, not only as prefumptuous, but as the fertile fources of
error, by a philofopher whofe writings do honour to this age and nation. “ To
make a perfect divilion (fays Dr Reid), a man muft have a perfect comprehenfion of
the whole fubje£t at one view. When our knowledge of the fnbjeCt is imperfed, any
divifton we can make riiuft be like the firlt Iketch of a painter, to be extended, con-
traded, or mended, as the fubjed fhail be found to require. Yet nothing-is more
common, not only among the ancient1 but even among1 modern philofophers, than ta
draw from their incomplete diviltons, conclufiom which- fuppofe them to be perfed.
A divifion is a repofitory which the- philofopher frames for holding his ware in con¬
venient order. The philofopher maintains, that fuch or fuch a thing is not good
ware, becaufe there is no place in his ware-room that fits it. We are apt to yield to
this argument in philofophy, but it would appear ridiculous in any other traffic.”
The truth of thefe obfervations will be controverted by no man who s not an abfo-
lute ftranger to the various fyflems, ancient' and modern, of what has been called the
JirJl philofophy.
Bu r if every fcientific arrangement of knowledge which has hitherto been propofed
be fo very imperfed, what judgment are we to form of that which is adopted by the
compilers of Didionaries or Encyclopaedias, in which the arts and fciences are arranged
according to the order of the alphabet, and A, B, C, &c. confidered as the categoriesi
The author whom we have juft quoted affirms, that of all methods of arrangement this is
the molt antiphilofophical ; and if he allude only to fuch Encyclopaedias as are mere
didionaries, in which the feveral arts and fciences are broken into fragments, Scattered
through the work according as the alphabet has happened to difpofe of the various-
technical terms which have place in each, his affertion is unqueftionably true. Its
truth is indeed admitted by Chambers himfelf, the compiler of one of the firft and moft.
valuable of thefe didionaries, who fpeaks of the works of his predeceffors as containing,
nothing but a multitude of materials, or a confufed heap of incoherent parts. “ For¬
mer lexicographers (fays he) fcarce attempted any thing like ftrudure in their works
they feem not to have been aware that a didiorjary is in fome meafure capable of the
advantages of a continued difcourfe : and hence it is, that we fee nothing like a whole-
in what they have done.”
Proposing to remedy thisdefed in his own Didionary of Arts and Sciences, he in¬
forms us, that “ his view was to conlider the feveral matters, not only in themfelvesr
but relatively, or as they refped each other; both to treat them as fo many wholes, and
as fo many parts of fome greater whole ; and to point out their connedion with each
other, and wi.h that whole, by reference : fo that by a courfe of references from gene¬
rals to particulars, from premifes to conclufions, from caufe to effed, and vice verfa,
a communication might be opened between the feveral parts of the work, and the de¬
tached articles be in fome meafure replaced in the natural order of fcience, out of which
the alphabetical order had removed them.” To enable the reader with the greater eafe
to replace in the order of fcience the various articles fcattered through the didionary,
he furniftied him in the preface with what muft be confidered as an elegant analyfis of
human knowledge; by which may be feen, atone view, the mutual dependence of the
feveral parts upon each other, and the intimate connedion of the v/hole.
But though the found judgment of Mr Chambers thus direded him to make the ar¬
rangement of his Cyclopaedia vaftly preferable to that of any work of the fame kind
which had been publiftied before it; we, are afraid that, in its original form, it was-
ftill liable to the objedions of Dr Reid. Had all the articles in the work been treated
in fufficient detail to conftitute, when reunited in the order of Icience, fo many com¬
plete fyftems ; yet the multitude of references was fo great, that'this reunion could not
have been made but by a degree of irkfome labour* to which few readers will ever fub-
KNOWLEDGE is either
viii
PREFACE.
ittit (A)* The work therefore, with all its improvements, was Hill a book of Ihreds
and patches, rather than a feientific di&ionary of arts and fciences; and conlidering
the letters of the alphabet as the categories, the arrangement was certainly inconve¬
nient as well as antiphilofophtcal.
Of this inconveniency, infeparable from a mere didlionary of arts and fciences, the
original Compilers of the' Encyclopaedia Britannica were fully aware; and they refolved
to conflrudl their own Work upon a plan from which it might be completely removed.
They were equally apprifed with their predecelfors of the utility of explaining by it-
felf every technical term, and of illuftrating every particular topic, in the wide circle
of the arts and fciences; but they were at the fame time fenfible, that it is only by
thinking in method, and reducing their ideas to the order of nature, that mankind can
make
(a) To be convinced of the truth of this afiertion, one needs but to caft his eye over the author's table of arrangement,
it is as follows.
f Meteorology.
Senfihle; confifting in the perception ®f phenomena or external ob- | Hydrology.
je&s—called Physiology or Natural History ; and which, ^Mineralogy.
according to the different kinds of fuch objedts, divides into
Natural and
Scientifical;
which isei-«
ther —
Rational; confifting in the
perception of the intrlnfic<
charafters or habitudes of
fenfible objedts — either
their    
I Phytology.
[Zoology.
called Physics, and Natural Ph
Powers, and Properties-
AbJlmBs—called Metaphysics, which fubdivides into
ArtificiahaiH
'Technical,
(confifting
in theappli-
cationofna-,
tural notices
to farther
purpofes),
which is
either —
HILOSOPHY.
ITOLOGY.
eumatology.
Quantities—called Pure Ma- r Arithmetic—whence 3 ANALYTICS*
thematics—which divides, J , [•, LGEBRA*
according to the fubjedt of] Geometry—whence \ R!GONOMETRy*
the quantity, into — (Statics   s onics.
n 1 v (.Spherics.
Relations to our happinefs—called f Ethics, or Natural V Politics.
Religion, or the dodtrineof-j Religion—whence (Raw.
Offices, whichfubdividesinto (.Theology, or Revelation.
Internal; employed in difeovering their agreement and difagreement; or their relations in refpedt of truth-
called Logics.
Latent power’s and properties of bodies— f Alchemy.
Called Chemistry—whence (Natural Magic, &c
rQpTics, Catoptrics, Dioptrics, f Perspective.
:— whence (Painting.
Phonics—whence Muiic.
Hydrostatics, Hydraulics.
Pneumatics.
f Architecture.
Mechanics—whence
Oh,
External;
which is
either
Real, employed
in difeover-
ing and ap¬
plying the
Or,
Quantities oiho-
dies—- called
Mixed Ma¬
thematics;
which,accor¬
ding to the
different fub
jedfs,refolves
into  
Pyrotec
Astronomy—-whence
4 Scui
(.Trades and Manufactures.
•whence lrhe i, u',TARY Art'
( fortification.
( Chronology.
(Dialling.
(Navigation.
Geography, Hydro-
graphy—whence (Commerce.
Structure and economy of organical bodies, called Anatomy.
r a„Gv,„1o oiui I Medicine.
iJe/ntf/oTU thereof
to the prefer-
vationandim-.
provement—
either of —
Animals called 4
(Pharmacy.
V egetables called
T Agriculture.
Brutes—
(Gardening.
celled ^
Parrying.
Manege—whence
f Hunting.
r Words, or articulate figns of ideas—called Grammar.
Symbolical, employed in J Armories—called Heraldry.
framing and applying "i Tropes and Figures—called Rhetoric.
Rphi/a—called Poetry.
4 Falconry.
(Fis
Such
PREFACE.
m
make any progrefs in ufeful knowledge. To accomplilh therefore effedlually what Mr
Chambers by means of his prefatory fcientifical analyfis attempted in vain, they endea¬
voured to give a compendious, yet clear and fatisfa&ory, account of the feveral arts
and fciences under their proper denominations, whilft the fubordinate articles in each
were likewife explained under their technical terms. Thefe fubordinate articles they
divided into three kinds ; of which the firft confifts of fuch as, independent of particu¬
lar fyftems, admit of a full and complete illuftration under their proper names ^
the fecond, of fuch as require to be partly difcufled under the fyftems to which they
belong, and partly under their own denominations ; and the third, of fuch as apper¬
tain to fyftems of which all the parts rnnft be elucidated together. Articles of the firlf
kind admit of no references; thofe of the fecond, being only partially explained under
their proper denominations, demand references to the fyftems where the illuftrations
are completed ; and thofe of the laft are wholly referred to the fyftems of which they
are conftituents.
Such has been the arrangement of the Arts and Sciences in every edition of the n-
eyclopasdia Eritannica ; and it furely falls not under that cenfure which Dr Rei pro¬
nounced with juftice on many other works bearing a fimilar title.
In the fpirit of true philofophy, that great man obferves, that the fame fubjeft may
admit, and even require, various divifions, according to the different points of view
from which it is contemplated ; and we doubt not but, if he had been alked, he would
candidly have acknowledged, that the divifions and arrangement of the Encyclopaedia
Britannica are calculated to anfwer every purpofe which can be expe&ed from a gene¬
ral repofitory of arts, fciences, and mifcellaneous literature. They are fuch as muft
give to readers of every defeription the moft eafy accefs to the objeds of their purfuit:
for whilft the philofopher or fyftematic artift may be fully and regularly informed by
turning to the general name of the fcience or art which he wifties to explore, the man
who has occafion to confult only particular topics will find them illuftrated under the
terms by which they are denominated. Contemplated from this point of view, the
arrangement of the Encyclopaedia Britannica needs not fhrink from a comparifon even
with that of the Encyc/opedie Metbodique j for though that voluminous work, confiding
of a dictionary of dictionaries, may have the appearance of being more fyftematically
arranged ; yet we, who have had occafion to confult it frequently, have never found
our objeCt the more readily for having been obliged to travel in queft of it through
different alphabets.
A dictionary, in which the feveral arts and fciences are digefted into diftinCt trea¬
ties or fyftems, whilft the various detached parts of knowledge a e explained in the order
of the alphabet, feems indeed to have received the beft form of which fuch a work is
fufceptible ; and may certainly be made to anfwer one end, which more philofophical
arrangements never can accomplilb. Under the various letters of the alphabet, it is
obvious that the whole circle of the feienoes may be completely exhaufted; and that
every difeovery, ancient or recent, may be referred to the particular fyftem which it
Vol. I. Bart I. b tends
Such'is that great and general analyfis of knowledge, which-has by fonie of our correfpondents been recom¬
mended to us in terms of the higheft praife, and to which elegance and accuracy cannot perhaps be refufed. Its
utility, however, as prefixed to a diftionary of arts and'fciences, is not very apparent. From each word, which in
this table is printed in capitals, many branches are made to fpring, which in the dictionary are all treated as feparate
articles. Thus from Meteorology we are referred, in a fubordinate analyfis, to Air and the Atmosphere ;
including, rft, ’ he hiftory of its contents, ./Ether, Fire, Vapour, Exhalation, &c. 2d, Meteors formed
therein; as Cloud, Rain, Shower, Drop, Snow, Hail, Dew, Damp, &c. Rainbow, Parhelion, Ha¬
lo, Thunder, Waterspout, &c. Winds, Monsoon, Hurricane, and the like. As every word printed
in capitals, as well in this fubordinate divifron as in the general table, is the title of an article treated feparately in
the Cyclopaedia, we muft. turn backwards and forwards through more than 24 references before we come at the
detached topics, which we are directed to unite into a fyftem of Meteorology. The number of articles which
muft be united in the fame manner to conftitute the Compiler’s fyftem of Metaphysics is upwards of 4$ ;
and thofe which are referred to Theology above 300 !
PREFACE.
tends ter confute or to confirm, without having recourfe to the awkward expedient of
employing feveral alphabets, or the ftill more inconvenient arrangement by which the
fyftems themfelves are broken into fragments.
But on this topic it is needlefs to expatiate. The very favourable reception with
which the two former editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica wrere honoured by the
Public ; the ftill greater encouragement which has been given to the prefent; and the
adoption of the plan by the editors of other repofitories of arts and fciences—bear ample
teftimony to the excellence of the arrangement. On this fubjedt we exprefs ourfelves
with the greater eafe and the greater confidence, that we cannot be accufed of flattering
our own vanity, or publiftiing our own praifes; for the merit of forming the arrange¬
ment, as well as of introducing into the Work various branches of knowledge, from
which, as they are not generally to be found in dictionaries, it derives a juft claim to
the favour of the Public, belongs not to the Compilers of the prefent Edition.
After furveying any particular art or fcience, our curiofity is excited to acquire fome
knowledge of the private hiftory of thofe eminent perfons by whom it w7as invented,
or has been cultivated and improved. To gratify this curiofity, thofe who formed
the plan of the Encyclopaedia Britannica refolved to enrich it with a department not
to be found in any prior colledtion of the fame kind except the French Encyclopedic.
Of all the various fpecies of narrative-writing, it is acknowledged that none is more
worthy of cultivation than biography ; lince none can be more delightful or more
ufeful, none can more certainly enchain the heart by irrefiftible intereft, or more
widely diffufe inftrudlion to every diverfity of condition. Its tendency to illuftrate
particular paflages in general hiftory, and to diffufe new light through fuch arts and
fciences as were cultivated by the perfons whofe lives are related, are fads too obvious
to require proof. It exhibits likewife the human charader in every poffible form and
fituation. It not only attends the hero through all the buftie of public life, but pur-
fues him to his moft fequeftered retirements. It fhows how diftinguiftied charaders
have been involved in misfortunes and difficulties ; by what means they were extrica¬
ted ; or with what degree of fortitude and dignity they difeharged the various func¬
tions, or fuftained the viciffitudes, fometimes profperous and fometimes adverfe, of a
checquered and a fluduating life. In fuch narratives men of all ranks muft feel them¬
felves interefted ; for the high and the low, as they have the fame faculties and the
fame fenfes, have no lefs firnilitude in their pains and pleafures ; and therefore in the
page of honeft biography, thofe whom fortune or nature has placed at the greateft dif-
tance, may mutually afford inftrudion to each other. For thefe reafons it is, that
every man of learning and tafte has efteemed the biographical labours of Plutarch
among the moft valuable and interefting remains of antiquity.
The lives and charaders, therefore, of fuch perfons as have excelled in the arts
either of war or of peace, of fuch as have diftinguiffied themfelves either on the theatre
of adion or in the recefs of contemplation, will be found in the Encyclopaedia Bri¬
tannica alphabetically difpofed under their proper names. Many indeed are omitted,
for whom the reader wdll naturally look ; fome becaufe, in the order of the alphabet,
we had pafled the initial letters of their names before v’e had intelligence of their
deaths; others, through the inadvertency, whether excufable or not, of the Editors ;
feveral, for a reafon which fhall be afterwards affigned for omiffions of a different
kind, and perhaps of greater importance; and a very few from the contemptuous re-
fufal of their friends to anfwer the Editor’s letters refpedfully requefting the neceffary
information (b).
But
(b) Of this treatment we have not indeed often had occafion to complain. While men of the firft eminence
in church and Itate have readily anfwered the letters that were addreffed to them, and either communicated the
PREFACE.
xi
But while one part of our readers will regret that we have given no account of their
favourite philofopher, hero, or ftatefman, others may be difpofed to remark, that we
have dragged from obfcurity the names of many perfons who were no proper objeds-
of fuch public regard. Tothefe we can only reply, that, with the greateft biographer
of modern times, we have long thought that there has rarely paffed a life of which a
faithful narrative would not be ufeful; and that in the lives of the molt obfcure per¬
fons, of whom we have given any account, we faw fomething either conneded with
recent difcoveries and public affairs, or which we thought capable of affording a leffon
to great multitudes in fimilar circumftances.
Between eminent atchievements and the fcenes where they were performed, there
is a natural and neceffary connedion. The charader of the warrior is conneded with
the fields of his battles ; that of the leglflator, with the countries which he civilized ;
and that of the traveller and navigator, with the regions which they explored. Even
when we read of the perfons by whom, and the occafions on which, any particular
]branch of knowledge has been improved, we naturally wifh to know fomething of
the places where fuch improvements were made. This curiofity, fo natural and fa
laudable, has been frequently felt by ourfelves during the compilation of this- Work j
and to gratify it in others, we have fubjoined to the name of every confiderable place
an account of its fituation, its climate, its foil, its peculiarities, its inhabitants, with
their manners, cultoms, and arts; its revolutions, laws, and government, with what¬
ever elfe appeared neceffary for the reader’s information, and at the fame time admif-
fible into a Work of fuch variety and extent. It is indeed probable, that by many of
our readers we lhall be thought to have done too much rather than too' little in this
department; and to have filled our pages with accounts of towns and villages not of
fufficient importance to demand general attention. But were it known, how many of
fuch places we have excluded from our Work, though recommended to us by fome of
our moft obliging correfpondents, thofe who refled upon the different taftes of man¬
kind, and confider that we wrote for the Public at large, would forgive us for having
occafionally employed a few fentences in the defcription of others, which^ whatever be
their real importance, could not have been omitted without difappointing a very nu¬
merous clafs of readers.
The knowledge of hiftory is fo important, not only to the flatefman and the legifla-
tor, to whom indeed it is abfolutely neceffary, but likewife to every man who moves
in a fphere above that of the lowed vulgar, that a Work profeffing to be a general re-
pofitory of arts, fcienees, and literature, would be exceedingly defedive, if it did not
contain fome information of the tranfadions of thofe who have been in poffeffion of the
world before us ; of the various revolutions of ftates and empires and of all the other
means which have contributed to bring every thing into the date in which we behold
it. Fully aware of this, the Compilers of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, befides-giving
a general view of univerfal hiftory and chronology, have enriched this edition with a
fliort, though they hope luminous, detail of the progrefs of each particular nation*
which from the remoteft period to the prefent time has aded a confpicuous part on
the theatre of the world. The reader therefore will here find a very comprehendve
view of Civil History, ancient and modern, in all its branches. Nor have the hifto-
ries of Nature and Religion been negleded. Of the former, it is not perhaps too
much to fay, that in all the fubdivifions of its three great kingdoms, it will be found more
fully, more accurately, and more fcientifically, detailed in this Work than in any other
didionary which has yet been publifhed. Of the latter, a brief view is given under
the general article History ; the unavoidable defeds of which are in a. great meafure
b 2. fupplied:
information which was requefted, or politely affigned reafons for wifhing the lives of their friends not to be pub.
Milled in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, the Editor recollefts but two men who maintained a fallen filence $ and
thefe he cannot confider as moving in a fphere much higher than his own.
P R £ £ A C t.
ifcfi
fupplied by the accounts that will be found, under their proper denominations, of all
the confiderable fedls and opinions which have prevailed in the religious world from
the earlieft periods to the prefent day.
Such was the plan of the fecond edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; to which,
as it feems hardly capable of improvement, the Compilers of the third have, with a
few flight variations, ftri&ly adhered. Still, however, there was ample room for the
efforts of all their induftry and all their learning; for the rapid progrefs of the phyfi-
cal fciences had rendered the labours of their predeceflbrs in many departments ui'elels.
Befides the introdu&ion of fome thoufands of new articles, there are not many of great
importance, thofe in biography and geography alone excepted, which Hand in this
Edition as they flood in the laft. Such recent difcoveries as could be introduced, have
been mentioned with reference to their proper authors ; and, while the feveral fciences
have been treated more fully and fyftematically, greater care has been employed to
trace the hiftory of each from its firft invention, and to apply them all to the arts of life.
To accomplifh a talk fo arduous and fo important, neither labour nor expence has
been fpared. Literary journals; the memoirs and tranfa&ions of philofophic focieties;
and all the moft valuable didlionaries of arts and fciences, both in our own and in
other languages, have been conftantly confulted. The works of the moft eminent au¬
thors, as well ancient as modern, who have written on any particular art or fcience,
have been colledted and compared. Such of them as treat of topics, about which there
is no room for controverfy, and are at the fame time fufceptible of abridgement, have
been abridged with the greateft care j whilft others, more concife and tenacious of their
fubje£ts, have been more clofely purfued and more faithfully retained. Upon thofe
branches of fcience on which the works of other authors furniihed nothing lit for the
purpofe of the Editors, original eflays and treatifes are inferted, which were compofed
either by themfelves, or by fuch of their friends as they knew to be intimately ac¬
quainted with the fubjedt. On difputed points, whether in the phyfical or moral
fciences, arguments and objedions have been difplayed in their full force ; and of each
of the various feds into which the Chriftian church is divided, the account is generally
given by the moft eminent clergyman of that fed to whom the Editors could find ac-
cefs.
After the utmoft exertions, however, of our attention and induftry, wre are fenfible,
perhaps more fenfible than any of our readers, that the Work palfes from our hands in
a ftate far from perfedion; and that the man who ftiall not difcover in the Encyclo¬
paedia Britannica miftakes, needlefs repetitions, and even culpable omiflions, will bring
to the examination of it no great flock of general knowledge. But for thefe offences the
Editors perhaps need.no other apology than what will be furnifhed by the nature of
the Work and the hiftory of its publication.
In a colledion fo extenfive and multifarious, a few miftakes, repetitions, and omif-
fions, might furely be pafled over without feverity of cenfure, although the publication
had from the beginning to the end been fuperintended by the fame man ; but they
will be allowed to have been almoft unavoidable, when it is known that, after the
Work u^as far advanced, it was committed to the care of a new Editor, who, though
he was in a great degree a ftranger to the contents of the printed volumes, found no
clue of his predecelfor’s which could guide him accurately through thofe to be com¬
piled.
We beg it to be underftood, that this obfervation is not made with a view to re¬
move any fhare of blame from the fecond to the firft Editor ; for Mr Colin Macfar-
quhar, who conduced the publication beyond the middle of the twelfth volume, .
was a man whom few who knew him will be difpofed to blame, and on whofe indu-
ftrious integrity thofe who knew him beft muft admit that it would be difficult to
beftow too much praife. Born in Edinburgh of parents refpedtable, though not afflu¬
ent, he was, at an early period of life, bound an apprentice to a printer. This pro-
feflion gave him a tafte for fcience and literature, or rather furniihed him with oppor¬
tunities
PREFACE;
xiii
tunities of cultivating the tafte which he derived from nature ; and he foon became
well acquainted with the moft popular writers in natural hiftory and in natural and
moral philofophy. When he opened a printing-houfe of his own, redtitude of condudl
quickly recommended him to friends and to employment ; and the unremitted profe-
cution of his ftudies eminently qualified him for fuperintending the publication of a new
didtionary of arts, fciences, and literature*, of which, under the title of Encyclopaedia
Britannica, the idea had been conceived by him and his friend Mr Andrew Bell en¬
graver. By whom thefe gentlemen were affifted in digefting the plan which attradled
to that Work fo much of the public attention, or whether they had any afliftance, are
queftions in which our readers cannot be interefted. Suffice it to fay, that Mr Mac-
farquhar had the foie care of compiling the prefent Edition ; and that, with the aid
of a very few literary friends, he brought it down to the article Mysteries, in the
twelfth volume, when he was cut off in the 48th year of his age by a death which,
though not hidden, was perhaps unexpedted. His career was indeed Ihort; but of him
it may be faid with as much propriety as of moft men. Nemo parum diu vixit, qui
•virtutis perfect (E perfect 0 fun El us eft munere.
Among his literary correfpondents was the Reverend Dr Gleig of Stirling, who had
written for him various articles, of which fome were publilhed during his lifetime
and others in their order after his death. Thefe fhall be afterwards enumerated with
thofe furnilhed by other occafional contributors; but they are mentioned at prefent,
becaufe they account for that partial regard of Mr Macfarquhar for their author, which,
on the death of the former, induced the truftees for his children, together with Mr Bell
the furviving partner, to requeft the latter to undertake the talk which their deceafed
friend had hitherto difcharged with fo much credit to himfelf. In this propofal, after
fome hefitation on account of his diltance from Edinburgh, Dr Gleig acquiefced; but
when he entered on his new office, he found matters in a ftate of no little confufion.
Mr Macfarquhar, though his death had not been long expedted, had laboured long
under a complication of difeafes ; the confequence of which was, that the materials
which he had prepared for the prefs were almoll exhaufted ; and of thofe which were
firft called for, fome had not paired through his corredling hand.
This circumftance may perhaps account for fome defedts and inaccuracies in that
part of the Work, to which the fecond Editor looks back with the leaft fatisfadtion ; but
that which mull be his apology forfeverai repetitions and omiffions, was the negledt of
his predeceffor during his lalt illnefs to make an intelligible index to his own labours.
From the want of fuch a neceflary guide. Dr Gleig was perpetually liable, notwith-
ftanding his utmoft circumfpedtion, to give under one title an explanation of fubjedts
which had been before explained under another; and to omit articles altogether, from
a perfuafion that they had been dilcuffed in fome preceding volume under the general
fyftem to which they belong.
Neither his repetitions nor omifiions, however, are Co many as fome have fuppo-
fed them; for what has been haftily cenfured as a repetition, is frequently nothing
more than the neceffary refumption of fome important fubjedt. Availing himfelf
of the excellence of the plan upon which the Encyclopaedia Britannica is conltrudt-
ed, he took the opportunity, when he found any 1'yltem fuperficially treated, to fupply
its defedts under ibrne of the detached articles belonging to it. Of this he lhall men¬
tion as one inftance Hydrostatics ; which, confidered as a fyftem, muft be con-
feffed to be defective ; but he truits that its defedts are in a great meafure fupplied un¬
der the feparate articles Resistance of Fluids, River, Specific Gravity, and IVater-
Works.
That in the Encyclopaedia Britannica no account is given of fome things which
fhould have a place in a general repofitory of arts, fciences, and mifcellaneous litera¬
ture, muft be acknowledged ; but it muft likewife be acknowledged that fuch omifiions
are neither numerous nor very important; for many fubjedts, which have been fup-
pofed to be omitted, are treated under titles different from thofe under which they
have
PREFACE.
siv
have been looked for. Thus the method of calculating compound interefts, which one
of our correfpondents cannot find in our Work, is taught in the article Algebra ;
that of coating mirrors, of which another complains that no account is given, will be
found under the term Foliating; and though it may be true, according to the
peevifh remark of a third, that the reader is nowhere diredtly inftrudled how to grind
optical glafles, yet if he read the article Glass-GnWm^, and underftand the dodtrine
oflenfes as laid down in the article Optics, he will eafily, if an artift, difcover a
method of performing that operation for himfelf. . ,
Omissions, however, there are towards the end of the Work; not the confequence
of careleffnefs, but the offspring of necefiity.
In an addrefs to the Purchafers of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, fubjoined to the
ninth volume, the proprietors gave a rafti promife to comprehend the whole of their
undertaking within the limits of eighteen ; and if intervening difcoveries fliould make
it neceffary, to enlarge the laft volumes in quantity without any additional charge to
Subfhribers.
That the promife was raft), a moment’s refle&ion ftiould have taught them ; for in
the prefent rapid progrefs of phyfical fcience, when new difcoveries are daily made, it
was obvioufly impoflible, at fo earfy a period, to afcertain with precifion how many vo¬
lumes would be neceflary to bring a Work of fuch comprehenfive variety to theutmoft
perfedion of which it is capable. This was indeed foon difcovered ; but the proprie¬
tors ftirunk not from their engagement, which they determined to fulfil to the- utmoft
extent of its meaning, till the additional tax, which in 1795 was laid upon paper, in¬
volved them in difficulties which they had not forefeen. By the ad of parliament they
w7ere indeed authorifed to reirnburfe themfelves by railing the fubfcription-price of
their volumes; but they chofe rather to fubmit to a diminution of profit, than to take
even a legal advantage of that Public by which they had hitherto been fo generoufly
fupported.
To complete their plan, however, in its original extent, was now impoffible, with¬
out a violation of the facred duties which they owe to themfelves and to their families.
In this dilemma the Editor propofed that they ffiould ftate the cafe to their Subfcri-
bers, of whom he is confident that nine-tenths would have releafed them from the obliga¬
tion of their promife : but after long deliberation, they judged that it would be more
acceptable to the Public at large to comprehend the Work in the propofed number of
volumes, though they ffiould exclude from the laft fuch articles as might be omitted
without injury to fcience or the arts of life. If by any of their readers they ftiall be
thought to have erred in this judgment, let them not, however, be too feverely bla¬
med ; for they have done much to adhere to the fpirit of their promife; and, in the large
addition made to the bulk of the laft volume, have fhewn that they prefer their honour
to their intereft. Several things have indeed been excluded ; but except fuch recent difr
coveries as could not be noticed under the laft letters of the alphabet, it is believed that
very little has been omitted which can be confidered as of great or general importance.
At any rate, the Editor flatters himfelf, that the laft fix volumes of the Encyclopaedia
Britannica do. not difgrace thofe by which they are preceded, and that the whole will
bear to be compared with any other Work of the fame kind extant. Imperfed it cer¬
tainly is: “ but if much has been omitted, let it be remembered that much has like-
wife been performed ;” that perfe&ion is not to be looked for in the works of man ^
and that every compilation of fuch variety and extent ffiould be examined with the
fpirit which actuated one of the greateft critics of antiquity when perufing the works
of his brother poets
V°rum ubiplura nitent in car mine y non ego paucis
Qffendar maculis, quas aut incuria fudit, -
/iut humanaparum cavil natura.  Hor. he art. poet.
We
PREFACE.
We mentioned our obligations to occafional contributors; and many of our corre*
Ipondents have exprefled an earned delire to know who thefe contributors have been.
As there can be no impropriety in gratifying fuch a delire, we lhall cdnclude this Pre¬
face, by afligning the various articles, not compiled by the Editors themfelves, to their
refpedtive authors : but as many of the writers for the fird twelve volumes were known
to Mr Macfarquhar alone, they will not attribute the omidion of their names to cul¬
pable dedgn, but to irremediable ignorance.
For whatever indnudion may be conveyed in the articles Anatomy and S(jrgery
the Public is indebted to Andrew Bell, F. S. S. A. one of the proprietors, and the in¬
genious Mr Fyfe. From the former of thefe gentlemen the world will foon receive
one of the mod fplendid anatomical works which it has yet feen ; and as the latter has
long officiated under Dr Monro as didedlor in the anatomical fchool of the univerfity
of Edinburgh, it is needlefs for us to fay how well he mud be acquainted with the
fubjedts on which We employed him to write. Aerology, Aerostation, Chemi¬
stry, Electricity, Gunnery, Hydrostatics, Mechanics, Meteorology, with
mod of the feparate articles in the various branches of natural hidory, we have reafoix
to believe were compiled by Mr James Tytler chemid ; a man who, though his con¬
duct has been marked by almod perpetual imprudence, podedes no common diare of
fcience and genius. The article Blind was furnifiiedby Dr Blacklock and Dr Moyes,-
both blind themfelves, and both men of fuperior attainments; the former in elegant
literature, and the latter in the phyfical faiences. We believe that the article Edu¬
cation was compofed by Mr Robert Heron, author of a hidory of Scotland now pu-
blidiing, who likewife furnidied the greater part of what we have publifhed under the
titles Religion and Society. The lives of Johnson and Mary $>ueen of Scots, with
the articles Instinct, Love, Metaphysics, Miracle, the hidory of Ethics under
Moral Philosophy, Oath, Passion, Plastic Nature, Polytheism, Prayer,
Slavery, and Supper of the Lord, were contributed by Dr Gleig, Editor of the lad
fix volumes; Grammar (c) and Theology by Dr Gleig and the Reverend James
Bruce, A. B: late of Emanuel College, Cambridge; and Motion by Dr Gleig and
Mr Tytler. The fydem of Medicine, which was publifhed. in the former edition,
was revifed and improved for the prefent by Andrew Duncan, M. D. Fellow of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh, and Profedbr of the Inditutes of Phyfic in the Univerfi¬
ty. The notes to the article Music were contributed by Dr Blacklock, and the hi¬
dory of the art by William Maxwell Morifon, Efq; advocate, who likewife favoured
us with what we have publifhed on the fcience of Physiognomy. The articles My¬
steries, Mythology, and Philology, wTe owe to the erudition of David Doig,
L. L. D. F. S. S. A. mader of the gram mar-fchool of Stirling, and author of two very
ingenious Letters on the Savage State, addreded to the late Lord Karnes. Naviga¬
tion,- Parallax, Pendulum, Projection of the Sphere, Ship-Building, and. Naval
Tactics, w7ere furnifhed by Andrew Mackay, L. L. D. F. R. S. E. of Aberdeen, and
knowm to the Public as author of a treatife on the Theory and Frahlice of finding the
Longitude
(c) Mr Bruce, who communicated the moft valuable parts of the article Grammar, and who was for many
years a ftudent in the univerfity of St Andrew’s, wiflies, from gratitude to his old matter, to declare, in this
public manner, that, to the inftruftions of Dr Hunter, profefibr of humanity in that univerfity, he is indebted
for much of what philological knowledge he may poffefs. We believe indeed that Dr Hunter may claim as his
own the theory which we have given of the cafes of nouns, the do&rine concerning the inverfe acceptation of
the adje&ive, and the refolution of the relative pronoun by means of the prepofition of inftead of the conjunftion
and. There is nothing elfe in our article which the attentive reader may not find in the grammatical writings
of Vojfms, Sca/iger, San&ius, Perizonius, Wallis, Rudd'man, Harris, Horne-Tooke, and Dr Gregory of Edinburgh.
Difcoveries in grammar are not indeed to be looked for. They are nearly allied to thofe in metaphyfics; of
which, it has been well obferved by one of the acuteft writers of the age, that the very appearance fhould be
reje&ed as an error, if not as an impofition, upon mankind.
XYl
PREFACE.
Longitude at Sea or Land. John Robifon, M. A. fecretary to the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, and profeffor of natural philofophy in the Univerfity, did the Editor the
honour of contributing to the Encyclopasdia Britannica the valuable articles Physics,
Pneumatics, Precession of the Equinoxes, Projectiles, Pumps, Resistance of
Fluids, River, Roof, Rovz-Making, Rotation, Seamanship, Signals, Sound, Spe¬
cific Gravity, Statics, Steam and StEngine, Strength of Materials, Tele¬
scope, Tide, Articulating Tkumvet, Variation of the Compafs, and IVater-WoKK.*.
Philosophy is the joint production of Profeflbr Robifon and Dr Gleig. Physiology
was furnifhed by John Barclay, M. D. of Edinburgh, whofe merits, if the Editor be
not partial to his friend, it will raife high in the eftimation of men of fcience. The
eflays on Predestination and Providence were contributed by Robert Forfyth, Efq;
advocate ; the account of the French Revolution by Mr Forfyth and Dr Gleig ; and
Oxygen and Phlogiston by John Rotheram, M. D. profeflbr of natural philofophy
in the Univerfity of St Andrew’s.
The other contributors to the firfl: part of the Work wre cannot enumerate ; but we
know that much ufeful information was occafionally communicated by Dr Latham of
Dartford in Kent, the celebrated ornithologift; by Dr William Wright phyfician-
general to the forces in the Weft Indies under the command of Sir Ralph Abercrom¬
bie ; by the Reverend J. Hawkins, vicar of Halfted in Eflex ; by the late Mr Adams,
mathematical inftrument-maker to his Majefty ; and by Mr William Jones, optician
in Holborn, London. There is, however, no man to whom the Proprietors of the En¬
cyclopaedia Britannica feel themfelves under greater obligations than to Dr Black,
for the very handfome offer which he made to the perfon who was at firft entrufted
with the chemical department of the Work. And while they exprefs thus publicly
their gratitude to him, may not the Editor declare how much he is indebted to his
two afliftants, the Reverend James Walker, M. A. of St John’s College, Cambridge,
and Mr James Thomfon of Crieff, preacher in the church of Scotland ? Of thefe gen¬
tlemen, who fucceflively had the care of the Work when he was neceflarily abfent, he
could always fay, ^uihus in rebus ipji interejfe non pojfunius, in bis, opera nojlra vie aria
fides amicarum Jupponitur.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA
Encyclopedia Britannica.
A THE firft letter of the alphabet, in all the known
» languages of the world, that of Ethiopia ex-
cepted, in which it is the x 3th. It has defervedly the
firft place in the alphabet, on account of its fimplicity,
very little more being neceflary to its pronunciation than
opening the mouth.
In the Englifn language A Is the mark of three dif¬
ferent founds, termed, by our grammarians, the broad,
the open, and the /lender A.. The firft refembles that
of the German A, is found in feveral monofyllables,
as •wall, fait, 8cc. and is pronounced as art in caufe. It
is probable that the Saxons exprefled only this broad
found of the letter, as it is ftill commonly retained in
the northern diftricts of England, and univerfally
throughout Scotland ; as, tauk for talk, <wauk for walk
or •wake.—The open A refembles that of the Italians
in adagio, and is the fame with that of a in father, ra¬
ther, &c. The fiender found is peculiar to the Englilh
language, and refembles the found of the French diph¬
thong at in pais, or their a mafculine, or perhaps it is
a middle found between them: it is exemplified in place,
naafte. See. alfo in toleration, jujlification, and all other
words ending with atio?t»
A is fometimes added after words in burlefque poetry;
in which cafe it only makes an additional fyllable with¬
out any alteration of the fenfe, as the interjeftion O
very often does in our ballads. It is alfo fometimes
redundant, as in the words arife, awake, 8cc. which
are not different in fignification from ri/e, wake,
fiC.
It is fometimes a word, either noun or interje&ion ;
in which laft cafe it Is commonly an expreffion of grief,
and joined with the afpirate, as ah! When a noun, it is
only with refpeA to itfelf; as great A, little a, &c.
A is very frequently ufed as an article; in which cafe
it has no plural fignification, and is ufed to denote the
number one, as a houfe, a field, Sec. When placed as
an article before any of the vowels, y and w only ex¬
cepted, it is joined with the letter as, an ifland, an
orator, &c.—In the three following cafes it is a prepo-
fition. I. When it goes before a participle, or noun
derived from a participle; as, I am a doing this or
that. 2. When ufed before local furnames, as Corne¬
lius a Lapide, Thomas a Kempis, Sec. 3. When it is
ufed in compofition ; as, a foot, a deep, Sec. In fome
inftances it denotes the proportion of one thing to ano*
ther; as, fo much a week, a man, a head, Sec.
A, among the ancients, was a numeral letter, and
Yol, I.
fignified too : and when a dafh was added on the top, A,
A, 5000. abbreviat.
A, in the Julian calendar, is the firft of the feven v
dominical letters. It had been in ufe among the Ro»
mans long before the eftablifhment of Chriftianity, as
the firft of the eight nnndinales litterec; in imitation
whereof it was that the dominical letters were firft in¬
troduced.
A is alfo an abbreviation fifed with different inten¬
tions. Hence,
A, among logicians, is ufed to denote an univerfal
affirmative propofition ; according to the verfe,
A/ferat A, negat E, vertim generaliter amb.c.
Thus, in the firft figure, a fyllogifm confifting of three
univerfal affirmative propofitions, is faid to be in Bar- .
ba-ra ; the A thrice repeated, denoting fo many of the
propofitions to be univerfal, £sV. See Barbara.
A, among the Romans, was ufed in the giving of
votes or fuffrages.—When a new law was propofed,
each voter had two wooden ballots put in his hand ;
the one marked with a capital A, fignifying antique,
q. d. antiquam volo; and the other with V. R. for uti
rogas. Such as were againft the law, caft the firft into
the urn ; as who fhould fay, I refufe it, I antiquate it;
or, I like the ancient law, and defire no innovation.
A, in the trials of criminal caufes, alfo denoted ab-
folution : whence Cicero, pro Milone, calls A, litter a
falutaris, a faving letter.—Three ballots were diftri-
buted to each judge, marked with the letters, A for
abfolvo, I acquit; C for condemno, I condemn; and
N. L. for non liquet. It is not clear. From the number
of each caft into the urn, the prtetor pronounced the
prifoner’s fate. If they were equal in number, he was .
abfolved.
A, in the ancient inferiptions of marbles, &c. occa-
fionally ftands for Augujlus, ager, aiunt, &c. When
double, it denotes Augujli; when triple, aurum, ar¬
gentum, as; and fometimes its meaning can only be
known by the reft of the infeription. Ifidore adds, that
when it occurs after the word miles (foldier), it denotes
him young. On the re.verfe of ancient medals, it de¬
notes them ftruck by the city of Argos, fometimes by
that of Athens ; but on coins of modern date, it is the
mark of Paris.
A, as an abbreviation, is alfo often found in modern
writers: as, A. D. for anno Domini; A. M. ariium
tnagi/ler, mafter of arts, &c.
A, the letter a, with a line above it thus, a, is ufed
A in
AAR E 2 ] AAR
A in medical prefcriptions for ana, of each ; fometimes it
Aaron *s wr'tten t^us> ^ : e. g. Mel. Sacchar. & Mann, a,
i vel aa, ^j. i. e. Take of honey, fugar, and manna, of
each one ounce.
A, put to bills of exchange, is in England an abbre¬
viation for accepted, and in France for accepte. It is
likewife ufual among merchants to mark their fets of
bool^s with the letters A, B, C, &c. inftead of the num¬
bers i, 2, 3, &c.
A. A. A. The chemical abbreviation for Amalgama,
or Amalgamation.
AA, the name of feveral rivers in Germany and Swif-
fcfland.
AACH, a little town in Germany, in the circle of
Suabia, near the fource of the river Aach, and almoft
equally diftant from the Danube and the lake Con-
ftance. It belongs to the houfe of Auftria. E. Long.
9. o. Lat. 47. 55.
AAHUS, a little town in Germany, in the circle of
Weftphalia, and bifhopric of Munfter. It is the capital
of Aahus, a fmall diftritt; has a good caftle ; and lies
north-eaft of Coesfeldt. E. Long. 7. x. Lat. 52. 10.
AAM, or Ha am, a liquid meafure in common ufe
among the Dutch, and containing 128 meafures called
mingles, each weighing nearly 36 ounces avoirdupoife ;
whence the slam contains 288 Englifh, and iqS-f- pints
Paris meafure.
AAR, the name of two rivers, one in Swifferland,
and another in Weftphalia in Germany. It is alfo the
name of a fmall ifland in the Baltic.
AARASSUS (anc. geog.), a town of Pifidia, in
the Hither Alia, thought to be the Anaffus of Pto¬
lemy.
AARON, high-prieft of the Jews, and brother to
Mofes, was by the father’s fide great grandfon, and by
the mother’s grandfon, of Levi. By God’s command
he met Mofes at the foot of mount Horeb, and they
went together into Egypt to deliver the children of If-
rael: he had a great fhare in all that Mofes did for
their deliverance; the fcriptures call him the prophet of
Mofes, and he acted in that capacity after the Ifraelites
had paffed over the Red Sea. He afcended mount Si¬
nai with two of his fons, Nadab and Abihu, and fe-
venty elders of the peoplebut neither he nor they
went higher than half way, from whence they faw the
glory, of God ; only Mofes and Jofhua went to the top,
where they ftaid forty days. During their'abfence,
Aaron, ov.etcome by the people’s eager intreaties, fet
up the golden calf, which the Ifraelites worfhipped by
his confent. This calf has given rife to various con-
jectures. Some rabbies maintain that he did not make
the golden calf; but only threw the gold into the lire,,
to get rid of the importunities of the people ; and that
certain magicians’, who mingled with the Ifraelites
at their departure from Egypt, call this gold into
the figur.e of a calf. According to fome authors,
the fear of falling a facrifice to the refentment of
the people by giving a refufal, made Aaron comply
with their defire and they allege alfo, that he hoped
to elude their requeft, by demanding of the women to
contribute their ear-rings, imagining they would rather
choofe to remain without a vilible deity, than be de¬
prived of their perfonal ornaments. This affair of the
golden calf happened in the third month after the If¬
raelites came out of Egypt. In the firft month of the
following year, Aaron was appointed by God high- Aaron,,
prieft ; which office he executed during the time that, Aarfens-
the children of Ifrael continued in the wildernefs. He v
died in the fortieth year after their departure from
Egypt, upon mount Hor, being then 123 years old;
A. M. 2522, of the Julian period 3262, before the Chri-
ftian sera 1452. With regard to the attempts of the
Egyptian magicians to imitate the miracles performed
by his rod, fee fome remarks under the article Ma¬
gician.
Aaron and Julius (Saints), fuffered martyrdom
together, during the perfecution under the emperor
Dioclefian, in the year 303, about the fame time with
Saint Alban the protomartyr of Britain. We are no¬
where told what their Britiffi names were, it being ufual
with the Chriftian Britons, at the time»of baptifm, to
take new names from the Greek, Latin, or Hebrew.
Nor have we any certainty as to the particulars of their
death ; only that they fuffered the moft cruel torments.
They had each a church ere&ed to his memory ; and
their feftival is placed, in the Roman martyrology, on
the firft of July.
Aaron, or Harm, Al Rafchid, a celebrated khalif,.
or Mahometan fovereign of the Saracen empire; whofe
hiftory is given under the article Bagdad.
Aaron Harifchon, a learned rabbi and caraite
in the 15th century, wrote an Hebrew grammar, print¬
ed at Conftantinople in 1581; probably the fame with
Aaron the caraite, who wrote a commentary on the
five books of Mofes, which is in MS. in the French:
king’s library.
AARSENS (Francis), Lord of Someldyck and
Spyck, was one of the greateft minifters for negocia-
tion the United Provinces could ever boaft of. His
father, Cornelius Aarfens, was Regifter to the States;
and being acquainted with Mr Pleffis Mornay, at the
Court of William Prince of Orange,, he prevailed
upon him to take his fon under him, with whom he
continued fome years. John Olden Barnevelt, who
prefided over the affairs of Holland and all the United-
Provinces, fent him aftemards agent into France,,
where he learned to negociate under thofe profound
politicians Hemy IV. Villeroy, Silleri, Roffie, Jaon-
nin, &c. and he acquitted himfelf in fuch a manner as
to obtain their approbation. Soon after, he was in-
vefted with the chara&er of ambaffador, being the firft
who was recognifed as fuch by the French court; at
which time Henry IV. declared, that he ftiould take
precedence next to the Venetian minifter. He refided
in France 15 years; during which time he received;
great marks of efteem from the king, who created him.
a knight and baron ; and for this reafon he was re¬
ceived amongft the nobles of the province of Holland.
However, he became at length fo odious to the French:
court, that they defired to have him recalled. He
was afterwards deputed to Venice, and to feveral Ger¬
man and Italian princes, upon occafion of the troubles
in Bohemia. He was the firft of three extraordinary
ambaffadors fent to England in 1620, and the fecond
in 1641; in which'latter embaffy he was accompanied
by the Lord of Brederode as firft ambaffador, and
Heemfvliet as third, to treat about the marriage of
Prince William, fon to the Prince of Orange. He
was likewife ambaffador-extraordinary at the French
court in- 1624, and the Cardinal de Richiieu having
juft
A B A L
Aarfen* jufl taken the adminiftration of affairs into his hands,
I! and knowing he was an able man, made ufe of him to
A"ia' , ferve his own purpofes. He died in a very advanced
age ; and his fon, who furvived him, was reputed the
wealthieft man in Holland.
Aarsevs (Peter), a painter, called in Italy Pietro
X.,ongo, becaufe of his llature, was born at Amfterdam
1519. He was eminent for all kinds of fubje&sbut
was particularly famous for altar-pieces, and for repre-
fenting a kitchen with its furniture: he had the pain
to fee a fine altar-piece of his deftroyed by the rabble
in the infurre£lion 1566, though a lady of Alcmaer
offered zoo crowns for its redemption.
AAFvTGEN, or Aertgen, a painter of merit,
was the fon of an woolcomber, and born at Leyden in
• 1498. He worked at his father’s trade until he had
attained the age of eighteen ; and then, having difco-
vered a genius for deigning, he was placed with Cor¬
nelius Engelheihtz, under whom he made a confider-
able progrefs in painting. He became fo diftinguilh-
ed, that the celebrated Erancis Floris went to Ley¬
den out of mere curiofity to fee him. He found him
inhabiting a poor half ruined hut, and in a very mean
ftyle of living: He folicited him to go to' Antwerp,
promifing him wealth and rank fuitable to his merit;
but Aartgen refufed, declaring that he found more
fweets in his poverty than others did in their riches.
It was a cuftom with this painter never to work on
Mondays, but to devote that day, with his difciples,
to the bottle. He ufed to ftroll about the ffreets in
the night, playing on the German flute, anddn one of
thefe frolics was drowned in 1564.
AASAR (anc. geog.), a town of Paleftine, in the
tribe of Judah, fituate between Azotus and Afcalon. In
Jerome’s time it was an hamlet.
AB, the eleventh month of the civil year of the He¬
brews, and the fifth of their ecclefiaitical year, which
begins with the month Nifan. It anfwers to the moon
of July; that is, to part of our month of the fame
name, and to the beginning of Auguft : it confifts of
thirty days. The Jews faff on the firft of this month,
in memory of Aaron’s death ; and on the ninth, becaufe
on that day both the temple of Solomort, and that
ere&ed after the captivity, were burnt; the former by
the Chaldeans, and the latter by the Romans. The
fame day is alfo remarkable among that people for the
publication of Adrian’s edift, wherein they were for¬
bid to continue in Judea, or even to look.back when at
a diftance from Jerufalem, in order to lament the defo-
lation of that city. The 18th of the fame month is alfo
a faff among the Jews ; becaufe the lamp in the fanc-
tuary was that night extinguiflied, in the time of
Ahaz.
Ab, in the Syriac calendar, is the name of the laft
fummer-month. The firft day of this month they call¬
ed Sunm Miriam, the faff of the virgin, becaufe the
eaftern Chriftians faffed from that day to the fifteenth,
■which was therefore called Fathr-Miriam, the ceffa-
tion of the faff of the virgin.
ABA (or rather Abau) Hanifah or Han fa h, fir-
named Al-Nooma, was the fon of Thabet, and born
at Coufah in the 80th year of the Hegira. This is the
inqft celebrated doftor of the orthodox Muffulmans,
and his fett holds the principal efteem among the four
which they indifferently follow. Notwithftanding this,
3 ] A B A .
he was not very well efteemed during his life, infomuch
that the khaliff Almanfor caufed him to be imprifoned
at Bagdad, for having refufed to fubferibe to the opi-. ' .'
nion of abfolute predeftination, which the Muffulmans
call Cadha. -*But afterwards Abou Jofeph, who was
the fovereign judge or chancellor of the empire under
the khaliff Hadi, brought his dodlrine into fuch credit,
that it became a prevailing opinion, That to be a good
Muffulman was to be a Hanifite. He died in the
150th year of the Hegira, in the prifon of Bagdad
aforefaid : and it was not till 335 years after his death,
that Melick Schah, a fultan of the Selgiucidan race,
built for him a magnificent monument in the lame city,
whereto he adjoined a college peculiarly appropriated
to fuch as made a profeffion of this fett. This was
in the 485th year of the hegira, and Anno Chrifti
1092. The moft eminent fucceffors of this dodtor were
Ahmed Benali, A1 Giaffas, and A1 Razi who was the
matter of Naffari; and there is a mofque particularly
appropriated to them in the temple of Mecca.
Aba, Abas, Abos, or Abus, (anc. geog.), the
name of a mountain of Greater Armenia, fituated
between the mountains Niphatos and Nibonis. Accor¬
ding to Strabo, the Euphrates and Araxes rofe from
this mountain ; the former running eattward, and the
latter weftward.
Aba. See Ab.®.
ABACtENA (anc. geog.), a town of Media, and
another of Cana in the Hither Afia.
ABACJENUM (anc. geog.), a town of Sicily,
whofe ruins are fuppofed to be thofe lying near Trippi,
a citadel on an high and fteep mountain not far from
Meflina. The inhabitants were called Abaacnini.
ABACATUAIA, in ichthyology, a barbarous
name of the zeus vomer. See Zeus.
ABACH, a market-town of Germany, in Lower
Bavaria, feated on the Danube. It is remarkable for
Roman antiquities, and for fprings of mineral waters
which are faid to be good for various diftempers.
E. Long. 11. 56. Lat. 48. 53.
ABACINARE, or Abbacinare, in writers of
the middle age, a fpecies of punifhment, confifting in
the blinding of the criminal, by holding a hot bafon or
bowl of metal before his eyes.
ABACK (a fea-term), the fituation of the fails when
their furfaces are flatted again!! the mafts by the force
of the wind. The fails are faid to be taken aback when
they are brought into this fituatton, either by a fudden
_ change of the wind, or by an alteration in the {hip’s
courfe. They are laid aback, to effetff an immediate re¬
treat, without turning to the right or left; or, in the fea-
phrafe, to give the fhip Jlern-tvay, in order to avoid
fome danger difeovered before her in a narrow channel,
or when !he has advanced beyond her ftation in the line
of battle, or otherwife. • The fails are placed in this
pofition by flackening their lee-braces, and hauling in .
the weather ones ; fo that the whole effort of the wind
is exerted on the forepart of their furfaee, which readily
pufties the !hip aftern, unlefs fhe is reftrained by fome
counteracting force. It is alfo ufual to fpread fome
fail aback near the ftern, as the mizzen-top-fail, when
a fhip rides with a Angle anchor in a road, in order to
prevent her from approaching it fo as to entangle the
flukes of it with her flackened cable, and thereby loofen
it from the ground.
A 2 : ABACGT,
ABA [ 4
Abacot ABACOT, the name of an ancient cap of ftate
Abacus vvorn b7 tbe °f England, the upper part where-
, of was in the form of a double crown.
ABACTORS, or Aeactores, a name given to
thofe who drive away, or rather fteal, cattle by herds,
or great numbers at once ; and are therefore very pro¬
perly diftinguifhed from fares, or thieves.
ABACUS, among the ancients, was a kind of cup¬
board or buffet. Livy, defcribing the luxury into
which the Romans degenerated after the conqueft of
Afia, fays, They had their abaci, beds, &c. plated
over with gold.
Abacus, among the ancient mathematicians, figni-
fied a table covered with dull, on which they drew their
diagrams; the word in this fenfe being derived from
the Phoenician abak, duft.
Abacus, in archite£lure,fignifies the fuperior part or
member of the capital of a column, and ferves as a kind
of crowning to both. Vitruvius tells us the abacus was
originally intended to reprefent a fquare tile laid over
an urn, or rather over a bafket. See Architec¬
ture, n° 15.—The form of the abacus is not
the fame in all orders : in the Tufcan, Doric, and
Ionic, it is generally fquare; but in the Corinthian
and Compofite, its four iides are arched inwards,
and embellifhed in the middle with fome ornament, as a
rofe or other flower. Scammozzi ufes abacus for a con¬
cave moulding on the capital of the Tufcan pedeftal;
and Palladio calls the plinth above the echinus, or boul-
tin, in the Tufcan and Doric orders, by the fame
name.
Abacus is alfo the name of an ancient inllrument for
facilitating operations in arithmetic. It is varioufly
contrived. That chiefly ufed in Europe is made by
drawing any number of parallel lines at the diftance oif
two diameters of one of the counters ufed in the calcu¬
lation. A counter placed on the loweft line, figni-
lies 1 ; on the 2d, 10; on the 3d, 100; on the 4th,
IOOO, &c. In the intermediate fpaces, the fame
counters are eftimated at one half of the value of the
line immediately fuperior, viz. between the ift and 2d,
5 ; between the 2d and 3d, 50; &c. See the figure on
Plate I. where the fame number, 1788 for example, is
reprefented under both divifions by different difpofitions
of the counters.
Abacus is alfo ufed by modern writers for a table of
numbers ready caff: up, to expedite the operations of
arithmetic. In this fenfe we have Abaci of addition, of
multiplication, of divifion.
Chinefe Abacvs. See Swanpan.
Abacus Pythagoricus, the common multiplication-
table, fo called from its being invented by Pythagoras.
Abacus LogiJUcus is a redangled triangle, whofe
fides, forming the right angle, contain the numbers
from 1 to 60 ; and its area, the fafta of each two of the
numbers perpendicularly oppoiite. This is alfo called
,a canon of fexagefwials.
Abacus & Palmula, in the ancient mufic, denote
the machinery, whereby the firings of Polyple&ra, or
inftruments of many firings, were ftruck with a plec¬
trum made of quills.
Abacus Harmonious, is ufed by Kircher for the
- ftrudure and difpofition of the keys of a mufical in¬
urnment, whether to be touched with the hands or the
feet.
] ABA
Abacus Major, in metallurgic operations, the name Atracui
of a trough ufed in the mines, wherein the ore is wafhed. II
ABADDON, is the name which St John in the , ^ us‘
Revelations gives to the king of the locuft, the angel
of the bottomlefs pit. The infpired writer fays, this
word is Hebrew, and in Greek fignifies ’Aa-oxxuav, /. e. a
dejiroyer. That angel-king is thought to be Satan or
the devil: but Mr le Clerc thinks, with Dr Hammond,
that by the locuft which came out of the abyfs, may
be underftood the zealots and robbers, who miferably
afflided the land of Judea, and laid it in a manner wafte,
before Jerufalem was taken by the Romans ; and that
Abaddon, the king of the locuft, may be John of Gif-
chala, who having treacheroufly left that town a little
before it was furrendered to Titus, came to Jerufalem,
where he foon headed part of the zealots, who acknow¬
ledged* him as their king, whilft the reft would not
fubmit to him. This fubdivifio^ of the zealot party
brought a thoufand calamities on the Jews.
ABADIR, a title which the Carthaginians gave
to gods of the firft order. In the Roman mythology,
it is the name of a ftone which Saturn fwallowed, by
the contrivance of his wife Ops, believing it to be his
new-born fon Jupiter : hence it ridiculoufly became the
objed of religious worlhip.
ABvE, or Aba, (anc. geog.) a town of Pho-
cis in Greece, near Helicon; famous for an oracle
of Apollo older than that at Delphi, and for a rich
temple plundered and burnt by the Perfians.
ABAFT, a fea-term, fignifying the hinder part of
a Ihip, or all thofe parts both within and without which
lie towards the ftern, in oppofition to afore ; which
fee.—Abaft, is alfo ufed as a prepofition, and fi'gnifies
farther aft, or nearer the fern ; as, the barricade ftand*
abaft the main-maft, i. e. behind it, or nearer the ftern.
ABAISSED, Abaijfe, in heraldry, an epithet ap¬
plied to the wings of eagles, &c. when the tip looks
downwards to the point of the fhield, or when the
wings are fhut, the natural way of bearing them being
extended,
ABAK A khan, the 18th emperor of the Mo¬
guls, a wife and clement prince. He reigned 17 years,
and is by fome authors faid to have been a Chriftian.
It may be admitted, indeed,, that he joined with the
Chriftians in keeping the feaft of Eafter, in the city
Hanadau, fome fhort time before his death. But this
is no proof of his Chriftianity; it being common, in
times of brotherly love, for Chriftians and Mahometans
to join in keeping the fame feafts, when each would
compliment the other with doing honour to his folem-
nity.
A BALA K, a town of Siberia, two miles from To-
bohk. E. Long. 64. 10. N. Lat. 57. 1.
ABALIENATION, in law, the adt of transfer¬
ring one man’s property to another.
ABALLABA, the ancient name of Appleby, a
town in Weftmoreland, remarkable only for its anti¬
quity, having been a Roman ftation. W. Lon£. 1. 4.
N. Lat. 55.38.
ABALUS (anc. geog.), fuppofed by the anci¬
ents to be an ifland in the German ocean, called by
Timaeus Bafilia, and by Xenophon Lampfacenus Bai-
tia; now the peninfula of Scandinavia. Here, accord¬
ing to Pliny,, fome imagined that amber dropped from
the trees.
ABANAj
Abarif.
ABA [
Abana ABANA, or AmANA (anc. geog.), a river of
Phoenicia, which, rifing from Mount Hermon, wafh-
j ed the fouth and weft Tides of Damafcus, and falls
into the Phoenician fea to the north of Tripolis, called
Chryforrheas by the Greeks.
ABANGA. See Ady.
ABANO, a town of the Paduano, in the republic
of Venice, famous among the ancients for its hot baths.
ABANTES, a people who came originally from
Thrace, and fettled in Phoceca, a country of Greece,
where they built a town which they called Aba, after
the name of Abas their leader; and, if we may credit
fome ancient authors, the Abantes went afterwards into
the ifland Euboea, now called Negropont: others fay
the Abantes of Euboea came from Athens. The Aban¬
tes were a very warlike people, doling with their ene¬
mies, and fighting hand to hand.
ABANTIAS, orAjiANTis (anc. geog.), a. name
of the ifland Euboea in the Egean fea, extending a-
long the coaft of Greece, from the promontory Su-
nium of Attica to Theffaly, and feparated from Boeo-
tia by a narrow ftrait called Euripus. From its length
the illand wras formerly called Maoris ; afterwards A-
bantias, or Abantis, from the Abantes, a people ori¬
ginally of Thrace, called by Homer oxirStv KopoovUi, from
wearing their hair long behind, having in a battle ex¬
perienced the inconvenience of wearing long hair be¬
fore. From cutting their hair before, they were called
Curetes.
ABAPTISTON, in furgery, the perforating part
of the inftrument called a trepan.
ABARA, a town in the Greater Armenia, under
the dominion of the Turks: it is often the reiidence of
the archbilhop of Nakfivan. Long. 46. 25. Lat. 39.
45-
ABARANER, a town of Afia, in Grand Armenia,
belonging to the Turks: it is feated on the river Alin-
gena. Long. 46. 30. Lat. 39. 50.
ABARCA, an ancient kind of Ihoe ufed in Spain
for palling the mountains with. It was made of raw
hides, and bound with cords, which fecured the feet
of travellers againft the fnow.
ABARIM, high mountains of fteep afcent, fepara-
ting the country of the Ammonites and Moabites from
the land of Canaan, where Mofes died. According to
Jofephus, they ftood oppofite to the territory of Jeri¬
cho, and were the laft ftation but one of the Ifraelites
coming from Egypt. Nebah and Pifgah were parts of
thefe mountains.
ABARIS, the Hyperborean ; a celebrated fage of
antiquity, whofe hiftory and travels have been the fub-
ject of much learned difcuffion. Such a number of fa-
* Jamblich.bulous ftories * were told of him, that Herodotus him-
V,\^as'felffeemst0fcruPlctorelatethem* Hetellsusonly+»
cap. 36.'1V’ that this Barbarian was faid to have travelled with an
arrow, and to have taken no fuftenance: but this does
not acquaint us with the marvellous properties which
were attributed to that arrow; nor that it had been
given him by the Hyperborean Apollo. With regard
to the occafion of his leaving his native country, Har-
1 Under the pocrationj tells us, that the whole earth being infefted
word ’Afa- with a deadly plague, Apollo, upon being confulted,
ff'f* gave no other anfwer, than that the Athenians Ihould
offer up prayers in behalf of all other nations : upon
which, feveral countries deputed ambaffadors to Athens,
s ] ABA
among whom was Abaris the Hyperborean. In this Abariv.
journey, he renewed the alliance between his country-' v
men and the inhabitants of the ifland of Delos. It
appears that he alfo went to Lacedaemon ; fince, ac¬
cording to fome writers ||, he there built a temple con- j| Paufanlas,
fecrated to Proferpine the Salutary. It is afferted, that P-94-
he was capable of foretelling earthquakes, driving away
plagues, laying ftormsj, &c. He wrote feveral books,! Porphyry
as Suidasf informs us, viz. Apollo’s arrival into the j? Vlta
country of the Hyperboreans; The nuptials of the river | under the
Hebrus; or the Generation of the GodsA word ’ACa-
colleftion of oracles; &c. Himerius the fophift ap- f<f-
plauds him for fpeaking pure Greek; which attain¬
ment will be no matter of wonder to fuch as confider
the ancient intercourfe there was between the Greeks
and Hyperboreans.—If the Hebrides, or Weftern *
Iflands of Scotland, (fays MrToland*), were the Hy-0f the'Dru-
perboreans of Diodorusf, then the celebrated Abaris ids, in his
was of that country; and likewife a druid, having been Pofthumous
the prieft of Apollo. Suidas, who knew not the di- Work^voLi.
ftindlion of the infular. Hyperboreans, makes him a |'u;od Sic.
Scythian ; as do fome others, milled by the fame vul-Jib. ii, iiL
gar error ; though Diodorus has truly fixed his country
in an illand, and not on the continent. Indeed the
fictions and miftakes concerning our Abaris are infi¬
nite : however, it is by all agreed that he travelled quite
over Greece, and from thence into Italy, where he con-
verfed familiarly with Pythagoras, who favoured him
beyond all his difciples, by inftrudting him in his doc¬
trines (efpecially his thoughts of nature) in a plainer
and more compendious method than he did any other.
This diftinttion could not but be very advantageous to
Abaris. The Hyperborean, in return, prefented the
Samian, as though he equalled Apollo himfelf in wifi-
dom, with the facred arrow, on which the Greeks
have fabuloully related J that he fat aftride, and flew! Jamblichi
upon it, through the air, oyer rivers and lakes, forefts 1
and mountains; in like manner as our vulgar ftill be-*1'
lieve, particularly thofe of the Hebrides, that wizards
and witches fly whitherfoever theypleafe on their broom-
fticks. The orator Himerius above mentioned, though
one of thofe who, from the equivocal fenfe of the word
Hyperborean, feem to have miftaken Abaris for a Scy¬
thian, yet defcribes his perfon accurately, and gives
him a very noble chara&er. “ They relate (fays he)
“ that Abaris the fage was by nation an Hyperborean,
“ appeared a Grecian in fpeech, and refembled a Scy-
“ thian in his habit and appearance. He came to
“ Athens, holding a bow in his hand, having a quiver
“ hanging on his ftioulders, his body wrapt up in- a
“ plaid, girt about the loins with a gilded belt, and
“ wearing trowfers reaching from his waift downward.”
By this it is evident (continues Mr Toland) that he
was not habited like the Scythians, who were always
covered with (kins ; but appeared in the native garb
of an Aboriginal Scot. As to what relates to his abi¬
lities, Himerius informs us, that “ he was affable and
“ pleafant in converfation, in difpatching great affairs
“ fecret and induftrious, quick-fighted in prefent exi-
“ gencies, in preventing future dangers cirqumfpeft,
“ a fearcher after wifdom, defirous of friendfliip, truft-
“ ing little to fortune, and having every thing trufted
“ him for his prudence.” Neither the Academy
to nor the Lycasum could have furnilhed a man with
fitter qualities to travel fo far abroad, and to fuch wife
nations.
ABA [
AViarticula- nations, about affairs no kfs arduous than important.
“J?11 And if we further attentively coniider his moderation
Ahafcia ’H esiting, drinking, and the ufe of all thofe things
i ^; which our natural appetites inceffantly crave ; joining
the candour and ihnplicity of his manners with the fo-
lidity and wifdom of his anfwers, all which we find
fufficiently attefted ; it mull be owned, that the world
at that time had few to compare with Abaris.
ABARTICULATION, in anatomy, a fpecies of
articulation admitting of a manifeit motion ; called al-
fo Diarthrofis, and Dearticulatio, to dillinguifh it from
that fort of articulation which admits of a very obfcure
motion, and is called Synarthrofis.
ABAS, a weight ufed in Perfia for weighing pearls.
It is i-8th lefs than the European carat.
Abas, in the heathen mythology, was the fon of
Hypothoon and Meganira, who entertained Ceres, and
offered a facrifice to that goddefs ; but Abas ridiculing
the ceremony, and giving her opprobrious language,
fhe fprinkled him with a certain mixture fire held in her
cup, on which he became a newt or water-lizard.
Abas (Bchah) the Great, was third fon of Coda-
bendi, 7th king of Perfia, of the race of the Sophis.
Succeeding to his father at 18, in 1585, he found the
■ affairs of Perfia at a low ebb, occaiioned by the con-
quefts of the Turks and Tartars. He regained feveral
of the provinces they had feized ; but death put a flop
to his viftories in 1629, after a reign of 44 years. He
was the greateft prince that had reigned in Perfia for
many ages; and it was he who made Ifpahan the me¬
tropolis of Perfia: his memory is held in the higheft
veneration among the Perfians.
Abas (Schah) his grandfon, 9th king of Perfia, df
the race of the Sophis, fucceeded his father Sefi at 13
years of age : he was but 18 when he made himfelf ma¬
iler of the city Candahar, which had furrendered in his
father’s reign to the Great Mogul, and all the province
about it; and he preferved it afterwards againlt this
Indian emperor, though he befieged it more than once
with an army of 300,000 men. He was a very merci¬
ful prince, and openly protedled the Chriftians : he had
formed a defign of extending the limits of his kingdom
toward the north, and had for that effedf levied a power¬
ful army; but death put a Hop to all his great defigns,
at 37 years of age, in 16(56.
ABASCIA, or AbcAs, a Country in Afia, tribu¬
tary to the Turks, fituated on the coaft of the Black
Sea. The people are poor, thievifli, and treacherous,
infomuch that there is no trading with them without
the utmoft caution. Their commodities are furs, buck
and tyger Ikins, linen yarn, boxwood, and bees-wax :
but their greatell traffic is in felling their own children,
and even one another, to the Turks; infomuch that they
live in perpetual diftrulto They are deftitute of many
neceffaries of life, and have nothing among them that
can be called a town ; though we find Anacopia, Dan-
dar, and Czekorni, mentioned in the maps. They have
the name of Chriitians; but have nothing left but the
name, any more than the Mingrelians their northern
neighbours. The men are robuft and attive, and the
women are fair and beautiful; on which account the
Turks have a great value , for the female Haves which
they purchafe from among them. Their culloms are
much the fame as thofe of the Mingrelians ; which
fee* E. Long, from 39. to 43. Lat. from 43 to 45.
61 .A B A
ABASCUS, a river of Afiatic Sarmatia, which, Abafcns
rifing from Mount Caucafus, falls into the Euxine, be-
tween Pityus to the call, and Nolls to the well. ,
ABASITIS (anc. geog.), a tradl of Afiatic Myfia,
in which was fituated the city of Ancyra.
ABASSI, or Abassis, a lilver coin current in Per¬
fia, equivalent in value to a French livre, or tenpence
halfpenny Sterling. It took its name from Schah
Abas II. king of Perfia, under whom it was ftruck.
ABASSUS (anc. geog.), a town of the Greater
Phrygia, on the confines of the Toliftobagii, a people
of Galatia in Afia.
AB AT AMENTUM, in law, is an entry to lands
by interpolition, /. e. when a perfon dies feized, and
another who has no right enters before the heir.
T o ABATE, (from the French abbatre, to pulldown,
overthrow, demolilh, batter down, or dellroy), a term
ufed by the writers of the Engliffi common-law both
in an active and neutral fenfe; as, To abate a eallle, is
to beat it down. To abate a writ, is, by fome excep¬
tion, to defeat or overthrow it. A llranger abateth ;
that is, entereth upon a houfe or land void by the death
of him that lalt poffelfed it, before the heir takes pof-
feffion, and fo keepeth him out: wherefore, as he that
putteth out him in poffeffion is faid to diffeize, fo he
that lleppeth in between the former polfelfor and his
heir is faid to abate. In the neuter fignification thus:
The writ of the demandant fiiall abate ; that is, lhall be
difabled, frullrated, or overthrown. The appeal abateth
by covin ; that is, the accufation is defeated by deceit.
Abate, in the manege, implies the performing any
downward motion properly. Thus a horfe is faid to
abate^or take down his curvets, when he puts both his
hind legs to the ground at once, and obferves the fame
exadlnefs in all the times.
ABATELEMENT, in commerce, a term ufed for
a prohibition of tradd to all French merchants in the
ports of the Levant who will not Hand to their bar¬
gains, or refufe to pay their debts. It is a fentence
of the French conful, which mull be taken off before
they can fue any perfon for the payment of their debts.
ABATEMENT, in heraldry, an accidental figure
fuppofed to have been added to coats of arms, in order
to denote fome dilhonourable demeanour or llain,
whereby the dignity of coat-armour was rendered of
lefs elleem. See Heraldry.
Abatement, in law. See To Abate.
Abatement,in the culloms,an allowance made upon
the duty of goods, when the quantum damaged is de¬
termined by the judgment of two merchants upon oath,
and afcertained by a certificate from the furveyor and
land-waiter.
ABATIS,an ancient term for an officer ofthe ftables.
ABATON, ait eredlion at Rhodes, as a fence to
the trophy of Artemilia, queen of Halicarnaffus, Coos,
&c. raifed in memory of her vi&ory over the Rhodians;
or rather as a fcreen to conceal the difgrace of the
Rhodians from the eyes of the world, the effacing or
deftroying the trophy being with them a point of re¬
ligion.
ABATOR, in law, a term applied to a perfon
who enters to a houfe or lands void by the death of
the laft poffeffor, before the true heir.
ABATOS (anc.geog.),aniflandin the lakeMoeris,
formerly
ABB [ '
Abavo formerly famous for its papyrus. It was the burial-
Abbas P^ace Ofiris*
, ' i ABAVO, in botany, a fynonime of the Adansonia.
ABB, a term, among clothiers, applied to the yam
of a weaver’s warp. They fay alfo Abb-nuocl in the
fame fenfe.
ABBA (anc. geog.) a town of Afric Propria, near
Carthage.
ABBA, in the Syriac and Chaldee languages, lite¬
rally fignifies a father; and, figuratively, a fuperior,
reputed as a father in refpeft of age, dignity, or af¬
fection. It is more particularly ufed in the Syriac,
Coptic, and Ethiopic churches, as a title given to the
bifhops. The bifhops themfelves bellow the title Abba
more eminently on the bilhop of Alexandria; which
oCcafioned the people to give him the title of Baba,
or Papa, that is. Grandfather ; a title which he bore
before the bilhop of Rome. It is a Jewilh title of
honour given to certain rabbins called Tanaites ; and
it is alfo particularly ufed, by feme writers of the middle
age, for the fuperior of a monallery, ufually called
ABBOT.
ABBADIE (James),.an eminent Proteftant divine,
born at Nay in Bern in 1654 ; firll educated there un¬
der the famous John la Placette, and afterward at the
univerfity of Sedan. From thence he went into Holland
and Germany, and was minilter in the French church of
Berlin. He left that place in 1690; came into England;
was fome time minifter in the French church in the Savoy,
London ; and was made dean of Killalow in Ireland.
Fie died at St Mary le Bonne near London, in 1727,
aged 73. He was llrongly attached to the caufe of king
William, as appears in his elaborate defence of the re¬
volution, and his hiftory of the affaffination-plot. He
had great natural abilities, which he improved by true
and ufeful learning. He was a moll zealous defender
of the primitive doftrine of the Proteftants, as appears
by his writings ; and that Itrong nervous eloquence, for
which he was fo remarkable, enabled him to enforce the
dodlrines of his profeffion from the pulpit with great fpi-
rit and energy. He published feveral works in French
that were much efteemed; the principal of which are, A
Treatife on the Truth of the Chrillian Religion ; The
art of Knowing one’s Self; A Defence of the Britilh
Nation ; The Deity of Jefus Chrill effential to the Chri-
ilian Religion ; The Hiitory of the lalt Confpiracy in
England, written by order of king William III.; and
The Triumph of Providence and Religion, or the operi-
' ing the Seven Seals by the Son of God.
ABBAS, fon of Abdalmothleb, and Mahomet’s
uncle, oppofed his nephew with all his power, elleem-
ing him an impollor and infidel; but in the fecond year
of .the hegira, being overcome and made a prifoner at
the battle of Bendir in 623, a great ranfona being de¬
manded for him, he reprefented to Mahomet, that his
paying it would reduce him to poverty, which would
redound to the dishonour of the family. But Mahomet
having been informed of Abbas’s having fecreted large
fums of money, alked him after the purfes of gold he
had left in his mother’s cuftody at Mecca. Abbas, up¬
on this, conceiving him to be really a prophet, em¬
braced his new religion ; became one of his principal
captains ; and faved his life when in imminent danger at
the battle of Henain, againft the Thakefites, foon after
the redudlion of Mecca. But belides being a great
7 ] ABB
commander, Abbas was a famous dodlor of the Muf- Abbas
fulman law, infomuch that he read ledlures upon every , ||
chapter of the Koran, as his nephew pretended to re- , c
ceive them one by one from heaven. He died in 652,
and his memory is held in the highell veneration among
the MulTulmans to this day.
Abul Abbas, furnamed Sajfah, was proclaimed kha-
lif; and in him began the Dynally of the.
ABBASSIDES, who polfelTed the khalifate for 524
years; and there were 3 7 khalifs of this race who fuc-
ceeded one another without interruption.
ABBE, in a monaftic fenfe, the fame with Abbot.
Abbe, in a modern fenfe, is the name of a curious
popular charadter in France, very much mentioned, but
very little known, in Britain. The term is not to be
rendered in our language, as the exiftence of the being
which it denominates is pofterior to the reformation, and
no fuch charadler was known among the Romanifts tilt
about a century and a half ago.
Abbes, according to the ilriclefl: definition, are per-
fons who have not yet obtained any precife or fixed
fettlement in church or Hate, but moll heartily with for,
and would accept of, either, juft as it may happen.
In the mean while, their' privileges are many. They
are admifiible in all companies, and no degradation to-
the bell, notwithftanding they are fometimes found in
the worft. Their drefs is rather that of an academic*
or of a profefied fcholar, than of an ecclefiaftic ; and, ne¬
ver varying in colour, is no encumbrance on the pocket.
Thefe abbes are very numerous, and ■ no lefs ufeful.
They are, in colleges, the inftrudlors of youth ; in pri¬
vate families, the tutors of young gentlemen ; and many
procure a decent livelihood by their literary and witty
compofitions of all kinds, from the profoundeft philo-
fophy to the moft airy romances. They are, in Ihort,
a body of men who pofiefs a fund of univerfal talents
and learning, and are inceffantly employed in the culti¬
vation of every various branch of literature and inge-*
nuity. No fubjeft whatever efcapes them ; ferious or
gay,, folid or ludicrous, facred or profane, all pay tri¬
bute to their refearches; and as they are converfant in
the loweft as well as the higheft topics, their fame is
equally great in the learned and in the fcribbling world,
—A diftinguifhing part of their character, too, though
we {hall but {lightly touch it, is their devotion to the
fair fex : whofe favourites, in return, they have the ho¬
nour of being in the moft enviable degree ; the wit and
fmartnefs for which they are ufually remarkable, being
juft the very thing that fuit the French ladies.—In fine,
thefe abbes are fought after by moft people, on various
accounts ; as they arC equally men of bufinefs and plea-
fure, not lefs expert in the moft ferious tranfadlions, than
fond of enjoying their {hare in whatever occupies the gay
world. Hence they diligently frequent all public fpec-
tacles, which are thought incomplete without them ; as
they compofe the moft intelligent part of the company,,
and are the moft weighty approvers or condemners of
what paffes in almoft all places.
.ABBESS, the fuperior of an abbey or convent of
nuns. The abbefs has the fame rights and authority
over her nuns that the abbots regular have over their
monks. The fex indeed does not allow her to perform
the fpiritual fimdlipns annexed to the priefthood, where¬
with the abbot is ufually invefted; but there are inftances
of fome abbeffes who have a right or rather a privilege*
ABB [8] ABB
Abbeville, to commiffion a prieft to a£t for them. They have even
, Abbey. ^ a Gf epifCOpal jurifdiction, as well as fome abbots
v who are exempted from the vifitatioh of their diocefans.
Martenc, in his treatife on the rights of the Church,
obferves, that fome abbeffes have formerly confeffed
their nuns. But he adds, that their exceffive curiofity
carried them fuch lengths, that there arofe a neceflity
of checking it. However, St Bafil, in his Rule, allows
the abbefs to be prefent with the prieft at the confeffion
of her nuns.
ABBEVILLE, a confiderable city of France in
Picardy, and the capital of Ponthieu; the river Somme
runs through the middle of it, and divides it into two
parts. It has a collegiate church and twelve parifli-
churches; the moft confiderable of which are St George’s
and St Giles’s, befides a great number of monafteries
and nunneries, a bailiwic, and a prefidial court. It is a
fortified town ; the walls are flanked with baftions, and
furrounded by large ditches; and was never yet taken;
from which circumftance it is fometimes called the
Maiden Town. The country about it is low, marfhy,
and dirty. It is pretty well peopled, and is famous for
its woollen manufactory. The cloths and fluffs made
there are faid to be now little- inferior to thofe of Eng¬
land and Holland. The work, however, is aflifted by
the clandeftine importation of Englifh and Irifli wool,
and workmen from this country. It is about fifteen
miles eaft of the Britifli channel, and fliips may come
from thence by the river Somme to the middle of the
town. E. Long. 2. 6. Lat. 50. 7.
ABBEY, a monaftery, or religious houfe, governed
by a fuperior under the title of abbot or abbefs.
Abbeys differ from priories, in that the former are un¬
der the direftion of an abbot, and the others of a prior;
but abbot and prior (we mean a prior conventual) are
much the fame thing, differing in little but the name.
Fauchet obferves, that, in the early days of the French
monarchy, dukes' and counts were called abbots, and
duchies and counties abbeys. Even fome of their kings
are mentioned in hiftory under the title of abbots. Phi¬
lip I. Louis VI. and afterwards the dukes of Orleans,
are called abbots of the jnonafery of St Aignan. The
dukes of Aquitain were called abbots of the monajlery of
St Hilary, at Poitfiers; and the earls of Anjou, of St
Aubin, &c.
Monafteries were at firft nothing more than religious
houfes, whither perfons retired from the buftle of the
world to fpend their time in folitude and devotion. But
they foon degenerated from their original inftitution,
and procured large privileges, exemptions, and riches.
They prevailed greatly in Britain before the reforma¬
tion ; particularly in England: and as they increafed
in riches, fo the ftate became poor; for the lands,
which thefe regulars poffeffed were in mortua manu,
i. e. could never revert to the lords who gave them.
This inconvenience gave rife to the ftatutes againft gifts
in mortmaine, which prohibited donations to thefe re¬
ligious houfes; and Lord Coke tells us, that feveral
lords, at their creation, had a claufe in their grant,
that the donor might give or fell his land to whom he
would (exceptis viris religiofs Judscis) excepting
monks and Jews.
Thefe places were wholly abolifhed in England at
the time of the Reformation ; Henry VIII. having
lirft appointed vifitors to infpe£t into the lives of the
monks and nuns, which were found in fome places very Ahbey,
diforderly: upon which, the abbots, perceiving their Abbey-
diffolution unavoidable, were induced to refign their ■ e'
houfes to the king, who by that means became invefted
with the abbey-lands: thefe were afterwards granted to
different perfons, whofe defcendents enjoy them at this
day : they jvere then valued at 2,853,000/. per annum,
an immenfe fum in thofe days.
Though the fuppreflion of religious houfes, even con-
fidered in a political light only, was of a very great na¬
tional benefit, it muft be owned, that, at the time they
flouriftied, they were not entirely ufelefs. Abbeys or mo¬
nafteries were then the repofitories, as well as the femina-
ries, of learning ; many valuable books and national re¬
cords, as well as private evidences, have been preferved in
their libraries; the only places wherein they could have
been fafely lodged in thofe turbulent times. Many of
thofe, which had efcaped the ravages of the Danes, were
deftroyed with more than Gothic barbarity at the diffo-
lution of the abbeys. Thefe ravages are pathetically
lamented by John Bale, in his Declaration upon Leland’s
Journal 1549. “ Covetoufnefs,” fays he, “ was at that
time fo bufy about private commodity, that public
wealth, in that moft neceffary and of refpeft, was not
any where regarded. A number of them which pur-
chafed thefe fuperftitious manfions, referved of the li¬
brary-books, fome to ferve their jacks, fome to fcour
the candlefticks, and fome to rub their boots; fome
they fold to the grocer and foap-feller; and fome they
fent over fea to the book-binders, not in fmall numbers,
but in whole fliips full; yea, the univerfities of this
realm are not clear of fo deteftable a faft. I know a
merchant that bought the contents of two noble libra¬
ries for 40s. price ; a fhame it is to be fpoken !- This
fluff hath he occupied inftead of gray paper, by the
fpace of more than thefe ten years, and yet he hath
ftore enough for as many years to come. I fliall judge
this to be true, and utter it with heavinefs, that neither
the Britons under the Romans and Saxons, nor yet the
Englifli people under the Danes and Normans, had ever
fuch damage of their learned monuments as we have
feen in our time.”
In thefe days every abbey had at leaft one perfon
whofe office it was to ihftruft youth ; and the hiftori-
ans of this country are chiefly beholden to the monks
for the knowledge they have of former national events.
In thefe houfes alfo the arts of painting, archite&ufe,
and printing, were cultivated. The religious houfeS
alfo were hofpitals for the fick and poor; affording
likewife entertainment to travellers at a time when there
were no inns. In them the nobility and gentry who
were heirs to their founders could provide for a certain
number of ancient and faithful fervants, by procuring
them corodies, or ftated allowances of meal, drink, and
clothes. They were likewife an afylum for aged and
indigent perfons of good family. The neighbouring
places were alfo greatly benefited by the fairs procured
for them, and by their exemption from foreft-laws;
add to which, that the monaftie eftates were generally
let at very eafy rents, the fines given at renewals in¬
cluded.
ABBEYBOYLE, a town of Ireland, in the coun¬
ty of Rofcommon, and province of Connaught. W.
Long. 8. 32. Lat. 56. 54. It is remarkable for an old
abbey.
ABBEY-
ABB [ c
Alibeyholm ABBEYHOLM, a town in (Cumberland; fo called
, Abbot. from an abbey built there by David king of Scots. It
v hands on an arm of the fea. W. Long. 2. 38.
Lat. 54. 45.
ABBOT, or Abbat, the fuperior of a monaftery
of monks ere&ed into an abbey or prelacy.
The name Abbot is originally Hebrew, where it fig-
nifies father. The Jews call father, in their language,
Ab; whence the Chaldeans and Syrians formed Abba;
thence the Greeks ASSaf, which the Latins retained,
Abbas; and hence our Abbot, the French Abbe, See.
— St Mark and St Paul ufe the Syriac Abba in their
Greek, by reafon it was then commonly known in the
fynagogues and the primitive affemblies of the Chri-
ftians ; adding to it, by way of interpretation, the word
father, 0 iraTn?, “ Abba, father;” q. d. Abba, that
is to fay, Father.—But the name Ab, or Abba,
which at firft was a term of tendernefs and affeftion in
the Hebrew and Chaldee, became at length a title of
dignity and honour : The Jewiih dodtors affedted it;
and one of their moft ancient books, containing the
fayings or apophthegms of divers of them, is intitled
Pirke Abboth, or Avoth; i. e. Chapters of the Fathers.
It was in allufion to this affe&ation, that Jefus Chrill
forbad his difciples to call any man their father on
earth ; which word St Jerome turns againft the fupe-
riors of the monafteries of his time, for affuming the
title of Abbots, or Fathers.
The name Abbot, then, appears as old as the infti-
tution of monks itfelf.—The governors of the primi¬
tive monafteries aflumed indifferently the titles Abbots,
* See Mont and Archimandrites*. They were really diftinguifhed
lmandr!te>l~ ^rom t^e clergY 5 though frequently confounded with
them, becaufe a degree above laymen.
In thofe early days, the abbots were fubjedt to the
bifhops and the ordinary paftors. Their monafteries
being remote from cities, built in the fartheft folitudes,
they had no fhare in ecclefiaftical affairs. They went
on Sundays to the parifh-church with the reft of the
people ; or, if they were too remote, a prieft was fent
them to adminifter the facraments ; till at length they
were allowed to have priefts of their own body. The
abbot or archimandrite himfelf was ufually the prieft :
but his fundtion extended no farther than to the fpiritual
affiftance of his monaftery; and he remained ftill in
obedience to the bifliop. There being among the ab¬
bots feveral perfons of learning, they made a vigorous
oppofition to the rifing herefies of thofe times; which
firft occafioned the bifhops to call them out of their de*
farts, and fix them about the fuburbs of cities, and at
length in the cities themfelves: from which air a their
degeneracy is to be dated. The abbots, now, foon
wore off their former plainnefs and fimplicity, and be¬
gan to be looked on as a fort of little prelates. They
afpired at being independent of the bifhops,; and became
foinfupportable, that fome fevere laws were made againft
them at the council of Chalcedon; this notwithftand-
4ng, in time many of them carried the point’of inde¬
pendency, and got the appellation of lord, with other
badges of 'the epifeopate, particularly the mitre.
Hence arofe new fpecies of diitindtions between the
abbots. Thofe were termed mitred abbots, who were
privileged to wear the mitre, and exercife epifcopal au¬
thority within their refpeftive precinfts, being exemp¬
ted from the jurifditftion of the bifhop. Others were
Voi>» I. 1
1 ] ABB
called crojiered abbots, from their bearing the crofter Abbot,
or paftoral ftaff. Others were ftyled oecumenical or uni- v
verfal abbots, in imitation of the patriarch of Conftan-
tinople: while others were termed cardinal abbots, from
their fuperiority over all other abbots.—Among us, the
mitred abbots were lords of parliament; and called
abbots-fovereign, and abbots-general, to diftinguifh
them from the other abbots. And as there were lords
abbots, fo there were alfo lords priors, who had exempt
jurifdiftion, and were likewife lords of Parliament.
Some reckon 26 of thefe lords abbots and priors that
fat in parliament. Sir Edward Coke fays, that there
were 27 parliamentary abbots and two priors. In the
parliament 20 Rich. II. there were but 25 abbots and
two priors: but in the fummons to parliament anno
4 Ed. III. more are named.
At prefent, in the Roman-catholic countries, the
principal diftin&ions obferved between abbots are thofe
of regular and commendatory. The former take the vow
and wear the habit of their order ; whereas the latter
are feculars, though they are obliged by their bulls to
take orders when of proper age.
Anciently the ceremony of creating an abbot confifted
in clothing him with the habit called cuculus, or cowl;
putting the paftoral ftaff into his hand, and the fhoes
called pedales on his feet; but at prefent, it is only
a Ample benediction, improperly called, by fome, con-
fecration.
Abbot is alfo a title given to others befide the fupe-
riors of monafteries: thus biftiops, whofe fees were
formerly abbeys, are called abbots; as are the fupe-
riors of fome congregations of regular canons, parti¬
cularly that of St Genevieve at Paris : and among the
Genoefe, the chief magiftrate of their republic former¬
ly bore the title of Abbot of the people. It was like¬
wife ufual, about the time of Charlemagne, for feveral
lords to affume the title of count-abbots, abba comites ;
and that for no other reafon, but becaufe the fuper-
intendancy of certain abbeys-was committed to them.
ABBOT (George), archbifhop of Canterbury, was
born OCt. 29. 1562, at Guildford in Surrey. He
went through his ftudies at Oxford, and in 1597 was
chofen principal of Univerfity College. In 1599, he
was inftalled dean of Winchefter: the year following,
he was chofen vice-chancellor of the univerfity of Ox¬
ford, and a fecondtime in 1603. In 1604, that tranf-
lation of the bible now in ufe was begun by the direc¬
tion of king James; and Dr Abbot was the fecond of
eight divines of Oxford, to whom the care of tranfla-
ting the whole New Teftament (excepting the epiftles)
was committed. The year following, he was a third
time vice-chancellor. In 1608, he went to Scotland
with George Hume Earl of Dunbar, to afiift in efta-
bliftiing an union betwixt the kirk of Scotland and the
church of England; and in this affair he behaved* with * Heylin’s
fo much addrefs and moderation, that it laid the founda- jj'urianr^
tion of all his future preferment. For king James ever *
after paid great deference to his advice and counfel; and
upon the death of Dr Overton biftiop of Litchfield and
Coventry, he named Dr Abbot for his fucceffor, who
was accordingly conftituted bifhop of thofe two united
fees in December 1609. About a month afterwards
he was tranflated to the fee of London, and on the fe¬
cond of November thereafter was raifed to the archie-
pifcopal fee.
B
It
ABB [ io ] ABB
Abbot, It is not however improbable, that his extravagant
adulation of his royal matter, in which he went as far
as any other court-chaplain could do, contributed not
a little to the acceleration of his preferment. In the
preface to a pamphlet he publiflied, the following fpe-
cimen of ridiculous flattery occurs: Speaking of the
king, he fays, “ whofe life hath been fo immaculate
and unfpotted, &c. that even malice itfelf, which leaves
nothing unfearched, could never find true blemifli in
it, nor caft probable afperfion on it.—Zealous as Da¬
vid; learned and wife, the Solomon of our age; reli¬
gious as Jofias; careful of fpreading Chrift’s faith as
Conftantine the Great; juft as Mofes ; undefiled in all
his ways as a Jehofaphat and Hezekias; full of clemen¬
cy as another Theodofius.”—If Mr Walpole had feen
this pafiage, he certainly would not have faid, that
“ honeft Abbot could not flatter.”
His great zeal for the Proteftant religion made him
a ftrenuous prompter of the match between the Elector
Palatine and the Princefs Elizabeth ; which was accor¬
dingly concluded and folemnized the 14th of February
1612, the archbilhop performing the ceremony on a
ftage eredfced in the royal chapel. In the following
year happened the famous cafe of divorce betwixt the
lady Francis Howard, daughter of the earl of Suffolk,
and Robert earl of Effex : an affair which has been by
many confidered as one of the greateft blemifhes of
king James’s reign; but the part acted therein by the
archbilhop added much to the reputation he had already
acquired for incorruptible integrity. The matter was
by the king referred to a court of delegates. The
archbilhop faw plainly, that his Majefty was very de-
firous the lady Ihould be divorced; but he was, in his
own judgment, diredtly againft the divorce. He la¬
boured all he could to extricate himfelf from this diffi¬
culty, by having an end put to the caufe by fome o-
ther way than by fentence : but it was to no purpofe ;
for thofe who drove on this affair, had got too great
power to be reftrained from bringing it to the conclu-
iion the king defired. The archbilhop prepared a
fpeech, which he intended to have fpoken againft the
nullity of the marriage, in the court at Lambeth ; but
he did not make ufe of it, becaufe the king ordered
the opinions to be given in few words. He continued,
however, inflexible in his opinion againft the divorce;
and drew up his reafons, which the king thought fit to
anfwer himfelf. It need fcarce be added, that fentence
was given in the lady’s favour. In 1618, the king pub-
lifhed a declaration, which he ordered to be read in all
churches, permitting fports. and paftimes on the Lord’s
day : this gave great uneafinefs to the archbilhop ; who,
happening to be at Croydon when it came thither, had
the courage to forbid its being read.
Being now in a declining ftate of health, the
archbilhop ufed in the fummer to go to Hamp-
fliire for the fake of recreation; and being invit¬
ed by lord Zouch to hunt in his park at Bramzill,
he met there with the greateft misfortune that ever be-
fel him; for he accidentally killed the game-keeper
by an arrow from a erofs-bow which he Ihot at one of
the deer.. This accident threw him into a deep melan-
choly ; and he ever afterwards kept a monthly fall on
Oiurch-hTft5 Tuefda>r’ tlle day on which this fatal mifehance hap-
cent. xviii. Pened» and he fettled an annuity of 20/. on the wi-
j. 87, dow*. There were feveral perfons who took an ad¬
vantage of this misfortune, to leffen him in the king’s Abhot.
favour ; but his Majefty faid, “ An angel might have '
mifearried in this fort.” His enemies alleging that
he had incurred an irregularity, and was thereby inca¬
pacitated for performing the offices of a primate ; the
king direfted a commiffion to ten perfons to inquire
into this matter.
The refult, however, was not fatisfaftory • to his
Grace’s enemies ; it being declared, that, as the mur¬
der was involuntary, he had not forfeited his archie-
pifcopal character. The archbifhop thenceforward fel-
dom affifted at the council, being chiefly hindered by
his infirmities; but in the king’s laft illnefs he was
fent for, and attended with great conftancy till his
Majefty expired on the 27th of March 1625. He
performed the ceremony of the coronation of king
Charles I. though very infirm and much troubled with
the gout. He was never greatly in this king’s favour;
and the duke of Buckingham being his declared enemy,
watched an opportunity of making him feel the weight
of his difpleafure. This he at laft accomplilhed, upon
the archbilhop’s refufing to licenfe a fermon, preached
by Dr Sibthorpe to juftify a loan which the king had
demanded, and pregnant with principles which tended
to overthrow the conftitution. The archbilhop was
immediately after fufpended from all his fun&ions as
primate; and they were exercifedby certainbilhops com-
miflioned by the king, of whom Laud, the archbilhop’s
enemy, and afterwards his fucceffor, was one: while
the only caufe afligned for this procedure was, That
the archbilhop could not at that time perfonally attend
thofe fervices which were otherwife proper for his
cognifance and dire&ion. He did not, however, re¬
main long in this fituation ; for a parliament being ab-
folutely neceffary, his Grace was fent for, and reftored
to his authority and jurifdiftion. But not proving
friendly to certain rigorous meafures adopted by the
prevailing church-party, headed by Laud, whofe power
and intereft at court were now very confiderable, his
prefence became unwelcome there ; fo that upon the
birth of the Prince of Wales, afterwards Charles II.
Laud had the honour to baptize him, as dean of the
chapel. The archbilhop being worn out with cares
and infirmities, died at Croydon, the 5th of Auguft
1633, aged 71 years; and was buried at Guilford, the
place of his nativity, and where he had endowed an
hofpital with lands to the amount of 30^/. per annum.
A ftately monument was ere died over the grave, with
the effigy of the archbilhop in his robes.
He Ihewed himfelf, in moft circumftances of his life,.
a man of great moderation to all parties; and was de-
firous thatthe clergy Ihould attradf the efteem ofthelaity
by the fan ft it y of their manners, rather than claim it
as due to their funftion. His notions and principles,
however, not fuiting the humour of fome writers, have
drawn upon him many fevere refleftions ; particularly,
which is to be regretted, from the earl of Clarendon.
But Dr Wei wood has done morejuftice to his merit
and abilities*. He wrote feveral trafts upon various * Mewnirs,-
fubjefts; and, as already mentioned, tranllated part of^ V?00*
the New Teftament, with the reft of the Oxford di-
vines, 1611.
It is proper to obferve here, that there was another
writer of both his names, who flourilhed fomewhat
later. This George Abbot wrote A faraphrafe on
ABB
t
Abbot Joh, A vindication of tbs fabbatb, and A paraphrafe
,, li on the Pfalm.
, ABBOT (Robert ), elder brother to the former, and
born at Guildford in 1560, went through his lludies in
Baliol college, Oxford. In 1582, he took his degree
of mailer of arts, and foon became a celebrated preach--
er ; and to this talent he chiefly owed his preferment.
Upon his firll fermon at Worceller, he was chofen lec¬
turer in that city, and foon after rector of All-faints in
the fame place. John Stanhope, Efq; happening to hear
him preach at Paul’s-crofs, was fo pleafed with him,
that he immediately prefented him to the rich living of
Bingham in Nottinghamfhire. In 1597, he took his
degree of do&or in divinity : and, in the beginning of
king James’s reign, was appointed chaplain in ordinary
to his Majefty ; who had fuch an opinion of him as a
writer, that he ordered the dodtor’s book De Antichrijio
to be printed with his own commentary upon part of
the Apocalypfe. In 1609, he was eledled mafter of
Baliol college ; which trull he difcharged with the ut-
mofl care and affiduity, by his frequent ledlures to the
fcholars, by his continual prefence at public exercifes,
and by promoting temperance in the fociety. In No¬
vember 1610, he was made prebendary of Normanton
in the church of Southwell; and, in 1612, his Majelly
appointed him regius profeffor of divinity at Oxford.
The hfme of his ledlures became very great; and thofe
which he gave upon the fupreme power of kings againll
Bellarmine and Suarez, fo much pleafed his Majelty,
that, when the fee of Salilbury became vacant, he na¬
med him to that bilhoprick, and he was confecrated
by his own brother at Lambeth, December 3, 1615.
When he came to Salifbury, he found the cathedral
running to decay, through the negligence and covet-
oufnefs of the clergy belonging to it: however, he found
means to draw five hundred pounds from the prebenda¬
ries, which he applied to the reparation of this church.
He then gave himfelf up to the duties of his fundlion
with great diligence and afiiduity, viliting his whole
diocefe in perfon, and preaching every Sunday whilll
health would permit. But this was not long : for his fe-
dentary life, and clofe application to lludy, brought
upon him the gravel and llone ; of which he died on the
2d of March 1618, in the fifty-eighth year of his age ;
having not filled the fee quite two years and three
months, and being one of the five bifhops which Salif¬
bury had in fix years. He was buried oppofite to the
* JPor'bLsbifhop’s feat in the cathedral. Dr Fuller*, fpeaking of
of Engtaxdin the two brothers, fays, “ that George was the more
Sumy. « plau{ible preacher, Robert the greatell fcholar;
“ George the abler llatefmen, Robert the deeper di-
“ vine; gravity did frown in George, and fmile in
“ Robert.” He publifhed feveral pieces ; he alfo
left behind him fundry manufcripts, which Dr Corbet
made a prefent of to the Bodelian library.
ABBOTSBROMLEY, a town in Staffordfhire,
with a market on Tuefday. After the diffolution of
the monafteries, it was given to the Lord Paget; and
has fince been called Paget's Bromley, and is fo deno¬
minated in the county map. But it retains its old
name in the king’s books, and is a difcharged vicarage
of 30 1. clear yearly value. It likewife retains the old
name with regard to the fairs. W. Long. 1.2. Lat.
52- 4L
ABBOTSBURY, a fmall town in Dorfetlhire, with
i ] A B D
a market on Thurfday. W. Long. 1. 17. Lat. 50. 4c. Abbreviate
The abbey near this town was founded by a Norman
lady, about the year 1026 ; and Edward the ConfefTor l^ma*
and William the Conqueror were confiderable benefac- < >
tors to it.
ABBREVIATE of Adjudications, in Scots law*
an abftracl or abridgment of a decreet of adjudication,
which is recorded in a regifter kept for that purpofe.
ABBREVIATION, or Abbreviature, a con-
traclion of a word or paffage ; made by dropping fome
of the letters, or by fubllituting certain marks or cha-
racters in their place.—Lawyers, phyficians, See. ufe
abundance of abbreviations, partly for the fake of ex-1
pedition, and partly for that of myftery; but of all
people the Rabbins are the moil remarkable for this
practice, fo that their writings are unintelligible with¬
out the Hebrew abbreviatures. The Jewifli authors and
copyifts do not content themfelves with abbreviating
words like the Greeks and Latins, by retrenching fome
of the letters or fyllables; they frequently take away
all but the initial letters. They even frequently take
the initials of feveral fucceeding words, join them to¬
gether, and, adding vowels to them, make a fort of
barbarous word, reprefentative of all thofe which they
have thus abridged. Thus, Rabbi Mofes ben Maie-
men, in their abbreviature is Rambam, 8cc.
ABBREVIATOR, in a general fenfe, a perfon who
abridges any large book into a narrower compafs.
Abbreviators, a college of 72 perfons in the chan¬
cery of Rome, who draw up the pope’s brieves, and re¬
duce petitions, when granted by him, into proper form
for being converted in bulls.
ABBUTALS, fignify the buttings or boundings
of land towards any point. Limits were anciently di-
llinguifhed by artificial hillocks, which were called
botsmines ; and hence butting. In a defeription of the
fite of land, the fides on the breadth are more properly
adjacentes, and thofe terminating the length are abbu-
tantes; which, in old furveys, were fometimes exprefs-
ed by capitare, to head, whence abbutals are now call¬
ed head-lands.
ABCEDARY, or Abcedarian, an epithet given
to compofitions, the parts of which are difpofed in the
order of the letters of the alphabet: thus we fay, Ab¬
cedarian pfalms, lamentations, hymns, &c.
ABCOURT, a town near St Germains, four leagues
from Paris. Here is a bride chalybeate water, impreg¬
nated with fixed air and the folfil alkali; and refem-
bling the waters of Spa and Ilmington.
ABDALLA, the fon of Abdalmothleb, was the fa¬
ther of the prophet Mahomet. Several other Arabians
of eminence bore the fame name.
ABDALMALEK, the fon of Mirvan, and the 5th
khalif of the race of the Ommiades, furnamed Rafch al
Hegianat, i. e. the fldnner of a Hone, becaufe of his
extreme avarice ; as alfo Aboulzebab, becaufe his
breath was faid to be fo poifonous as to kill all the flies
which relied on his face. Yet he furpafled all his pre*
deceflbrs in power and dominion ; for in his reign the
Indies were conquered in the call, Snd his armies pene¬
trated Spain in the well: he likewife extended his em¬
pire toward the fouth, by making himfelf mailer of
Medina and Mecca. He began his reign in the 65th
of the hegira, A. D. 648; reigned 15 years ; and four
of his fons enjoyed the khalifate one after another,
B 2 Abdalmelekj
.AMalme-
lek.
II
Abdera,
A B D [ 12 ] A B D
Abdalmelek (Ben Zohar), an eminent phyfician, tling there, in order to avoid the infults of the Perfians. Abdera.
commonly called by the Europeans .//twzorfr. See —Several fmgularities are told of Abdera *. The grafs . ,JI ,
Avenzoar. of the country round it was fo ftrong, that fuch horfes , 1 Ration.
ABDALMOTHLEB, or Abdal Mateleb, the as eat of it ran mad. In the reign of Caffander king of * p|In;;
fon of Hafliem, the father of Abdalla, and grandfather Macedon, this city was fo peilered with frogs and rats, lib.xyv. c.S.
of Mahomet the prophet of the MufTulmans, was, it is that the inhabitants were forced to quit it for a time. Juft, lib.xv..
faid, of fuch wonderful comelinefs and beauty, that —The Abderites, or Abderitani, were very much deri- c'a*
all women who faw him became enamoured: which may ded for their want of wit and judgment : yet their
have given occafion to that prophetic light, which, ac- city has given birth to feveral eminent perfons; as,
cording to the Arabians, fhone on the foreheads of him, Protagoras, Democritus, Anaxarchus, Hecatasus the
his anceftors, and defcendants; it being certain that hiftorian, Nicenaetus the poet, and many others, who
they were very handfome and graceful men. He died were mentioned among the illuftrious men.—In the
when Mahomet, of whom he had taken peculiar care, reign of Lyfimachus, Abdera was afflifted for fome
was only 8 or 9 years old; aged, according to fome, months with a moft extraordinary difeafe f : this was f Lucianus
no, and according to other writers 120. a burning fever, whofe cribs was always on the feventh quomodoHiJl,-
ABDALONYMUS, or Abdolonymus, (in claffic day, and then it left them ; but it fo diftradted their^ confcrihcn—
hiftory), of the royal family of Sidon, and defeended imaginations, that they fancied themfelves players. ln>
from king Cinyras, was contented to live in obfeurity, After this, they were ever repeating verfes from fome
and get his fubfiftence by cultivating a garden, while tragedy, and particularly' out of the Andromeda of Eu-
Strato was in poffeffion of the crown of Sidon. Alexan- ripides, as if they had been upon the ftage ; fo that
der the Great having depofed Strato, inquired whether many of thefe pale, meagre adtors, were pouring forth
any of the race of Cinyras was living, that he might fet their tragic exclamations in every iffeet. This delirium
him on the throve. It was generally thought that the continued till the winter following ; which was a very
whole race was extindt: but at laft Abdalonymus was cold one, and therefore fitter to remove it. Lucian,,
thought of, and mentioned to Alexander; who imme- who has deferibed this difeafe, endeavours to account
diately ordered fome of his foldiers to fetch him. They for it in this manner: Archelaus, an excellent player,,
found the good man at work, happy in his poverty, afted the Andromeda of Euripides before the Abde-
and entirely a ftranger to the noife of arms, with which rites, in' the height of a very hot fummer. Several had
all Afia was at that time difturbed ; and they could a fever at their coming out of the theatre; and as their
fcarcely perfuade him that they were in earneft. Alex- imaginations were full of the tragedy, the delirium
ander was convinced of his high defeent by the dig- which the fever raifed reprefented perpetually Andro-
nity that appeared in his perfon ; but was defirous of meda, Perfeus, Medufa, &c. and the feveral dramatic
learning from him in what manner he bore his poverty, incidents, and called up the ideas of thofe objects, and
I wifh” faid Abdalonymus, “ I may bear my new the pleafure of the reprefentation, fo ftrongly, that they
condition as well: Thefe hands have fupplied my ne- could not forbear imitating Archelaus’s action and de-
eefiities: I have had nothing, and I have wanted no- clamation : And from thefe the fever fpread to others-
thing.” This anfwer pleafed Alexander fo much, that, by infection..
befides giving him all that was Strato’s, he augmented ABDERAHMA, a Saracen viceroy in Spain, who-
his dominions, and gave him a large prefent out of the revolted,.and formed an independent principality at Cor—
Perfian fpoils. dova. He had feveral fuccelfors of the fame name.
ABDALS, in the Eallern countries, a kind of faints ABDEST, a Perfian word, properly fignifying the
fuppofed to be infpired to a degree of madnefs. The water placed in ft bafon for walking the hands ; but is'
word comes, perhaps, from the Arabic, Abdallah, the ufed to imply the legal purifications practifed by the
fervant of God. The Perfians call them devanek khor Mahometans before they enter on their religious cere—
da, fimilar to the Latins way of fpeaking of their pro- monies.
phets and fibyls, q,. d. furentes deo, raging with the god. ABDIAS of Babylon-, one of the boldeft legehd-
They are often- carried by excefs of zeal, efpecially in writers, who boafted he had feen our Saviour, that he was
the Indies, to run about the ftreets, and kill all they one of the 72 difciples, had been eye-witnefs of the ac—
meet of a different religion ;: of which travellers furnifh tions and prayers at the deaths of feveral of the apoftles,.
many inflances. The Englifh call this, running a muk, and had followed into Perfia St Simon and St Jude,,
from the name of the inftrument, a fort of poniard, who, he faid, made him the firft bifhop of Babylon,
which they employ on thofe defperate occafions. If His book intitled Hiftoria ctrtavnnis apoftolici, was pub-
they are killed, as it commonly happens,, before they lifhed by Wolfgang Lazius, at Bafil, 1551 ; and it has
have done much mifehief, they reckon it highly meri- fince borne feveral impreffions in different places,
torious; and are efteemed, by the vulgar,, martyrs for ABDICATION, the a&ion whereby a magiftrate,
their faith. or perfon in office, renounces and gives up the fame
ABDARA, or Abdera, (anc. geog.)' a town of before the term of fervice is expired.
Bceotia in Spain, a Phoenician colony ; now A dr a, to This word is frequently confounded with refignation;-.
the weft of Almeira in the kingdom of Granada. but differs from it, in that abdication is done purely
ABDERA, (anc. geog.) a maritime town of Thrace, and fimply, whereas refignation is in favour of fome
not far from the mouth of the river Neffus, on the third perfon. It is faid to be a renunciation, quitting,
eaft fide. The foundation, according to Herodotus, and relinquifhing, fo as to have nothing further to do
was attempted to be laid by Timefius the Clazome- with a thing ; or the doing of fuch adtions as are in-
iiian ; but he was forced by the Thracians to quit the confiftent with the holding of it. On king James’s lea-
defign. The Teiaps undertook, it, and fucceededj fet- ving the kingdom, and abdicating the government,- the
lords.
ABE {13] ABE
made ufe of j
comprehenfive
1 enough, for that the king might then have liberty of
returning.—Among the Roman writers it is more par¬
ticularly ufed for the aft whereby a father difcarded or
difclaimed his fon, and expelled him the family. It is
diftinguifhed from exharedatio or dijinheriting, in that
the former was done in the father’s lifetime; the latter,
by will at his death : fo that whoever was abdicated,
was alfo diiinherited ; but not vice verfa.
ABDOMEN, in anatomy, is that part of the trunk
of the body which lies between the thorax and the bot¬
tom of the pelvis. See Anatomy.
ABDOMINALES, or Abdominal Fishes, con-
ftitute the IVth Order of the Fourth Clafs of Animals,
in the Linnasan fyftem. See Zoology.
ABDUCTION, in logic, a kind of argumentation,
by the Greeks cd&td^apagoge, wherein the'2 greater
extreme is evidently contained in the medium, but the
medium not fo evidently in the leffer extreme as not to
require foir^, farther medium or proof to make it ap¬
pear. It is called abduction, becaufe, from the con-
clufion, it draws us on to prove the propofition affumed.
Thus, in the fyllogifm, “ All whom God abfolves are
free from fin ; but God abfolves all who are in Chrifl.;
therefore all who are in Chrift are free from fin,”—the
major is evident; but the minor, or affumption, is not fo
evident without fome other propofition to prove it, as,
“ God received full fatisfaclion for fin by the fuffer-
ings of Jefus Chrift.”
Abduction, in furgery, a fpecies of fradture, where¬
in the broken parts of the bone recede from each other.
ABDUCTOR, or Abducent, in anatomy, a name
given to feveral of the mufcles, on account of their
ferving to withdraw, open, or pull back the parts to
which they belong.
ABEL, fecond fon of Adam and Eve, was a Ihep-
herd. He offered to God fome of the firftlings of his
flock, at the fame time that his brother Cain offered
the fruits of the earth. God was pleafed with Abel’s
oblation, but difpleafed with Cain’s ; which fo exafpe-
rated the latter, that he rofe up againft his brother
and killed him. Thefe are the only circumftances
Mofes relates of him.; though, were we to bike notice
of the feveral particulars to which curiofity has given
birth on this occafion, they would run to a very great
length. But this will not be expe&ed. It is remark¬
able, that the Greek churches, who celebrate the feafts
of every other patriarch and prophet, have not done
the fame honour to Abel. His name is not to be
found in any catalogue of faints or martyrs till the
10th century ; nor even in the new Roman martyrolo-
gy. However he is prayed to, with fome other faints,
in feveral Roman litanies faid for perfons who lie at
the point of death.
Ftbel Keramim, or Vincarum, beyond Jordan, in
the county of the Ammonites, where Jephthah de¬
feated them, feven. miles diftant from Philadelphia,
abounding in vines, and hence tire name.. It was alfo
called Abela.
ABEL-Mehola, the country of the prophet Eliftia,
fituate on this fide Jordan, between the valley of Jez-
reelandthe village Bethmaela in the plains of Jordan,
where the Midianites were defeated by Gideon. Judges,
vii.^z.
Abdomen, lords would have had the word defertion
A A, but the commons thought it was not ■
AsEL-Mizraitn, called alfo the Threfhing-floor of Abel..
Atad ; fignifying • the lamentation of the Egyptians ; Abelard.
in allufton to the mourning for Jacob, Gen. i. 3, 10, ■   <
11. Suppofed to be near Hebron.
AzEL-Mofch, or Abehnufch, in botany, the trivial
name of a fpecies of the Hibiscus.
AsEL-Satthn, or Sitthn, a town in the plains of
Moab, to the N. E. of the Dead Sea, not far from
Jordan, where the Ifraelites committed fornication with,
the daughters of Moab : So called, probably, from the
gfeat number of fittim-trees there.
ABELARD (Peter), one of the moft famous doc¬
tors of the twelfth century, was born at Palais near
Nantz, in Britany: he was well learned in divinity,
philofophy, and the languages ; but was particularly di-
ftinguilhed by his Ikill in logic, and his fondnefs for de¬
putations, which led him to travel into feveral pro¬
vinces in order to give public proof of his acutenefs in
that fcience.
After having baffled many antagonifts, he read
lectures in divinity with great applaufe at Paris;
where he boarded with a canon whofe name was Ful-
bert, and who had a very beautiful niece named He-
loife. The canon ardently wifhed to fee this young
lady make a figure among the learned, and Abelard
was made her preceptor: but inftead of inftrufting her
in ttie fciences, he taught her to love. Abelard now.
performed his public funftions. very coldly, and wrote
nothing but amorous verfes. Heloife proving with child,
Abelard fent her to a fifter of his in Britany, where fire
was delivered of a fon. To foften the canon’s anger, he
offered to marry Heloife privately ; and the old man was
better pleafed withthepropofalthan the niece; who,from
a lingular excefs of paffion, chofe to be Abelard’s miftrefs
rather than his wife; She married, however; but ufed of¬
ten to proteft upon oath that ftie was fingle, which provo¬
ked the canon to ufe her ill. Upon this, Abelard fent
her to the monaftery of Argenteuil; where Ihe put on a
religious habit, but did not take the veil. Heloife’s re¬
lations confidering this as a fecond treachery, hired ruf¬
fians, who, forcing into his chamber in the dead of the
night, emafculated him. This infamous treatment made
him fly to the gloom of a cloifter. He affumed the mo-
naftic habit in the abbey of St Dennis; but the dif-
orders of that houfe foon drove him from thence. He
was. afterwards charged with-herefy; but after feveral
perfecutions for his religious fentiments, he fettled in a
folitude in the diocefe of Troies, where he built an ora¬
tory, to which he gave the name of the Paraclet. He
was afterwards chofen fuperior of the abbey of Ruis in
the diocefe of Vannes : when the nuns being expelled
from the nunnery in which Heloife had been placed,
he gave her his oratory ; where ftie fettled with fome of
her fifter nuns, and became their priorefs.
Abelard mixed the pRilofophy of Ariftotle with his
divinity, and in 1140 was condemned by the council of.
Rheims and Sens. Pope Innocent II. ordered him to be
imprifoned, his books to be burnt, and forbid him ever
teaching again. However, he. was foon after pardoned,
at the felicitation of Peter the Venerable, who received
him into his abbey of Clugni, where he led an exem¬
plary life. He died in the priory of Marcellus at Cha- .
Ions, April 21, 1142, aged fixty-three. His corpfe
was fent to Heloife, who buried it in the Paraclet.
He left feveral works: the moft celebrated of which
arc
Abd-tree
Abenfpefg.
ABE t 14 ] ABE
are thofe tender letters that parted between him and
Heloife, with the account of their misfortunes prefixed;
which have been tranflated into EnglHh, and immorta-
lifed by the harmony of Mr Pope’s numbers.
ABEL-trf.e, or Abele-tree, an obfolete name
for a fpecies of the poplar. See Pop ulus.
ABELIANS, Abeolites, or Abelonians, in
church-hifiory, a feet of heretics mentioned by St Au-
ftin, which arofe in the diocefe of Hippo in Africa,
and is fuppofed to have begun in the reign of Arcadius,
and ended in that of Theodofius. Indeed it was not
calculated for being of any long continuance. Thofe
of this fe£t regulated marriage after the example of
Abel; who, they pretended,. was manned, but died
without ever having known his wife. They therefore
allowed each man to marry one woman, but enjoined
them to live in continence : and, to keep up the fe&,
when a man and woman entered into this fociety, they
adopted a boy and a girl, who were to inherit their
goods, and to marry upon the fame terms of not be¬
getting children, but of adopting two of different
fexes.
ABELLA, anciently a town of Campania, near
the river Clanius. The inhabitants were called Abel¬
ian!, and faid to have been a colony of Chalcidians.
The nux Avellana, called alfo Praeneftina, or the hazel¬
nut, takes its name from this town, according to Ma-
•crobius. Now Avella.
ABELLINUM, anciently a town of the Hirpini,
a people of Apulia ; diftant about a mile from the rivu¬
let Sabbato, between Beneventum and Salernum. Pliny
calls the inhabitants Abellinates, with the epithet Pro-
topi, to diftinguifh them from the Abellinates Marfi.
Now Avellino. E. Long. 15. 20. Lat. 21.
ABEN ezra ^Abraham), a celebrated rabbi, born
at Toledo in Spain, called by the Jews, The wife, great,
and admirable Doctor, was a very able interpreter of
the Holy Scriptures; and was well (killed in grammar,
poetry, philofophy, aftronomy, and medicine. He
was alfo a perfect mailer of the Arabic. His principal
work is, Commentaries on the Old Teftament, which
js much eileemed : thefe are printed in Bomberg’s and
Buxtorf’s Hebrew Bibles. His ilyle is clear, elegant,
•concife, and much like that of the Holy Scriptures :
he almoft always adheres to the literal fenfe, and every
where gives proofs of his genius and good fenfe : he,
however, advances feme erroneous fentiments. The
fcarceft of all his books is intitled, Jefud Mora ; which
Is a theological work, intended as an exhortation to the
ftudy of the Talmud. He. died in 1174, aged 75.
AIbkn Mellar, a learned rabbin, who wrote a com¬
mentary on the Old Teftament in Hebrew, intitled The
Perfection of Beauty. This rabbin generally follows
the grammatical fenfe and the opinions of Kimchi.
The bell edition is that of Holland,
ABENAS, a town of France, in Languedoc and in
the lower Vivarais, feated on the river Ardefch, at the
foot of the Cevennes. E. Long. 4. 43. Lat. 44. 40.
.ABENEL gauby, a fixed liar of the fecofid or
third magnitude, on the fouth fcale of the conilellation
Libra.
ABENSPERG, a fmall town of Germany, in the
circle and duchy of Bavaria, and in the government of
Munich. It is feated on the river Abentz, near the Da¬
nube. E» Long. xi. 38. Lat. 48. 45.
ABERAVON, a borough-town of Glamorgan (hire Aferavon,
in Wales, governed by a portreeve. It had a market, A|^|’!jcr0"
which is now difeontinued : the vicarage is difeharged,. ■
and is worth 451. clear yearly value. It is feated at
the mouth of the river Avon, 194 miles weft of Lon¬
don. W. Long. 3. 21. Lat. 51. 40.
ABERBROTHICK, or Arbroath, one of the
royal boroughs of Scotland, fituated in the county of
Angus, about forty miles N. N. E. of Edinburgh ; its
W. Long, being 2. 29. and N. Lat. 56. 36. It is feat¬
ed on the difeharge of the little river Brothic into the
fea, as the name imports, Aber in the Britilh implying
fuch a fituation. It is a fmall but flourilhing place,
well built, and Hill increafing. The town has been in
an improving Hate for the forty laft years, and the
number of inhabitants greatly augmented; wdiich
is owing to the introduClion of manufactures. The
number* at this time, is faid to be about four thou-
fand: thefe principally confift of weavers of coarfe
brown linens, and fome fail-cloth ; others are employ¬
ed in making white and coloured threads : the remain¬
der are either engaged in the (hipping of the place, or
in the neceffary and common mechanic trades. The
brown linens, or Ofnaburghs, were manufactured here
before any encouragement was given by Government,
or the linen company ereCted at Edinburgh. It ap¬
pears from the books of the ftamp-office in this town,
that feven or eight hundred thoufand yards are annu¬
ally made in the place, and a fmall diftriCt round. Be-
fides this export and that of thread, much barley and
fome wheat is fent abroad. The foreign imports are
flax, flax-feed, and timber, from the Baltic. The
coafting trade confifts of coals from Borrowftounnefs,
and lime from Lord Elgin’s kilns in Fife.—At this
place, in default of a natural harbour, a tolerable arti¬
ficial one of piers has been formed, where, at fpring-
tides, which rife here fiftee.n feet, (hips of two hun¬
dred tons can come, and of eighty at neap-tides ; but
they muft lie dry at low water. This port is of great
antiquity : there is an agreement yet extant between
the abbot and the burghers of Aberbrothic, inn 94,
concerning the making of the harbour. - Both parties
were bound to contribute their proportions ; but the
largeft fell to the (hare of the former, for which he
was to receive an annual tax payable out of every rood
of land lying within the borough.—The glory of this
place was the abbey, whofe very ruins give fome idea
of its former magnificence. It was founded by Wil¬
liam the Lion in 1178, and dedicated to our celebra¬
ted primate Thomas a Becket. The founder was bu¬
ried here; but there are • no remains of his tomb, or
of any other, excepting that of a monk of the name
of Alexander Nicol. The monks were of the Tyro-
nenfian order; and were firft brought from Kelfo,
whofe abbot declared thofe of this place, on the firft;
inftitution, to be free from his jurifdiClion. The laft
abbot was the famous Cardinal Beaton, at the fame
time archbifliop of St Andrew’s, and, before his death,
as great and abfolute here as Wolfey was in England.
King John, the Englilh monarch, granted this mona-
ftery mod uncommon privileges ; for, by charter under
his great feal, he exempted it a teloniis et confuetudine
in every part of England, except London. At Aber¬
brothic is a chalybeate water, fimilar to thofe of Pe¬
terhead and Glendy.
ABERCONWAY,
ABE [ i
Abercorn- ABERCONWAY, or Conway, Caernarvonfhire,
North-Wales; fo called from itsfituation at the mouth
Aberdeen.^ ^ tjie rjver Conway. It is a handfome town, plea-
fantly fituated on the fide of a hill, and has many con¬
veniences for trade; notwithftanding which it is the
pooreft town in the county. It was built by Edward I.
and had not only walls, but a ftrong caftle which is now
in ruins. Here is an infeription on the tomb of one
Nicholas Hooks, importing that he was the one-and-
fortieth child of his father, and had twenty-feven chil¬
dren himfelf. It is 229 miles from London, W. Long.
3. 47. N. Lat. 53. 20.
ABERDEEN, the name of two cities in Scot¬
land, called the 0/<J and Towns, fituated on
the German ocean, in W. Long. 1. 40. and N.
Lat. 57. 19.
Aberdeen is a place of great antiquity. According
to tradition, it was of note in the reign of Gregory,
who conferred on it fome privileges about the year
893. In 1004, Malcolm II. founded a bifhoprick at
a place called Mortlich in Banffihire, in memory of
a fignal vi&ory which he there gained over the Danes :
which bifhoprick was tranflated to Old Aberdeen by
David L; and in 1163, the then bifhop of Aberdeen
obtained a new charter from Malcolm IV. There is
extant a charter of Alexander II. by which, in 1217,
the King grants to Aberdeen the fame privileges he
had granted to his town of Perth.
The Old Town lies about a mile to the north of the
new, at the mouth of the river Don, over which is a
fine Gothic bridge, of a fingle arch, greatly admired,
which refts at both fides on two rocks. This arch,
faid to have been built by a bifhop of Aberdeen about
the year 1290, is 67feet wide at the bottom, and344 feet
high above the furface of the river, which at ebb-tide is
here 19 feet deep. The old town was formerly the feat of
the bifhop, and had a large cathedral commonly called
St Macher's. T\vo very antique fpires, and one aide,
which is ufed as a church, are now the only remains of it.
The bifhoprick was founded in the time of David I. as a-
bove mentioned. The cathedral had anciently two rows
of flone pillars acrofs the church, and three turrets ; the
fteeple, which was the largeft of thefe turrets, relied up¬
on an arch, fupported by four pillars. In this cathedral
there was a fine library; but, about the year 1560, it was
ahnoft totally deftroyed. But the capital building is
the King’s-college, on the fouth fide of the town,
which is a large and ftately fabric. It is built round a
fquare, with cloiflers on the fouth fide. The chapel is
very ruinous within ; but there ftill remains fome wood¬
work of exquifite workmanihip. This was preferved by
thefpirit of the principal at the time of the reformation,
who armed his people and checked the blind zeal of
the barons of the Mearns; who, after ftripping the ca¬
thedral of its roof, and robbing it of the bells, were
going to violate this feat of learning. They fhipped
their facrilegious.booty, with an intention of expofing
it to fale in Holland : but the veflel had fcarcely gone
out of port, when it perifhed in a ftorm with all its ill-
gained lading. The fteeple is vaulted with a double
erofs arch;. above which is an imperial crown, fupport¬
ed by eight ftone-pillars, and elofed with a globe and
two gilded crofles. In the year 1631 this fteeple was
thrown down by a ftorm, but was foon after rebuilt
in a more ftately form. This college was founded in
5 ] A B E
1494, by William Elphinfton bifttop of this place, Aberdeen.
Lord Chancellor of Scotland in the reign of James III.
and Lord Privy Seal in that of James IV. But
James IV. claimed the patronage of it, and it has
fince been called the King's College. This college, and
the Marifchal-college in the New Town, form one
univerfity, called the Univerfity of King Charles. The
library is large, but not remarkable for many curiofi-
ties. Pledtor Boethius was the firft principal of the
college ; and fent for from Paris for that purpofe, on
an annual falary of forty marks Scots, at thirteen pence
each. The fquare tower on the fide of the college
was built by contributions from General Monk and
the officers pnder him then quartered at Aberdeen, for
the reception of ftudents; of which there are about
a hundred belonging to the college who lie in it.
The New Town is the capital of the (hire of Aber¬
deen. For largenefs, trade, and beauty, it greatly ex¬
ceeds any town in the north of Scotland. It is
built on a hill or rifing ground, and lies on a fmall
bay formed by the Dee, deep enough for a ffiip of
200 tons, and above two miles in circumferences—
The buildings (which are of granite from the neigh¬
bouring quarries) are generally four ftories high ; and
have, for the moft part, gardens behind them, wjiich
gives it a beautiful appearance. On the high-ftreet is
a large church, which formerly belonged to the Fran-
eifeans. This church was begun by Biftiop William
Elphinfton ; and finiffied by Gavinus Dunbar, biffiop
of Aberdeen, about the 1500. Bifhop Dunbar is faid
likewife to have built the bridge over the Dee, which
confifts of feven arches. In the middle of Caftle-ftreet
-is an oflagon building, with neat bas-relievos of the
kings of Scotland from James I. to James VII. The
town-houfe makes a good figure, and has a handfome
fpire in the centre, The grammar-fchool is- a low but
neat building. Gordon’s hofpital is handfome ; in front
is a goodftatue of the founder : it maintains forty boys,
who are apprenticed at proper ages. The infirmary is
a large plain building, and fends out between eight
and nine hundred cured patients annually, But the
chief public building in the new town is.the Marifchal-
college, founded by George Keith earl of Marifchal,
in the year 1593 ; but fince greatly augmented with
additional buildings. There are about 140 ftudents
belonging to it. In both the Marifchal and King’s-
college the languages, mathematics, natural philofophy, -
divinity, &c. are taught by very able profeffbrs. The
convents in Aberdeen were : One of Mathurines, or
of the order of the Trinity, founded by William the
Lion, who died in 1214; another of Dominicans, by
Alexander II. ; a third of Obfervantines, a building
of great length in the middle of the city, founded by
the citizens and Mr Richard Vans, &c.; and a fourth
of Carmelites, or White Friars, founded by Philip de
Arbuthnot in 1350.
Aberdeen, including the Old Town, is fuppofed to
contain 25,000 people. Its trade is confiderable, but
might be greatly extended by an attention to the white
fifheries.
The harbour was long a great detriment to its trade,
and occafioned the lofs of many Jives and. much pro
perty. A ftranger could never depend upon finding it
as he left it; while veflels lay at anchor in the road till .
the tide ffiould.make, they have often been wrecked by
ftorms •
ABE [n
Aberdeen, ftorms which fuddenly arofe. It was very narrow at
the mouth, having the eafterly rocky point of the
Grampian mountains on the fouth, and a flat blowing
land on the north, extending along the coaft for many
miles. By the eafterly and north-eaft ftorms the fand
was driven in a long ridge acrofs the harbour’s mouth,
and formed what was called the bar. Upon this bar
the depth of water at low tide was fometimes not above
three feet. Clearing away the fand, though but a par¬
tial and temporary remedy, was a matter of great ex¬
pence to the community: If it was cleared one week
fo as to have five or fix feet of water at ebb, a frefh
ftorm the next week undid all that had been done. The
town at laft came to the refolution of erefting a ftrong
pier on the north fide of the harbour. "This pier is
1200 feet in length, and gradually increafes in thick-
nefs and height as it approaches to the fea, where the
head or rounding is 60 feet diameter at the bafe, and
the perpendicular elevation is 38 feet. The whole is
built of granite, the moll durable ftone known : many
of the outfide Hones are above three tons weight, with
hewn beds. It was built under the direction of Mr
Smeaton; and the expence, amounting to above
17,000!., is defrayed by doubling the harbour-dues,
which are chiefly paid by the inhabitants.
A little to the fouth of the bar, they have now a
depth of 17 fathoms at low water; and at the har¬
bour mouth, from eight to nine fathoms, where they
had formerly but a few feet.
Aberdeen once enjoyed a good fliare of the tobacco
trade. At prefent, its imports are from the Baltic, and
a few merchants trade to the Well Indies and North
America. Its exports are llockings, thread, falmon,
and oatmeal. The firll is a moll important article, as
appears by the following Hate of it. For this manu-
facture, 20,800 pounds worth of wool is annually
imported, and 1600 pounds worth of oil. Of this
wool are annually made 69,333 dozen pairs of llock¬
ings; worth, at an average, il. 10s. per dozen. Thefe
are the work of the country-people in almoll all parts of
this great county, who get 4s. per dozen for fpinnirig,
and 14s. per dozen for knitting; fo that there is an¬
nually paid them 62,329!. 14s. There is, befides, a-
bout 2000I. value of llockings manufactured from the
wool of the county. The thread manufacture is ano¬
ther confiderable article, though trifling in comparifon
of the woolen. The falmon filheries on the Dee and
the Don are a good branch of trade. About 46 boats,
and 130 men, are employed on the firll; and, in fome
years, 167,000 tb. of filh have been fent pickled to
London, and about 930 barrels of faked filh exported
to France, Italy, &c.—The filhery on the Don is far
lefs confiderable. The filh of this river are taken in
cruives above the bridge ; a praCtlce contrary to the
ancient laws of the kingdom, unlefs where the nature
of the water rendered the net-filhery impracticable.
The inhabitants likewife export confiderable quantities
of pickled pork, which they fell to the Dutch for
victualling their Fall India Ihips and men of war ;
the Aberdeen pork having the reputation of being the
bell cured of any in Europe for keeping on long
voyages.
“ It is however remarkable, (Mr Knox obferves),
that there is not a fingle decked velfel fitted out from
Aberdeen for the herring or white filheries: here is now
5 ] ABE
an excellent harbour; an aCtive people, converfant in Aberdeen*
trade, and poflefled of capital; feated within fix hours jp*
failing of Long Fortys, and two days failing of the Aberga-
Shetland Hies. This inattention is the more extraor- venny.
dinary, as the exports of Aberdeen, though very con-' ' '~'t '
fiderable, do not balance the imports in value. The
herring and white filheries, therefore, if profecuted
with vigour, cured and dried with judgment, would not
only extend the fcale of exports, but alfo furnilh the
outward bound Velfels with freights, and better aflbrt-
ments for the foreign markets. The falmon of the Dee
and Don are taken in great abundance, cured in the
highell perfeftion, and greatly valued at the European
markets. If the merchants, in addition to thefe, Ihould
alfo export the cargoes of 50 or 60 veffels conllantly • '
employed in the herring and white filheries, the port of
Aberdeen would in a few years become the moll cele¬
brated mart of filh now exifting.”
From a round hill at the well end of the city, flow
two fprings, one of pure water and the other of a
quality refembling the German Spa. Aberdeen, with
Aberbrothick, Brechin, Montrofe, and Inverbervie, re¬
turns one member to Parliament.
ABERDEENSHIRE, comprehends the diftrids
of Mar, Garioch, Strathbogie, and the greater part
of Buchan ; and fends one member to Parliament.
It is walhed on the call and north by the ocean ; and
abounds in fea-ports, from whence there is a fafe and
ready paflage to the Orkneys and Shetland Hies, the
Greenland filheries, Norway, and the regions round
the Baltic, the German coaft, Holland, Flanders,
France. It is watered by numerous ftrearhs, all of
them the refort of falmon, and whofe banks difplay the
moll extenfive plantations as well as natural woods iu
Britain.
ABERDOUR, a fmall town in Fifelhire, Scot¬
land, on the frith of Fort hi about ten miles N. W. of
Edinburgh. In old times it belonged to the Viponts;
in n 26 it was transferred to the Mortimers by marriage,
and afterwards to the Douglafes. William, lord of
Liddefdale, furnamed the Flower of chivalry, in the
reign of David II. by charter conveyed it to James
Douglas, anceftor of the prefent noble owner the Earl
of Morton. The monks' of Inchcolm had a grant
for a burial-place here from Allan de Mortimer, in the
reign of Alexander III. The nuns, ufually ftyled the
poor Clares, had a convent at this place.
ABERFORD, a market-town in the weft riding
of Yorklhire, Hands in a bottom ; and is about a mile
long, and indifferently well built. It is near a Ro¬
man road, which is railed very high, and not far
from the river Cock ; between which and the town
there is the foundation of an old caftle Hill vifible.
It is 181 miles north-by-weft from London. W.
Long. 2. 45. Lat. 55. 52.
ABERGAVENNY, a large, populous, and flou-
riftiing town in Monmouthftiire, feated at the conflu¬
ence of the rivers Uflc and Gavenny. It has a fine
bridge over the Uik, confifting of fifteen arches; and
being a great thoroughfare from the weft part of Wales
to Bath, Briftol, Gloucefter, and other places, is well
furniflied with accommodations for travellers. It is
furrounded with a wall, and had once a caftle. It car¬
ries on a confiderable trade in flannels, which are
brought hither for fale from the other parts of the
county.
ABE [ r
AfesrnctKy, It is 142 miles diftant from London. W.
Aberration, j^ng. 2. 45. Lat. 51. 50. Abergavenny appears to
have been the Gibbanium of Antoninus, and the town
of Ulk his Burrium.
ABERNETHY (John), an eminent diffenting mi*
nifter, was the fon of Mr John Abernethy a diflenting
■minifter in Colraine, and was born on the 19th of Oc¬
tober 1680. When about nine years of . age, he was
feparated from his parents, his father being obliged to
attend fome public affairs in London ; and his mother,
to fhelter herfelf from the mad fury of the Irifh rebels,
retiring to Derr)', a relation who had him under his
care, having no opportunity of conveying him to her,
took him with him to Scotland; by which means he
* efcaped the hardfhips he muft have fuffered at the fiege
of Derry, where Mrs Abernethy loft all her other
children. He afterwards ftudied at the uni-verfity of
Glafgow, till he took the degree of matter of arts ; and,
in 1708, he was chofen minifter of a diffenting con¬
gregation at Antrim, where he continued above twenty
years. About the time of the Bangorian controverfy
(for which, fee Hoadlev), a diflenfion arofe among his
brethren in the miniftry at Belfaft, on the fubjeft of
fubfeription to the Weftminfter confeffion; in which
he became a leader on the negative fide, and incurred
the cenfure of a general fynod. Being in confequence
deferted by the greateft part of his congregation, he
accepted an invitation to fettle in Dublin, where his
preaching was much admired. He was diftinguifhed by
his candid, free, and generous fentiments; and died of
the gout in Dec. 1740, in the fixtieth year of his age.
He publifhed a volume of fermons on the Divine At¬
tributes ; after his death a fecond volume was publifh¬
ed by his friends; and thefe were fucceeded by four
other volumes on different fubje&s : all of which have
been greatly admired.
Abernethy, a town in Strathern, a diftri<9; of
Perthfhire in Scotland. It is feated on the river Tay,
a little above the mouth of the Erne. It is faid to have
been the feat of the Pictifh kings; and was afterwards
the fee of an archbifhop, fince transferred to St An¬
drews. It is now greatly decayed.
ABERRATION, in aftronomy, a fmall apparent
motion of the fixed ftars difeovered by the late Dr
Bradley. The difeovery was made by accident in the
year 1725, when Mr Molyneux and Dr Bradley began
to obferve the bright ftar in the head of Draco, mark¬
ed y by Bayer, as it paffed near the zenith, with an
inftrument made by Mr Graham, in order to difeover the
parallax of the earth’s annual orbit; and, after repeated
obfervations, they found this ftar, about the beginning
of March 1726, to be 20' more foutherly than at the
time of the firft obfervation. It now indeed feemed to
have arrived at its utmoft limit fouthward ; becaufe, in
feveral trials made about this time, no fenfible difference
was obferved in its fituation. By the middle of April,
it appeared to be returning back again toward the
north ; and, about the beginning of June, it paffed at
the fame diftance from the zenith as it had done in De¬
cember, when it was firft obferved : in September fol¬
lowing, it appeared 39" more northerly than it was in
March, juft the contrary way to what it ought to
appear by the annual parallax of the ftars. This unex-
pected phenomenon perplexed the pbfervers very much;
and Mr Molyneux died before the true caufe of it was
Vol. L 1
r ] ABE
difeovered. After this, Dr Bradley, with another in- Aberration
ftrument more exaft and accurately adapted to this A^ex
purpofe, obferved the fame appearances not only in that. - t »
but many other ftars: and, by the great regularity
that appeared in a feries of obfervations made in all
parts of the year, the Do&or was fully fatisfied with re¬
gard to the general laws of the phenomena ; and there¬
fore endeavoured to find out the caufe of them. He
was already convinced, that the apparent motion of the
ftars was not owing to a nutation of the earth’s axis.
The next thing that offered itfelf, was an alteration in
the direction of the plumb line, with which the in¬
ftrument was conftantly rectified ; but this, upon trial,
proved infufficient. Then he had recourfe to what re-
fradlion might do; but here alfo nothing fatisfa&ory
occurred. At laft this acute aftronomer found, that the
phenomena in queftion proceeded from the progreffive
motion of light, and the earth’s annual motion in its
orbit: for he perceived, that if light was propogated
in time, the apparent place of a fixed objeA would not
be the fame when the eye is at reft, as when it is mo¬
ving in any other direction, than that of the line paf-
fing through the eye and objett; and that, when the
eye is moving in different dire&ions, the apparent place
of the objeft would be different.
Aberration, in optics, is ufed to denote that error
or deviation of the rays of light, when inflefted by a
lens or fpeculum, whereby they are hindered from
meeting or uniting in the fame point. There are two
fpecies of the aberrations of rays, diftinguifhed by
their different caufes; one arifing from the figure of the
glafs or fpeculum, the other from the unequal refrangi-
bility of the rays of light. This laft fpecies is fome-
times called the Newtonian, from the name of its dif-
coverer. See Optics, n° 17. 136. 173.
ABERYSWITH, a market-town of Cardigan-
ftnre, in Wales, feated on the Ridal, near its conflu¬
ence with the Iftwith, where it falls into the fea. It
is a populous, rich town, and has a great trade in
lead, and a confiderable fiftiery of whiting, cod, and
herrings. It was formerly furrounded with walls, and
fortified with a cattle ; but both are now in ruins. Its
diftance from London is 199 miles weft-fouth-weft.
W. Long. 4. 15. Lat. 52. 30.
ABESTA, the name of one of the facred books of
the Perfian magi, which they aferibe to their great
founder Zoroafter. The abefta is a commentary on two
others of their religious books called Zend and Pazend;
the three together including the whole fyftem of the
Ignicold, or worlhippers of fire.
ABETTOR, a law-term, implying one who en¬
courages another to the performance of fome criminal
aftion, or who is art and part in the performance it¬
felf. Treafon is the only crime in which abettors are
excluded by law, every individual concerned being con-
fidered as a principal. It is the fame with Art-and-part
in the Scots law.
ABEX, a country in High Ethiopia, in Africa,
bordering on the Red Sea, by which it is bounded on
the eaft. It has Nubia or Sennar on the north ; Sennar
and Abyflinia on the weft ; and Abyffinia on the fouth.
Its principal towns are Suaquem and Arkeko. It is
fubjedt to the Turks, and has the name of the Begler-
beg of Habeleth. It is about five hundred miles in
length and one hundred in breadth, and is a wretched
C country;
* Eccl. Hijt.
lib. i. c. 13.
A B G [ 1
country ; for the heat here is almoft infdpportable, and
the air is fo unhealthy, that an European cannot ftay
long in it without the utmoft hazard of his life. It is
very mountainous, infomuch that there are many more
wild beafts than men. There are forefts, in which grow
a great number of ebony trees.
ABEYANCE, in law, the expeftancy of an eftate.
Thus if lands be leafed to one perfon for life, with re-
verfion to another for years, the remainder for years is
an abeyance till the death of the leffee.
ABGAR, or Abgarus, a name given to feveral
of the kings of Edeffa in Syria. The moft celebrated of
them is one who, it is faid, was cotemporary with
jefus Chrift; and who having a diftemper in his feet,
and hearing of Jefus’s miraculous cures, requefted him,
by letter, to come and cure him. Eufebius*, who be¬
lieved that this letter wras genuine, and alfo an anfwer
our Saviour is faid to have -returned to it, has tranf-
lated them both from the Syriac, and aflerts that they
were taken out of the archives of the city of Edefla.
The firft is as follows : “ Abgarus, prince of Edeffa, to
“ Jefus the holy Saviour, who hath appeared in the flefh
in the coniines of Jerufalem, greeting. I have heard
“ of thee, and of the cures thou haft wrought without
“ medicines or herbs. For it is reported thou makeft
si the blind to fee, the lame to walk, lepers to be clean,
“ devils and unclean fpirits to be expelled, fuch as
“ have been long difeafed to be healed, and the dead
“ to be railed; all which when I heard concerning
thee, I concluded with myfelf, That either thou
“ waft a God come down from heaven, or the Son of
“ God fent to do thefe things. I have therefore writ-
ten to thee, befeeching thee to vouchfafe to come
<t< unto me, and cure my difeafe, For I have alfo heard
*l that the Jews ufe thee ill, and lay fnares to deftroy
“ thee. I have here a little city, pleafantly fituated,
and fufficient for us both. Abgarus*” To this
letter, Jefus, it is faid, returned an anfwer by Ananias,
Abgarus’s courier; which was as follows: “ Bleffed
art thou, O Abgarus! who haft believed in me
whom thou haft not feen ; for the fcriptures fay of
me. They who have feen me have not believed in
me, that they who have not feen, may, by believing,
have life. But whereas thou writeft to have me
come to thee, it is of neceffity that I fulfil all things
here for which I am fent; and having finilhed them,
to return to him that fent me: but when I am re¬
turned to him, I will then fend one of my difciples
to thee, who (hall cure thy malady, and give life to
thee and thine. Jesus.” After Jefus’s afcenfion,
Judas, who is alfo named Thomas, fent Thaddeus, one
of the feventy, to Abgarus ; who preached the gofpel to
him and his people, cured him of his di-forder, and
wrought many other miracles : which was done, fays
Eufebius, A. D. 43.—Though the above letters are
acknowledged to be fpurious by the candid writers of
the church of Rome ; feveral Proteftant authors, as Dr
Parker, Dr Cave, and Dr Grabe, have maintained that
they are .genuine, and ought not to be rejected.
ABGILLUS (John), furnamed Prefter John, was
fon to a king of the Frifcii; and, from the aufterity of
his life, obtained the name of Prejler, or Prieft. He
attended Charlemagne in his expedition to the Holy
Land; but inftead of returning with that monarch to
Europe, it is pretended that he gained mighty con*
8 ]
A B I
quefts, and founded the empire of the Abyffines, call¬
ed, from his name, the empire of Prefter John. He is
faid to have written the hiftory of Charlemagne’s jour- i_
ney into the Holy Land, and of his own into the In¬
dies ; but they are more probably trifling romances,
written in the ages of ignorance.
ASIANS, anciently a people of Thrace, or (accord¬
ing to fome authors) of Scythia. They had no fixed ha¬
bitations ; they led a wandering life. Their houfes were
waggons, which carried all their poffeffions. They
lived on the fleflr of their herds and flocks, on milk,
and cheefe, chiefly on that of mare’s milk. They were
unacquainted with commerce. They only exchanged
commodities with their neighbours. They poffeffed
lands, but they did not cultivate them. They affign-
ed their agriculture to any who would undertake it, re-
ferving only to themfelves a tribute; which they ex-
a6ted, not with a view to live in affluence, but merely
to enjoy the neceffaries of life. They never took arms
but to oblige thofe to make good a promife to them by
whom it had been broken. • They paid tribute to none
of the neighbouring ftates. They deemed themfelves
exempt from fuch an impofition ; for they relied on
their ftrength and courage, and confequently thought
themfelves able to repel any invafion. The Abians,
we are told, were a people of great integrity. This ho¬
nourable eulogium is given them by Homer. ( Strabo.)
ABIATHAR, high-prieft of the Jews, fon to Abi-
melech, who had borne the fame office, and received
David into his houfe. This fo enraged Saul, who ha¬
ted David, that he put Abimelech to death, and 81
priefts; Abiathar alone efcaped the maffacre. He af¬
terwards was high-prieft; and often gave king David
teftimonies of his fidelity, particularly during Abfalom’s
confpiracy, at which time Abiathar followed David,
and bore away the ark. But after this, confpiring with
Adonijah, in order to raife him to the throne of king
David his father; this fo exafperated Solomon againft
him, that he divefted him of the priefthood, and ba-
nilhed him, A. M. 302r, before Chrift 1014.
ABIB, fignifying an ear of corn, a name given by
the Jews to the firft month of their ecclefiaftical year,
afterwards called Nifan. It commenced at the vernal
equinox ; and according to the courfe of the moon, by
which their months were regulated, anfwered to the
latter part of our March and beginning of April.
ABIDING Writings, in Scots law : When a
perfon founds upon a writing alleged to be falfe, he
may be obliged to declare judicially, whether he will
ftand or abide by it as a true deed.
ABIES, the Fir-tree. SeePixus.
ABIGEAT, an old law-term, denoting the crime
of Healing cattle by droves or herds. This crime was
feverely punifhed ; the delinquent being often condem¬
ned to the mines, banifflment, and fometimes capitally.
ABIHU, brother to Nadab, and fon to Aaron.
The two former had the happinefs to afcend mount Si¬
nai with their father, and there to behold the glory of
God : but afterward putting ftrange fire into their con¬
fers, inftead of the facred fire commanded by God, fire
ruffling upon them killed them. Though all the peo¬
ple bewailed this terrible cataftrophe, Mofes forbad
Aaron and his two fons Eleazar and Ithamar to join
iu the lamentation.
ABII Scythe, taken by Strabo to denote the Eu¬
ropean
A IS I [ 19 ] A B J
Ablmekch ropean Sarmatoe, bordering on the Thracians and Ba-
II . ftanse: They were commended by Curtins for their
. 1P°niai]a; |ove 0f juftiCe, and by Aramiefius for their contempt
of earthly things.
ABIMELECH, king of Gerar, a country of the
Philiftines, was cotemporary with Abraham. This pa¬
triarch and his family being there, his wife Sarah,
though 90 years of age, was not fafe in it; for Abi-
melech carried her off, and was fo enamoured of her,
that he refolved to marry her. Abraham did not de¬
clare himfelf Sarah’s hufband; but gave out fhe was
his filler. But the king being warned in a dream, that
file was married to a prophet, and that he fliould die if
he did not reftore her to Abraham, the king obeyed:
at the fame time reproving Abraham for his difinge-
nuity; who thereupon, among other excufes, faid Ihe
was really his filler, being born of the fame father, tho*
of a dilferent mother. Abimelech afterwards gave con-
fiderable prefents to Abraham ; and a covenant, that of
Beerlheba, was entered into between them.—After the
death of Abraham, there being a famine in the neigh¬
bouring countries, Ifaac his fon alfo withdrew into Gerar,
which was then likewife governed by a king called—
Abimei.ech, probably the fuccelfor of the former.
Here Rebekah’s beauty forced her hulhand to employ
Abraham’s artifice. Abimelech difcovering that they
were nearly related, chid Ifaac for calling his wife his
filler; and at the fame time forbid all his fubjefls,
upon pain of death, to do the leall injury to Ifaac
or Rebekah—Ifaac’s profperity loll him the king’s
friendlhip, and he was defired to go from among them.
He obeyed ; but Abimelech afterwards entered into a
covenant with him.
Abimelech, the natural fon of Gideon, by Druma
his concubine. His violent a6ls and death are record¬
ed in Judges, chap. ix.
ABINGDON, a market-town in Berklhire, feated
on a branch of the Thames, received its name from an
abbey anciently built there. The llreets, which are
well paved, centre in a fpacious area, in which the
market is held; and in-the centre of this area is the
market-houfe, which is fupported on lofty pillars, with
a large hall of free-done above, in which the fummer-
affizes for the county are held, and other public bufi-
nefs done, the Lent affizes being held at Readiftg. It
has. two churches; one dedicated to St Nicholas, and
the other to St Helena: the latter is adorned with
a fpire, and both are faid to have been eroded by the
abbots of Abingdon. Here are alfo two hofpitals,
one for fix, and the other for thirteen poor men, and-
as many poor women ; a free fchool; and a charity-
fchool. The town was incorporated by Queen Maiy.
It fends two members to parliament, who are chofen
by the inhabitants at large not receiving alms. Its
great manufacture is malt, large quantities of which are
fent by water to London. It is fix miles and a half
fouth of Oxford, 47 call of Gloucefler, and 55 weft
of London. This town is fuppofed by Bifhop Gibfon
to be the place called, in the Saxon annals, Clovejhoo,
where two fynods are faid to have been held, one in
742, and the other in 822. Long. 1. 20. Lat. 51.
ABINTESTATE, in the civil law, is applied to a
perfon who inherits the right of one who died inteftate
or without making a will. See InVe^ate.
ABIPONIANS, a tribe of American Indians, who
formerly inhabited the diftrict of Chakt in Paraguay; Abiponian*
but the hoftilities of the Spaniards have now obliged ,. H .
them to remove fouthward into the tenitory lying be- , -1 ^
tween Santa Fe and St Jago. The only account we
have of them is that publifhed by M. Dobrizhoffer in
1785. This gentleman, who lived feven years in their
country, informs us that they are not numerous, the
whole nation not much exceeding 5000 ; for which he
affigns as a reafon an unnatural cuftom among their
women of fometimes deftroying their own children from
motives of jealoufy, left their hulbands Ihould take other
mates during the long time they give fuck, which is
not lefs than two years. They are naturally white,
but, by expofure to the air and fmoke, become of a
brown colour. Thpy are a ftrong and hardy race of
people ; which our author attributes to their marrying
folate, an Abiponian feldom or never thinking of mar¬
riage till 30 years of age. They are greatly celebrated
on account of their chaftity and other virtues; though,
according to our author, they have no knowledge of a
Deity. They make frequent incurfions into the terri¬
tories of the Spaniards, mounted on the horfes which
run wild in thofe parts. They have a kind of order of
chivalry for their warriors ; and are fo formidable, that
ico of their enemies will fly before ten of thefe horfe-
men. The hatred which thefe favages, whofe manners,
though rude and uncultivated, are in many refpeils pure
and virtuous, bear to the Spaniards, is invincible. “Thefe
pretended Chriftians,” fays our author, “ who are the
fcum of the Spanifh nation, practife every kind of fraud
and villany among thefe poor barbarians ; and their
corrupt and vicious morals are fo adapted to prejudice
the Abiponians againft the Chriftian religion, that the
Jefuit miffionaries have, by a fevere law, prohibited any
Spaniard from coming, without a formal permiffion,
into any of their colonies.”—From his account of the
fuccefs of the Jefuits in converting them to Chriftianity,
however, it does not appear that they have been able
to do more than bribe them to a compliance with the
ceremonies of the Popifh fuperftition; fo that in ge¬
neral they are quite ignorant and uncivilized : a moft
linking inftance of which is, that in counting they can
go no farther than three; and all the art of the Jefuits
to teach them the limplell ufe and expreflion of num¬
bers has proved unfuccefsful.
ABIRAM, a feditious Levite, who, in concert
with Korah and Dathan, rebelled againft Mofes and
Aaron, in order to lhare with them in the government
of the people; when Mofes ordering them to come
with their cenfers before the altar of the Lord, the
earth fuddenly opened under their feet, and fwallowed
up them and their tents ; and at the fame inftant fire
came from heaven, and confumed 250 of their follow¬
ers. Numb. xvi.
ABISHAI, fon of Zeruiah, and brother to Joab,
was one of the celebrated warriors who flourilhed in
the reign of David: he killed with his own hand 300
men, with no other weapon but his lance ; and flew a
Philiftine giant, the iron of whofe fpear weighed 300
Ihekels. 1 Sam. xxvi. 2 Sam. xxiii.
ABJURATION, in our ancient cuftoms, implied
an oath, taken by a perfon guilty of felony, and who
had fled to a place of fandtuary, whereby he folemnly
engaged to leave the kingdom for ever. .
Abjuration, ismow ufed to.fignify the renouncing,
C 2 dif-
A B L [ 20 ] ABN
Abjuration difclaimfng, and denying upon oath, the Pretender to
. jj. have any kind of right to the crown of thefe kingdoms.
. *e' . Abjuration of Herefy, the folemn recantation of
any dottrine as falfe and wicked.
ABLACTATION, or weaning a child from the
breaft. See Weaning.
Ablactation, among the ancient gardeners, the
fame with what is called Grafting by approach.
ABLAI, a country of Great Tartary, the inhabi¬
tants of which, called Buchars or Bucharest are fubjedf
to Ruflia, but that only for protection. It lies eaft-
ward of the river Irtis, and extends five hundred leagues
along the fouthern frontiers of Siberia.
ABLACQUEATION, an old term in gardening,
fignifies .the operations of removing the earth and baring
the roots of trees in winter, to expofe them more free¬
ly to the air, rain, fnows, &c.
ABLANCOURT. See Perrot.
ABLATIVE, in grammar, the fixth cafe of Latin
nouns. The word is formed from auferre, “ to take
away.” Prifcian alfo calls it the comparative cafe; as
ferving, among the Latins, for comparing, as well as
taking away.
The ablative is oppofite to the dative ; the firil
expreffing the a&ion of taking, away, and the latter that
of giving.
In Englifh, French, &c. there is no precife mark
whereby to diftinguifii the ablative from other cafes j
and we only ufe the term in analogy to the Latin.
Thus, in the two phrafes, the magnitude of the city., and
he fpoke much of the city; we fay, that of the city in the
firft is genitive, and in the latter ablative; becaufe it
would be fo, if the two phrafes were expreffed in Latin.
The queftion concerning the Greek ablative has been
the fubjeCt of a famous literary war between two great
grammarians, Frifchlin and Crufius ; the former of
whom maintained, and the latter oppofed, the reality
of it. The difpute Hill fubfifts among their refpeftive
followers. The chief reafon alleged by the former
is, that the Roman writers often joined Greek words
with the Latin prepofitions, which govern ablative
cafes, as well as with nouns of the fame cafe. To which
their opponents anfwer, that the Latins anciently
had no ablative themfelves ; but inftead thereof, made
ufe, like the Greeks, of the dative cafe ; till at length
they formed an ablative, governed by prepofitions, which
were not put before the dative : that, at firft, the two
cafes had always the fame termination, as they ftill have
in manyinftances: but that this was afterwards changed
in certain words. It is no wonder then, that the La¬
tins fometimes join prepofitions which govern an abla¬
tive cafe, or nouns in the ablative cafe, with Greek da¬
tives, fince they were originally the fame; and that the
Greek dative has the fame effeCt as the Latin ablative.
ABLE, or Abel (Thomas), chaplain to queen Ca¬
tharine confort to Henry VIII. diftinguiftied himfelf
by his zeal in oppofing the proceedings againft that
unfortunate princefs for a divorce. For this purpofe
he wrote a piece intitled “ Trait at us de non dijfolvendo
Henrici et Catherine: matrimonio, i. e. A Treatife pro¬
ving that the marriage of king Henry and queen Ca¬
therine ought not to be diffolved.” But the title of
the book, according to biihop Tanner,, was Invilla Ve¬
ritas. He took the degree of Bachelor of Arts at Ox¬
ford on the 4th of July ifij, and that of Mailer of
Arts on the 27th of July 1516. In. 1534 he fell im- AMedtr
der a profecution for being concerned in the affair of .Jl
Elizabeth Barton, called the Holy Maid of Kent. This 1 . ‘le^, j
was an infamous impoftor, fuborned by the monks to
ufe fome ftrange gefticulations, and to pretend to infpi-
ration by the fpirit of prophecy ; and fo well did ftie
aft her part, that fome people of confequence gave cre¬
dit to her: but being at laft detected, {he was condemn¬
ed and executed, after difeovering the names of her.
principal accomplices and inftigators. On her account
Able was accufed of mifprifion of treafon, by ftat. 25-
Hen. VIII.; and being alfo one of thofe who denied
the king’s fupremacy over the church, he was appre¬
hended and imprifoned; during which time his confine¬
ment was fo rigorous, that the keeper of Newgate was
committed to Marihalfea prifon for fuffering him to go
out upon bail. He was afterwards hanged, drawn, and
quartered, at Smithfield in 1540. Bouchier gives him
the character of a very learned man; and tells us, that
he ufed to teach the queen mufic and the learned lan¬
guages.
ABLECTI, in Roman antiquity, a felect body of
foldiers chofen from among thofe called Extraop.di-
narii.
ABLEGMINA, in Roman antiquity, thofe choice
parts of the entrails of victims which were offered im
facrifice to the gods. They were fprinkled with flour,,
and burnt upon the altar; the priefts pouring fome
wine on them.
ABLUENTS,, in medicine, the fame with diluters
or Diluents.
ABLUTION, in a general fenfe, fignifies the waffl¬
ing or purifying fomething with water.
Ablution, in a religious fenfe, a ceremony in ufe:
among the ancients, and ftill practifed in feveial parts
of the world : it confifted in wafhing the body, which
was always done before facrificing, or even entering their
houfes.—Ablutions appear to be as old as any ceremo¬
nies, and external worfhip itfelf. Mofes enjoined them;
the heathens adopted them; and Mahomet and his fol¬
lowers have continued them : thus they have got foot¬
ing among moft nations, and make a confiderable part
of moft eftablifhed religions. The Egyptian priefta
had their diurnal and nocturnal ablutions; the Grecians
their fprinklings ; the Romans their luftrations and la va¬
rious ; the Jews their wafhing of hands and feet, befide
their baptifms. The ancient Chriftians had their ablu¬
tions before communion; which the Romifh church Hill
retain before their mafs, fometimes after : the Syrians,
Cophts, &c. have their folemn wafhings on Good-Fri-
day: the Turks their greater and leffer ablutions; their
Ghaft and Wodou, their Aman, Taharat, &c.
ABNER, the fon of Ner, father-in-law to Saul,
and general of all his forces, who ferved him on all oc-
cafions with fidelity and courage. After the death of
that prince, Abner fet Ifhbofheth, Saul’s fon, on the
throne. A war breaking out between the tribe of Ju¬
dah who had elected David king, and Ifrael, Abner
marched againft that prince with the flower of his troops,
but was defeated. Abner afterward, being difguifed,
went over to David, and difpofed the chiefs of the ar¬
my and the elders of Ifrael to declare for him; and
was received by David with fuch teftimonies of affec¬
tion, as gave umbrage to Joab, who killed liim trai-
teroufly.
AS-
ABO L 21 ] ABO
Abnoba ABNOBA, now AfiENOwr a long range of moun-
Abomina ta'ns *n Germany, taking different names according to
tjon> the different countries they run through. As about the
iw-y-—river Maine, called the Oden or Ottennvald; between
Helfe and Franconia, the Spejfart; and about the duchy
of Wirtemberg, where the Danube takes its rife, called
the Baar.
ABO, a maritime town in Sweden : it is the capi¬
tal of the province of Finland, and lies upon the point
where the gulphs of Bothnia ancf Finland unite. It
is a good port'T and is the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of
Upfal. It has an univerfity, founded by queen Chri-
ftina in 1640, and endowed with the fame privileges,
as that of Upfal. There is alfo a fchool here, which
was founded by Guftavus Adolphus, for 300 fcholars.
The'town is tolerably well built, and contains feveral
brick buildings ; but the.generality are of wood paint¬
ed red. The inhabitants export linen, corn, and planks.
It lies 120 miles north-eaft from Stockholm. E. Long.
21. 28. Lat. 60. 50.
x ABOARD, the infide of a fhip. Hence any perfon
who enters a fhip is faid to go aboard: but when an
enemy enters in the time of battle, he is faid to board;
a phrafe which always implies hoftility.—To fall a-
board of is to ftrike or encounter another fhip when one
or both are in motion, or to be driven upon a fhip by
the force of the wind or current.—Aboard-main-tack,
the order to draw the main-tack, i. e. the lower corner
of the main-fail, down to the Chess-tree.
ABOLITION, implies the aft of annulling, de-
ftroying, making void, or reducing to nothing. In
law, it fignifies the repealing any law or ftatute.
ABOLLA, a warm kind of garment, lined or dou¬
bled, worn by the Greeks and Romans, chiefly out of
the city, in following the camp.—Critics and antiqua¬
ries are greatly divided as to the form, ufe, kinds, &c.
of this garment. Papias makes it a fpecies of the toga,
or gown ; but Nonius, and the .generality, a fpecies of
■ the pallium, or cloak. The abolla feems rather to have
Rood oppofed to the togay which was a garment of
peace, as the abolla was of war ; at leaf! Varro and
Martial place them in this oppofite light. There feem
to have been different kinds of Abollas, fitted to differ¬
ent occafions. Even kings appear to have ufed the
abolla : "Caligula was affronted at king Ptolemy for ap¬
pearing at the fhews in a purple abolla, and by the eclat
thereof turning the eyes of the fpeftators from the em¬
peror upon himfelf.
ABOMASUS, Abomasum, or Abomasius, names
of the fourth ftomach of ruminating animals. It is in
the abomafus of calves and lambs that the runnet or
earning is formed wherewith milk is curdled. See
Comparative Anatomy.
ABOMINATION, a term ufed in fcripture with
regard to the Hebrews, who, being fhepherds, are faid
to have been an abomination to the Egyptians, becaufe
they facrificed the facred animals of that people, as
oxen, goats, flieep, &c. which the Egyptians efteemed
as abominations, or things unlawful. The term is alfo
applied in the facred writings to idolatry and idols, be¬
caufe the worlhip of idols is in itfelf an abominable
thing, and at the fame time ceremonies obferved by
idolaters were always attended with licentioufnefs and
other odious and abominable aftions. The abomination
of deflation, foretold by the prophet Daniel, is fuppo-
fed to imply the flatue of Jupiter Olympius, which Abon,
Antiochus Epiphanes caufed to be placed in the temple Aborigines.,
of Jerufalem. And the abomination of deflation, men- " v T‘
tioned by the Evangelifts, fignifies the enfigns of the -
Romans, during the laft fiege of Jerufalem by Titus,,
on whom the figures of their gods and emperors were
embroidered, and placed upon the temple after it was
taken.
ABON, Abonj^ or Abonis (anc. geog.),, a town,
and river of Albion. The town, according to Camden,
is Abingdon ; and the river Abhon or Avon. But by'
Antonine’s Itinerary, the diftance is nine miles from
the Venta Silurum, or Caer-Went: others, therefore,
take the town to be Porfhut, at the mouth of the river
Avon, over againft Briflol. Abhon or Avon, in the
Celtic language, denotes a river.
ABORIGINES, (Dionyfius of Halicarnaffus, Livy,
Virgil) ; originally a proper name, given to a certain
people in Italy, who inhabited the ancient Latium,
or country now called Campagna di Roma. In this
fenfe the Aborigines are diftinguifhed from the Jani-
genas, who, according to the falfe Berofus, inhabited
the country before them ; from the Siculi, whom
they expelled; from the Grecians, from whom they
defeended; from the Latins, whofe name they af-
fumed after their union with ./Eneas and the Trojans ;
laflly, from the Aufonii, Volfci, Oenotrii, &c. neigh¬
bouring nations in other parts-of the country. Whence
this people came by the appellation, is much difputed.
St Jerom fays, they were fa called, as being, a^/yaiT
origine, the primitive planters of the country after the
flood : Dion, of Halicarnaffus accounts for the name,
as denoting them the founders of the race of inhabitants
of that country: others think them fo called, as being
originally Arcadians, who claimed to be earth-born,
and not defeended from any people. Aurelius Viftor
fuggefts another opinion, viz. that they were called
Aborigines, q. d. Aherrigines, from ab “ from,” and er-
rare “ to wander as having been before a wandering
people. Paufanias rather thinks they were thus call¬
ed aro 0^.;, from “ mountains which opinion feems
confirmed by Virgil, who, fpeaking of Saturn, the le-
giflator of this people,-fays,
Is genus indocile ac difperfum montibus altis
Compofuit, legefque dedit. 
The Aborigines were either the original inhabitants of
the country, fettled there by Janus, as fome imagine ;
or by Saturn, or Cham, as others; not long after the
difperfion, or even, as fome think, before it: Or they
were a colony fent from fome other nation ; who ex¬
pelling the ancient inhabitants the Siculi, fettled in their
place.—About this mother-nation there is great difpute.
Some maintain it to be the Arcadians, parties of whom
were brought into Italy at different times ; the firit
under the conduft of Oenotrius, fon of Lycaon, 450
years before the Trojan war; a fecond from Theffaly ;
a third under Evander, 60 years before the Trcjau
war : befides another under Hercules ; and another
of Lacedaemonians, who fled from the fevere difeipline
of Lycurgus : all thefe uniting, are faid to have form¬
ed the nation or kingdom of the Aborigines. Otheis
will have them of barbarian rather than Grecian origin,
and to have come from Scythia; others from Gaul.
Laftly, others will have them to be Canaanites, expell¬
ed by Jofhua.
ABO [ 22 ] A B R
Abortion The term Aborigines, though fo famous in antiquity,
Aboakir 13 u^e<^ ,n modern geography only occafionally as an
i „ appellative. It is given tathe primitive inhabitants of
a country, in contradiltinCtion to colonies, or new races
of people.
ABORTION, in midwifery, the exclufion of a foe¬
tus before it has acquired a fufficient degree of perfec¬
tion to enable it to perform refpiration and the other
vital functions.’ See Midwifery.
The pra&iee of procuring abortions was prohibited
by the ancient Greek legiflators Solon and Lycurgus.
Whether or not it was permitted among the Romans,
has been much difputed. It is certain the practice,
which was by them called vifceribus vim inferre, was
frequent enough : but whether there was any penalty
on it, before the emperors Severus and Antonine, is
the queftion. Noodt maintains the negative; and fur¬
ther, that thofe princes only made it criminal in one
particular cafe, viz. of a married woman’s pra&ifing
it out of refentmcnt againft her hufband, in order to
defraud him of the comfort of children : this was or¬
dered to be punifhed by a temporary exile. The foun¬
dation on which the practice is faid to have been al¬
lowed, was, that the foetus, while in utero, was repu¬
ted as a part of the mother, ranked as one of her own
vifcera, over which (he had the fame power-as over the
reft : befxdes, that it was noj: reputed as a man, homo;
nor to be alive, Otherwife than as a vegetable : confe-
quently, that the crime amounted to little more than
that of plucking unripe fruit from the tree. Seneca re-
prefents it as a peculiar glory of Helvia, that Re had
never, like other women, whofe chief ftudy is their beau¬
ty and fhape, deftroyed the foetus in her womb. The
primitive fathers, Athenagoras, Tertullian,Minutius Fe¬
lix, Auguftin, &c. declaimed loudly againft the prac¬
tice as virtual murder. Several councils have con-
i demned it. Yet we are told that the modern Romifti
eccleiiaftical laws allow of difpenfations for it. Egane
mentions the rates at which a difpenfation for it may
be had.
The practice of artificial abortion is chiefly in the
hands of women and nurfes, rarely in that of phyfi-
cians ; who, in fome countries, are not admitted to the
profeflion without abjuring it. Hippocrates, in the
oath he would have enjoined on all phyficians, includes
their not giving the pejj'us abortivus; though elfewhere
he gives the formal procefs whereby he himfelf procu¬
red in a young woman a mifcarriage. It may, how¬
ever, be obferved, that often all the powers of art prove
ineffectual, and no lefs often do the attempts prove the
means of puniftiment by the fatal confequences which
they produce.
Abortion, among gardeners, fignifies fuch fruits as
are produced too early, and never arrive at maturity.
ABORTIVE, is, in general, applied to whatever
comes before its legitimate time, or to any defign which
mifcarries.
AsoRrirE Corn, a diftemper of corn mentioned by
M. Gillet, and fufpeCted to be occafioned by infects.
It appears long before harveft, and may be known by
a deformity of the ftalk, the leaves, the car, and even
the grain.
Abortive Vellum is made of thefkinof an abortivecalf.
ABOUKIR, a fmall town of Egypt, fituate in the
defart between Alexandria and Rofetta. It is the an¬
cient Canopus, and is fituated, according to Mr Sava- About,
ry, fix leagues from Pharos. Pliny fays, from the te- Graham
ftimonies of antiquity, that it was formerly an ifland ; . ^ I
and its local appearance makes this credible ; for the
grounds around it are fo low, that the lea ftill covered
a part of them in the days of Strabo. The town is
built upon a rock, which forms a handfome road for
fhipping, and was out of the reach of inundations.
See Canopus.
ABOUT, the fituation of a fhip immediately after
ftie has tacked, or changed her courfe by going about
and ftanding on the other tack.—About Jhip ! the or¬
der to the fhip’s crew to prepare for tacking.
ABOUTIGE, a town in Upper Egypt, in Africa,
near the Nile, where they make the beft opium in all
the Levant. It was formerly a large, but now is a
mean place. N. Lat. 26. 50.
ABRA, a lilver coin ftruck in Poland, and worth
about one (hilling Sterling. It is current in feveral
parts of Germany, Conftantinople, Attracan, Smyrna,
and Grand Cairo.
ABRABANEL, Abarbanel, or Avravanel,
(Ifaac), a celebrated rabbi, defcended from king David,
and born at Lilbon A. D. 1437. He became coun-
fellor to Alphonfo V. king of Portugal, and afterwards
to Ferdinand the Catholic ; but in 1492 was obliged
to leave Spain with the other Jews. In ihort, after re¬
fining at Naples, Corfou, and feveral other cities, he
died at Venice in 1508, aged 71. Abrabanel paffed
for one of the moft learned of the rabbis ; and the Jews
gave him the names of the Sage,, the Prince, and the
Great Politician. We have a Commentary of his on
all the Old Tettament, which is pretty fcarce : he there
principally adheres to the literal fenfe ; and his ftyle is
clear, but a little diffufe. His other wwks are, A Trea-
tife on the Creation of the World; in which he refutes
Ariftotle, who imagined that the world was eternal:
A Treatife on the explication of the prophecies relating
to the Meffiah, againft the Chriftians: A book con¬
cerning articles of Faith ; and fome others lefs fought
after. Though Abrabanel difcovers his implacable a-
verfion to Chriftianity in all his writings, yet he treat¬
ed Chriftians with politenefs and good-manners in the
common affairs of life.
ABRACADABRA,a magical word,recommended
by Serenus Samonicus as an antidote againft agues and
feveral other difeafes. It was to be written upon a piece
of paper as many times as the word contains letters,
omitting the laft letter of the former every time, as in abracadabra
the margin f , and repeated in the fame order; and then abracadabr
fufpended about the neck by a linen thread. Abracada- abracadab
bra was the name of a god worfhipped by the Syrians; abracada
fo wearing his name was a fort of invocation of his aid: ^braca^
a pra&ice which, though not more ufeful, yet was lefs alnac
irrational, than is the equally heathenilh practice among abra
thofe who call themfelves Chriftians, of wearing various abr
things, in expectation of their operating by a Sympa-
thy, whofe parents were Ignorance and Superftition.
ABRAHAM, the father and ftock whence the
faithful fprung, was the fon of Terah. He was de¬
fcended from Noah by Shem, from whom he was nine
degrees removed. Some fix his birth in the 130th year
of Terah’s age, but others place it in his father’s 70th
year. It is highly probable he was born in the city of
Ur, in Chaldea, which he and his father left when they
x went
A B R [ 23 ] A B R
Abraham, went to Canaan, where they remained till the death of lieves that part of it which makes Terah fo cruel
‘ Terah ; after which, Abraham refumed his firft defij
of going to Paleltine. The Scriptures mention the fe-
veral places he flopped at in Canaan ; his journey into
Egypt, where his wife was carried off from him ; his
going into Gerar, where Sarah was again taken from
him, but reflored as before; the victory he obtained
over the four kings who had plundered Sodom ; his
compliance with his wife, who inlifled that he fliould
make ufe of their maid Hagar in order to raife up chil¬
dren ; the covenant God made with him, fealed with
the ceremony of circumcifion; his obedience to the
command of God, who ordered him to offer up his
only fon as a facriflce, and how this bloody aft was
prevented ; his marriage with Keturah ; his death at
to Abraham
be the informer againft his own fon. Perhaps the am- At,r^ax
biguity of the word Ur* might have given rife to the .
fiftion altogether. Such as lay ftrefs on the following * It is
words which God fays'to Abraham (Gen. xv. 7.), /the proper
am the Lord that brought thee out of Ur of the Chaldees,
imagine that he faved him from a great perfecution, fignifi-
fince he employed the very fame words in the begin- edfire. The
ning of the decalogue to denote the deliverance from Lat.verfion,
Egypt* . . . . iStdiuiT:
Abraham is faid to have been well frilled in many ^ cUgifii
fciences, and to have wrote feveral books. Jofephusf fin de ignt
tells us that he taught the Egyptians arithmetic and Chaldeorum.
geometry ; and, according to Eupolemus and Artapan, ^ t ^ritl<h
he inftrufted the Phoenicians, as well as the Egyptians, g#' *’ cap‘ '*
the age of 175 years; and his interment at the cave in aftronomy. A work which treats of the creation
of Macpelah, near the body of Sarah his firft wife.
It would be of little ufe to dwell long upon thefe par¬
ticulars, fince they are fo well known. But tradition
has fupplied numberlefs others, the mention of one or
two of which may not be unacceptable.
has been long afcribed to him ; it is mentioned in the t Heidegger
Talmud J, and the Rabbis Chanina and Hofchia ufed Hift. Patri-
to read it on the eve before the fabbath. In the firft arch, tom.ii.
ages of Chriftianity, according to St Epiphanius ||, ap' ||^gverf
heretical feft, called Sethinians, difperfed a piece which H*r.p.z8,6.*
Many extraordinary particulars have been told rela- had the title of dbraham's Revelation. Origen mentions
ting to his converfion from idolatry. It is a pretty
general opinion, that he fucked in the poifon with his
<w.oipv%. See milk; that his father made ftatues, and taught that
fjof. xxiv. 2. they were to be worftiipped as gods *. Some Jewifti
f Apud Ge- authors relate f, that Abraham followed the fame trade
with Terah for a confiderable time. MaimonidesJ fays,
Saidas, ii
alfo a treatife ftippofed to be wrote by this patriarch.
All the feveral works which Abraham compofed in the
plains of Mamre, are faid to be contained in the library
of the monaftery of the Holy Crofs on Mount Ama-
ria, in Ethiopia^. The book on the creation was § Kirche m’s
printed at Paris 1552, and tranflated into Latin by treatifeofli-
More Ne- that he was bred up in the religion of the Sabasans, who Poftel: Rittangel, a converted Jew, and profeffor at diaries,
Koniglberg, gave alfo a Latin tranllation of it, with11,142*
iii. p. 36.
voch. c. 29. acknowledged no deity but the ftars ; that his reflec¬
tions on the nature of the planets, his admiration of remarks, in 1642.
their motions, beauty, and order, made him conclude Abraham Usque,
there muft be a being fuperior to the machine of the
univerfe, a being who created and governed it: how¬
ever, according to an old tradition, he did not renounce
I Heidegger paganifm till the 50th year of his age. It is related ||,
h h t^at: ^at^ler’ being gone a journey, left him to fell
the ftatues in his abfence ; and that a man, who pre¬
tended to be a purchafer, afked him how old he was.
Abraham anfwered, “ Fifty.”—“ Wretch that thou
art, (faid the other), for adoring, at fuch an age, a be¬
ing which is but a day old!” Thefe words greatly
confounded Abraham. Some time afterwards, a wo¬
man brought him- feme flour, that he might give it as
an offering to the idols ; but Abraham, inftead of do¬
ing fo, took up a hatchet and broke them all to pieces,
excepting the largeft, into the hand of which he put
the weapon. Terah, at his return, afked whence
came all this havock ? Abraham made anfwer, that the
Portuguefe Jew, who tranfla¬
ted the Bible out of Hebrew into Spanifh. It was print¬
ed at Ferrara in 1553, and reprinted in Holland in
1630. This Bible, efpeciaily the firft edition, which is
moft valuable, is marked with ftars at certain words,
which are defigned to. fhow that thefe words are diffi¬
cult to be underftood in the Hebrew, and that they
may be ufed in a different fenfe.
Abraham (Nicholas), a learned Jefuit born in the
diocefe of Toul, in Lorrain, in 1589. He obtained the
rank of divinity profeffor in the univerfity of Pont-a-
Moufon, which he enjoyed 17 years, and died Septem¬
ber 7, 1655. wrote Notes on Virgil and on Non-
nius; A Commentary on fome of Cicero’s Orations, in
2 vols folio; An excellent colleftion of theological
pieces, in folio, intitled Pharus Veteris Tef amenti ; and
fome other works.
ABRAHAMITES, an order of monks extermina-
ftatues had had a great conteft which fliould eat firft of ted for idolatry by Theophilus in the ninth century.
the oblation; “ Upon which (faid he), the god you
fee there, being the ftouteft, hewed the others to pieces
with that hatchet.” Terah told him this was banter¬
ing ; for thofe idols had not the fenfe to aft in this
manner. Abraham retorted thefe words upon his fa-
( ther againft the worfhipping of fuch gods. Terah,
ftung with this raillery, delivered up his fon to the
cognifance of Nimrod, the fovereign of the country:
who exhorted Abraham to worfliip the fire ; and, upon
his refufal, commanded him to be thrown into the
midft of the flames: “ Now let your God (faid he)
come and deliver you:” But (adds the tradition), Abra-
§ Tradit. hara came fafe and found out of the flames.—This
1 ?ebr!ic- “ tradition is not of modern date, fince it is told by St
JeromJ j who feems to credit it in general, but diib&-
: Senefin.
Alfo the name of another feft of heretics who had a
dopted the errors of Paulus. See Paulicians.
ABRANTES, a town of Portugal, in Eftremadura,
feated on the river Tajo, belongs to a marquis of the
fame name. It ftands high, is furrounded with gardens
and olive-trees, and contains thirty-five thoufand inha¬
bitants. It has four convents, an alms-houfe, and an
hofpital. W. Long. 7. 18. Lat. 39. 13.
ABRASAX, or Abraxas, the fupreme god of the
Bafilidian heretics. It is a myftical word, compofed of
the Greek numerals *. /k ?, ?,«, r, which together
make up the number CCCLXV. For Bafilides taught,
that there were 365 heavens between the earth and the
empyrean ; each of which heavens had its angel or in¬
telligence, which created it; each of which angels like-
wife
ABR. [24] ABR
ATjrafion wife was created by the angel next above it; thus af-
Abreaft cending by a fcale to the fupreme Being, or firft Crea-
t - *. tor. The Bafilidians ufed the word Abraxas by way of
charm or amulet.
ABRASION, is fometimes ufed, among medicinal
writers, for the effedt of {harp corrofive medicines or
humours in wearing away the natural mucus which co¬
vers the membranes, and particularly thofe of the fto-
mach and inteftines. The word is compofed of the
Latin ah and rado, to /have or fcrape off.
ABRAVANNUS (anc. geog.), the name of a pro¬
montory and river of Galloway, in Scotland, fo called
from the Celtic terms Aber, fignilying either the mouth
of a river, or the confluence of two rivers, and Avon,
a river.
ABRAUM, in natural hiftory, a name given by
fome writers to a fpecies of red clay, ufed in England
by the cabinet-makers, &c. to give a red colour to
new mahogany wood. We have it from the ifle of
Wight; but it is alfo found in Germany and Italy.
ABRAXAS, an antique ftone with the word abraxas
engraven on it. They are of various fizes, and moll of
them as old as the third century. They are frequent
in the cabinets' of the curious ; and a collection of them,
as complete as poflible, has been defired by feveral.
There is a fine one in the abbey of St Genevieve, which
has occafioned much fpeculation. Moll of them feem
to have come from Egypt; whence they are of fome
ufe for explaining the antiquities of that country.
Sometimes they have no other infcription befxdes the
word : but others have the names of faints, angels, or
Jehovah’ himfelf annexed ; though moll ufually the
name of the Bafilidian god. Sometimes there is a re-
prefentation of Ifis fitting on a lobes, or apis, furround-
ed with ftars; fometimes monftrous compofitions of
animals, dbfcene images, Phalli and Ithyfalli. The
graving is rarely good, but the word on the reverfe is
fometimes faid to be in a more modern taite than the
other. The characters are ufually Greek, Hebrew,
Coptic, or Hetnerian, and fometimes of a mongrel
kind, invented, as it would feem, to render their mean¬
ing the more infcrutable. It is difputed whether the
Veronica of Montreuil, or the granite obelifk mention¬
ed by Gori, be Abraxafes.
ABREAST (a fea-term), fide by fide, or oppofite
to ; a fituation in which two or more {hips lie, with
their fides parallel to each other, and their heads equal¬
ly advanced. This term more particularly regards the
line of battle at fea, where, on the different occafions
of attack, retreat, or purfuit, the feveral fquadrons or
divifions of a fleet are obliged to vaiy their difpofitions,
and yet maintain a proper regularity by failing in right
or curved lines- When the line is formed abreaji, the
whole fquadron advances uniformly, tire {hips being
equally diftant from and parallel to each other, fo that
the length of each Ihip forms a right angle with the
.extent of the fquadron or line abreaft. The commander
in chief is always ftationed in the centre, and the fe-
cond and third in command in the centres of their re-
fpettive fquadrons.—Abreaji, within the flrip, implies
on a hire with the beam, or by the fide of any object
aboard; as, the frigate fprung a leak abreaji of the
main hatch-way, i. e. on the fame line with the main
hatch-way, crofling the fhip’s length at right angles, in
©ppoution to afore or abaft the hatch-way.—We
difeovered a fleet alreajl of Beachy-head; i. t. off, of Abrettene,
dire ft ly oppofite to it. Abridge-
ABRETTENE, or Abrettjne (anc. geog.), a di- ■ m°nt! «
ftridt of Myfia, in Afia. Hence the epithet Abrette-
nus given Jupiter, (Strabo) ; whofe prieft was Cleon,
formerly at the head of a gang of robbers, and who
received many and great favours at the hand of Antony,
but afterwards went over to Auguftus. The people
were called Abrctteni ; inhabiting the country between
Ancyra of Phrygia and the river Rhyndacus.
ABRIDGEMENT, in literature, a term fignify-
ing the reduction of a book into a fmaller compafs.
The art of conveying much fentiment in few words,
is the happieft talent an author can be poffeffed of.
This talent is peculiarly neceffary in the prefent ftate
of literature ; for many writers have acquired the dex¬
terity of fpreading a few tritical thoughts over feveral
hundred pages. When an author hits upon a thought
that pleafes him, he is apt to dwell upon it, to view it
in different lights, to force it in improperly, or upon
the flightell relations. Though this may be pleafant
to the writers, it tires and vexes the reader. There is
another great fource of diffufion in compolition. It is
a capital objeft with an author, whatever be the fub-
jeft, to give vent to all his bell thoughts. When he
finds a proper place for any of them, he is peculiarly
happy. But, rather than facrifice a thought he is fond
of, he forces it in by way of digreffion, or fuperfluoua
illuftration. If none of thefe expedients anfwer his
purpofe, he has recourfe to the margin, a very conve¬
nient apartment for all manner of pedantry and imper¬
tinence. There is not an author, however correct,
but is more or lefs faulty in this refpeft. An abridger,
however, is not fubjedt to thefe temptations. The
thoughts are not his own ; he views them in a cooler
and lefs affedlionate manner; he difeovers an impro¬
priety in fome, a vanity in others, and a want of utili¬
ty in many. His bufinefs, therefore, is to retrench fu-
perfluities, digreffions, quotations, pedantry, &c. and
to lay before the public only what is really ufeful.
This is by no means an eafy employment: To abridge
fome books, requires talents equal, if not fuperior, to
thofe of the author. The fadts, manner, fpirit, and
reafoning, muff be preferved ; nothing effential, either
in argument or illuftration, ought to be omitted The
difficulty of the talk is the principal reafon why we
have fo few good abridgements : Wynne’s abridgement
of Locke’s Effay on the Human Underftanding, is, per¬
haps, the only unexceptionable one in our language.
Thefe obfervations relate folely to fuch abridgements
as are defigned for the public. But,
When a perfon wants to fet down the fubftance of
any book, a fliorter and lefs laborious method may be
followed. It would be foreign to our plan to give ex¬
amples of abridgements for the public ; But as it may
be ufeful, efpecially to young people, to know how to
abridge books for their own ufe, after giving a few di-
redtions, we fliall exhibit an example or two, to lho\*
with what eafe it may be done."
Read the book carefully; endeavour to learn the
principal view of the author; attend to the arguments
employed : When you have done fo, you will general¬
ly find, that what the author ufes as new or additional
arguments, are in reality only collateral ones, or ex-
tenfions of the principal argument. Take a piece of
paper
A B R [2
• paper or a common-place book, put down what the
author wants to prove, fubjoin the argument or argu¬
ments, and you have the fubftance of the book in a
few lines. For example,
In the Effay on Miracles, Mr Hume’s defign is to
prove, That miracles which have not been the imme- ,
diate objefts of our fenfes, cannot reafonably be be¬
lieved upon the teilimony of others.
Now, his argument (for there happens to be but
one) is,
“ That experience, which in fome things is variable,
e< in others uniform, is our only guide in reafoning
“ concerning matters of faft. A variable experience
“ gives rife to probability only ; an uniform experi-
“ ence amounts to a. proof. Our belief of any faft
“ from the teflimony of eye-witneffes is derived from
“ no other principle than pur experience in the vera-
“ city of human teftimdny. If the fact attefted be
“ miraculous, here arifes a conteft of two oppofite ex-
“ periences, or proof againft proof. Now, a miracle
“ is a violation of the laws of nature ; and as a firm and
“ unalterable experience has eftablilhed thefe laws, the
“ proof againft a miracle, from the very nature of the
“ fa£t, is as complete as any argument from experi-
“ ence can poffibly be imagined ; and if fo, it is an
“ undeniable confequence,that it cannot be furmounted
“ byanyproofwhatever derivedfrom human teftimony.”
In Dr Campbell’s Differtation on Miracles, the au-
' thor’s principal-aim is to fiiow the fallacy of Mr Hume’s
. argument; which he has done moft fuccefsfully by an¬
other Angle argument, as follows:
“, The evidence arifing from human teftimony is not
“ folely derived from experience: on the contrary, te-
“ ftimony hath a natural influence on belief antecedent
“ to experience. The early and unlimited aflent given
“ to teftimony by children gradually contrafts as they
“ advance in life : it is, therefore, more confonant to
“ truth, to fay, that our diffidence in teftimony is the
“ re full of experience, than that our faith in it has this
“ foundation. Befides, the uniformity of experience,
“ in favour of any fact, is not a proof againft its be-.
“ ing reverfed in a particular inftance. The evidence
“ arifing from the fmgle teftimony of a man of known
“ veracity will go farther to eftablifh a belief in its be-
“ ing actually reverfed: If his teftimony be confirmed
“ by a few others of the fame charadter, we cannot
“ with-hold our aflent to the truth of it. Now, tho’
“ the operations of nature are governed by uniform
“ laws, and though we have not the teftimony of our
“ fenfes in favour of wcy violation of them ; ftill, if in
“ particular, inftances we have the teftimony of thou-
“ funds of our fellow-creatures, and thofe top men of
“ ftridt integrity, fwayed by no motives of ambition
“ or intereft, and governed by the principles of com-
“ mon-fenfe. That they were actually eye-witneffes
“ of thefe violations, the conftitution of our nature
“ obliges us to believe them.”
Thefe two examples contain the fubftance of about
400 pages.——Making private abridgements of this
kind has many advantages ; it engages us to read with
accuracy and attention ; it fixes the fubjedt In our
minds ; and, if we ftiould happen to forget, inftead of
reading the books again, by glancing a few lines we
are not only in pofleffion of the chief arguments, but re-
cal in a good meafure the author’s method and manner.
Von. I.
5 1 . A B R
Abridging is peculiarly ufeful in taking the fub- Abrin-ata-
ftance of what is delivered by Profeflbrs, &c. It is rij,m
impoffible, even with the afliftance pf fhort-hand, to Abruzzo.
take down, verbatim, what is faid by a public fpeaker. u—y—j
Befides, although it were pradticable, fuch a talent
would be of little ufe. Every public fpeaker has cir¬
cumlocutions, redundancies, lumber, which deferve not
to be copied. All that is really ufeful may be com¬
prehended in a fliort compafs. If the plan of the dif-
courfe, and arguments employed in fupport of the dif¬
ferent branches, be'taken down, you have the whole.
Thefe you may afterwards extend in the form of a dif-
courfe dreffed in your own language. This would not
only be a more rational employment, but would like-
wife be an excellent method of improving young men
in compofition ; an ofcjedt too little attended to in all
our univerfities.
ABRINCATARUM oppidum (anc. geog-)> the
town of the Abrincata or Abrincatui, now Avranches,
in France, fituated on an eminence in the fouth-weft
of Normandy near the borders of Brittany on the Eng-
lilh channel. W. Long. 1. 10. N. Lat. 48. 40.
ABROGATION, the aft of abolifhing a law, by
authority of the maker ; in which fenfe the word is
fynonymous with abolition, repealing, and revocation.
Abrogation ftands oppofed to rogation: it is diftin-
guifhed from derogation, which implies the taking away
only fome part of a law ; from fabrogation, which de¬
notes the adding a claufe to it; from abrogation, which
implies the limiting or reftraining it; from difpenfation,
which only fets it afide in a particular inftance ; and
from antiquation, which is the refilling to pafs a law.
ABROKANI, or Mallemolli, a kind of muflin,
or clear white fine cotton cloth, brought from the Eaft
Indies, particularly from Bengal; being in length 16
French ells and 3 quarters, and in breadth 5 eighths.
ABROLKOS, the name of certain (helves, or banks
of fand, about 20 leagues-from the coaft of Brazil.
ABROTANUM, in botany. See Artemisia
and Santolina.
ABROTONUM (anc. geog.), a town and harbour
on the Mediterranean, in the diftrift of SyrtisTarva,
in Africa, one of the three cities that went to form
Tripoly.
ABRUS,inbotany, the trivial name of theGtYONE.
ABRUZZO, a province in Naples. The river Pef-
cara divides it into two parts; one of which is called
Ulterior, whereof Aquila is the capital; and the other
Citerior, whofe capital is Solomona. Befides the Ap-
penines, there are two confiderable mountains, the one
called Monte Cavallo, and the other Monte Maiello ;
the top of which laft is always covered with fnow. A-
bruzzo is a cold country ; but the rigour of the climate
is not fo great as to prevent the country from produ¬
cing in abundance every thing requifite for the fupport
of life. Vegetables, fruits, animals, and numberlefs
other articles of fuftenance, not only furnilh ample
provifion for the ufe of the natives, but alfo allow of
exportation. There is fo' large a quantity of wheat,
reaped, that many thoufands of quartets are annually
(hipped off-. Much Turkey wheat is fent out, and the
province of Teramo fells a gfeat deal of rice little in¬
ferior in goodnefs to that of Lombardy. Oil is a plen¬
tiful commodity, and wines are made for exportation .,
on many parts of the coaft ; but wool has always been,
D and
A B R
■Abruzzo, an{l ftill Is, their ftaple commodity: the flocks, after
paffing the whole fummer in the fine paftures of the
mountains, are driven for the winter into the warm
plains of Puglia, and a few fpots near their own coaft,
where the fnow does not lie ; there are no manufactures
of woollens in the province, except two fmall ones
of coarfe cloth, and the greateft part of the wool is
fent out unwrought. No filk is made here, though,
mulberry-trees would grow well in the low grounds.
Formerly the territory of Aquila furnilhed Italy al-
moftexclufively withfaffron; but fince the culture of that
plant has been fo much followed in Lombardy, it has
fallen to nothing in Abruzzo. In the maritime tracks of
country the cultivation of liquorice has been increafed
of late years, but foreigners export the roots, in their
natural ftate : in the province of Teramo there is a ma¬
nufactory of pottery-ware, for which there is a great
demand in Germany, by the way of Triefte, as it is
remarkably hard and fine ; but even this is going to
decay, by being abandoned entirely to the ignorance
of common workmen. It is not to be expeCted that
any improvements will be made in arts and manufac¬
tures, where the encouragement and attention of fu-
periors is wanting, and no pains taken to render the
commodity more marketable, or to open better chan¬
nels of fale for it.. The only advantages thefe provin¬
ces enjoy, are the gift of benevolent nature ; but fhe
has ftill greater prefents in ftore for them, and waits
only for the helping hand of government to produce
them. This whole coaft, one hundred miles in length,
is utterly deftitute of fea-ports; and the only fpots
where the produce can be embarked are dangerous in¬
convenient roads, at the mouths of rivers, and along a
lee-fhore :: the difficulty of procuring {hipping, and'of
loading the goods, frequently caufes great quantities
of them to rot on hand ; which damps induftry, and
prevents all improvements in agriculture. The hufband-
man is a poor difpirited wretch, and wretchednefs pro¬
duces emigration: the uneven furfece of the country
occafions it to be inhabited by retail, if the expreffion
may be ufed, rather than in large mafies ; for there is
not a city that contains ten thoufand people, and the
moft of them would find it difficult to mufter three
thoufand.. Villages, caftles, and feudatory eftates, are
to be met with in abundance ; but the numbers of
their inhabitants are to be reckoned by hundreds, not
thoufands : in a word,, the political and focial fyftem
of the province ftiows no figns of the vigour which na¬
ture fo remarkably difplays here in all her operations.
The antiquary- and the naturalift may travel here
with exquifite pleafure and profit; the former will find
treafures of infcriptions, and inedited, monuments ap¬
pertaining, to the warlike nations that once covered the
face of the country : the natural philofopher will have
a noblq field for obfervation in the ftupendous monu¬
ments that rife on all fides. Monte-corno and Majella
are among the moft interefting ; the firft is like an aged
monument of nature, bald, and horribly broken on
every afpeft : from various appearances, it is evident
that its bowels contain many valuable veins of metallic
®re ; but the great difficulty of accefs renders the fearch
of them almoft impra&icable. Majella has other me¬
rits, and of a gayer kind .-—nature has clothed its de¬
clivities and elevated fields with an infinite variety of
iisr moft precious plants; vulnerary herbs grow there
A B S
in as great perfeftion as on the Alps of Swiflerland, Abnirze
and are applied by the natives to wounds with equal
fuccefs. _ _ thiatet.
The chara&er of the inhabitants varies a little among v—
themfelves, according to fituation and climate, but ef-
fentially from the difpofition of the natives of the more
fouthern provinces. This proceeds from a difference
of origin : for the Lombards, who were barbarians,,
but not cruel; poor, but hofpitable ; endowed with
plain honeft ferife, though pofleffed of little acutenefs
or fubtlety; remained peaceable proprietors of thefe
mountainous regions, till the Normans, who were ac-
cuftomed to a finiilar climate, came, and difpoflefled
them. The Greeks*, who retained almoft every other
part of the kingdom under their dominion, never had
any fway here. For this reafon the Abruzzefi ftill
bear a great refemblance to their northern progenitors
or mafters : to this day, one may trace in them the
fame goodnefs of heart, but great indolence, and re¬
pugnance to lively exertions ; a fault that proceeds ra¬
ther from a want of aftive virtue, than a difpofition to
wickednefs. Hence it comes that in thefe provinces*
where the proximity of the frontier almoft infures im¬
punity, fewer atrocious and inhuman deeds are heard
of than in other parts of the realm. Remnants of
ancient northern cuftoms exifted here fo late as the be¬
ginning of this century, and, among the mountaineers*
very evident traces of the Frank and Teutonic lan¬
guages may be difcovered.
ABSALOM, the fon of David by Maacah, was bro¬
ther to Thamar, David’s daughter, who was ravifhed by'
Amnon their eldeft brother by another mother. Abfa-
lom waited two years for an opportunity of revenging
the injury done to his fifter ; and at laft procured the
affaffination of Amnon atafeaft which he had prepared
for the king’s fons. He took refuge with Talmai king
of Geffiur; and was no fooner reftored to favour, but
he engaged the Ifraelites to revolt from his father.
Abfalom was defeated in the wood of Ephraim : as he
was flying, his hair caught hold of an oak, where he
hung till Joab came and thruft him through with three
darts : David had exprefsly ordered his life to be fpared,.
and extremely lamented him.
ABSCESS, in forgery ; from ahfcedo, to depart.
A cavity containing pus; or, a gathering of matter in
a part: So called, becaufe the parts which were joined
are now feparated ; one part recedes from another, to
make way for the collected matter. See Surgery.
ABSClSSE, in conics, a part of the diameter or.
tranfverfe axis of a conic fedtion intercepted between the
vertex or fome other fixed point and a femiordinate.
See Conic Settioni.
ABSCONSA, a dark lanthern ufed by the monks
at the ceremony of burying their dead.
ABSENCE, in Scots law: When a perfon cited
before a court does not appear, and judgment is pro¬
nounced* that judgment is faid to be in abfence. No.
perfon can be tried criminally in abfence.
ABSINTHIATED, any thing tinged or impreg¬
nated with abfinthium or wormwood. Bartholin men¬
tions a woman whofe milk was become abfinthiated,
and rendered as bitter as gall, by the too liberal ufe of
wormwood.
Vinum abfnthites, or poculum alfnthiatum, “ worm¬
wood wine,” is much fpoke of among the ancients as a
whole-
t 26 ]
A B S [ 27 ] A B S
AfelintViam wholefome drink, and even an antidote againit drunken-
I) , nefs ; though feme have charged it with being offen-
Abfolutlon. ^ve t0 tjie ancj liable to caufe fevers, caphalalgias,
7 ^ vomitings, uterine fluxes, &c. Ray alfo makes it a
preventative of venery. According to the common
opinion, it is made by infufing the leaves of the plant
in wine ; but, according to Fehr, it ought to be pre¬
pared by fermentation, in order to correct the crudi¬
ties, and call forth a volatile fait; which laft, how¬
ever, does not exift in wormwood. Some prefer the
dillilled water; but whatever virtues wormwood pof-
felfes refide entirely in its effential oil.
ABSINTHIUM, in botany, the trivial name of
the common wormwood. See the article Artemi¬
sia.
ABSIS, in aftronomy, the fame with apfis. See
Apsis,
ABSOLUTE, in a general fenfe, fomething that
(lands free or independent.
Absolute is more particularly underftood of a being
or thing which does not proceed from any caufe, or
does not fubfill by virtue of any other being, confi-
dered as its caufe ; in which fenfe, God alone is abfo-
lute. Abfolute, in this fenfe, is fynonymous with mdepen-
dent, and Hands oppofed to dependent*
Absolute alfo denotes a thing’s being free from
conditions or limitations ; in which fenfe, the word is
fynonymous with unconditional. We fay, an abfolute
decree, abfolute promife, abfolute obedience.
Absolute Govermnent, that wherein the prince is
left folely to his own will, being not limited to the ob-
fervance of any laws except thofe of his own.difcre-
tion.
Absolute Equation, in aftronomy, is the aggregate
of the optic and eccentric equations. The apparent
inequality of a planet’s motion arifing from its not be¬
ing equally diftant from the earth at all times, is call¬
ed its optic equation, and would fubfift even if the pla¬
net’s real motion were uniform. The eccentric ine¬
quality is caufed by the planet’s motion being uniform.
To illuftrate which, conceive the fun to move, or to
appear to move, in the circumference of a circle, in
whofe centre the earth is placed. It is manifeft, that
if the fun moves uniformly in this circle, it muft appear
to move uniformly to a fpeclator on the earth, and in
this cafe there will be no optic nor eccentric equation :
but fuppofe the earth to be placed out of the centre of
the circle, and then, though the fun’s motion fhculd
be really uniform, it would not appear to be fo, being
feen from the earth ; and in this cafe there would be an
optic equation, without an eccentric one. Imagine
farther, the fun’s orbit to be not circular, but elliptic,
and the earth in its focus ; it will be as evident that
the fun cannot appear to have an uniform motion, in
fuch -ellipfe : fo that his motion will then be fubjedl to
two equations, the optic and the eccentric.
Absolute Number, in algebra, is any pure number
Handing in any equation without the conjunction of li¬
teral charafters; as 2X+36 = 48 ; where 36 and 48
are abfolute numbers, but 2 is not, as being joined
with the letter ,v.
ABSOLUTION, in civil law, is afentence whereby
the party accufed is declared innocent of the crime laid
to his charge.—Among the Romans, the ordinary me¬
thod of pronouncing judgment was this: after the caufe
had been pleaded on both Tides, the prseco ufed the Abfolution
word dixerunt, q. d. they have faid what they had to , J]
fay ; then three ballots were diftributed to each judge, tions^'
marked as mentioned under the article A ; and as the ■ t—■>
majority fell of either mark, the accufed was abfolved
or condemned, &c. If he were abfolved, the pnetor
difmifled him with videtur non fecifje, or jure videtur
feciffe. _ '
Absolution, in the canon law, is a juridical a£l,
whereby the prieft declares the fins of fuch as are pe¬
nitent remitted.—The Romanifts hold abfolution a part
of the facrament of penance: the council of Trent,
fell. xiv. cap. iii. and that of Florence, in the decree ad
Armenos, declare the form or effence of the facrament
to lie in the words of abfolution, I abfolve thee of thy
fins. The formula of abfolution, in the Romifti church,
is abfolute : in the Greek church, it is deprecatory ;
and in the churches of the reformed, declarative.
Absolution is chiefly ufed among Proteftants for a
fentence whereby a perfon who Hands excommunicated
is releafed or freed from that puniftiment.
ABSORBENT, in general, any thing pofiefling
the faculty of abforbing, or {wallowing up another.
Absorbent Medicines, teftaceous powders, as chalk,
crab-eyes, &c. which are taken inwardly for drying up
or abforbing any acid or redundant humours in the fto-
mach or inteftiues. They are likewife applied out¬
wardly to ulcers or fores with the fame intention.
Absorbent Fejfels, a name given promifeuoufly to
the la&eal veflels, lymphatics, and inhalent arteries.
See Anatomy.
Naturalifts fpeak of the like abforbents in plants,
the fibrous or hairy roots of which are as a kind of vafa
abforbentia, which attract and imbibe the nutritious
juices from the earth. See Plants.
ABSORBING, the fwallowing up, fucking up, or .
imbibing, any thing : thus black bodies are faid to ab»
forb the rays of light; luxuriant branches, to abforb
or wafte the nutritious juices which ftiould feed the
fruit of trees, &c.
ABSORPTION, in the animal ceconomy, is the
power whereby the abforbent vefiels imbibe the juices,
&c.
Absorftions of the Earth, a term ufed by Kircher
and others for the finking in of large trails of land by
means of fubterranean commotions, and many other
accidents.
Pliny tells us, that in his time the mountain Cym-
botus, with the town of Eurites, which Hood on its
fide, were wholly abforbed into the earth, fo that hot
the leaft trace of either remained ; and he records the
like fate of the city Tantalis in Magnefia, and after it
of the mountain Sypelus, _both thus abforbed by a vio¬
lent opening of the earth. Galanis and Garnatus,
towns once famous in Phoenicia, are recorded to
have met the fame fate ; and the vaft promontory, cal¬
led Phlegium, in Ethiopia, after a violent earthquake
in the night-time, was not to be feen in the morning,
the whole having difappeared, and the earth clofed over
it. Thefe and many other hiftories, attefted by the
authors of greateft credit among the ancients, abun¬
dantly prove the fa61 in the earlier ages; and there
have not been wanting too many inftances of more mo¬
dem date. Kircher’s Mund. Suiter, p. 77. See
Earth and Earthquake.
D 2
ABSOR-
A B S [ 28 ] A B S
ABSORUS, Apsorus, Absyrtps, Absyrtides,
Apsyrtides, Apsyrtis, and Absyrtium, (Sjxabo,
Mela, Ptolemy ;) ijdands in the Adriatic, in the gulf
of Carnero ; fo called' from Abfyrtus, Medea’s brother,
there flain. They are either one illand, or two, fepa-
rated by a narrow channel, and joined by a bridge ;
and are now called Chtrfe and Ofero.
ABSTEMII, in church-hiftory, a name given to
fhch perfons as could not partake of the cup of the
eucharift on account of. their natural averfion to wine.
Calvinifts allow thefe to communicate in the fpecies ot
bread only, touching the cup with their lip ; which,
on the other hand, is by the Lutherans deemed a pro¬
fanation.
ABSTEMIOUS, is properly underftood of a per¬
ron who refrains abfolutely from all ufe of wine.
The hiftory of Mr Wood, in the Medic. Tranf.
vol. ii. p. 261. art. 18. is a very, remarkable exempli¬
fication of the very beneficial alterations which may
be effected on the human body- by a ftrift courfe of
abllemioufnefs.
The Roman ladies, in the fir ft ages of the republic,
were all enjoined to be abftemious ; and that it might
appear, by their breath, whether or no they kept up to
the injunction,, it was one of the laws of the Roman
civility, that they fhould kifs their friends and relations
whenever they accofted them.
ABSTEMIUS (Laurentius) a native of Macerata*
profefibr of belles lettres in Urbino, and librarian of
duke Guido Ubaldo, under the pontificate of Alexan¬
der VI. He wrote, 1. Notes on moft difficult paflages
of ancient authors. 2. Hecatomythium, i. e. A collec¬
tion of an too fables, &c. which have been often
printed with, thofe of JEfop, Phsedrus, Gabrias, Avie-
nus, &c.
ABSTERGENT medicines, thofe employed for
refolving obftruCtions,. concretions, &c. fach as foap,
&c.
ABSTINENCE, in a general fenfe, the a£t or ha¬
bit of refraining from fomething which we have a pro-
penfion to or find pleafure in.—Among the Jews, va¬
rious kinds of abftinence were ordained by their law.
Among the primitive Chriftians, fome denied them-
felves the ufe of fuch meats as were prohibited by that
law, others looked upon this abftinence with contempt;
as to which, St Paul gives his opinion, Rom. xiv. 1—3.
The council of Jerufalem, which was held by the Apo-
ftles, enjoined the Chriftian converts to abftain from
meats ftrangled, from blood, from fornication, and
from idolatry. Abftinence, as prefcribed by the gof-
pelj.is intended to mortify and reftrain the paffions, to
bumble our vicious natures, and by that means raife
our minds to a due fenfe of devotion. But there is
another fort of abftinence, which may be called ritual,
and confifts. in abftaining from particular meats at cer¬
tain times and feafons. It was the fpiritual monarchy
of the weftern world which firft introduced this ritual
abftinence ; the rules of which were called rogations ;
but grofsly abufed from the true nature and defign of
falling.—In England, abftinence from flelh has been
enjoined by ftatute even fince the reformation, particu¬
larly on Fridays and Saturdays, on vigils, and on all
commonly called The like injunctions were
renewed under (^Elizabeth : but at the fame time it
was declared, that this was done not out of motives of
religion, as if there were any difference in meats ; but Afiftinenee.
in favour of the confumption of filh, and to multiply the
number of filhermen and mariners, as well as fpare the
flock of Iheep. The great fail, fays St Auguftin, is to
abftain from fin.
Abstinence is more particularly ufed for a fpare
diet, or a flendter parfimonious ufe of food, below the
ordinary ftandard of nature. The phyficians relate
wonders of the effefts of abftinence in the cure of
many diforders, and pratrafting the term of life. The
noble Venetian, Cornaro, after all- imaginable means
had proved vain, fo that his life was defpaired of at
40, recovered, and lived to near 100, by mere dint
of abftinence ; as he hirafelf gives the account. It is
indeed furprifing to what a great age the primitive
Chriftians of the eaft, who retired from the perfecu-
tions into the deferts of Arabia and Egypt, lived,
healthful and cheerful, on a very little food. Caffian
affures U8„ that the common rate for 24 hours was 12
ounces of bread, and mere water: with this St An¬
thony lived 105 years; James'the Hermit 104; Ar-
fenius, tutor of the Emperor Arcadius, 120 ; 3. Epi- ,
phanius, 115; Simeon the Stylite, M2 ; and Romania,
T20. Indeed, we can match thefe inftances of longe¬
vity at home. Buchanan writes, that one Laurenc«
preferved himfelf to 140 by force of temperance and
labour; and, Spotfwood mentions one Kentigern, af¬
terwards called S. Mangali or Mungo, who lived to
185 by the fame means. Other inftances fee under
the article Longevity.—Abflinence, however, is to
be recommended only as it means a proper regimen;,
for in general it muft have bad confequences when
obferved without a due regard to conftitution, age;
ftrength, £sV. According to Dr Cheyne, moft of the
chronical difeafes, the infirmities of old age, and the
fhort lives of Englifhmen, are owing to repletion ; and
may be either cured, prevented, or remedied by abfli¬
nence : but then the kinds of abftinence which ought
to obtain, either in ficknefs or health, are to be dedu¬
ced from the laws of. diet and regimen.
Among the brute creation, we fee extraordinary in¬
ftances of long abftinence. The ferpent-kind, in parti¬
cular, bear abftinence to a wonderful degree. We have
feen rattle-fnakes that had fubfifted many months with¬
out any food, yet ftill retained their vigour and fiercenefs.
Dr Shaw fpeaks of a couple of ceraftes, (a fort of Egyp¬
tian ferpents), which had been kept five years in a
bottle clofe corked, without any fort of food, unlefs ft
fmitll quantity of fand wherein they coiled themfelves
up in the bottom of the veffel may be reckoned as
fuch : yet when he faw them, they had newly call their
fkins, and were as brifk and lively as if juft taken. But
it is even natural for divers, fpecies,to pafs four, five, or
fix months.every year, without either eating or drink¬
ing. Accordingly, the tortoife, bear, dormoufe, fer-
pent, &c. are obferved regularly to retire, at thofa
feafons, to their refpedlive cells, and hide themfelves,
fome in the caverns of rocks or ruins; others dig holes
under ground; others get into woods, and lay them-
felves. up in the clefts of trees.; others bury themfelves
under water, GV. And thefe animals are found as fat
and flelhy after fome months abftinence as before.—
Sir G. Ent* weighed his tortoife feveral years fuccef-»
fively, at its going to earth in October, and coming Tranf.
out again in March; and found, that, of four pounds;»° 194-
four
A B S [ 29 ] A B S
Abftinence four ounces, it only ufed to lofe about one ounce.
AMradt —Indeed, we'have inftances of men paffing feveral
. months as ftri&ly abftinent as other creatures. In par¬
ticular, the records of the Tower mention a Scotchman
imprifoned for felony, and ftridlly watched in that for-
trefs for fix weeks : in all which time he took not the
kail fuftenance ; for which he had his pardon. Num-
berlefs inftances of extraordinary abftinence, particu¬
larly from morbid caufes, are to be found in the different
periodical Memoirs, Tranfaftions,. Ephemerides, &c.—
It is to be added, that, in moll inftances of extraordinary
human abftinence related by naturalifts, there were faxd
to have been apparent marks of a texture of blood and
humours, much like that of the animals abovementioned.
Though it is no improbable opinion, that the air itfelf
may furnilh fomething for nutrition. It is certain,
there are fubftances of all kinds, animal, vegetable. See.
floating in the atmofphere, which mull be continually
taken in by refpiration. And that an animal body may
be nourilhed thereby, is evident in the inftance of vi¬
pers } which if taken when firft brought forth, an cl
kept from every thing but air, will yet grow very con-
fiderably in a few days. So the eggs of lizards are
©bferved to increafe in bulk, after they are produced,
though there be nothing to furnilh the increment but
air algne ; in like manner as the eggs or fpawn of fifties
grow and are nourifhed with the water. And hence,
lay feme, it is that cooks, turnfpit-dogs, &c. though
they eat but little, yet are ufually fat. See Fasting.
ABSTINENTS, or Abstinentes, a fet of here¬
tics that appeared in France and Spain about the end
of the third century. They are fuppofed to have bor¬
rowed part of their opinions from the Gnoftics and
Manicheans, becaufe they oppofed marriage, condemn¬
ed the ufe of flelh meat, and placed the Holy Ghoft in
the clafs of created beings. We have, however, no
certain account of their peculiar tenets. ,
ABSTRACT, in a general fenfe, any thing fepa-
rated from fomething elfe.
Abstract Idea, in metaphyfics, is a partial idea of a
complex objeft, limited to one or more of the compo¬
nent parts or properties, laying afide or abftra&ing
from the reft. Thu?, in viewing an objeft with the
eye, or recollecting it in the mind, we can eafily ab-
ftraft from fame of its parts or properties, and attach
ourfelves to others: we can attend to the fednefs.of a
cherry, without regard to its figure, tafte, or confift-
ence. See Abstraction.
Abstract Tentis, words that are ufed to exprefs
abftract ideas. Thus beauty, uglinefs, whitenefs, round-
nefs, life, death, are ab ft raft terms.
Abstract Numbers, are affemblages of units, con-
fidered in themfelves without denoting any^particular
and determined particulars. Thus 6 is an abftraft
number, when not applied to any thing; but, if we
fay 6 feet, 6 becomes a concrete number^ See the ar¬
ticle Number.
Abstract Mathematics, otherwife called Pur? Ma¬
thematics, is that which treats of magnitude or quan¬
tity, abfolutely and generally confidered, without re-
ftriftion to any fpecies of particular magnitude ; fuch
are Arithmetic and Geometry. In this fenfe, abftraft
mathematics is oppofed to mixed mathematics; wherein ,
Ample and abftraft properties, and the relations of
quantities primitively confidered in pure mathematics;
are applied to fenfible objefts, and by that means be¬
come intermixed with phyfical confiderations; fuch are
Hydroftatics, Optics, Navigation, See.
Abstract, in literature, a compendious view of
any large work ; Ihorter and more fuperficial than an
abridgment.
ABSTRACTION, in general, the aft of abftraft-
ing, or the ftate of being abftrafted.
Abstraction, in metaphyfics, the operation of the
mind when occupied by abftraft ideas. A large oak
fixes our attention, and abftrafts us from the ftirubs
that furround it. In the fame manner, a beautiful
woman in a crowd, abftrafts our thoughts, and engrof-
fes our attention folely to herfelf. Thefe are examples
of real abftraftion : when thefe, or any others of a fi-
milar kind, are recalled to the mind after the objefts;
themfelves are removed from our fight, they form what
is called abjiraft ideas, or the mind is faid to be em¬
ployed in abftraft ideas. But the power of abftraftion
is not confined to objefts that are feparable in reality
as well as mentally : the fize, the figure, the colour of
a tree are infeparably connefted, and cannot exift in¬
dependent- of each other ; and yet we can mentally con¬
fine pur obfervations to any one of thefe properties,
neglefting or abitrafting from the reft.
Abftraftion is chiefly employed thefe three ways..
Firft, When the mind confiders any one part of a
thing, in feme refpeft diffiinft from the whole; as a
man’s arm, without the confideration of the reft of the
body. Secondly, When we confider the mode of any
fiibftance, omitting the fubftance itfelf; or when we
feparately confider feveral modes which fubfift together
in one fubjeft. This abftraftion the geometricians
make ufe of when they confider the length of a body
feparately, which they call a line, omitting the confi¬
deration of its breadth and thicknefs. Thirdly, It is
by abftraftion that the mind forms general oruniverfal
ideas; omitting the modes and relations of the parti¬
cular objefts whence they are formed. Thus, when
we would underftand a thinking being in general, we
gather from our felf-confcioufnefs what it is to think;
and, omitting thofe things which have a particular re¬
lation to our own minds, or to the human mind, we
• conceive a thinking being in general.
Ideas formed in this manner, wliich.are what we pro¬
perly call abjlratt ideas, become general reprefentatives
of all objefts of the fame kind; and their names ap¬
plicable to whatever exifts conformable to fuch ideas.
Thus the idea of colour that we receive from chalk,
fnow, milk, &c. is a reprefentative of all of that kind ;
and has a name given it,■<whitenejs, which fignifies the
fame quality wherever found or imagined.
ABSTRUSE, fomething deep, hidden, concealed^
or far removed from common apprehenfions, and there¬
fore not eafily underftood; in oppofition to what is
obvious and palpable. Thus metaphyfics is an abftrufe
fcience ; and the doftrine of fluxions, and the method
de maximis et minimis, are abftrufe points of know¬
ledge.
ABSURD, an epithet applied to any thing that
oppofes the human apprehenfion- and contradifts a
manifeft truth. Thus, it would be abfurd to fay
that 6 and 6 make only 1 o, or to deny that twice 6
make 12. When the term abfurd is applied to aftions,
it has the fame import as ridiculous.
ABSYN-
ABU [
ABSYNTHIUM, See Absinthium.
ABSYRTUS, in the heathen mythology, the fon
of iEta and Hypfea, and the brother of Medea. The
-i latter running away with Jafon, after her having affift-
ed him in carrying off the golden fleece, was purfued
by her father ; when, to ftop his progrefs, (he tore Ab-
fyrtus in pieces, and fcattered his limbs in his way.
ABTHANES, a title of honour ufed by the an¬
cient inhabitants of Scotland, who called their nobles
thanes,, which in the old Saxon fignifies king’s mini/iers ;
and of thefe the higher rank were ftyled abthanes, and
thofe of the lower underthanes.
ABUCCO, Abocco, or Abocchi, a weight ufed
-in the kingdom of Pegu. One abucco contains 12 A tec-
30 ] A B Y
ABUSE, an irregular ufe of a thing, or the intro¬
ducing fomething contrary to the true intention there¬
of. In grammar, to apply a word abufively, or in a;
abujive fenfe, is to mifapply or pervert its meaning.—
A permutation of benefices, without the confent of the
bifhop, is termed abujive, and confequently hull.
ABUTILON, in botany, the trivial name of feve-
rai fpecies of the fida. See Sida.
ABYDOS, (anc. geog.), anciently a town built by
the Milefians in Afia, on the Hellefpont, where it i*
fcarce a mile over, oppofite to Seftos on the European
fide. Now both called the Dardanelles. Abydos lay
midway between Lampfacus and Ilium, famous for
Xerxes’s bridge, (Herodotus, Virgil) ; and for the loves
„Jis; two abuccos make a giro oxagire; two girt, half of Leander and Hero, (Mufaeus, Ovid) ; celebrated al-
a.hiza; and a hiza weighs an hundred teccalis ; that fo for its oyfters, (Ennius, Virgil), The inhabitants
is, two pounds five ounces the heavy weight, or three were a foft, effeminate people, given much to detrac-
pounds nine ounces the light weight of Venice.
ABUKESO, in commerce, the fame with Aslan.
ABULFARAGIUS (Gregory), fon to Aaron a
phyfician, born in 1226, in the city of Malatia, near
the fource of the Euphrates in Armenia. He followed
the profeffion of his father ; and practifed with great
fuccefs, numbers of people coming from the mofl: re¬
mote parts to afk his advice. However, he would hardly
have been known at this time, had his knowledge been
confined to phyfic : but he applied himfelf to the ftudy
of the Greek, Syriac, and Arabic languages, as well
as philofophy and divinity; and he wrote a hiftory
which does honour to his memory. It is written in
Arabic, and'divided into dynafties. It confifts of ten
parts, being an epitome of univerfal hiftory from the
creation of the world to his own .time. Dr Pocock pu-
blifhed it with a Latin tranflation in 1663; and added,
by way of fupplement, a fhort continuation relating
to the hiftory of the eaftern princes.
tion ; hence the proverb, Ne temere Abydum, when we
would caution againft danger, (Stephanus).
Abydos, (anc. geog.), anciently an inland town of
Egypt, between Ptolemais and Diofpolis Parva, to¬
wards Syene ; famous for the palace of Memnon and
the temple of Ofiris. A colony of Milefians; (Ste¬
phanus.) It was the only one in the country into
which the fingers and dancers were forbid to enter.
This city, reduced to a village under the empire of
Auguftus, now prefents to our view only an heap of
ruins without inhabitants; but to the weft of thefe
ruins is ftill found the celebrated tomb of Ifmandes.
The entrance is under a portico 60 feet high, and fup-
ported by two rows of maffy columns. The immove¬
able folidity of the edifice, the huge maffes which com-
pofe it, the hieroglyphics it is loaded with, ftamp it a
work of the ancient Egyptians. Beyond it is a temple
300 feet long and 145 wide. Upon entering the mo¬
nument we meet with an immenfe hall, the roof of
ABUNA, the title given to the archbilhop or me- which is fupported by 28 columns 60 feet high and 19
tropolitan of Abyffinia. See Abyssini.
ABUNDANT number, in arithmetic, is a number,
in circumference at the bafe. They are 12 feet diftant
from each other. The enormous ftones that form the
the fum of whofe aliquot parts is greater than the num- ceiling, perfectly joined and incrufted, as it were, one
her itfelf. Thus the aliquot parts of 12, being 1,
3, 4, and 6, they make., when added, together, 16.
An abundant number is oppofed to a deficient number,
or that which is greater than all its aliquot parts taken
together; as 14, whofe aliquot parts are 1, 2, and 7,
which make no more than ten : and to a p erf eft num¬
ber, or one to which its aliquot parts are equal, as 6,
whofe aliquot parts are 1,2, and 3.
the other, offer to the eye nothing but one folid plat¬
form of marble 126 feet long and 26 wide. The walls
are covered with hieroglyphics. One fees there a mul¬
titude of animals, birds, and human figures with point¬
ed caps on their heads, and a piece of fluff hanging
down behind, dreffed in loofe robes that come down
only to the waift. The fculpture, however, is clumfy;
the forms of the body, the attitudes and proportions of
ABUNDANTIA, a heathen divinity, reprefented the members, ill obferved. Amongft thefe we may di-
!in ancient monuments under the figure of a woman
with a pleafing afpedi, crowned with garlands of flowers,
pouring all forts of fruit out of a horn which (he holds
In her right hand, and flattering grain with her left,
taken promifluoufly from a Iheaf of corn. On a medal
of Trajan, fhe is. reprefented with two cornucopiae.
ftinguilh fome women fuckling their children, and men
prefenting offerings to them. Here alfo we meet with
the divinities of India. Monfieur Chevalier, formerly
governor of Chandernagore, who refided 20 years in
that country, carefully vifited this monument on his re¬
turn from Bengal. He remarked here the gods fag-
ABU SAID, (Ebn Aljaptu), fultan of the Moguls, grenat, Gonez, and Vechnou or Wijlmu, fuch as they are
fucceeded his father anno 717 of the hegira. He was
the laft monarch of the race of Jenghizkhan ; and af¬
ter his death, which happened the lame year that Ta-
:prefented in the temples of Indoftan.—A great gate
opens at the bottom of the firft hall, which leads to an
apartment 46 feet long by 22 wide. Six fquare pillars
merlane was born, the empire was made a fcene of fupport the roof of it; and at the angles are the doors
blood and defolation.
ABUS, (anc. geog.), a river of Britain, formed by
the confluence of the Ure, the Derwent, Trent, &c.
falling into the German fea, between Yorklhire and
Lincolnlhire, and forming the mouth of the Humber.
of four other chambers, but fo choaked up with rub-
bilh that they cannot now be entered. The laft hall,
64 feet long by 24 wide, has flairs by which one de-
flends into the fubterraneous apartments of this grand
edifice. The Arabs, in fearching after treafure, have
piled
A B Y
[
piled up heaps of earth and rabbifh. In the part
are able to penetrate, fculpture and hieroglyphics are
j difcoverable as in the upper ftory. The- natives fay that
they correfpond exaftly with thofe above ground, and
that the columns are as deep in the earth as they are
lofty a'bove ground. It would be dangerous to go far
into thofe vaults; for the air of them is fo loaded with a
mephitic vapour, that a candle can fcarce be kept burn¬
ing in them. Six lions heads, placed on the two fides
of the temple, ferve as fpouts to carry off the water.
You mount to the top by a ftaircafe of a very Angular
ftrudture. It is built with ftones incrufted in the wall,
and projefting fix feet out; fo that being fupported on¬
ly at 6ne end, they appear to be fufpended in the air.
The walls, the roof, and the columns of this edifice,
have fuffered nothing from the injuries of time; and
did not the hieroglyphics, by being corroded in fome
places, mark its antiquity, it would appear to have been
newly built. The folidity is fuch, that unlefs people
make a point of deftroying it, the building muft laft a
great number of ages. Except the coloflal figures,
whofe heads ferve as an ornament to the capitals of the
columns, and which are fculptured in Relievo, the reft
of the hieroglyphics which cover the infide are carved
in ftone. To the left of this great building we meet
with another much fmaller, at the bottom of which is
a fort of altar. This was probably the fanftuary of
the temple of Ofiris.
ABYLA, (Ptolemy, Mela); one of Hercules’s pil¬
lars on the African fide, called by the Spaniards Sier-
31] A BY
e it being for the moft part reftrained and deprefied by Abyfs.
the ftrata of earth lying upon it: but wherever thofe '"■"""'v
ftrata are broken, or fo lax and porous that water can
pervade them, there the water of the abyfs afcends;
fills up all the clefts and fifiures into which it can get
admittance ; and faturates all the interfaces and pores
of the earth, ftone, or other matter, all around the globe,
quite up to the level of the ocean.
The exiftence of an abyfs or receptacle of fub-
terraneous waters, is controverted by Camerarius * ; * Differt.
and defended by Dr Woodward chiefly by two ar-^^j-
guments : the firft drawn from the vaft. quantity t0™ ‘V;U^*
of water which covered the earth in the time of p. *4,
the deluge; the fecond, from the confideration of
earthquakes, which he endeavours to fhow are 00
cafioned by the violence of the waters in this a-
byfs. A great part of the terreftrial globs has
been frequently fhaken at the fame moment; which
argues, according to him, that the waters, which were
the occafion thereof, were coextended with that part
of the globe. There are even inftances of univerfal
earthquakes; which (fays he) fliow, that the whole,
abyfs muft have been agitated : for fo general an effedt
muft have been produced by as general a caufe, and
that caufe can be nothing but the fubterraneous    „
ahvfs + fHift.of
2. , r , , • • the Earth,
lo this abyls alio has beerj attributed the origin journal de
of fprings and rivers; the level maintained in the Scavans,
furfaces of different feas; and their not overflowingtom’lv“‘*
their banks. To the effluvias emitted from it, fome Memoirs of
a de las Monas, over againft Calpe in Spain, the other even attribute all the diverfities of weather and change Literature
pillar; fuppofed to have been formerly joined, but fe-
parated by Hercules, and thus to have given entrance
to the fea now called the Mediterranean; the limits
of the labours of Hercules, (Pliny.)
ABYSS, in a general fenfe, denotes fomething pro¬
found, and, as it were, bottomlefs. The word is ori¬
ginally Greek, ; compounded of the primitive «,
and fivcr&oi, q. d. without a bottom.
Abyss, in a more particular fenfe, denotes a deep
mafs or fund of waters. In this fenfe, the word is
particularly ufed, in. the Septuagint, for the water
which God created at the beginning with the earth,
our atmofphere Ray||, and other authors, an-i
cient as well as modern, fuppofe a communication be-ff ior,&c.
tween the Cafpian fea and the ocean by means of a '
fubterranean abyfs : and to this they attribute it that Wood-
the Cafpian does not overflow, notwithftanding the ward’s hilt,
great number of large rivers it receives, of which Kemp- oftheEarth.
fer reckons above 50 in the compafs of 60 miles ; tho’, Er?UId*
as to this, others fuppofe that the daily evaporation may y pi,yflc0.*.
fuffice to keep the level. Theol.
The different arguments concerning this fubje&I>tfc-:hc.s«
may be feen collefted and amplified in Cockburn>s^' ^r
Inquiry into the Truth and Certainty of the Mo-
tvhich encompaffed it round, and which our tranflators faic Deluge, p. 271, &c. After all, however, this
render by deep. Thus it is that darknefs is faid to
have been on the face of the abyfs.
Abyss is alfo ufed for an immenfe cavern in the
earth, wherein God is fuppofed to have colie ft ed all
thofe waters on. the third day ; which, in our verfion,
is rendered the fas, and elfewhere the great deep. Dr
amazing theory of a central abyfs is far from be¬
ing demonftratedit will perhaps in feveral refpefls
appear inconfiftent with found philofophy, as well as
repugnant to the phenomena of nature. In particular,
if we believe any thing like eleftive attraftion to have
prevailed in the formation of the earth, we muft believe
Woodward, in his Natural Hiftory of the Earth, af- that the feparation of the. chaos proceeded from the
ferts, That there is a mighty colleftion of waters in- union of fimilar particles. It is certain that reft is fa-
elofed in the bowels of the earth, conftituting a huge vourable to fuch operations of nature. As, therefore,
Orb in the interior or central parts of it; and over the the central parts of the earth were more immediately
furface of this water he fuppofes the terreftrial ftrata to quiefcent than thofe remote from the centre, it feems ab=
be expanded. This, according to him, is what Mofes furd to fuppofe that the heavier and denfer bodies gave
calls the great deep, and what moft authors render the place to the more light and fluid; that the central part
great abyfs. The water of this vaft abyfs, he alleges, fhould cOnfift of water only, and the more fuperficial’
docs communicate with that of the ocean, by means of part of a cruft or (hell. Vid. Whitehurf's Inquiry in-
certain hiatufes or chafms palling betwixt it and the to the original Formation of the Strata, See. See De--
bottom of, the ocean : and this and the abyfs he fup¬
pofes to have one common centre, around which the
water of both is placed ; but fo, that the ordinary fur-
face of the abyfs is not level with that of the ocean,
nor at fo great a diftancs from the centre as the other,
Abyss is alfo ufed to denote hell; in which fenfe
the word is fynonymous with what is otherwife called
Barathrum, Et ebus, and Tartarus; in the Englilh bible,
the bottomlefs pit. The unclean fpirits expelled by,
Chrift,.
A B Y
Abyft, Ciiirft, begged, tie imperaret ut in abyjfum irent, accor-
Abyflinia. d;ng to the vulgate ; ft( afivo-trov, according to the Greek.
l"IT—v Luke viii 31. Rev. ix. 1.
Abyss is more particularly ufed, in antiquity, to de¬
note the temple of Proferpine. It was thus called on
account of the immenfe fund of gold and riches depo-
fited there-; fome fay, hid under ground.
Abyss is alfo ufed in heraldry to denote the centre
of an efcutcheon. In which fenfe a thing is faid to
be bore in abyfs, en abyftne, when placed in the middle
of the fhield, clear from any other bearing ; He bears
azure, a flower de lis, in abyfs.
ABYSSINIA, by fome called Higher Ethiopia, and
by the Arabians Al Habajh, is bounded on the north
by Nubia; on the call, by the Arabic gulph or Red Sea,
and the kingdom of Adel; on the fouth, by the king¬
doms of Ajan, Alabo, and Gingiro; and on the weft,
by the kingdom of Goram, and part of Gingiro; and
is divided into a great number of provinces. The
principal river is the Nile, which has its fource in this
country; and the moft conliderable lake, that of Dam-
bea, which difcharges itfelf into the Nile, is about 700
miles in length, and 90 in breadth. The air is pretty
temperate in the mountains, and therefore their towns
and ftrong holds are generally placed on them ; but in
the valleys it is hot and fuffocating. The foil and face
of the country is various. In fome places there are
nothing but rocks and profound caverns; in others,
efpecially where there are rivers, the land is exceedingly
fruitful; and the banks of thefe ftreams are bordered
with flowers of various kinds, many of which are un¬
known in Europe. The torrents in the rainy feafon
walli a great deal of gold from the mountains. This
feafon begins in May, when the fun is vertical, -or di-
reftly over their heads, and ends in September.—The
.country produces a great variety of animals, both tame
and wild, fuch as lions, figers, rhinocerofes, leopards, ele¬
phants, monkeys, ftags, deer; horfes, camels, dromeda¬
ries, goats, cows, flieep; likewife oftriches, with a vaft
variety of other birds. In the rivers are crocodiles and
the hippopotamus. Travellers mention alfo a peculiar
kind of bees, fmall, black, and without a fting, which
hive in the earth, and make honey and wax that are
extremely white. The country is greatly infefted with
locufts, which devour every thing that is green where-
ever they come.
The inhabitants are Moors, Pagans, Jews, and Chri-
ftians. The laft was the reigning and eftabliftied reli¬
gion when father Lobo vifited this country in 1624.
This diverfity of people and religion is the reafon that
the kingdom, in different parts, is under different forms
of government, and that their laws and cuftoms are ex¬
tremely various. Some of the people neither fow their
lands nor improve them; but live on milk and flefh, and
encamp like the Arabs, without any fettled habita¬
tion. In fome places they pra&ife no rites of worlhip,
though they believe that there dwells in the regions a-
bove a Being who governs the world : This deity they
call Oul. In thofe parts where Chriftianity is profeffed, it
is fo corrupted with fuperftitious errors, and fo mingled
with ceremonies borrowed from the Jews, that little
befide the name of Chriftianity is to be found among
them. (See the next article.)—They have two har-
vefts in the year; one in winter, which begins in May,
and lafts, with great rigour, through the months of
A B Y
July, Auguft, and September ; and the other in fpring.
Every man who has a thoufand cows faves once a-year
a day’s milk, and makes a bath for his friends ; fo that
to give an idea of a man’s wealth, their common ex-
preffion is, he bathes fo many times a-year. Their males
marry about ten years old, and their females younger,.
Their marriage tie is fo loofe, that they part whenever
they find that they cannot live agreeably together.
Befides the large towns, there are a great number
of villages, which in fome places are fo' thick fown,
that they look like one continued town : the houfes are
very mean, being but one ftory high, and built of
ftraw, earth, and lime. In moft of the towns the
houfes are feparated by hedges, which are always
green, and mixed with flowers and fruit-trees at a cer¬
tain diftance from each other, which affords an agree¬
able profpeft.—The government is monarchical. The,
fovereign has the title of Negus, and is an abfolute
prince. When he is in camp, the tents art fo regularly
difpofed as to have the appearance of a city; and there
is a captain over every divifion, to prevent diforders,
and to execute juftice.
The Abyffines in gaieral are of an olive complexion,
tall, graceful, and well featured. Thofe who are nei¬
ther mechanics nor tradefmen (which few of them are)
nor tillers of the ground, are inured to bear arms, which
are a head-piece, a buckler, a coat of mail, bows and
arrows, darts, pikes capped with iron at both ends, a
fling, and a fword: they have very few fire-arms, and
thofe were introduced by the Portuguefe. The habit
of perfons of quality is a fine filken veil, or fine cotton,
with a kind of fcarf. The citizens have the fame ha¬
bit, only coarfer. The common people have nothing
but a pair of cotton drawers, and a fcarf which covers
the reft of their body. The women are of a healthy
conftitution, active, and moderately handfome, having
neither flat nofes nor thick lips like the negroes; and
nature is fo friendly, that they Hand in little need of
midwives, which is indeed the cafe of moft countries in
the torrid zone. They appear in public as in Europe,
without being forbid the converfation of the men as
among the Mahometans. Princeffes of the royal blood
are not permitted to marry foreigners : and when they
take the air, they go in great ftate, with 400 or 500
women attendants. Their language is the Ethiopxc,
which bears a great affinity with the Arabic ; but par¬
ticular provinces have a different dialed!:.
Manufactures are almoft wholly wanting in this coun¬
try; and the few trades which they have amongft them
are always conveyed from the father to the children.
They feem indeed by their churches, and other ruinated
places, to have had a knowledge of architecture. But
the workmen were fent for from other countries, and
were forced to do all themfelves; fo that when thefe fa¬
brics were reared, efpecially the imperial palace built
by Peter Pais, a Portuguefe architedl, the people flock¬
ed from all parts of Ethiopia to view it, and admired
it as a new wonder of the world.—Gold, filver, copper,
and iron, are the principal ores with which their mines
abound in this extenfive part of Africa : but not above
one third part is made ufe of by way of merchandize,
or converted into money; of which they have little or
no ufe in Abyffinia. They cut their gold indeed into
fmall pieces for the pay of their troops,-and for expen-
ces of the court, which.is but a modern cuftom among
2 them;
1 3> 1
Abyfliniai
A B Y [ 3.3 1 A B Y
jAHyffinia. them; the king’s gold, before the end of the 17th cen-
tury, being laid up in his treafury in ingots, with in¬
tent to be never carried out, or never ufed in any thing
but veflels and trinkets for the fervice of the palace.
In the lieu of fmall money, they make ufe of rock fait
as white as fnow and as hard as ftone. This is taken
out of the mountain of Lafta, and put into the king’s
warehoufcs ; where it is reduced into tablets of a foot
long, and three inches broad, ten of which are worth
about a French crown. When they are circulated in
trade, they are reduced into Hill fmaller pieces, as oc-
cafion requires. This fait is alfo applied to the fame
purpofe as common fea-falt. With this mineral fait
they purchafe pepper, fpices, and filk ftuffs, which are
brought to them by the Indians, in their ports in the
Red Sea. Cardamums, ginger, aloes, myrrh, caffia,
civet, ebony-wood, ivory, wax, honey, cotton, and li¬
nens of variflus forts and colours, are merchandifes
which may be had from Abyffinia; to which may be
added fugar, hemp, flax, and excellent wines, if thefe
people had the art of preparing them. It is affirmed
there are in this country the findt emeralds that are
any where to be found ; and, though they are found
but in one place, they are there in great quantities, and
fome fo large and fo perfedt as to be of almoft inefti-
mable value. The greateft part of the merchan¬
difes above mentioned, are more for foreign than in¬
land trade. Their domeftic commerce confifts chiefly
in fait, honey, buck-wheat, grey peafe, citrons, oran¬
ges, lemons, and other provifions, with fruits and her¬
bage neceflfary for the fupport of life. Thofe places
that the Abyffian merchants frequent the moft, who
dare venture to carry their commodities by fea them-
felves, are Arabia Felix, and the Indies, particu¬
larly Goa, Cambaye, Bengal, and Sumatra. With
regard to their ports on the Red Sea, to which fo¬
reign merchants commonly refort, the moft confider-
able are thofe of Mette, Azum, Zajalla, Maga, Dazo,
Patea, and Brava. The trade of the Abyffinians by
land is inconfiderable. There are, however, bands of
them who arrive yearly at Egypt, particularly at Cairo,
laden with gold duft, which they bring to barter for
the merchandifes of that country, or of Europe, for
which they have occafion. Thefe cafilas or caravans,
if we may be allowed thus to call a body of 40 or 50
poor wretches who unite together for their mutual af-
iiftance in their journey, are commonly three or four
months on their route, traverling forefts and moun¬
tains almoft impaflable, in order to exchange their gold
for neceflaries for their families, and return immediately
with the greateft part of the merchandife on their backs.
Frequently the Jews or Egyptians give them large
credit; which may feem furprifing, as they are beyond
recourie if they Ihould fail of payment. But experience
has ihown, that they have never abufed the confidence
Tepofed in them ; and even in the event of death, their
fellow-travellers take care of the effedts of the deceafed
for the benefit of their families, but in the firft place
for the difoharge of thofe debts contrafted at Cairo 
It remains only to be obferved, that one of the principal
branches of trade of the Abyffines is that of flaves; who
are greatly efteemed in the Indies and Arabia for the
belt, and moft faithful, of all that the other kingdoms
of Africa furnilh. The Indian and Arabian merchants
frequently fubftitute them as their fadtors; and, on ac-
Vot. I.
count of their good fervices and integrity, not only of- Abyflinia,
ten give them their liberty, but liberally reward them. —v*,“'
. Into this part of the globe the admiffion of travel¬
lers has been fuppofed extremely difficult, and their re- _
turn from thence almoft impracticable. A Scotch
gentleman, however, of family and fortune, James
Bruce, Efq; of Kinnaird, is known not only to have
entered that country, but to have refided in it fe-
veral years, and returned fafe home, bringing with him
many great curiofities. Soon after his return, the fol¬
lowing notice was given by the Count de Buffon in an
advertifement prefixed to the 3d volume of his Hiftory
of Birds: “ A new aid which I have received, and
which I am anxious to announce to the public, is the
free and generous communication which I had of the
drawings and obfervations of James Bruce, Efq; of
Kinnaird, wrho returning from Numidia, and the inte¬
rior parts of Abyffinia, ftopt in my houfe for feveral
days, and made me a partaker of the knowledge which
he had acquired in a tour no lefs fatiguing than ha¬
zardous. It filled me with the utmoft aftonifhment to
view the numerous drawings which he had made and
coloured himfelf. He pofTeffes the moft perfedl repre*
fentations and defcriptions of the birds, fifties, plants,
edifices, monuments, drefs, arms, &c. of different na¬
tions, all of them objedts worthy of knowledge. No¬
thing has efcaped his curiofity, and his talents have
been proportioned to it. The Englifh government
wall without doubt take proper meafures for the pub¬
lication of his work. That refpedtable nation, which
has given a lead to all others in difcoveries of every
kind, will not fail to add to its glory, by fpeedily com¬
municating to the w-orld at large, thofe of this excel¬
lent traveller, who, not contented with accurate de¬
fcriptions of nature, has made many important obfer¬
vations on the culture of different kinds of grains ; on
the navigation of the Red Sea; on the courfe of the
Nile, from its mouth to its fource, which he has been
the firft to difcover; and on different particulars which
may be of the higheft utility to commerce and agri¬
culture, thofe great arts which are but little known
and ill cultivated. Yet, on thefe alone, the fuperiority
of one nation over another does depend, and for ever
will depend,”
It is much to be regretted, that after fo long an in¬
terval, this gentleman’s difcoveries have not yet made
their appearance. The delay has given rife to various
fpeculations. Doubts have even been entertained con¬
cerning the credibility of the reports that have tran-
fpired, or been gathered from his convei fation. His
honour and abilities, however, are too extenlively known
to be affefted by fuch injurious infrnuations. That he
hath great talents for the information of his readers,
appears by his differtation on the Theban harp*, which * gee
Dr Burney hath inferted in the firft volume of his article
Hiftory of Mufic, and in which are alfo mentioned Ha arm
feveral of the Abyffinian inftruments. Mr Bruce,thls l)iC"
moreover, is faid to have a great facility in learning tl0na‘ Y’
languages, and talents for drawing; nor perhaps was
any other traveller furnifhed writh fo large and fcientific
an apparatus of inftruments. Add to all this, that he
is poffeffed of a fpirit and enterprife not eafily to be
equalled. The fpeedy produftion, therefore, of fo in-
terefting an account as he is capable of giving, of this
almoft unfrequented part of Africa, cannot but ftill be
E earneftly
A B Y [ 34 1 A B Y
.Abyffinia. earneftly wiilied for. In the mean time, the following
l—v ' aut}jent{c anecdotes will not, it is prefumed, be unac¬
ceptable, nor appear foreign to the prefent article.
Mr Bruce was appointed conful to Algiers, where
he continued till 1=765.. In June 1764, he requefted
leave of abfence from the fecretary of ftate for the
fouthern department, in order to make fome drawings
of antiquities near Tunis.
In Mr Bruce’s laft letter from Algiers to the fame
fecretary (dated December 29. 1764), he alludes to
another leave of abfence, which he had likewife re¬
quefted, that he might vifit parts of the African con¬
tinent- He explains himfelf no further, in this letter ;
but it is believed that he proceeded confiderably to the
fouthward of Algiers, and made thofe very capital
drawings of remains of Roman architefture, which
many have feen fince his return to Britain. Before
he fet out for Algiers, he informed fome of his friends,
that the making fuch excurfions for thefe interefting
purpofes was his- principal inducement for accepting
the confulfhip..
How. long he continued in Africa, the prefent writer
has not had: the opportunity of procuring information ;
but having intentions afterwards of viiiting Palmyra,
he was Shipwrecked on the coaft of Tunis, and plun¬
dered of every thing by the barbarous inhabitants.
The moft diftrefling part of the lofs was probably
that of his inftruments, fo neceffary to a fcientific tra¬
veller ; and though he afterwards procured fome of
thefe, yet others (particularly, a quadrant) could not
be recovered. Mr Bruce, however, determining to
repair this lofs as foon as pofiible from France, fo much
nearer to him than England, was fo fortunate as to
be provided with a time-piece and quadrant from that
quarter. Upon this occafion Lewis XV. prefented him
with an iron quadrant of four feet radius, as he had
probably reprefented to the academy of fciences his
want of fuch an inftrument whilft he ftiould be in
Abyflinia : Mr-Bruce brought back with him to Eng¬
land this cumbrous fellow-traveller, and, having put
upon it an infcription to the following purport, is faid
to have prefented it to the univerfity of Glafgow :
With this inftrument given by the king of France,
Lewis XV. Mr Bruce proceeded to the fources of the
Nile, it being carried on foot, upon mens ftioulders,
over the mountains of Abyflinia.” This information
was received from that eminent maker of inftruments.
Mr Nairne.
Where and when Mr Bruce' received1 the French
inftruments is not known ; but as he was ftill bent on
vifiting Abyffinia, he gave a commiffion to Mr W.
Ruffel, F. R. S. for a refle&ing telefcope, made by
Bird or Short; a watch with a hand to point feconds,
and the neweft and completeft Englifh aftronomical
tables; all of which were to be fent to Mr Fremaux,
and forwarded to him at Alexandria before Auguft.
On the 29th of March 1768, Mr Bruce was at Sidon
on the coaft of Syria, and wrote to Mr Ruffel from
thence for the following additional inftruments, viz. a
twelve-feet reflecting telefcope, to be divided into pieces
of three feet, and joined with fcrews. This telefcope
was alfo accompanied by two thermometers and two
portable barometers. Mr Bruce moreover informed
Mr Ruflel, that he was going into a country (viz. A-
byffinia) from which few travellers had returned; and AbyKnii.
wilhed Mr Ruflel, or his philofophical friends, would 11 ’ '*
fend him their defiderata, as he was entirely at their
fervice. Mr Bruce added, that if he could not obtain
admiffion into Abyffinia, he ftill would do his bell in
the caufe of fcience on the eaftern coaft of the Red
Sea.,
As Mr Bruce had direfted the' inftruments to be
ready for him at Alexandria by the beginning of Au¬
guft 1768, it is probable that he reached Cairo about
that time ; from whence he proceeded to Abyffinia,
by way of Jedda, Mazava, and Arquito.
It is fuppofed that Mr Bruce did not continue long
at Jedda, as he is faid to have explored the coaft on
the eaft fide as low as Mocha, during which drawings
were taken of many curious filh in the Red Sea. Mr
Bruce muft alfo have entered Abyflinia, either at the
latter end of 1768, or the very beginning of ilGg,
as he made an oufervation in that part of Africa on
the 15th of January of that year.
In this perilous enterprife he was accompanied by a
Greek fervant (named Michael), and an Italian paint¬
er, who probably affifted in the numerous articles w'hich
might deferve reprefentation, and w'ho died of a flux
before Mr Bruce’s return to Cairo in 1773. Bruce
muft at times alft> have been affifted by many others,
as his inftruments, apparatus for drawings, and other
neceflaries, from their weight and bulk could not be
eafily tranfported from place to place, and perhaps re¬
quired beafts of burden. To thefe likewife muft be
added feveral medicines which enabled him to perform
cures on the inhabitants, and’ probably occafioned the
good reception he afterwards met with.
Such, other particulars as happened to Mr Bruce,
during his long refidence in this unfrequented country,
muft be left to his own fuperior narrative ; and it ftiall
fuffice, therefore, only to ftate, that he made a large
number of obfervations to fix the fituations of places,
out of w'hich 31 have been examined and computed
by the aftronomer royal. The firft of thefe obferva¬
tions was made on the 10th of January 1769, and the
laft on the 5th of Odlober 1772, from 30 to 38 de¬
grees of eaft longitude from Greenwich, and from,
12 to 28 degrees of north latitude. It need fcarcely
be faid, therefore, that thefe obfervations, which in¬
clude fo large an extent of almoft unknown country,
muft prove a moft valuable addition to geography ; and
the more fo, becaufe the Portuguefe, who firft vifited
Abyffinia, give neither longitude nor latitude of any
place in that empire ; and Poncet only two latitudes,.
viz. thofe of Sennar and Giefum.
As Mr Bruce made the laft of his obfervations on
the 5th of O(Sober 1772, it is probable that he might'
then be on his return to. Cairo, through Nubia and
Upper Egypt, where he arrived on the 15th of Ja¬
nuary 1773, after an abfence of more than four years ;
bringing back with him his Greek fervant, named
Michael.
Mr Bruce continued at Cairo four months, during
which time he had daily intercourfe with Mr Antes;,
the fubftance of a letter from whom will contain the
principal confutation of Baron Tott, and others, who.
have been incredulous with regard to Mr Bruce’s ex—
pefted narrative.
Mr.
A B Y [ 35 ] A B Y
Abyfiinia. jyj;r Antes was bprn of German parents,' vvKo were
' poflefled of lands in the back fettlements of Penfylvania;
Sand having fhowed early abilities as a mechanic, re¬
moved to Europe, where he diftinguifhed himfelf in the
art of watch-making, which he learned without ap-
prenticefhip. Being a member of the church known by
the name of Unitas Fratrum, and commonly called
Moravian, he vvifhed to be employed in their millions,
and more flpecially that of the fame perfuafion efta-
blilhed at Cairo, who always have delired to procure
opportunities of inllrufting the Abyffinians.
Mr Bruce had left Cairo fifteen months before Mr
Antes came there ; and the intercourfe, therefore, be¬
tween them firft took place on Mr Bruce’s return in
1773- ...
Having given this account of Mr Bruce and Mr
Antes’s being firft known to each other, we Ihall ftate
the fubftance of fome information received from the
latter, who is now eftablilhed at Fulneck near Leeds,
after having refided eleven years at Cairo.
“ That Mr Bruce left Cairo in 1768, and proceeded
thence by Way of Jeda, Mazava, and Arquico, into
Abyffinia.
“ That in 1771, a Greek came from Gondar (the
capital) in Abyffinia, wffio had a draught from Mr
Bruce on a French merchant at Cairo (named Roft)
for fome hundreds of German crowns, which were paid
immediately. This draught was accompanied by a
letter from Mr Bruce, and was the firft time that he
had been heard of at Cairo fince his departure in 1768.
“ That after Mr Bruce’s return to Cairo in 1773,
Mr Antes faw a young Armenian and his father (who
came likewife from Gondar) at Mr Pini’s, an Italian
merchant of Cairo, where they and Mr Bruce con-
verfed in the Abyffinian language, and feemed glad to
meet him again.
“ That Mr Bruce returned to Cairo from Abyffinia
by way of Nubia and Upper Egypt; which can be
fully attefted by the Francifcan friars who are eftab¬
lilhed at Ifne near Afyuwan, which latter is the high-
eft town of Upper Egypt.
“ That during Mr Bruce’s ftay at Cairo, which was
not lefs than four months, no day puffed without their
feeing each other; which gave Mr Antes frequent op-
■portunities of inquiring with regard to Abyffinia, con¬
cerning which he was particularly interefted from a-
reafon before ftated.
“ That Mr Antes likewife frequently converfed with
Michael, Mr Bruce’s Greek fervant; who is ftated to
have by no means had a lively imagination, and who Abyflinfi.
always agreed with the circumftances mentioned by his *
mafter, and more particularly in relation to their having
vifited the fources of the Nile ; which the Baron Tott
doubts of, from having had a converfation with this
fame Greek fervant.
Mr Antes adds, “ That Baron Tott ftaid but a few
days at Cairo; and, from his ffiort refidence in that
country, hath-given feveral erroneous accounts relative
to Egypt. Mr Antes, on the other hand, had almoft
daily converfations with Michael for feveral years, and
often in relation to the fources of the Nile.”
Laftly, “ That after Mr Bruce left Cairo, Mr Antes
had converfed with others who had known Mr Bruce
in Abyffinia, and that he was there called Maalim Jd-
kube, or Mr James.”
After this ftate of fa&s, it is conceived that no one
can entertain a reafonable doubt with regard to Mr
Bruce’s not only having vifited, but refided long in
Abyffinia ; though it is remarkable that the Jefuits ex-
preffed the fame doubts in relation to Poncet, who had
continued there nearly as long as Mr Bruce. Poncet
happened to be a layman; and the Jefuits, perhaps,
would not approve of any narrative that did not come
from father Beneverit, who accompanied Poncet to
Abyffinia, but unfortunately died there (a).
Driven, however, from this hold, the obje&ors will
poffibly retain their incredulity as to many particulars
to be related.
The firft of thefe is, the having vifited the fources
of the Nile ; which, from claffical education, we can-
n6t eafily believe, as they were unknown to the an¬
cients, though they had fo great curiofity with regard
to this difeovery.”
Many things, however, have been accomplifhed by
travellers in modern times, which the ancients ne¬
ver could atchieve, and which may be attributed to
their want of enterprife (as travellers at leaft), of lan¬
guages, and laftly the not being able to procure cre¬
dit when in a diftant country. Mr Bmce could not
have continued fo long as he did in Abyffinia, unlefs he
had drawn from Gondar upon a merchant eftabliffied
at Cairo.
The difficulty, however, with regard to reaching
the fourcee of the Nile, arifes principally from the un¬
civilized ftate of Abyffinia, unlefs the traveller hath a
proper introduftion (3). When once this is procured,
all difficulties feem to ceafe, as we find by Lobo’s (c)
account of this fame difeovery, and likewife by Pon-
E 2 cet’s
{a) It muft be admitted, however, that we owe to the zeal of the Jefuits the bed accounts we have both of China
and Paraguay. Few laymen have been a<fhiated fo ftrongly for the promotion of geography and fcience as Mr
Bruce ; and we muft therefore (upon the order of Jefuits being abolifhed) look up chiefly to the miflionaries from
the church of the Unitas Fratrum, who, though differing fo totally in other refpedis, feem to have an equal ardour
with the Jefuits for inftru/fing the inhabitants of countries unfrequented by Europeans. Such millions are already
eftaWilhed in Weft Greenland, the coaft of Labrador, N.Lat. 56. the back fettlements of Carolina, and Penfylvania,
in India, Bengal, and the Nicobar iflands. Tbofe eftablilhed on the coaft of Labrador fend over yearly meteorolo-.
gical journals, which are communicated to the Royal Society. As for the difpute between Poncet and Maillet the
French conful at Cairo, fee Mod. Univ. Hift. vol. 6.
{b) The profefling the knowledge of medicine was Poncet’s introduction, and feems to have been that of Mr Bruce.
Even in our own civilized country, how are quacks and mountebaoks-reforted to ? And what an impreflion
muft; Mr Bruce, with his magnificent and fcientific apparatus, have made upon the inhabitants of fuch a country as
Abylffinia ?
(c) In Father Telles’s compilation. See alfo Ludolf, who deferibes the fources from Gregory, who was a native
ofAbyffinia. Father Payz was the firft who vifited them, A. D. i6ai. His account of this is faid to be in the
archives
A B Y
Abyflinia. eft’s narrative, ■>.vho was prevented by illnefs from vi-
' ■v ' filing the very fpot, but hath given an ample relation
from an Abyfiinian who had often been there. Pon-
cet, moreover, had obtained leave from the emperor to
make this journey, which he ftates as not being a di-
ftant one, and that the emperor hath a palace near the
very fources.
If it be doubted whether Mr Bruce hath vifited every
fource of the Nile, it may be anfwered, that perhaps no
Englifhman hath taken this trouble with regard to the
fources of the Thames, which, like moft other great
rivers, is probably derived from many fprings and rills
in different direflions.
The other objection which we have often heard, is,
“ That Mr Bruce hath mentioned in converfation,
that the Abyffinians cut a flice from the living ox,
efteeming it one of their greateft delicacies.”
This fort of dainty, indeed, is not fo confidered in
other parts of the globe ; but every nation almoft hath
its peculiarities in the choice of their food. Do not
we eat raw oyfters within a fecond of their being fepa-
rated from the fhell ? And do not we roaft both them
and lobfters whilft alive ; the barbarity of which prac¬
tice deems to equal that of the Abyffinians ? Do not
cooks fkin eels whilft alive ? And do not epicures crimp
fiffi for the gratification of their appetites ?
That the Abyffinians eat beef in a raw ftate, is a-
greed both by Lobo and Poncet; and the former fays,
rseking from the beaft. Mr Antes, moreover, was
told by a Francifcan monk, who went with the cara¬
van from Abyffinia to Cairo (</), that he was witnefs of
an ox being killed, and immediately devoured by the
band of travellers.
One reafon, perhaps, for this ufage may be, the
great heat of the climate, which will not permit meat
to be kept a fufficient time to make it tender (as with
us) ; and it is generally allowed, that a fowl, dreffed
immediately after it is killed, is in better order for eat¬
ing than if it is kept; four and twenty hours.
Is it therefore extraordinary, that an Abyffinian
epicure may really find (or perhaps fancy) that a piece
cut from the beaft whilft alive, may be more tender,
or have a better reliffi, than if it is previoufly killed by
the butcher ? To this may be added, that according to
the information which has been received on this head,
Mr Bruce’s account of this practice is much mifre-
prefented by the obje&ors, who fuppofe that the ox
lives a confiderable time after thefe pieces are cut from
it. When thefe dainty bits, however, have been fent
to the great man’s table (and which are probably taken
from the fleffiy parts), the beaft foon afterwards expires,
when the firft artery is cut, in providing fiices for the
numerous attendants.
Upon the whole, the not giving credit to a traveller,
becaufe he mentions an ufage which is very different
from ours (and is undoubtedly veiy barbarous), feems
rather to argue ignorance than acutenefs.
This brings to recollection the incredulity which
A B Y
was (hewn to another diftinguiffied traveller, Dr Shaw; Abyflims,
who having mentioned, in an Oxford common room, that AbyiSnian,
fomeof the Algerines were fond of lion’s flelh, never could ^ ''
obtain any credit afterwards from his brother-feHows
of the fame college, though many of them were learn¬
ed men. It is well known, however, though Dr Shaw
ftates this fame circumftance in the publication of his
travels, that he is cited with the greateft approbation
in almoft every part of Europe. Sii^William Temple
fomewhere mentions, that a Dutch governor of Bata¬
via, who lived much with one of the moft confiderable
inhabitants of Java, could never obtain any credit from
him after having mentioned, that in Holland water
became a folid body. The traveller who firft faw a
flying fifti probably told every one of this extraordina¬
ry circumftance as foon as he fet his foot on Ihore, and
was probably diferedited with regard to the other par¬
ticulars of his yoyage.
The natural caufe and progrefs of the incredulity
which a traveller generally experiences, feems to be the
following:
When he returns from a diftant and little frequented
country, everyone is impatient to hear-his narrative ;
from which, of courfe, he felefts the more ftriking
parts, and particularly the ufages which differ moft;'
from our own. Some of the audience, difbelieving
what the traveller hath mentioned, put queftions toi
him which Ihow their diftruft. The traveller by this
treatment becomes irritated, and anfwers fome of them
peevilhly, others ironically, of which the interrogators
afterwards take advantage to his prejudice. Nothing
is more irritating to an ingenuous perfon than to find
his affertions are dilbelieved. This is commonly ex¬
perienced in the crofs examinations of almoft every
witnefs. To the diftreffes of the traveller on his re¬
turn, we may add, the being often leafed by. very ig
norant queftions.
ABYSSINIAN, in eeclefiaftical hiftory, is ufed
as the name of a fed!, or herefy, in the Chriftian
church, eftablifhed in the empire of Abyffinia. The
Abyffinians are a branch of the Copts or Jacobites
with whom they agree in admitting but one nature in
Jefus Chrift, and rejecting the council of Chalcedon :
whence they are alfo called Eutychians, and ftand.
oppofed to the Melchites. They are only diftin-
guifhed from the Copts, and other fedls of Jacobites,
by fome. peculiar national ufages.—The Abyffinian fedt
or church is governed by a biftiop or metropolitan
ftyled A buna. Tent them by the Coptic patriarch of’
Alexandria refiding at Cairo, who is the only perfon
that ordains priefts. The next dignity is that of Ko-
mos, or Hegumenas, who is. a kind of arch-prelbyter.
They have canons alfo, and monks: the former of
whom marry ; the latter, at their admiffion, vow celi¬
bacy, but with a refervation : thefe, it is faid, make a
promife aloud, before their fuperior, to keep chaftity ;
but add, in a low voice, as you keep it. The emperor
has a kind of fupremacy in ecclefiaftical matters. He
alone
[ 36 1
archives of the College at Rome. It is believed that there are many other curious particulars
for the ilhiftration of geography to be found in the fame depofitory. Dr Shaw mentions, moreover, fome papers of
Lippi (who accompanied the French embafiy into Abyffinia, A. D. 1704.), which are to be found in the botanical
library at Oxford.
{d) This point s out another channel by which a traveller of enterprife may vifit Abyffihia.
A C A r 37 J A C A
AbyfTmian alone takes cognifance of all ecclefiaftical caufes, except
II. . fome fmalkr ones referved to the judges ; and confers
^ caca o. ^ keneflceS) except that of Abuna.—The Abyffinians
have at different times expreffed an inclination to be
reconciled to the fee of Rome ; but rather out of
intereft of date than any other motive. The emperor
David, or the queen regent on his behalf, wrote a
letter on this head to pope Clement VII. full of fub-
miffion, and demanding a patriarch from Rome to
be inftrufted by: which being complied with, he
publicly abjured the doftrine of Eutychius and Diof-
corus in 1626, and allowed the fupremacy of the pope.
Under the emperor Seltan Seghed all was undone again ;
the Romifh miffionaries fettled there had their churches
taken from them, and their new converts banifhed or
put to death. The congregation de propaganda have
made feveral attempts to revive the milfion, but to lit¬
tle purpofe.—The do&rines and ritual of this feftary
form a ftrange compound of Judaifm, Chriftianity, apd
fuperitition. They pra&ife circumcifion ; and are laid
to extend the practice to the females as well as males:
They obferve both Saturday and Sunday fabbaths :
they eat no meats prohibited by the law of Mofes:
women are obliged to the legal purifications : and bro¬
thers marry their brothers wives, &c. On the other
hand, they celebrate the epiphany with peculiar fefti-
vity, in memory of Chrift’s baptifm ; when they plunge
and fport in ponds and rivers; which has occafioned
fome to affirm that they were baptized anew -every
year. Among the faints-days is one confecrated to Pi¬
late and his wife ; by reafon Pilate wafhed his hands
before he pronounced fentence on Chrift, and his wife
defired him to have nothing to do with the blood of
that juft perfon. They have four lents : the great one
commences ten days earlier than ours, and is obferved
with much feverity, many abftaining therein even from
fifh, becaufe St Paul fays there is one kind of flelh of
men, and anotlier of fifties. They allow of divorce,
which is eafily granted among them, and by the civil
judge ; nor do their civil laws prohibit polygamy it-
felf. They have at leaft as many miracles and legends
of faints as-the Romifn church ; which proved no fmall
embarraflment to the Jefuit miffionaries, to whom they
produced fo many miracles, wrought by their faints,
in proof of their religion, and thofe fo well circum-
flantiated and attefted, that the Jefuits were obliged to
deny miracles to be any proof of a true religion; and
in proof hereof to allege the fame arguments againft
the Abyffinians, which Proteftants in Europe allege a-
gainft Papifts. They pray for the dead, and invoke
faints and angels; have fo great a veneration for the
virgin, that they charged the Jefuits with not render¬
ing her honour enough. Images in painting they ve¬
nerate ; but abhor all thofe in relievo, except the crofs..
They hold that the foul of man is not created 5 be¬
caufe, fay they, God finiftied all his work on the fixth
day. They admit the apocryphal books, and the
canons of the apoftles, as well as the apoftolical con-
ftitutions, for genuine. Their liturgy is given by Al¬
varez, and in Englilh by Pagit.
ACA, ace, or acon, a town of Phoenicia, on the
Mediterranean ; afterwards called Ptolemais; now Acre.
ACACALOTL, the Brafilian name of a bird called
by fome corvus aquations, or the water-raven : proper¬
ly, the pelicanus carbo, or corvorant. See Pelicanus.
ACACIA, Egyptian Thorn, or Binding Bean- Acacia
tree, in botany, a fpecies of Mimofa, according to ■“v“■
Linnaeus ; tho’ other botanifts make it a diftinct genus.
See Mimosa.
The flowers of a fpecies of the acacia are ufed by
the Chinefe in making that yellow, which we fee
bears waihing in their iilks and fluffs, and appears
with fo much elegance in their painting on paper. The
method is this :
They gather the flowers before they are fully open ;
thefe they put into a clean earthen veffel over a gentle
heat, and ftir them continually about, as they do the
tea-leaves, till they become dryifti and of a yellow Co¬
lour ; then to half a pound of the flowers they add'
three fpoonfuls of fair water, and after that a little
more, till there is juft enough to hold the flowers in¬
corporated together; they boil this for fome time, and
the juice of the flowers mixing with the water, it be¬
comes thick and yellow ; they then take it from the
fire, and ftrain it through a piece of coarfe filk. To
the liquor they add half an ounce of common alum,
and an ounce of calcined oyfter-fliells reduced to a fine
powder. All is then well mixed together ; and this ift-
the fine lafting yellow they have fo long ufed.
The dyers of large pieces ufe the flowers and feed*-
of the acacia for dying three different forts of yellow.
They roaft the flowers, as before obferved ; and then
mix the feeds with them, which muft be gathered
for this purpofe when full ripe : by different admixture
of thefe, they give the different fliades of colour, only
for the deepeft of all they give a fmall mixture of Bra¬
zil wood.
Mr Geoffrey attributes the origin of bezoar to the
feeds of this plant; which being broufed by certain
animals, and vellicating the ftomach by their great
fournefs and aftringency, caufe a condenfation of the
juices, till at length they become coated over with a
ftony matter, which we call bezoar.
Falfe Acacia. See Robinia.
Tbree-thorned Acacia, or Honey-locuji. See Gle-
distia.
Acacia, in the Materia Medica, the infpiffatedjuice
of the unripe fruit of the Mimosa Nilotica.
This juice is brought to us from Egypt,, in roundilh
maflies, wrapt up in thin bladders. It is outwardly of
a deep brown colour, inclining to black; imvardly of
a reddifh or yellowifh brown; of a firm confiftence, but
not very dry. It foon foftens in the mouth, and dif-
covers a rough, not difagreeable tafte, which is fol¬
lowed by a fweetifli relifh. This infpiffated juice en¬
tirely diffolves in watery liquors ; but is fcarce fenfibly
a£Ved on by rectified fpirit.
Acacia is a mild aftringent medicine. The Egyp¬
tians give it in fpitting of blood, in the quantity of a
dram, diffolved in any convenient liquor; and repeat
this dofe occafionally : they likewife employ it in col-
lyria for ftrengthening the eyes, and in gargarifms for
quinfeys. Among us, it is little otherwife ufed than
as an ingredient in mithridate and theriaca, and is rare¬
ly met with in the fliops. What is ufually fold for the
Egyptian acacia, is the infpiffated juice of unripe floes:
this is harder, heavier, of a darker colour, and fame—
what fharper tafte, than the true fort. See the next
article.
German Acacia,- the juice of unripe floas infpiffated'
. nearly
A C A [ 33 ] A C A
Acacia nearly to drinefs over a gentle fire, care being taken
Academics t0 Prevent ^ts burning. It is moderately aftringent,
1 ^ 1 fimilar to the Egyptian acacia, for which it has been
commonly fubftituted in the (hops. It is given in
fluxes, and other diforders where ftyptic medicines are
indicated, from a fcruple to a dram.
Acacia, among antiquaries, fomething refembling a
roll or bag, feen on medals, as in the hands of feveral
confuls and emperors. Some take it to reprefent a
handkerchief rolled up, wherewith they made fignalsat
•the games; others, a roll of petitions or memorials;
•and fome, a purple bag full of earth, to remind them
of their mortality.
AC AC IANS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, the name of
feveral lefts of heretics; fome of which maintained,
that the Son was only a fimilar, not the fame, fubftance
with the Father; and others, that he was not only a
diitinft, but a diffimilar, fubftance. Two of thefe fects
had their denomination from Acacius bilhop of Caefa-
rea, who lived in the fourth century, and changed his
opinions, fo as, at different times, to be head of both.
Another was named from Acacius patriarch of Con-
ftantinople, who lived in the clofe of the' fifth cen-
tury.
ACACIUS, firnamed Luscus, becaufe he was blind
of one eye, was biihop of Casfarea in Paleftine, and fue-
ceedcd the famous Eufebius: he had a great (hare in
the baniftiment of Pope Liberius, and bringing Felix to
the fee of Rome: He gave name to a feft, and died
about the year 365. He wrote the life of Eufebius,
and feveral other works.
Acacius (St.), bifhop of Amida, in Mefopotamia, in
420, was diftinguilhed by his piety and charity. He
fold the plate belonging to his church, to redeem fe-
ven thoufand Perfian flaves who were ready to die with
want and mifery ; and giving each of them fqme mo¬
ney, fent them home. Veranius, their king, was fo a£-
fefted with this noble inftance of benevolence, that he
defired to fee the biftiop ; and this interview procured
a peace between that Prince and Theodofius L
There have been feveral other eminent perfons of the
fame name ; particularly, A martyr under the emperor
Decius: A patrarch of Antioch, who fucceeded Bafil
in 45.8, and died in 459 : A bifhop of Miktum in the
fifth century : A famous rhetorician in the reign of the
emperor Julian : and, A patriarch of Conftantinople in
the fifth century ; who was ambitious to draw the whole
. power and authority of Rome by degrees to Conftan¬
tinople, for which he -was delivered over irretrievably
to the devil by Pope Felix III.
ACAD, or Aghad, (anc. geog.) the town in which
Nimrod reigned, called Archad by the feventy ; fitua-
ted in Babylonia, to the eaftward of the Tigris.
ACADEMICIAN, or Academist, a member of
an academy. See Academy in the modern fenfe.
ACADEMICS, or Academists, a denomination
given to the cultivators of a fpecies of philofophy ori¬
ginally derived from Socrates, and afterwards illu-
ftrated and enforced by Plato, who taught in a grove
near Athens, confecrated to the memory of Academus,
an Athenian hero ; from which circumftance this phi¬
lofophy received the name of academical. Before the
days of Plato, philofophy had in a great meafure
fallen into contempt. The contradi&ory fyftems and
hypqthefes which had fucceflively been urged upon the
world were become fo numerous, that, from a view Academics
of this inconftancy and uncertainty of human opinions, 11
many were led to conclude, that truth lay beyond the , cac|cmy‘.
reach' of our comprehenfion. Abfolute and univerfal
fcepticifm was the natural confequence of this conclu-
fion. In order to remedy this abufe of philofophy
and of the human faculties, Plato laid hold of the
principles of the academical philofophy; and, in his
Phasdo, reafons in the following manner. “ If we are
“ unable to difeover truth, (fays he), it muft be owing
“ to two circumftances : either there is no truth in
“ the nature of things ; or the mind, from a defied!
“ in its powers, is not able to apprehend it. Upon
“ the latter fuppofition, all the uncertainty and fluc-
u tuation in the opinions and judgments of mankind
“ admit of an eafy folution : Let us therefore be mo-
“ deft, and aferibe our errors to the real weaknefs
“ of our own minds, and not to the nature of things
“ themfelves. Truth is often difficult of accefs : in
order to come at it, we muft proceed with caution
“ and diffidence, carefully examining every ftep; and,
“ after all our labour, we will frequently find our great-
“ eft efforts difappointed, and be obliged to confefs our
“ ignorance and weaknefs.”
Labour and caution in their refearches, in oppofi-
tion to rafti and hafty decifions, were the diftinguifhing
charadteriftics of the difciples of the ancient academy,
A philofopher, poffeffed of thefe principles, will be
flow in his progrefs ; but will feldom fall into errors,
or have occafion to alter his opinion after it is once
formed. Vanity and precipitance are the great fources
of fcepticifm : hurried on by thefe, inftead of attending
to the cool and deliberate principles recommended by
the academy, feveral of our modern philofophers have
plunged themfelves into an abfurd and ridiculous kind
of fcepticifm. They pretend to diferedit fubjedts that
are plain, Ample, and eafily comprehended; but give
peremptory and decifive judgments upon things that
evidently exceed the limits of our capacity. Of thefe,
Berkley and Hume are the moft confiderable. Berkley
denied the exiftence of every thing, excepting his own
ideas. Mr Hume has gone a ftep further, andqueftioned
even the exiftence of ideas; but at the fame time has
not hefitated to give determined opinions with regard
to eternity, providence, and a future ftate, miraculous '
interpofitions of the Deity, &c. fubjedts far above the
reach of our faculties. In his effay on the academical
or fceptical philofophy, he has confounded two very
oppofite fpecies of philofophy. After the days of Plato,
indeed, the principles of the firft academy were grofsly
corrupted by Arcefilas, Carneades, &c. This might
lead Mr Hume into the notion that the academical and
fceptical philofophy were fynonymous terms. But no
principles can be of a more oppofite nature than thofe
which were inculcated by the old academy of Socrates
and Plato, and the fceptical notions which were propa¬
gated by Arcefilas, Carneades, and the other difciples
of the fucceeding academics.
ACADEMY, in antiquity, a garden, villa, or grove,
fituated within a mile of Athens, where Plato and his
followers held their philofophical conferences. It took
its name from one Academus, or Ecademus, who was
the original owner of it, and made it a kind of gymna-
fium : he lived in the time of Thefeus; and, after his
death, it retained his name, and was confecrated to
his
A c A [ ; 39 1 A G A
Academies, his memory. Cimon embellifhed it with fountains, prefident, two adjunfts or fecretaries, and colleagues or Academic'!.
"»-x'' trees, and walks ; but Sylla, during the fiege of Athens, members without reftriftion. The colleagues, at their ' ^ 1
employed thefe very trees in making battering engines admiflion,oblige themfelves to two things: firft,tochoofe
again ft the city. Cicero too had his villa, or place of fome fnbjeft out of the animal, vegetable, or mineral
retirement, near Puzzuoli, which he alfo named an aca- • kingdom, to handle, provided it had not been treated
demy, where he compofed his Academical quejhons, and of by any colleague before ; the feeond, to apply them-
his book De natura deoruin.
Academy, among the moderns, is moft commonly
ufed to figitify a society of learned men, eftablifhed for
the improvement of any art or fcience, and generally
under the proteftion of a prince.
The firft Academy we read of, was eftablifhed by
Charlemagne, at the inftigation of Ai.cuin. It was
compofed of the chief wits of the court, the emperor
himfelf being a member. In their academical con¬
ferences, every perfon was to give an account of what
ancient authors he had read; and each even aflumed
the name of fome ancient author who pleafed him moft,
or fome celebrated perfon of antiquity. Alouin, from
whofe letters we learn thefe particulars, took that of
Flaccus, the firname of Horace : a young lord, named
Augilbert, took that of Homer: Adelard, hi drop of tisfaflory anfwer.
Corbie, was called Auguftin: Riculfe, buhop of Mcntz, Academy of Surgery at Vienna,
was Dametas; and the king himfeif, David. This
ftiows the miftake of fome modern writers, who re¬
late, that it was in conformity with the genius of the
learned men of thofe times, who were great admirers
of Roman names, that Alcufn took the name of Flac¬
cus Albinus.
Moft nations have now their academies; but Italy
has the greateft number.—The French have many
flouriftiing academies, moft of" which were eftablifhed
by Lewis XIV.—We have but few in Britain; and
thofe of chiefeft note go. by a- different name. See tire
article Society.
In giving an account of the principal Academies, it
felves to furnilh materials for the Annual Ephemerides.
Each member to bear a fymbol of the academy; viz.
a gold ring; whereon, inftead of a ftone, is a book
open, and, on the face thereof, an eye; on the other
fide the motto of the academy, Nunquam otiofus-.
II. Chiuvrgical Academies; as that inftituted fome
years i-go, by public authority, at Paris: the mem¬
bers of which were not only to publifti their own and
correfpondents obfervations and improvements; but to
give an account of all that is publiftied on furgery, and
to compofe a complete hiftory of the' art, by their
extracts from all the authors ancient and modern
who have wumte on it. A queftion in furgery is an¬
nually propofed by the academy, and a gold medal of
200 livres value given to him who furnilhes the moft fa-
inftituted fome-
years ago by the prefent emperor, under the direftion
of the celebrated Brambilla. In this there were at
firft only two profeffors ; and to their charge the in-
ftruftion of 130 young man was committed, 30 of
whom had formerly been furgeons in the army. But
of late the number both of the teachers and pupils
has been confiderably increafed. Gabrieli has been
appointed to teach pathology and practice ; Boecking,
anatomy, phyfiology, and phyfics-; Streit, medical and
pharmaceutical furgery ; Hunczowfky, furgical opera¬
tions, midwifery, and the chirurgia forenfis; and Plenk,
chemiftry and botany. To thefe alfo has been added,
Beindl, as profeftor and extraordinary profeffor of
feems moft proper to arrange them according to their furgery and anatomy. Befides this, the emperor, with
fubjeefs.
I. Medical Academies-, as that of . the Natura; Cu-
riofi in Germany ; that founded at Palermo in 1645 ;
another, at Venice in 1701, which meets weekly in a
hall near the grand hoipital; another at Geneva in
his.ufual liberality, has provided a large and fplendid
edifice in Vienna, which affords habitation both for the
teachers, the Undents, pregnant women, patients for
clinical leftures, and fervants. He has alfo purchafed
for the ufe of this academy a medical library, which
17 15, in the houfe of M. Le Clerc. The colleges of is open every day ; a complete fet of chirurgical inftru.
phyficians at London and Edinburgh are alfo,. by fome,
ranked in the number of Academies.
The Academy of Natume Curiofi, called alfo the
Leopoldine Academy,, was founded in 1652 by Jo.
Laur. Baufchius, a phyfician ; who, in imitation of the
Englilh, publiihed an invitation to all phyficians to
communicate their extraordinary cafes; and,, meeting
with fuccefs, was eledted prefident. Their works were
at firft publifiied feparately ; but in 1670 a new fcheme
was laid for publifhing a volume of obfervations every
year. The firft volume appeared in 1684, under the
title of Ephemerides, , and the work has been continued
w'ith fome interruptions and variations of the title, iSc.
In 1687, the emperor Leopold took the fociety under
his protection, granting the members feveral privileges,
particularly that their prefidents fhould be counts pa¬
latine of the holy Roman empire. This academy lias
no fixed refidence, nor regular affemblies: inftead of
thefe, there is a kind of bureau, or office, firft eftablilh-
ed at Breflau, and afterwards removed to Nuremberg,
where letters, dbfervations, SsV. from correfpondents
ments; an apparatus for experiments in natural philo-
fophy; a collection of natural hiftory; a number of
anatomical and pathological preparations ; a collection,
of preparations in w-ax brought from Florence; and a
variety of other ufeful articles. Adjoining to the
building alfo there is a good botanical garden.
Among other parts of this inftitution, three prize-
medals, each of the value of 40 florins, are to be an¬
nually beftowed on thofe ftudents who return the belt
anfwer to queftions propofed the year before. Thefe
prizes are not entirely founded by the emperor, but
are in part owing to the liberality, of Brendellius the
protochirurgus at Vienna.
III. Ecclesiastical Academies ; as that at Bologna
in Italy, inftituted in 1687, employed in the examina¬
tion of the doftrine, difeipline, and hiftory, of eath.
age of the church.
IV. Cosmograehical Academies; as. that at Ve¬
nice, called the Argonauts. This was inftituted at the
folicitation of F. Coronelli, for the improvement! of
geographical knowledge. Its defign was to publilh
or:members are taken.in. The academy conlifts of a exad maps, both celeftiai and terreftrial, as well par¬
ticular.-
A C A [ 4° ] A C A
Academy, ticular as general, together with geographical, hiftori-
v ,~'J cal, and aftronomical defcriptions. Each member-, in
order to defray the expence of fuch a publication, was
to fubfcribe a proportional fum, for which they were
to receive one or more copies of each piece publifhed.
For this end three focieties are fettled ; one under
F. Moro, provincial of the Minorities in Hungary ; ano¬
ther under the abbot Laurence au Rue Payenne au
Marais; the third under F. Baldigiani, Jefuit, profef-
for of mathematics in the Roman college. The device
of this academy is the terraqueous globe, with the
motto Plus ultra; and at its expence all the globes,
map#, and geographical writings, of F. Coronelli have
been publilhed.
V. Academies of Sciences.—Thefe comprehend fuch
as are erefted for improving natural and mathematical
knowledge. They are othervvife called Philofophical
and Phyjical academies.
The firlt of thefe was inflituted at Naples, about the
year 1560, in the houfe of Baptiila Porta. It-was call¬
ed the Academy Secretorum Naturae; and was fuc-
.ceeded by the Academy of Lyncei, founded at Rome by
Prince Frederic Cefi, towards the end of that century.
Several of the members of this academy rendered it fa¬
mous by their difcoveries; among thefe was the cele¬
brated Galileo. Several other academies were inftituted
about that time, which contributed greatly to the ad¬
vancement of the fciences; but none of them compa¬
rable to that of the Lyncei.
Some years after the death of Toricelli, the Academy
del Cimento made its appearance, under the proteftion
-of Prince Leopold, afterwards Cardinal de Medicis.
Redi was one of its chief members; and the ftudies
purfued by the reft may be collefted from thofe curi¬
ous experiments publilhed in 1667, by their fecretary
Count Laurence Magulotti, under the title of Saggi di
Naturali Ffperienze; a copy of which was prefented
to the Royal Society, tranflated into Englilh by Mr
Waller, and publifhed at London in 4'°.
The Academy degl'Inquieti, afterwards incorporated
into that of Della Tracia in the fame city, followed the
example of that of Del Cimento. Some excellent dif-
courfes on phyfical and mathematical fubjefts, by Ge-
miniano Montenari, one of the chief members, were
publiflied in 1667, under the title of Perfieri Fifico
Matematici.
The Academy of Rojj'ano, in the kingdom of Naples,
was originally an academy of Belles Lettres, founded
in 1540, and transformed into an Academy of Sciences
in 1695 at the folicitation of the learned abbot Don
Giacinto Gimma; who being made prefident, under
the title of Promoter General thereof, gave them a
new fet of regulations. He divided the academifts
into the follow ing claftes : Grammarians, Rhetoricians,
Poets, Hiftorians, Philofophers, Phyficians, Mathema¬
ticians, Lawyers, and Divines, with a clafs apart for
Cardinals and perfons of quality. To be admitted a
member, a man muft have fome degrees in the faculty.
The members are not allowed to take the title of Aca-
demifs in the beginning of their books, without a
written permiffion from their prefident, which is not
granted till the work has been examined by the cen-
fors of the academy; and the permiflion is the greateft
honour the academy can confer, as they thereby adopt
the work, and are anfwerable for it againft all criti-
cifms that may be made upon it. To this law the Academy,
prefident or promoter himfelf is fubjqft ; and no aca-
demift is allowed to publifh any thing againft the wri¬
tings of another without leave from the fociety.
Several other Academies of Sciences have been
founded in Italy; but, for want of being fupported by
princes, did not continue long. The lofs of them, how¬
ever, was abundantly repaired by the inftitution of
others ftill fubfifting; fuch as, the Academy of Filarmo-
nici at Verona ; of Ricovatri at Padua, where a learned
difeourfe on the origin of fprings was delivered by
Sig. Vallifnieri, firft profeffor of phyfic in the univer-
fity of that city, and which was afterwards printed.
To the Academy of the Mutt de Reggio, at Modena,
the fame Sig. Vallifnieri prefented an excellent difeourfe
on the fcale of created beings, fince inferted in his hi-
ftory of the generation of man and animals printed at
Venice in the year 1721.
F. Merfenne is faid to have given the firft idea of a.
philofophical academy in France, towards the begin¬
ning of the 17th century, by the conferences of natu-
ralifts and mathematicians occafionally held at his
lodgings; at which Gaffendi, Des Cartes, Hobbes,
Roberval, Pafcal, Blondel, and others aflifted. F. Mer¬
fenne propofed to each certain problems to examine, or
certain experiments to be made. Thefe private affem-
blies were fucceeded by more public ones, formed by
Mr Montmort, and Mr Thevenot the celebrated tra¬
veller. The French example animated feveral Englilh-
rften of diftinftion and learning to ere£t a kind of
philofophical academy at Oxford, towards the clofe of
Oliver Cromwell’s adminiftration ; which, after the Re¬
iteration, was eretted into a Royal Society. See So¬
ciety. The Englilh example, in its turn, animated the
French. Lewis XIV. in 1666, affifted by the counfels of
Mr Colbert, founded 'an academy of fciences at Paris,
with a fufficient revenue to defray the charge of ex¬
periments, and falaries to the members.
Royal Academy of Sciences. After the peace of the
Pyrenees, Lewis XIV. being defirous of eftablilhipg
the arts, fciences, and literature, upon a folid founda¬
tion, direfted M. Colbert to form a fociety of men ot
known abilities and experience in the different branches,
who Ihould meet together under the king’s proteclion,
and communicate their refpe&ive difcoveries. Ac¬
cordingly Mr Colbert, having conferred with thofe
who were at that time moft celebrated for their learn¬
ing, refolved to form a fociety of fuch perfons as were
converfant in natural philofophy and mathematics, to
join to them other perfons flailed in hiftory and other
branches of erudition, along with thofe who were en¬
tirely engaged in what are called the Belles Lettres,
grammar, eloquence, and poetry. The geometricians
and natural philofophers were ordered to meet on Tuef-
days and Saturdays, in a great hall of the king’s li¬
brary, where the books of mathematics and natural
philofophy were contained; the learned in hiftory to
affemble on Mondays and Thurfdays, in the hall where
the books of hiftory were contained ; and the clafs of
Belles Lettres to affemble on Wednefdays and Fridays.
All the different claffes were likewife ordered to meet
together upon the firft Thurfday of every month; and,
by their relpeftive fecretaries, make a report of the
proceedings of the foregoing month.
In a Ihort time, however, the claffes of Hiftory,
Belies
A C A [ 41 1 A C A
Academies. Belles Lettres, Sec. were united to the French Academy,
which was originally inilituted for the improvement and
refining the French language ; fo that the royal Aca¬
demy contained only two clafles, viz. that of natural
philofophy and mathematics.
In the 1696, the king, by a proclamation dated the
26th of January, gave this Academy a new form, and
put it upon a more refpeftable footing.—It was now
to be compofed of four kinds of members, viz. hono¬
rary, penjionary ajfociates, and eleves. Thefe laft were
a kind of pupils, or fcholars, each of whom was attach¬
ed to one of the penfionaries. The firil clafs to contain
ten perfons, and each of the reft twenty. The hono¬
rary academifts to be all inhabitants of France; the
penfioparies all to refide at Paris; eight of the affociates
allowed to be foreigners; and the eleves all to live at
Paris. The officers to be, a prefident named by the
king, out of the clafs of honorary academifts; and a
fecretary and treafurer to be perpetual. Of the pen¬
fionaries, three to be geometricians, three aftronomers,
three mechanics, three anatomifts, three chemifts, three
botanifts, and the remaining two to be fecretary and
treafurer. Of the twelve afibciates, two to apply them-
felves to geometry, two to botany, and two to chemi-
ftry. The eleves to apply themfelves to the fame kind
of fcience with the penfionaries they were attached to;
and not to fpeak, except when called by the prefident.
No regular or religious to be admitted, except into the
clafs of honorary academifts; nor any perfon to be ad¬
mitted either for afibciate or penfionary, unlefs known
by fome confiderable printed work, fome machine, or
other difeovery. The affemblies were held on Wed-
nefdays and Saturdays, unlefs either of them happened
to be a holiday, and then the affembly was held on the
preceding day.—To encourage the members to purfue
their labours, the king engaged not only to pay the or¬
dinary penfions, but even to give extraordinary grati¬
fications, according to the merit of their refpeftive per¬
formances ; furnifhing withal the expence of the expe¬
riments and other inquiries neceflary to be made. If
any member gave in a bill of charges of experiments
he had made, or defired the printing of any book, and
brought in the charges of graving, the money was im¬
mediately paid by the king, upon the prefident’s al¬
lowing and figning the bill. So, if an anatomift re¬
quired lave tortoifes, for inftance, for making experi¬
ments about the heart, &c. as many as he pleafedwere
brought him at the king’s charge. Their motto was,
t. Invenit et perfecit.
In the year 1716, the duke of Orleans, then regent,
made an alteration in their conftitution ; augmenting
the number of honoraries, and of affociates capable of
being foreigners, to 12 ; admitting regulars among
fuch affociates ; and fuppreffing the clafs of eleves, as
it appeared to be attended with fome inconveniences,
particularly that of making too great an inequality
among the academifts, and being produftive of fome
mifunderftandings and animofities among the members.
At the fame time he created other two claffes; onecon-
fifting of 12 adjuncts, who, as well as the affociates,
were allowed a deliberative voice in matters relative to
fcience; and the other fix free affociates, who Were not
attached to any particular fcience, nor obliged to pur¬
fue any particular work.
Since its re-eftablifhment in 1699, this academy has
VOL. I.
been very exa& in publifhing, every year, a volume con- Academies,
taining either the works of its own members, or fuch v '
memoirs as have been compofed and read to the aca¬
demy during the courfe of that year. To each volume
is prefixed the hiftory of the academy, or an extract
of the memoirs, and, in general,-a)f whatever has been
read or faid in the academy; at the end of the hiftory,
are the eulogiums on fuch academifts as have died that
year.—M. Rouille de Meflay, counfellor to the parlia¬
ment of Paris, founded two prizes, one of 2500, and
the other of 2000 livres, which are alternately diftri-
buted by the parliament every year ; the fubjeft for
the firft muft relate to phyfical aftronomy, and thofe for
the latter to navigation and commerce.
Notwithftanding the advantages which the members
of this academy enjoy over others, in having their
expences defrayed, and even being paid for their time
and attendance, they have fallen under fome' imputa¬
tions, particularly that.of plagiarifm, or borrowing
their neighbours inventions ; but with what juftice we
do not fay.
The French have alfo confiderable academies in moft
of their great cities: as, at Montpelier, a royal aca¬
demy of fciences on the like footing as that at Paris,
being as it were a counter part thereof; at Thouloufe,
an academy under the denomination of Lanternifts;
others at Nifmes, Arles, Lyons, Dijon, Bourdeaux,
&c.
The Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin was founded
in 1700, by Frederic II. king of Pruffia, on the model
of that of England; excepting that,befidesnaturalknow¬
ledge, it likewife comprehends the Belles Lettres. In
1710, it was ordained that the prefident ftiall be one of
the counfellors of ftate, and nominated by the king.
The members were divided into four claffes; the firft
for profecuting phyfics, medicine, and chemiftry ; the
fecond for mathematics, aftronomy, and mechanics;
the third for the German language and the hiftory of
the country ; the fourth for oriental learning, particu¬
larly as it may concern the propagation of the gofpel
among infidels. Each clafs to cleft a direftor for
themfelves, who ftiall hold his poft for life. The mem¬
bers of any of the claffes have free admiffion into the
affemblies of any of the reft.
The great promoter of this inftitution was the cele¬
brated Mr Leibnitz, who accordingly was made the
firft direftor. The firft volume of their tranfaftions
was publiftied in 1710, under the title of Mifcellanea
Berolinenfia; and though they received but few marks
of the royal favour for fome time, they continued to
publifti new volumes in 1723, 1727, 1734, and 1740.
At laft, however, Frederic III. the late king of Pruf¬
fia, gave new vigour to this academy, by inviting to
Berlin fuch foreigner as were moft diftinguiftied for
their merit in literature, and encouraged his fubjefts to
profecute the ftudy and cultivation of the fciences by
giving ample rewards; and thinking that the academy,
which till that time had had fome minifter or opulent
nobleman for its prefident, would find an advantage in
having a man of letters at its head, he conferred that
honour on M, Maupertuis. At the fame time, he gave
a new regulation to the academy, and took upon him-
felf the title of its proteftor.
The academifts hold two public affemblies annually;
one in January, on the late king’s birth-day; and the
F other
A C A [ 42 3 A C A
Academics, other in May, on the day of his acceffion to the throne, ftowed a largefs of 20001. which Ihe has renewed as ^-ca^err“gi;
At the latter of thefe is given, as a prize, a gold me- occafion has required.
dal of 50 ducats value : the fubje& for this prize is The purpofe and intent of thefe travels will appear
fucceffively, natural philofophy, mathematics, meta- from the inftru&ions given by the academy to the fe-
pjjyfics, and erudition. veral perfons who were engaged in them. They were
The Imperial Academy of Sciences at Peterjburgh ordered to purfue their inquiries upon the different
was projected by Czar Peter the Great. That great forts of earths and waters; upon the bell methods of
monarch having, during his travels, obferved the ad- cultivating the barren and defert fpots; upon the local
vantage of public focieties for the encouragement and diforders incident to men and animals, and the molt
promotion of literature, formed the defign of founding efficacious means of relieving them ; upon the breeding
an academy of fciences at St Peterfburgh. By the ad- of cattle, and particularly of fheep ; on the rearing
vice of Wolf and Leibnitz, whom he confulted on this of bees and filk-worms; on the different places and ob-
occafion, the fociety was regulated, and feveral learned je£ts for fifhing and hunting; on minerals ; on the arts
foreigners were invited to become members. Peter and trades; and on forming a Flora Ruffica, or collec-
himfelf drew the plan, and figned it on the 10th of tion of indigenous plants: they were particularly in-
Fetymary 1724; but was prevented, by the fuddennefs ftru&ed to rectify the longitude and latitude of the prin-
of his death, from carrying it into execution. His de- cipal towns ; to make aftronomical, geographical, and
ceafe, however, did not prevent its completion : for on meteorological obfervations; to trace the courfe of the
the 2ill of December 1725-, Catharine I. eftablilhed rivers; to take the moll exadt charts; and to be very
it according to Peter’s plan ; and on the 27th of the diltindl and accurate in remarking and defcribing the
fame month the fociety was firlt affembled. On the manners and cuftoms of the different people, their
ill of Augull 1726, Catharine honoured the meeting dreffes, languages, antiquities, traditions, hiftory, reli-
with her prefence, when profdlbr Bullinger, a German gion ; and, in a word, to gain every information which
naturalill of great eminence, pronounced an oration might tend to illultrate the real Hate of the whole
upon the advances made by the loadllone and needle Ruffian empire.
for the difcovery of the longitude. In confequence of thefe expeditions, perhaps no-
The emprefs fettled a fund of 49821. per annum for country can boaft, within the fpace of fo few years,
the fupport of tht academy; and fifteen members, all fuch a number of excellent publications on its internal
eminent for their learning and talents, were admitted Hate, on its natural productions, on its topography,
and penfioned, under the title of Profeffors, in the va- geography, and hillory ; on the manners, cuftoms, and
rious branches of literature and fcience. The moll dif- languages of tlie different people, as have iffued from'
tinguiffied of thefe profeffors were Nicholas and Da- the prefs of this academy;
niel Bernoulli, the two De Lilies, Bulfinger, and The firll tranfaftions of this fociety were publilhed
Wolf. in 1728, and intitled, Commentarii Academics Scienti-
During the Ihort reign of Peter II. the falaries of arum Imperialis Peiropolitaiue ad an. 1726, with a
the members were difcontinued, and the academy was dedication to Peter II. The publication was conti-
utterly neglefted by the court; but it was again pa- nued under this form until the year 1747, when its
tronized by the emprefs Anne, who even added a fe- tranfadlions were called Novi Commentarii Academia?*
minary for the education of youth, under the fuperin- &c. In 1777 the academy again changed the title in¬
tendance of the profeffors. Both inllitutions flourilhed to A Pa Academia Scientiarum Imperialis Petropoli-
for fome time under the dire*£lion of Baron Korf; but tana, and likewife made fome alteration in the ar-
upon his death, towards the latter end of Anne’s'reign, rangement and plan of the work. The papers, which
an ignorant perfon being appointed prefident, many of had been hitherto publilhed in the Latin tongue, are
the moll able members quitted Ruffia. At the accef- now written either in that language or French ; and a
lion of Elizabeth, new life and vigour were again re- preface is added, ftyled Partis Hijiorique, which con-
ftored to the academy : the original plan was enlarged- tains an account of its proceedings, meetings, admif-
and improved; fome of the moll learned foreigners lion of new members, and other remarkable occur-
were again drawn to Peterlburgh; and, what was con- rences. Of the Commentaries, 14 volumes were pub-
fidcred as a good omen for the literature of Ruffia, two lilhed : the firft of the New Commentaries made its
natives, Lomonofof and Rumovlky, men of genius and appearance in 1750, and the twentieth in 1776. Un¬
abilities, who had profecuted their ftudies in foreign der the new title of Afta Academia, feveral volumes
univerfities, were enrolled among its members. The have been given to the public, and two are printed
annual income was increafed to 10,659!. and foon af- every year. Thefe tranfadtions abound with ingenious
terwards the new inllituticn took place. and elaborate difquifitions upon various parts of fcience
The prefent emprefs Catharine III. with her ufual and natural hiftory, and which refledl the greatelt ho-
zeal for promoting the diffufion of knowledge, has ta- nour upon their authors; and it may not be an exag-
ken this ufeful fociety under her more immediate pro- geration to affert, that no fociety in Europe has more
tedlion. She has altered the court,of diredlors greatly diftinguilhed itfelf for the excellence of its publications,
to the advantage of the whole body ; Ihe has corrected and particularly in the more abftrufe parts of the pure
many abufes, and has infufed a mew fpirit into their and mixed mathematics.
refearches. By her Majefty’s particular recommenda- The academy is Hill compofed, as at firft, of fifteen
tion, the moll ingenious profeffors have vifited the va- profeffors, befide the prefident and direftor. Each of
rious provinces of her vaft dominions; and as the fund thefe profeffors has a houfe and an annual llipend from
of the academy was not fufficient to fupply the whole 2001. to 6001. Befide the profeffors, there are four
expence of thefe feveral expeditions, the emprefs be- adjun&s, who are peniioried, and who are prefent at
A C A [ 43 1 A C A
Academies, the fittings of the fociety, and fucceed to the firft va«
cancies.—The direction of the academy is at prefent
configned to the Princefs Dafhkof.
The building and apparatus of this academy are ex¬
traordinary. There is a fine library, confifting of 36000
curious books and manufcripts.—There is an extenfive
mufeum, in which the various branches of natural hi-
ftory, &c. are diftributed in different apartments: it is
extremely rich in native productions, having been con-
fiderably augmented with a variety of fpecimens col¬
lected by Pallas, Gmelin, Guldenftaedt, and other
learned profeffors, during their late expeditions through
the Ruffian empire. The fluffed animals and birds
occupy one apartment. The chamber of rarities, the
cabinet of coins, &c. contain innumerable articles of
the higheft curiofity and value. The fociety has this
modeft motto, Paulatim.
The Acadeviy of Sciences at Bologna, called the Injli-
tute of Bologna, was founded by count Marfigli in 1712,
for the cultivating of phyfics, mathematics, medicine,
chemiftry, and natural hiftory. Its hiftory is written by
M. de Limiers, from memoirs furniffied by the foun¬
der himfelf.
The Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, or Royal
Sonedijh Academy, owes its inllitution to fix perfons of
diflinguifhed learning, amongft whom was the celebra¬
ted Linnseus : they originally met on the 2d of June
1739, formed a pi-ivate fociety, in which fome differ-
tations were read ; and in the latter end of the fame
year their firft publication made its appearance. As
the meetings continued and the members increafed,
the fociety attracted the notice of the king, and was,
on the 31ft of March 1741, incorporated under the
name of the Royal Swediffi Academy. Not receiving
any penfion from the crown, it is only under the pro-
teCtion of the king, being direCted, like our Royal
Society, by its own members. It' has now a large
fund, which has chiefly arifen from legacies and other
donations; but a profeffor of experimental philofophy,
and two fecretaries, are ftill the only perfons who re¬
ceive any falaries. Each of the members refident at
Stockholm becomes prefident by rotation, and conti¬
nues in office during three months. There are two
fpecies of members, native and foreign : the election of
the former is held in April, and of the latter in July:
no money is paid at the time of admiffion. The difi-
fertations read at each meeting are colleCled and pub-
lifhed four times in the year; they are written in the
Swedifh language, and printed in oClavo, and the an¬
nual publications make a volume. The firft 40 vo¬
lumes, which were finiflied in 1779, are called the Old
TranfaClions ; for in the following year the title was
changed into that of New TranfaClions. The king is
fometimes prefent at the ordinary meetings, and par¬
ticularly at the annual affembly in April for the elec¬
tion of members. Any perfon who fends a treatife
which is thought worthy of being printed, receives the
tranfadions for that quarter gratis, and a filver medal,
which is not efteemed for its value, being worth only
three fhillings, but for its rarity and the honour con¬
veyed by it. All the papers relating to agriculture
are put forth feparately under the title of Oeconomica
act a. Annual premiums, in money and gold medals,
principally for the encouragement of agriculture and
inland trade, are alfo dittributed by the academy. The
fund for thefe prizes is fupplied from private dona-Academies,
tions. * '
The Royal Academy of Sciences at Copenhagen, owes
its inftitution to the zeal of fix literati, whom Chrif-
tian VI. in 1742, ordered to arrange his cabinet of"
medals. The count of Holftein was the firft prefi¬
dent ; and the fix perfons who firft formed the defign,
were John Gram, Joachim Frederic Ramus, Chriftian
Louis Scheid, Mark Woldickey, Eric Pontopidan, and
Bernard Moelman. Thefe perfons occafionally meet¬
ing for that purpofe, extended their defigns ; affociated
with them others who were eminent in feveral branches
of fcience ; and forming a kind of literary fociety, em¬
ployed themfelves in fearching into, and explaining
the hiftory and antiquities of their country. The
count of Holftein warmly patronized this fociety, and
recommended it fo ftrongly to Chriftian VL that, in
1743, his Daniffi Majefty took it under his proteClion,
called it the Royal Academy of Sciences, endowed it
with a fund, and ordered the members to join to their
former purfuits, natural hiftory, phyfics, and mathe¬
matics. In confequence of the royal favour, the mem¬
bers engaged with frelh zeal in their purfuits ; and the
academy has publiffied 15 volumes in the Danifli
language, fome whereof have been tranflated into
Latin.
The American Academy of Sciences, was eftablilhed
in 1780 hy the council and houfe of reprefentatives
in the province of Maffachufet’s Bay, for,promoting
the knowledge of the antiquities of America, and of
the natural hiftory of the country; for determining
the ufes to which its various natural productions might
be applied; for encouraging medicinal difcoveries,
mathematical difquifitions, philofophical inquiries and
experiments, aftronomical, meteorological, and geo¬
graphical obfervations, and improvements in agricul¬
ture, manufactures, and commerce ; and, in ffiort, for
cultivating every art and fcience which may tend to
advance the intereft, honour, dignity, and happinefs,
of a free, independent, and virtuous people. The
members of this academy are never to be more than
zoo, nor lefs than 46.
VI. Academies or Schools of Arts ; as that at Peterf-
burgh, which was eftablifhed by theemprefsElizabeth, at
the fuggeftion of count Shuvalof, and annexed to the aca¬
demy of fciences: the fund was L.4000 per annum, and
the foundation for 40 fcholars. The prefent emprefs
has formed it into a feparate inftitution, enlarged the
annual revenue to L. 12,000, and augmented the num¬
ber of fcholars to 300 ; (he has alfo conftruCted, for
the ufe and accommodation of the members, a large
circular building, which fronts the Neva. The fcho¬
lars are admitted at the age of fix, and continue until
they have attained that of 18: they are clothed, fed,
and lodged, at the expence of the crown. They are
all inftrufted in reading and writing, arithmetic, the
French and German languages, and drawing. At the
age of 14 they are at liberty to choofe any of the fol¬
lowing arts, divided into four claffes. 1. Painting in
all its branches of hiftory, portraits, battles, and land-
fcapes ; architedlure ; Mofaic ; enamelling; &c. 2. En¬
graving on-copperplates, feal-cutting, &c. 3. Carving
in wood, ivory, and amber. 4. Watch-making, turn¬
ing, inftrument-making, calling ftatues in bronze and
other metals, imitating gems and medals in pafte and
F 2 other
A C A
Academies, other compofitions, gilding, and varnishing. Prizes
are annually diitributed to thofe who excel in any par¬
ticular art; and from thofe who have obtained four
prizes, twelve are fele&ed, who are fent abroad at the
charge of the emprefs. A certain fum is paid to de-
[ 44 1
A C A
together, which is called fitting the group. The paint- Academies,
ings and models made after this model, are called aca- v—'
demiesor academy-figures. They have likewife a wo¬
man who Hands for a model in the public fchool.
Every three months, three prizes for defign are diftri-
fray their travelling expences; and when they are fet- buted among the deves or difciples ; two others for
tied in any town, they receive an annual falary of L. 60,
which is continued during four years. There is a fmall’
affortment of paintings for the ufe of the fcholars;
and thofe who "have made great progrefs are permitted
to copy the pictures in the emprefs’s collection. For
the purpofe of defign, there are models in plafter of
the beft antique ftatues in Italy,, all done at Rome, of.
painting, and two for fculpture, every year.
There is alfo an Academyof Painting, Sculpture, &c.
at Rome, eitablifhed by Lewis XIV. wherein thofe
who have gained the annual prize at Paris are intitled
to be three years entertained at the king’s expence,
for their further improvement.
The Academy of Architefture, eftabliihed by M.
the fame fize with the originals, which the artifts of Colbert in 1671, confifting of a company of Ikilful
the academy were employed to call in bronze.. architects, under the direction of the fuperintendant
The Royal Academy of Arts in London, was in- of the buildings,
ftituted for the encouragement of Defigning, Painting,^ The Academy of Dancing, ere died by Lewis XIV.
Sculpture, See. &c. in the year 1768. This academy with privileges above all the reft.
is under the immediate patronage of the king, and un- VII. Academies of Law; as that famous one at
der the direftion of 40 artifts of the firft rank in their Beryta, and that of the Sitientes at Bologna,
feveral profeflions,. It. furnilhes, in winter, living mo- VIII. Academies of History ; as the Royal Academy
dels of different characters to draw after; and, in fum- of Portugnefe Hifiory at Lijhon. This academy was
mer, models of the fame kind to paint after. Nine of inftituted by king John V. in 1720. It confifts of a
the able ft academicians are annually elefted out of the director, four cenfors, a fecretary, and 50 members ;
40, whofe buftnefs is to attend by rotation, to fet the to each of whom is afiigned fome part of the ecclefiafti-
figures, to examine the performance of the Undents, cal or civil hiftory of the nation, which he is to treat
and to give them neceffary inftru&ions. There are either in Latin or Portuguefe. In the church-hiftory
likewife four profeffbrs, of Painting, of Architefture, of of each diocefe, the prelates, fynods, councils, churches,
Anatomy, and of Perfpettive, who annually read public monafteries, academies, perfons illuftrious for fan&ity
leftures on the fubjefts of their feveral departments;
befide a prefident, a council, and other officers. The
admiffion to this academy is free to all ftudents pro¬
perly qualified to reap advantage from the ftudies cul¬
tivated in it; and there is an annual exhibition of paint¬
ings, fculptures,. and defigns, open to all artifts of di-
ftinguiftied merit.
The AcademyofPiiinting and ScidptureatParis. This days,
took its nfe from the difputes that happened between the A medal was ftruck by this academy in honour of
matter painters and fculptors in that capital; in confe- their prince : the front of which was his effigy, with
quence of which, M. Le Brun, Sarazin, Corneille, and o- the infeription Johannes V. Lufttanorum Rex; and, on
thers of the king’s painters, formed a defign of inftituting the reverfe, the fame prince is reprefented Handing, and
a particular academy ; and, having prefented a petition raifing Hiftory almoft proftrate before him, with the le-
or learning, places famous for miracles or relics, muft
be diftinftly related in twelve chapters. The civil hifto¬
ry comprifes the tranfaclions of the kingdom from the
government of the Romans down to the prefent time.
The members who refide in the country are obliged to
make collections and extrafts out of all the regifters,
&c. where they live. Their meetings to be once in 15
to the king, obtained an arret dated Jan. 20. 1648.
In the beginning of 1655, they obtained from cardi¬
nal Mazarin a brevet, and letters patent, which were
regiftered in parliament; in gratitude for which favour,
they chofe the cardinal for their proteftor, and the
chancellor for their vice-proteftor. In 1663, by means
of M. Colbert, they obtained a penfion of 4000 livres.
The academy confifts of a protestor a vice-proteftor;
a direCtor.; a chancellor; four-reCtors; adjunCts to the
reCtors ; a treafurer; four profeffors, one of which, is
profeflbr of anatomy, and another of geometry; fe-
gend Hijloria Refurges. Underneath are the follow¬
ing words in abbreviature : REGia ACADemia HI-
STorias LUSITanse, INSTITuta VI. Idus Decembris
MDCCXX.
Academy of Suahian Hifiory at Tubingen, was lately
efteblilhed by fome learned men, for publifhin^ the belt
hiftorical writings, the lives of the chief hiftonans, and
compiling new memoirs, on the feveral points and pe¬
riods thereof.
IX. Academies of AnrisiyiriKs ; as that at Corto¬
na in Italy, and at Upfal in Sweden. The firft is
veral adjunCts and counfellors, an hiftoriographer, a fe- defigned for the ftudy of Hetrurian antiquities ; the
cretary, and two ufhers. other for illuftrating the northern languages, and the
The Academy of Painting holds a public affembly antiquities of Sweden, in which notable difeoveries
every day for two hours in the afternoon,, to which the have been made by it. The head of the Hetrurian
painters refort either to defign or to paint, and where the. academy is called Lucomon, by which the ancient go.-
fculptors model after a naked perfon. There are 12 vernors of the country were diftinguifhed. One of their
profeffors, each of whom keeps the fchool for a month; laws is to give audience to poets only one day in the
and there are 12 adjunCls to fupply them in cafe of year ; another is to fix their feffions, and impofe a tax
ttced. The profeffor upon duty places the naked man of a differtation on each member in his turn,
as he thinks proper, and fets him in two different atti- The Academy of Medals and Infcriptions at Paris was
tudes every week. This is what they call fetting the fet on foot by M. Colbert, under the patronage of
model,. In one week, of the month he fets two models Lewis XIV. in 1663, for the ftudy and explanation
A C A
[ 45 7
A C A
Academies. 0f ancient monuments, and perpetuating great and ' afterwards premeditately ; which gave them the deno- Academic*
J memorable events, efpecially thofe of the French i
narchy, by coins, relievos, infcriptions, &c. The
number of members at firft was confined to four or
five, chofen out of thofe of the French academy;
who met in the library of Mr Colbert, from whom
they received his majefty’s orders. The days of their
mination of Belli Humori. After fome experience, co-
ming more and more into the tafte of thefe exercifes,
they refolved to form an Academy of -Belles Lettres ;
and changed the title- of Belli Humeri for that of Hu-
merifii : choofing for their device a cloud, which, after
being formed of exhalations from the fait waters of the
meetings were not determined; but generally they ocean, returns in a gentle fweet fhower; with this motto
met on Wednefdays, efpecially in the winter feafon : from Lucretius, liedit agmine dulci.
but, in 1691, the king having given the infpe&ion of
this academy to M. de Pontchartrain comptroller ge¬
neral, &c. he fixed their meetings on Tuefdays and
Saturdays.
By a new regulation, dated the 16th of July 1701,
the academy was compofed of ten honorary members;
ten ajjociates, each of whom had two declarative voices;
ten penji'ytiaries; and ten eleves, or pupils. They then
In 1690, the Academy of Arcadi was eftabliflied at
Rome, for reviving the ftudy of Poetry and of the
Belles Lettres. Befides molt of the politer wits of
both fexes in Italy, this academy comprehends many
princes, cardinals, and other ecclefiaftics; and, to a-
void difputes about pre-eminence, all appear maiked
after the manner of Arcadian Ihepherds. Within ten
years from its firft eftablilhment, the number of Aca-
met every Tuefday and Wednefday, in one of the halls demijls amounted to fix hundred. They hold aflem-
cf the Louvre ; and had two public meetings yearly,
one the day after Martinmas and the other the 16th
after Eafter. The clafs of eleves has been fuppreffed,
and united to the afibciates. The king nominates their
prefident and vice-prelident yearly; but their fecretary
and treafurer are perpetual. The reft are chofen by
the members themfelves, agreeably to the conftitutions
on that behalf given them.
One of the firft undertakings of this academy, was
blies feven times a-year in a mead or grove, or in the.
gardens of fome nobleman of dillinftion. Six of thefe*
meetings are employed in the recitation of poems and
verfes of the Arcadi refiding at Rome ; who' read
their own compofitions ; except ladies and cardinals,
who are allowed to employ others. The feventh meet¬
ing is fet apart for the compofitions of foreign or ab-
fent members.
This academy is governed by a Cuftos, who repre-
to compofe, by means of medals, a connected hiftory of fents the whole fociety, and is chofen every four years,
the principal events of Lewis XIV’s reign: but in this, with a power of electing 12 others yearly for his af-
defign they met with great difficulties, and of confe-
quence it was interrupted for many years; but at length
it was completed down to the advancement of the duke
of Anjou to the crown of Spain.
In this celebrated work, the eftablilhment of the
academy itfelf was not forgot. The medal on this
fubjeft reprefents Mercury fitting, and writing with an
antique ftylus on a table of brafs ; he leans with his
left hand upon an urn full of medals, and at his feet are
feveral others placed upon a card: the legend, Rerum
gejlarum fides; and on the exergue, Academia regia
infcriptionum et mmifmatum, injlituta M.DC.LXIII.
fignifying that the Royal Academy of Medals and In¬
fcriptions, founded in 1663, ought to give to future
ages a faithful teftimony of all great actions. Befides
fiftance. Under thefe are two fub-cuftodes, one vicar
or pro-cuftos, and four deputies or fuperintendants, an¬
nually chofen. The laws of the fociety are immuta¬
ble, and bear a near refemblance to the ancient model.
There are five manners of elefting members. The.
firft is by acclamation. This is ufed when fovereign
princes, cardinals, and ambafladors of kings, defire to
be admitted; and the votes are then given viva voce*
The fecond is called annumeration. This was intro¬
duced in favour of ladies and academical colonies, where
the votes are taken privately. The third, reprefenta-
tion, was eftabliftied in favour of colonies and univer-
fities, where the young gentry are bred; who have
each a privilege of recommending one or two mem¬
bers privately to be balloted for.. The fourth, furro-
this work, we have feveral volumes of their memoirs ; gation; whereby new members are fubftituted in the
and their hiftory, written and continued by their feere- room of thofe dead or expelled. The laft, dejlination
tanes.
X. Academies o/Bezzes Lettres, are thofe where¬
in eloquence and poetry are chiefly cultivated. Thefe
are very numerous in Italy, and not uncommon in
France.
The Academy of Umidi at Florence has contributed
whereby, when there is no vacancy of members, per-
fons of poetical merit have the title of Arcadi confer¬
red upon them till fuch time as a vacancy fhall hap¬
pen. All the members of this body, at their admif-
fion, aflume new paftoral names, in imitation of the
fhepherds of Arcadia. The academy has feveral co-
greatly to the progrefs of the fciences by the excel- lonies of Arcadi in different cities of Italy, who are
lent Italian tranflations given, by fome of its members,
of the ancient Greek and Latin hiftorians. Their
chief attention is to the Italian poetry, at the fame
time that they have applied themfelves to the pblifliing
of their language, which produced the Academy la
Crufca.
The Academy of Humor ifs, Umorifi, had its origin
at Rome from the marriage of Lorenzo Marcini, a
Roman gentleman ; at which feveral perfons of rank
were guefts; and, it being carnival time, to give the
ladies fome diverfion, they took themfelves to the re¬
citing of verfes, fonnets, fpeeches, firft extempore, and
all regulated after the fame manner.
XL Academies of Languages ; called, by fome,
Grammatical Academies: as,
The Academy della Crufca at Florence, famous for
its vocabulary of the Italian tongue, was formed in 1582,.
but fcarce heard of before the year 1584, when it be¬
came noted for a difpute between Taflb and feveral of
its members. Many authors confound this -with the
Florentine academy. The difcourfes which Toricelli,
the celebrated difciple of Galileo, delivered in the af-
femblies, concerning levity, the wind, the power of per-
cuffion, mathematics, and military architecture, are a
proof'
A C A [46 A C A
A' iuieinio- proof that thefe academiftsapplied themfelves to things
^ ^ as well as words.
The Academy of Fruiliferi hzi. its rife in 1617, at
an affembly of feveral princes and nobility of the coun¬
try, who met with a defign to refine and perfect the
German tongue. It flouriihed long under the direc¬
tion of princes of the empire, who were always chofen
preiidents. In 1668, the number of members arofe to
upwards of 900. It was prior in time to the French
academy, which only appeared in 1629, and was not
eftablilhed into an academy before the year 1635. Its
hi (lory is written in the German tongue by George
Neumarck.
The French Academy, which had its rife from a meet¬
ing of men of letters in the houfe of M.Conrart,in 1629-
In 1635, it was erefted into an academy, by Cardinal
Richlieu, for refining and afcertaining the French lan¬
guage and ftyle.—The number of its members are li¬
mited to 40 ; out of whom a director, chancellor, and
fecretary, are to be chofen : the two former bold their
poft for two months, the latter is perpetual. The mem-
hex's of this academy enjoy feveral privileges and im¬
munities, among which is that of not being obliged to
awfwer before any court but that of the king’s houfe-
hold. They meet three times a-week in the Louvre ;
at breaking up, forty filver medals are diftributed among
them, having on one fide the king of France’s head,
and on the reverfe, FroteBeur de l’Academic, with lau¬
rel, end this motto, A I'lmmortalite. By this diftri-
butien, the attendance of the Academijls is fecured,
thofe who are prefent receiving .the furplus otherwife
intended for the abfent. To cleft or expel a member,
at leaft 18 are required ; nor can any be chofen unlefs
he petition for it: by this expedient, the affront of
refufals from perfons defied is avoided. Religious are
not admitted ; nor can any nobleman, or perfon of
diftinflion, be admitted on another footing than as a.
man of letters. None are to be expelled, except for
bafe and difhoneft praftices; and there are but two
inftances ef fuch expulfions, the firll of M. Granier
for refuling to return a depoftt, the other of the . Abbe
Furetiere for plagiarifm The defign of this acade¬
my was to give not only rules, but examples, of good
writing. They began with making fpeeches on fub-
jefts taken at pleafure, about 20 of which were print¬
ed. They met with great oppofition from the parlia¬
ment -at their firft inftitution ; it being two years be¬
fore the patents granted by the king would be regifter-
ed. They have been feverely fatyrized, and their flyle
has been ridiculed as enervating inftead of refining the
French language. They are alfo charged with having
furfeited the world by flattery, and having exhaufted
all the topics of panegyric in praife of their founder.;
it being a duty incumbent on every member, at his ad-
mifllon, to make a fptech in px-aife of the king, the
cardinal, the chancellor Seguier, and the pei-fon in whofe
place he is elefted. The moft remarkable work of this
academy is a diftionary of the French tongue ; which,
after 50 years fpent in fettling the words and phrafes
to be ufed in writing, was at laft publiihed.in 1694.
The .foundation of an Academy fimilar to the above,
has been propofed at Peterflmrgh, by the learned prin-
cefs Dafhkof: it is to confrit of 60 members. The
plan has been approved by the emprefs, who has al¬
ready given a fund for its fupport and efebliflxment.
The Royal Spanifo Academy at Madrid held its firil Academics
meeting in July .1713, in the palace of its founder, the H
duke d’Efcalona. It confifted at firft of eight acade- . C^!X13, .
mifts, including the duke ; to which number 14 others
were afterwards added, the founder being chofen pre-
fident or diredtor. In 1714, the king granted them
his confirmation and proteftion. Their device is a cru¬
cible in the middle of the fire, with this motto, Lint-
pia, Fya, y da Efplendor; “ it purifies, fixes, and gives
brightnefs.” The number of members is limited to
24 ; the duke d’Efcalona to be direftor for life, but
his fucqeffors chofen yearly, and the Secretary to be
perpetual. Their objedl, as marked out by the royal
declaration, was to cultivate and improve the national
language : they were to begin with choofing carefully
fuch words and phrafes as have been ufed by the bell
Spanilh writers ; noting the low, barbarous, or obfolete
ones ; and compofing a diftionary wherein thefe may
be diftinguiflied from the former.
XII. Academies of Politics ; as that at Paris, con¬
futing of fix perfons, who met at the Louvre, in the
chamber where the papers relating to foreign affairs
were lodged. But this academy proved of little fer-
vice, as the kings of France were unwilling to trull any
but their miniflers with the infpeftion of foreign affairs.
For a fuxther account of fimilar eflablifhments, fee
the article Society.
Academy is alfo a term for fchools and other femi-
naries of learning among the Jews, where their rabbins
and doftors inftrufted their youth in the Hebrew lan¬
guage, and explained to them the Talmud and the fe-
crets of the Cabbala : Thofe of Tiberias and Babylon
have been the mofl noted.
The Romans had a kind of military academies, efla-
blifhed in all the cities of Italy, under the name of
Campi Martis. Here the youth were admitted to be
trained for war at the public expence. The Greeks,
befide academies of this kind, had military profeffors
called Tattici, who . taught all the higher offices of
war, &c. 8cc.
Academy is often ufed with us to denote a kind of
collegiate feminary, where youth are inftrufted in arts
and fciences. There is one at Portfmouth for teaching
navigation, drawing, &c. ; another at Woolwich, for for¬
tification, gunnery, &c.— Befxdes thefe, there are nu¬
merous academies, efpecially in London, for teaching
mathematics, languages, writing, accounts, drawing,
and other branches of learning.
The nonconformifl miniflers, Sec. are bred up in
private academies; as not approving the common uni-
verfity education. The principal of their academies
are thofe in London, Daventry, and Warrington.
Academy is likewife a name given to a riding-
fchool, where young gentlemen are taught to ride the
great horfe. Sec. and the ground allotted is ufually called
the Manege.
Acadf.mt Figure, a drawing o£a naked man or wo¬
man, taken from the life; which is ufually done on
paper with red or black chalk, and fometimes with pa-
ftils or-CRAYONS. See Academy, N°VI.par. ^.fupra.
ACADIE, or Acady, in geography, a name for¬
merly given to Nova Scotia, or New Scotland, in Ame¬
rica. See Nova Scotia.
ACiENA, in antiquity, a Grecian meafure of length,
being a ten feet-road, ufed in meafuring their lands.
3 AcjEna,
A C A L 47 1 A C A
Acssna Ac*nA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia or-
II . der belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants ; the
Acangis'. characters of which are thefe: The calyx is a perian-
y—w COI1f1^jng Gf four leaves,, which are ovate, con¬
cave, equal, and perhftent;,there is no corolla : TheJla-
niina confifts of. four equal middle-fized filaments op-
pofite to the calyx; the antheras are quadrangular,
twin,. ereCt.: The piJUllum has an inverfely-ovate hifped
germ ; the ftylus is fmall, and inflefted on one fide ; and
the ftigma is a fmall thickifh coloured membrane, di¬
vided into many fegments: The pericardium is an in-
verfely-ovated dry one-cejled berry covered with prickles
bent backwards : The feed is fingle. There is only one
fpecies, a native of Iv^exico.
ACAJOU, or Cashew-nut-tree. See Anacar-
BIUM.
ACALANDRUS, a river falling into the bay of
Tarentum, not far from the Metapontum, (Pliny, Stra¬
bo) ; now Fiume de Rofeto.
ACALEPTIC,in ancient profody, a completeverfe.
ACALYPHA, the Three-seeded Mercury,
a genus of plants belonging to the monoccia mona-
delphia clafs. The characters of this genus are the
following.—Male ftocwers crowded above the female
ones : The calyx is a three or four-leaved-perianthium,
the leaflets roundifh, concave, and equal:. The corolla is
■wanting : The Jlamina have from 6 to 18 filaments,
which are fhort, crowded, and connected at the bafe ;
the anthers; are roundilh.—Female flowers fewer,, placed
beneath, and received into a large divided involucrum :
The calyx is a perianthium, confifting of three leaflets,
which are concave, converging, finall, and perfiftent:
No corolla : The pij}illum h.zs a roundifh germen ; the
ftyli are three, branchy, oftener tripartite, and long ;
the ftigmata are fimpie : The pericarpium has a roundifh
trifulcated trilocular capfule, the valvulets gaping two
ways: The feeds are folitary, roundifh, and large.—
This genus ranks in the 38th natural order, Tricoccee.
There are five fpecies, all natives of Virginia.
ACAMANTIS (the ancient name of the ifland of
Cyprus), taken from one of its promontories fituated
to the well, and called Acamas. Teos. in Ionia was
alfo called thus from Acamus the founder.
ACAMAS, Acamantis (anc. geog.), the weft
promontory of the ifland of Cyprus, from whence it
took its ancient, name ; now Cape Pifanio or Epifanio,
where formerly was a town of the fame name, now a
village called Crufocco.
Acamas, fon of Thefeus, followed the reft of the
Grecian princes to the fiege of Troy; and was deputed,
with Diomedes, to the Trojans, in order to get Helen
reftored. Laodice,. Priam’s daughter, fell in love with,
him, ftole a night with him, and had a fon by him call¬
ed Munitus. He was one of the heroes who concealed
themfelves in the wooden horfe. One- of the tribes of
Athens was called Acamaniides from him, by the ap¬
pointment of the oracle; and he founded a city in Phry¬
gia Major, called Acamantium.. Homer mentions
two other heroes of this name ; one a Thracian prince
who came to.fuccour Priam,. another a fon of Ante-
ACANACEOUS plants, fuch as are armed with
prickles.
ACANGIS, that is, Pavagers or Adventurers ; a
name which the Turks give their huffars or light-
troops, who are generally fent out im detachments to Acantha
procure intelligence, harafs the enemy, or ravage the Ac?i|'tjius_
country. t —t:
ACANTHA, in botany, the prickle of any plant ;
in zoology, a term for the. fpine or prickly fins of
fifties.
ACANTHABOLUS, in furgery, an inftrument
for pulling thorns, or the like, out of the (kin.
ACANTHINE, any thing refembiing or belong--
ing to the herb acanthus. Acanthine garments, among
the ancients, are faid to be made of the down of thi-
ftles; others think they were garments.embroidered in
imitation of the acanthus.
ACANTHOPTERYGIOUS fishes, a term ufed
by Linnaeus and others for thofe fifties whofe back-fins
are hard, offeous, and prickly.
ACANTHOS, a town of Egypt, near Memphis,;
(Pliny) ; now Bifdlta. Alfo a maritime town of Ma¬
cedonia, to the weft of mount Athos, a colony of An¬
drians, (Thucydides, Ptolemy); now Erijfo; near which
was ftiown Xerxes’s ditch, of feven ftadia, in order to
feparate mount Athos from the continent, and convey
his ftiips, without doubling Athos, into the Singitic-
Bay. Acanthos, is alfo a town of Epirus.
ACANTHUS, bear’s-b-reech, or Irank-urjine,
in botany: a genus of the angiofpermia order, be¬
longing to the didynamia clafs of plants j and ranking
in the 40th natural order, Perfonatee. The generic
characters are : The calyx is a perianthium with leaf¬
lets of three alternate pairs unequal and perfiftent: The
corolla is one-petal’d and.unequal ; the tubus very ftiort,
clofed with a beard ; no upper-lip, the:under-one very
large, flat, ftraight, very broad, three-lobed, and ob-
tufe : The Jlamina have four fubulated filaments fliorter
than the corolla ; the two fuperior rather longer, re-
curvate, and incurved at the top ; the anthers are ob¬
long, comprefted, obtufe, lateral, parallel, and villous be¬
fore : The piflillum has a conic germen ; a filiform fty-
lus, the length of the ftamina ; and two acute lateral
ftigmata : The perianthium is an acutely-ovated bilo¬
cular capfule, with a lateral partition . The feeds one or
two, fleftiy and gibbous.
Species. 1. The mollis, or common bear’s-breech, a
native of Italy, is the fort that is ufed in medicine, and
is fuppofed to be the mollis acanthus of Virgil; and
the leaves are famous for having given rife to the
capital of the Corinthian pillars. 2. The fpinofus,
or prickly bear’s-breech; the leaves of which are
deeply jagged in very regular order, and each feg-
ment is terminated with a (harp fpine, as are alfo the<
footftalks of the leaves and the empalementof the flow¬
er, which renders it troublefome to handle them. 3. Ili-
cifolius, or fhrubby bear’s-breech, grows naturally in-
both the Indies. It is an evergreen fnrub, which rifes
about four feet high ; and is divided into many branch¬
es, garnifhed with leaves like thofe of the common
holly, and armed with fpines in the fame manner: the
flowers are white, and ftiaped like thofe of the common
acanthus, but fmaller. 4. The nigra, or Portugal
bear’s-breech, with fmooth finuated leaves of a livid
green colour, was difcOvered in Portugal by Dr Juflieu
of the royal garden at Paris. 5. The middle bear’s-
breech, with entire leaves, having fpines on theiir
border, is fuppofed to be the acanthus of Diofco-
rides.
Culture^
A C A [ 48 ] A G A
Acanthus Culture, See. They are all perennial plants. The firft
Acarauna an^ ^econc^ maybe propagated either by feeds, or
. car^in:U, by offsets from the roots. The beft way is to raife them
from the feedswhich fhould be fown about the end of
March, in a light foil. They are beft dropped at di-
ftances into fhallow drills, and covered three quarters of
an inch with mould. When the plants are come up, the
ftrongeft ftiould be marked, and the reft Ihould be pulled
up, that they may ftand at a yard diftance one from
another. They require no other culture but to keep
them clear from weeds. The third, fourth, and fifth
forts, are propagated only by feeds ; which, as they do
not ripen in Europe, muft be obtained from the places
in which they grow naturally: the plants are fo ten¬
der, that they cannot be preferved out of the ftove in
this country.—The firft fpecies is the fort ufed in me¬
dicine. All the parts of it have a foft fweetifh tafte,
and abound with a mucilaginous juice : its virtues do
not feem to differ from thofe of althea and other mu¬
cilaginous plants.
Acanthus, in architecture, an ornament reprefent-
ing the leaves of the acanthus, ufed in the capitals of
the Corinthian and Compofite orders.
ACAPULCO, a confiderable town and port in
Mexico, on the South Sea. It has a fine harbour, from
whence a fhip annually fails to Manila in the_Philip-
pine iflands, near the coaft of China in Alia ; and an¬
other returns annually from thence with all the trea-
fures of the Eaft Indies, fuch as diamonds, rubies, fap-
phires, and ether precious ftones ; the rich carpets of
Perfia; the camphire of Borneo ; the benjamin and
ivory of Pegu and Cambodia, the filks, muflins, and
calicoes, of the Mogul’s country ; the gold-duft, tea,
china-ware, filk, and cabinets, of China and Japan ;
befides cinnamon, cloves, mace, nutmegs, and pepper ;
infomuch that this fingle fhip contains more riches than
many whole fleets. The goods brought to Acapulco are
carried to the city of Mexico by mules and pack-horfes ;
and from thence to Vera Cruz on the North Sea, in
order to be fhipped for Europe. xVcapulco itfelf is a
fmall place, confifting of about 2 or 300 thatched houfes.
Ships arrive at the port by two inlets, feparated from
each other by a fmall ifland ; the entrance into them
in the day-time is by means of a fea-breeze, as the fail¬
ing out in the night-time is effefted by a land-breeze-.
A wretched fort, 42 pieces of cannon, and a garrifon
of 60 men, defend it. It is equally extenfive, fafe,
and commodious. The bafon which conftitutes this
harbour is furrounded by lofty mountains, which are
fo dry, -that they are even deftitute of water. The air
here is hot, heavy, and unwholefometo which none
can habituate themfelves, except certain negroes that
are born under a fimilar climate, or fome mulattoes.
This feeble and miferable colony is crowded with a
waft acceflion to its numbers upon the arrival of the gal¬
leons ; traders flocking here from all the provinces of
Mexico, who come to exchange European toys, their
*t‘.437-.5°oown cochineal, and about ten millions* of filver for
Sterling, fpices, muflins, printed linens, filk, perfumes, and the
gold works of Afia. W. Long. 102. 29. N. Lat.
17.3°.
ACARAI, a town of Paraguay in South America,
built by the Jefuits in 1624. Long, x x 6.40. S. lat, 26'.
ACARAUNA, a fmall American fifh, called by
our failors the old-wife. See Laerus.
ACARNANIA, the firft country of Free Greece, Acarnania
or Greece Proper, bounded on the weft by the Sinus Ac^n!s
Ambracius, and feparated from Attolia by the river ■ ^ ' 1
Achelous on the eaft, and by the Sinus Ambracius
from Epirus. The people were called Acarna?ies, de¬
noting perfons unfhom \ other Etolians, to the eaft of
the Achelous, being called Curetes (Homer) from
being (horn. According to Lucian, they were noted
for effeminacy and incontinence; hence the proverb.
Pore ellus Acarnamus. This country was famous for
an excellent breed of horfes ; fo that Axafnoco; is
a proverbial faying for a thing excellent in its kind.
It is now called la Carnia and il Defpotato.
ACARON, or- Accaron, a town of Paleftine, call¬
ed Ekron in feripture. It was the boundary of the Phi-
liftines to the north ; flood at fome diftance from the
fea, near Bethftiemefh ; and was famous for the idol of
Baalzebub.
ACARUS, the Tick or Mite, a genus of infedts
belonging to the order of aptera, or fuch as have no
wings. The acarus has eight legs; two eyes, one on
each fide of the head ; and two jointed tentacula. The
female is oviparous. Linnaeus enumerates 35 fpecies;
of which fome are inhabitants of the earth, fome of
waters; fome live on trees, others among ftones, and
others on the bodies of other animals, and even under
their flein. The defeription of a few of the moft re¬
markable will here fuffice.
1. The firo, or cheefe-mite, is a very minute fpecies.
To the naked eye, thefe mites appear like moving par¬
ticles of dull; but the microfcope difeovers them to
be perfedt animals, having as regular a figure, and per¬
forming all the fundlions of life as perfe&ly, as crea¬
tures that exceed them many times in bulk. The prin¬
cipal parts of them are the head, the neck, and the
body. The head is fmall in proportion to the body ;
and has a (harp fnout, and a mouth that opens and (huts
like a mole’s. They have two fmall eyes, and are ex¬
tremely quickfighted; and when they have been once
-touched with a pin, you will eafily perceive how cun¬
ningly they avoid a fecond touch. Their legs are each
furnifhed at the extremity with two little claws, with
which the animal very nicely fakes hold of any thing.
The hinder part of the body is plump and bulky ; and
ends in an oval form, from which there iffue out a few
exceeding long hairs. Other parts of the body are
alfo befet with thin and long hairs. The males and
females are eafily diftinguilhed in thefe little animals.
The females are oviparous, as the loufe and fpider;
and from their eggs the young ones are hatched in their
proper form, without having any change to undergo
afterwards. They are, however, when firft; hatched,
extremely minute ; and, in their growing to their full
fize, they caft their (kins .feveral times. Thefe little
creatures may be kept alive many months between two
concave glaffes, and applied to the microfcope at plea-
fure. They are thus often feen in coitu, conjoined tail
to tail; and this is performed by an incredibly fwift
motion. Their eggs, in warm .weather, hatch in 12
or 14 dap ; but in winter they are much longer.
Thefe eggs are fo fmall, that a regular computation
(hows, that 90 millions of them are not fo large as a % SahPt
common pigeon’s egg *. They are very voracious ani- Microfcope,
mals, and have often been feen to eat one another, p. 187.
Their manner of eating is by thrufting alternately one
s jaw
A C A [ 49 1 A C A
Acarus. jaw forward and the other backward, and in this man-
4 * ' ner grinding their food; and after they have done
feeding, they feem to chew the cud.—There are feve-
ral varieties of this ipecies found in different fubftances
befides cheefe; as in malt-duft, flour, oatmeal, &c.
Thofe in malt-duft and oatmeal are much nimbler than
the cheefe-mites, and have more and longer hairs.
There are alfo a fort of wandering mites, which range
wherever there is any thing they can feed on : They
are often feen in the form of a white duft, and are not
fufpedted to be living creatures.—The mite is called by
authors, Amply, Acarus. It is an animal very tena¬
cious of life, and will live months without food. Mr
+ Arcan. Lewenhoekf had one which lived n weeks on the
1; '7tfrrf.tom.iv. point of a pin, on which he had fixed it for examining
f by his microfcope.
2. The fanguifugus. The hinder part of the abdo¬
men is crenated, the fcutellum is oval and yellowifh,
and the beak is trifid. It is a native of America, and
{ticks fo faft on the legs of travellers, fucking their
blood, that they can hardly be extracted.
3. The telarius is of a greenifh yellow colour. It
has a fmall fling or weapon, with which it wounds the
leaves of plants, and occafions them to fold backward.
'They are very frequently to be met with in the autumn,
inclofed in the folded leaves of the lime-tree.
4. The exulcerans, or itch-acarus, is a very fmall
It fpecies : its body is of a figure approaching to oval,
and lobated ; the head is fmall and pointed ; its colour
is vvhitifh, but it has two dufky femicircular lines on the
back. It has long fetaceous legs, but the two firfl are
fhort. It is found in the puftules of the itch : authors in
general have fuppofed that it caufes that difeafe ; but o-
thers obferve, that if this were fo, it would be found more
univerfally in thofe puftules. It is more probable that
thefe only make a proper nidus for it. See, however,
the article Itch.
5. The batatas is of a blood-colour, dnd a little
rough ; the fore pair of legs are as long as the body.
It inhabits the potatoes of Surinam.
6. The ovinus, or fheep-tick, has a flat body, of a
roundifh figure, but fomewhat approaching to oval,
-^nd of a yellowifh white colour, and has a tingle large
round fpot on the back: the anus is vifible in the lower
part of the body; the thorax is fcarce confpicuous;
the head is very fmall and black ; the mouth is bifid :
the antennae are of a clavated figure, and of the length
of the fnout; the legs are fhort and black. It is com¬
mon on fheep, and its excrements ftain the wool green;
it will live in the wool many months after it is fhorn
from the animal.
7. The coleoptraftorum, or acarus of infedls, is ex¬
tremely minute : its body is round, reddifh, and cover¬
ed with a firm and hard fkin ; the head is very fmall,
the neck fcarce vifible; the leg* are moderately long,
the anterior pair longer than the others ; it has a white-
nefs about the anus. It is frequent on the bodies of
many infedls, which it infefts, as the loufe does others ;
i*y it runs very fwiftly : the humble-bee, and many other
of the larger infefls, are continually infefted with it;
but none fo much as the common black beetle, which
has thence been called the loufy beetle.
8. The baccarum, or fcarlet tree-mite, is a fmall
fpecies t its body is roundifh, and the back not at all
flatted, as it is in many others; the fkin is fmooth,
VOL. I.
fhining, and gloffy; and the whole animal feems di- Aearus
ftended, and ready to burft ; the colour is a bright red,- I!
but a little dufkier on the fides than elfewhere: the . Aca^ery'
head is very fmall, and the legs fhort; there is on each '
fide a fmall dufky fpot near the thorax, and a few hair*
grow from different parts of the body. It is very
common on trees, particularly on the currant, on the
fruit of which we frequently fee it running.
9. The longicornis, or red ftone-acarus, is very fmall,
and of a bright red colour; the body is round, and dif-
tended ; the head is very fmall and pointed ; the legs
are moderately long, and of a paler red than the body;
the antennas are much longer than in any other fpecies.
It is frequent about old ftone-walls and on rocks, and
runs very nimbly. See Plate I.
1 o. The aquaticus is a fmall fpecies; the body is of
a figure approaching to an oval, and the back appears
depreffed ; it is of a bright and ftrong fcarlet colour.
The head is fmall; the legs are moderately long and
firm, and are of a paler red than the body. It is com¬
mon in fhallow waters, where it runs very fwiftly along
the bottom. Its diminutivenefs hinders the beauty of
its colours from being perceived, as they are not dif-
cernible without the microfcope.
11. The holofericeus is a fmall fpecies ; its body is
roundifh, but a little approaching to oval; the back
fomewhat depreffed : it is of a fine fcarlet colour, and
covered with a velvety down. The head is very fmall;
the eyes are two, and very fmall; the legs are fhort
and of a paler red, and there is a fmall black fpot near
the infertion of the anterior ones. It is very common
under the furface of the earth, and fometimes on herbs
and among hay. It is fuppofed to be poifonous if
fwallowed ; but we do not feem to have any certain ac¬
count of fuch an effect.
12. The longipes is the largeft of the acarus kind ;
Its body is roundifh, of a dufky brown on the back,
with a dufkier fpot of a rhomboidal figure near the
middle of it; the belly is whitifli; the legs are ex¬
tremely long and Header. On the back part of the
head there ftands a little eminence, which has on it a
kind of double creft, formed as it were of a number of
minute fpines: the eyes are fmall and black, and are
two in number. It is very common in our paftures
towards the end of fummer. Ray and Lifter call it
aranetu crujlatus longpipes ; Mouffet, araneus long-
pipes; and,'notwithftanding its having but two eyes,
it has been almoft unlverfally ranked among the fpi-
ders.
ACASTUS, in claffic hiftory, the fon of Pelias king
of Theffaly, and one of the moft famous hunters of his
time, married Hippolyta, who falling defperately in
love with Peleus her fon-in-law, and he refufing to gra¬
tify her wifhes, fhe accufed him to her hufband of a
rape ; on which he flew them both.
ACATALECTIC, a term, in .the ancient poetry,
for fuch verfes as have all their feet or fyllables, in con-
tradiftinftion to thofe that have a fyllable too few..
ACATALEPSY, fignifies the impofiibility of com¬
prehending fomething.—-The diftinguifhing tenet of
the Pyrrhonifts was their afferting an abfolute acata-
kpfy in regard to every thing.
ACATERY, or Accatry, anciently an officer of
the king’s houfehold, defigned for a check betwixt the
clerks of the kitchen.and the purveyors.
ACA-
ACC r 5° ] ACC
Acatharfla ACATHARSIA, in medicine, an Impurityof the Suppofe a body let fall from on high : the primary Aerekr*-
Accilera ^lood or humours. caufe of its beginning to defcend is doubtlefs the power , tl°11- ,
"tion^* ACATHISTUS, the name of a folemn hymn an- of gravity; but when once the defcent is commenced, v
i ^ ‘ ■ ciently fung in the Greek church on the Saturday of that ftate becomes in fome meafure natural to the bo-
the fifth week of Lent, in honour of the Virgin, for dy; fo that if left to itfelf, it would- perfevere in it
having thrice delivered Conftantinople from the inva- forever, even though the firil caufe fhould ceafe : as
fions of the barbarous nations. we fee in a ftone call with tire hand, which continues
ACATIUM, in the ancient navigation, a kind of to move after it is left by the caufe that;gave it mo-
boat ot pinnace ufed for military purpofes. The aca- tion. But, befide the propenlity to defcend impreffed
tium was a fpecies of thofe veflels called naves aftua*
rnc, i. e. fuch- as were wrought with oars. It was
fometimes made ufe of in battle. Strabo defcribes it
as a privateer or pirate floop.
AGAULIS, in botany, a term applied to certain
plants, the flowers of which have- no pedicle or ftalk
to fupport them, but reft immediately on the ground,
fucli as the carline thiftle, &c.
ACCA (St), bifhop of Haguftaldt, 'or Hexham, in
Northumberland, fucceeded Wilfrid in that fee in 709.
He ornamented his cathedral in a moft magnificent
. manner: he furnifhed it alfo with plate and holy veft-
ments; and erefted a noble library, confifting chiefly
of ecck-fiaftical learning, and' a large colle&ion of the
lives of the faints, which he was at great pains to pro¬
cure.—He was accounted a-very able divine, and was
famous for his /kill in church-mufic. He wrote feveral
pieces : particularly^ Pajjiones SanBorum, the Suffer¬
ings of the'Saints: Pro illujlrandis fcripturis, ad Be*
dam ; For explaining the fcripturesr addreffed to Bede.
He died in 740, having enjoyed the fee of Hexham 31
years, under Egbert king of the Northumbrians:
ACC ALIA, in Roman antiquity, folemn feftivals
held in honour of’ Acca Laurentia, Romulus’s nurfe :
they were-otherwife called Laurentalia.
ACCAPITARE, in law, the aft of becoming vaf-
fal of a lord, or of yielding him homage and obedience.
Hence,
ACCAPITUM, fignifies the money paid by a vaffal
upon his admiffion to a feu.
Accapitum, in our ancient law, was ufed alfo to
exprefs the relief due to the chief lord. See Relief.
ACCEDAS ad Curiam, in the Englifh law, a
writ lying, where a man has received, or fears, falfe
judgment in an inferior court. It lies alfo forjuftice.
delayed, and is a fpecies of the writ Recordare.
ACCELERATION, in mechanics, the increafe
of velocity in a moving body. Accelerated motion is
that which continually receives frefli acceflions of velo¬
city. Acceleration ftands direftly oppofed to retar¬
dation, which denotes a diminution of velocity.
Acceleration is chiefly ufed in phyfics, in refpeft
of falling bodies, i. e. of heavy bodies tending to¬
wards the centre of the earth by the force of gravity.
That natural bodies are accelerated in their defcent, is
evident from various confiderations, both a priori and
fnfieriori.—Thus, we aftually find, that the greater
height a body falls from, the greater impreffion it
makes, and the more vehemently does it ftrike the fub-
jeft plane, or other obftacle.
Various were the fyftems and opinions which philo-
fophers produced to account for this acceleration. But
the immediate caufe of acceleration is now fufficiently
obvious ; the principle of gravitation, which deter¬
mines the body to defcend, determining it to be acce¬
lerated by a neceffary confequence..
by the firft caufe, and which of itfelf were fufficient
to continue the fame degree of motion, once begun,
in infinitum'; there is a conftant acceffion of fubfequent
efforts of the fame principle, gravity, which continues
to aft on the body already in motion, in. the fame man¬
ner as if it Were at reft. Here, then, being a double,
caufe of motion ; and both afting in the fame direc-
tionj viz. direftly towards- the centre of the earth ; the
motion they jointly produce muft neceffarily be greater
than that: of any one cf them.—And the velocity thus
increafed having the fame caufe of increafe ftill perfift-
ing, the defcent muft neceffarily be continually accele-
rated..
The motion of a body afcending, or impelled up¬
wards, is diminilhed or retarded from the fame prin¬
ciple of gravity, afting in a contrary direftion, in the
fame manner as a falling body is accelerated : See Re*
tardation. A body thus projefted upwards, rifes till
it has loft all its motion: which it does in the fame
time that a body falling would have acquired a velo¬
city equal to that wherewith the body was thrown up..
Hence the fame body thrown up, will rife to the
fame height from which falling it would have acquired
the velocity wherewith it was thrown up : And hence
the heights which bodies thrown up with different
velocities do afcend to, are to one another as tha
fquares of thofe velocities.
Acceleration ofBodies on inclined Planes, The fame
general law obtains here as. in bodies falling perpendi¬
cularly: the effeft of the plane is to make the motion
flower; but the inclination being every.where equal,
the retardation arifing therefrom will proceed equally
in all parts, at the beginning and the ending of the mo¬
tion. See Mechanics.
Acceleration of the Motion of Pendulums—The mo¬
tion of pendulous bodies is accelerated in their defcent ;
but in a lefs ratio than that of bodies falling perpendi¬
cularly. See Mechanics and Pendulum..
Acceleration.of the Motion of Projettiks. See Pro¬
jectile.
Acceleration is alfo applied in the ancient aftro-
nomy, in refpeft of the fixed liars?—This acceleration
was the difference between the revolution of the />r/-
mum mobile and the. folar revolution ; which was com¬
puted at three minutes and 56 feconds.
Accelf.ration of the Moon, a term ufed to exprefs
the increafe of the moon’s mean motion from the fun,
compared with the diurnal motion of the earth ; fo that
it is now a little fwifter than it was formerly. Dr Hal¬
ley was the firft who made this difcovery; and he was-
led to it by comparing the ancient eclipfes obferved at
Babylon with thofe obferved by Albatennius in the
ninth century, and fome of his own time. He was
not able to afcertain the quantity of this acceleration,
becaufe the longitudes of Bagdad, Alexandria, and
Aleppo, where the obfervations were made, had not
been
AC C . . t 5
Accelera- been accurately determined. But iince his time, the
ti<m longitude of Alexandria has been afcertained by Cha-
Aceenfdone^es; and Babylon, according to Ptolemy’s account,
i -v ‘ - lies 50' eaft from Alexandria. From thefe data, Mr
Dunthorne compared feveral ancient and modern eclipfes,
•with the calculations of them, by his own tables, and
hereby verified Dr Halley’s opinion; for he found that
the fame tables reprefent the moon’s place more back¬
ward than her true place in ancient eclipfes, and more
for ward-than her true place in later eclipfes; and thence
juftly inferred, that her motion in ancient times was
flower ; in later times quicker, than the tables give it.
But he did not content himfelf with merely afcertain-
ing the faft; he proceeded to determine the quantity
of the acceleration ; and by means of the moll ancient
■eclipfe of which any authentic account remains, ob-
ferved at Babylon in the year before Chrift 721, he
concluded, that the obferved beginning of this eclipfe
was not above an hour and three-quarters before the
beginning by the tables ; and therefore the-moon’s true
place could precede her place by computation but little
more than 50' of a degree at that time. Admitting
the acceleration to be uniform, and the aggregate of
it as-the fquare of the time, it will be at the rate of
about 10' in too years.
Dr Long attributes the acceleration above defcribed
to one or more of thefe caufes: either, 1. The annual
and diurnal motion of the earth continuing the fame,
the moon is really carried round the earth with a great¬
er velocity than heretofore : or, 2. The diurnal motion
•of the earth, and the periodical revolution of the moon
continuing the fame, the annual motion of the earth
round the fun is a little retarded; which makes the
fun’s apparent motion im the ecliptic a little flower
than formerly; and, confequehtly, the moon in palling
from any conjunction with the fun, fpends lefs time
before Ihe again overtakes the fun, and forms a fubfe-
cpient conjunftion : in both thefe cafes, the motion of
the moon from the fun is really accelerated, and the
fynodical month actually Ihortened. Or, 3. The annual
motion of the earth, and the periodical revolution of
the moon continuing the fame, the rotation of the
earth round its axis is a little retarded: in this cafe,
days, hours, minutes, feconds, &c. by which all periods
of time muft be meafured, are of a longer duration ;
and confequently the fynodical month will appear to
be Ihortened, though it really contains the fame quan¬
tity of abfolute time as it always did. If the quantity
■of matter in -the body of the fun be lelfened by the
particles of light continually ilreaming from it, the
motion of the earth round the fun may become flower :
if the earth increafes in bulk, the motion of-the moon
round the earth may be quickened thereby. See A-
STRONOMY.
ACCELERATOR, in anatomy, the name of two
mufcles of the penis, which ferve for ejefting the urine
•or’femen. See Anatomy, (iabk of the Mufcles.
ACCENDENTES, a lower order of minifters in
the Romilh church, whofe office is to light and trim the
candles.
ACCENDONES, in Roman antiquity, a kind of
gladiators, whofe office was to excite and animate the
combatants during the engagement. The orthogra¬
phy of the word is contefted : the firft edition of Ter-
tullian, by Rhenanus, has it accedones j an ancient
2
i ] ACC
manufcript, aceendones. Aquinas adheres to the for- Accenfi
mer, Pitifcus to the latter. The origin of the word, Ac^ent
fuppofing it accendonesy is from accendoy I kindle; fup- , ct u‘
poling it accedonesy from accede, I accede, am added to.
The former places their diftinguifhing chara&er in etv-
livening the combat by their exhortations and fugge-
flions; the latter fuppofes them to be much the feme
with what among us are called feconds, among the Ita¬
lians patroni : excepting that thefe latter only Hand by
■ to fee the laws of the fword duly obferved, without in¬
termeddling to give advice or inlhudtion.
ACCENSI, in the Roman armies, certain fupernu-
merary foldiers, defigned to fupply the places of thofe
who fhould be killed or any wife difebled. They were
thus denominated, quia accenfeb-antur, or ad cenfutn
adjiciebantur. Vegetius calls them fuperniwierarii le-
gionum. Cato calls them ferentarii, in regard they
■ furnifhed thofe engaged in battle with weapons, drink,
&c. Though Nonnius fuggefls another reafon of that
appellation, viz. becaufe they fought with Hones, flings,
and weapons qua ferruntur, fuch as are thrown, not
carried in the hand. They were fometimes alfo called
velites, and velati, becaufe they fought clothed, but not
in armour; fometimes adfcripticii, and adfcriptivi; fome¬
times rorarii. The accetift, Livy obferves, were placed
at the rear of the army, becaufe no great matter was
expected from them : they were taken out of the fifth
clafs of citizens.
Accensi, in antiquity, denotes an inferior order of
officers, appointed to attend the Roman magiflrates,
feme,what in the manner of ufhers, ferjeants, or tip-
ftaves among us. They were thus called from accire,
to fend for ; one part of their office being to call affem-
blies of the people, fummon parties to appear and an-
fwer before the judges, &c.
Accensi, was alfo an appellation given to a kind of
adjutants, appointed by the tribune to affift each cen¬
turion and decurion. In which fenfe, accenfus is fyno-
nymous with optio. In an ancient infcription, given
by a Torre, we meet Accensus Equitum Romano-
rum ; an office no where elfe heard of. That author
fufpeCls it for a corruption ; and inftead thereof reads,
A CENSIBUS.
ACCENSION, the aftion of fetting a body on fire:
thus the accenfion of tinder is effedted by ftriking fire
with flint and fteeL
ACCENT, in reading or fpeaking, an inflexion of
the voice, which gives to each fyllable of a word its
due pitch in refpcft of height or lownefs. See Read¬
ing. The word is originally Latin, accentus: a com¬
pound of ad, to.; and cano, to fing. Accentus, quaji
adcantus, or juxta cantum. In this fenfe, accent is fy-
nonymous with the Greek rovofthe Latin tenor, or
tonor; and the Hebrew qjnj, gujlus, talle.—For the
doftrine oi Accents in Compojition, fee Foe try. Part III.
N° 103. 114.
Accent, among grammarians, is a certain mark or
character placed over a fyllable, to diredf the ftrefs of
its pronunciation. We generally reckon three gram¬
matical accents in ordinary ufe, all borrowed from the
Greeks, viz. the acute accent, ('), which (hows when
the tone of the voice is to be raifed. The grave ac¬
cent ('), when the note or tone of the voice is to be
depreffed. The circumflex accent (~ or A ), is compofed
of both the acute and the grave, and points out a kind
G 2 of
ACC [ 52 1 ACC
Accent. 0f undulation of the voice. The Latins have made the
 v ' fame ufe of thefe three accents.
The Hebrews have a grammatical, a rhetorical, and
mufical accent: though the firft and laft feem, in effeft,
to be the fame ; both being comprifed under the ge¬
neral name of tonic accents, becaufe they give the pro¬
per tone to fyllables ; as the rhetorical accents are faid
to be euphonic, becaufe as they tend to make the
pronunciation more fweet and agreeable. There are
four euphonic accents, and 25 tonic ; of which fome
are placed above, and others below the fyllables ; the
Hebrew accents ferving not only to regulate the rifings
and fallings of the voice, but alfo to didinguifh the
fe(ftions, periods, and numbers of periods, in a difeourfe;
and to anfwer the fame purpofes with the points in
other languages. Their accents are divided into em~
feroriy kings, dukes, iffc. each bearing a title anfwer-
able to the importance of the diftin&ion it makes. Their
emperor rules over a whole phrafe, and terminates the
fenfe completely; anfwering to our point. Their king
anfwers to our colon ; and their duke to our comma.
The king, however, occafionally becomes a duke, and
the duke a king, as the phrafes are more or lefs ftrort.
It mull be noted, by the way, that the management
and combination of fchefe accents dilfer in Hebrew
poetry from what they are in profe. The ufe of the tonic
or grammatical accents has been much controverted:
fome holding that they diftinguilh the fenfe ; while
others maintain that they are only intended to regulate
the mufic, or fingmg; alleging that the Jews ling,
* Cooper, rather than read, the feriptures in their fynagogues *.
Dom. Mo-Be this, however, as it will, it is certain the ancient
faic. Clav. Hebrews were not acquainted with thefe accents. The
^I* opinion which prevails amongft the learned, is, that
they were invented about the fixth century, by the
Jewilh doctors of the fchool of Tiberias, called the
Majforetes.
As to the Greek accents, now feen both in manir-
feripts and printed books, there has been no lefs dif-
pute about their antiquity and ufe than about thofe of
the Hebrews. Ifaac Voffius endeavours to prove them
of modern invention ; aflerting, that anciently they had
nothing of this kind, but only a few notes in their
poetry, which were invented by Arillophanes the gram¬
marian, about the time of Ptolemy Philopater; and
that thefe were of mufrcal, rather than grammatical ufe,
ferving as aids in the linging of their poems, and very
different from thofp introduced afterwards. He alfo
Ihows from feveral ancient grammarians, that the man¬
ner of writing the Greek accents in thefe days was quite
different from that which appears in our books. The au¬
thor ofGretas,p.546, obferves, that the right
pronunciation of the Greek language being natural to
the Greeks, it was needlefs for them to mark it by ac¬
cents in their writings: fo that, according to all ap¬
pearance, they only began to make ufe of them fo low
as the time in which the Romans, being curious to
learn the Greek tongue, fent their children to ftudy at
Athens, thinking thereby to fix the pronunciation, and
to facilitate it to ftrangers; which happened, as the fame
author obferves, a little before Cicero’s time. Wetftein,
Greek profeffor at Bafil, in a learned differtation en¬
deavours to prove the Greek accents of an older {land¬
ing. He owns that they were not always formed in the
fame manner by the ancients; but thinks that difference
owing to the different pronunciation which obtained in Ascent
the different parts of Greece. He brings feveral reafons, II
a priori, for the ufe of accents, even in the earlieft days :
as that they then wrote all in capital letters equidiftant ■
from each other, without any diftinftion either of words
or phrafes, which without accents could fcarce be in¬
telligible ; and that accents'were neceffaiy to dillinguifh
ambiguous words, and to point out their proper mean¬
ing ; which he confirms from a difpute on a paffage in
Homer, mentioned by Ariftotle in his Poetics, chap.v.
Accordingly, he obferves, that the Syrians, who have
tonic, but no diftin6live accents^ have yet invented cer¬
tain points, placed either below or above the words, to
{how their mood, tenfe,,perfon, or fenfe.
The ufe of accents, to prevent ambiguities,. is moll
remarkably perceived in fome eallern languages, par- •
ticularly the Siamefe and Chinefe. Among the peo¬
ple of China, every word,.or (which is the fame thing)'
fyllable, admits of five accents, as fpoken more acutely
or remifsly ; and thus Hands for many different things.
The fame found ya, according to the accent affixed to
it, fignifies God, a 'wall, excellent, Jlupidity, and a
goofe. The Chinefe have but 330 Ipoken words in their
language ; but thefe being multiplied by the different
accents or tones, which affeft the vowels, furnilh a
language tolerably copious. By means hereof, their
330 fimple founds come to denote 1650 things ; but
this being hardly fuffieient, they are increafed further
by afpirates added to each word to double the number.
The Chinefe only reckon four accents: for which the
milfionaries ufe the following marks, ad, d, a, a; to
which they have added a fifth, thus, <*. They make a
kind of modulation ; wherein, prolonging the duration
of the found of the vowel, they vary the tone, raifing
and finking it by a certain pitch of voice : fo that their
talking is a fort of mufic or finging. Attempts have
been made fo determine the quantity of the rife or fall in
each accent by means of mufical notes; but this is hard
to efifedl, as being different fn different perfons. Hence
the great diflkulty of the language to foreigners ; they
are forced to fing moll fcrupuloufiy: if they deviate
ever fo little from the accent, they fay quite a diffe¬
rent thing from what was intended. Thus, meaning
to compliment the perfon you are talking to with the
title Sir, you call him a beall with the fame word,
only a little varied in the tone. Magalhon makes the
language the eafier to learn on this account.—The
Siamefe are alfo obferved to fing rather than talk.
Their alphabet begins with fix characters, all only
equivalent to a K, but differently accented. For tho*
in the pronunciation the accents are naturally on the
vowels, yet they have fome to diverfify fuch of their
confonanta as are in other refpedts the fame.
Accent, in mufic, is a certain enforcement of par¬
ticular founds, whether by the voice or inftruments,
generally ufed at the beginning of bars.
ACCEPTANCE,inlaw,a perfon’s agreeingto offers
made in bargaining, by which the bargain is concluded.
Acceptance, in the church of Rome,is ppt for re¬
ceiving the pope’s conftitutions.
Acceptance, in commerce, is the fubferibing, fign-
ing, and making one’s felf debtor for the fum contained
in a bill of exchange or other obligation.
ACCEPTATION, in grammar, the fenfe or mean¬
ing wherein any word is taken.
4
ACCEP-
ACC
Accepter ACCEPTER, or Acceptor, the perfon who ac-
II cepts a bill of exchange, &c.
Atceiior^ ACCEPTILATION, among civilians, an acquit¬
tance or difcharge given by the creditor to the debtor
without the payment of any value.
ACCESSIBLE, fomething that may be approach¬
ed, or that accefs may be had to. Thus we fay, Such
a place is acceffible on one fide, See.
ACCESSION, in law, is a method of acquiring
property, by which, in things that have a clofe connec-
[ 53 1
ACC
gain with the par vagum, wrapped up in the fame com- Acceflbry
mon integument, and after quitting them, are diftri- II
buted into the mufcles of the neck and fhoulders. See . cnt‘.
Anatomy.
Accessory, among painters, an epithet given to
fuch parts of an hiftory-piece as ferve chiefly for or¬
nament, and might have been wholly left out: fuch
as vafes, armour, &c.
ACCI, (anc. geog.) a town of Tarraconenfis, for-
ierly called A£H; fuppofed to be Guadix, to the eaft
tion or dependence upon one another, the property of of the city of Granada, at the foot of a mountain, near
the principal thing draws after it the property of the
acceflbry': Thus, the owner of a cow becomes like-
wife the owner of the calf. It fometimes likewife figni-
fies confent or acquiefcence.
Accession, among phyficians, is ufed for a paroxyfm
of a difeafe j among politicians, it fignifies a prince’s
fucceeding to the government upon the death of his.
predeceflbr.
ACCESSORY, or Accessary, fomething that ac¬
cedes, or is added to another more confiderable thing;
in which fenfe the word hands oppofed to principal.
the fource of the rivulet Guadalantin; now greatly de¬
cayed. It is the Colonia Accitana Gemella, and was
of fome repute among the Roman colonies. The peo¬
ple were called Gemellenfes, becaufe the colony con*
filled of colonifts from the third and fixth legions..
ACCIAIOLI (Donata), a man famous for his learn¬
ing and the honourable employments he pofiefied in
Florence his native country, in the 15^ century. He
wrote, A Latin tranflation of fome of Plutarch’s Lives;
Commentaries, on Ariftotle’s Ethics and Politics; and
the Life of Charlemagne. He was fent to France by
Accessory, or Accejfary, in common law, is chiefly the Florentines, to fue for fuccour from Lewis XI.
ufed for a perfon guilty of a felonious offence, not prin- againft Pope Sextus IV. but on his journey died at
—11.. 1—- 1 1— „a..:— 1 hlilan . his body was.carried to Florence, and buried in
the church of the Carthufians. The fmall fortune he left
his children is a proof of his probity and difinterefied-
nefs. His daughters, like thofe of Ariftides, were
married at the public expence, as an acknowledgment
of his fervices. His funeral eulogium was fpoken by
Chriftopher Landini; and an elegant epitaph, by Poli-
tion, was inferibed on his tomb.
ACCIDENT, in a general fenfe, denotes any ca-
fual events
Accident, among logicians, is ufed in a threefold
fenfe. 1. Whatever does not eflentially belong to a
thing ; as the clothes a man wears, or the money in his
pocket. 2. Such properties in any fubjeft as are not
efiential to it j thus whitenefs in paper is an acci¬
dental quality. 3. In oppofition to fubftance, all qua¬
lities whatever are called accidents; as fweetnefs, foft-
nefs, £sV.-
Accident, in grammar, implies a property attach-
cipally, but by participation r as, by advice, command,,
of concealment.
There are two kinds of aecejjories v before the faft,
and after it.—The firfl is he who commands, or pro¬
cures another to commit felony, and is not prefent him-
felf; for if he Be prefent, he is a principal. The fe~
cond is he who receives, affifts, or comforts any man
that has done murder, or felony, whereof he has know¬
ledge. A man may alfo be acceflbry to an acceflbry,
by aiding, receiving, &c. an acceflbry in felony.
An acceflbry in felony fhall have judgment of life
and member, as well as the principal who did the fe¬
lony ; but not till the principal be firft attainted, and
convidt, or outlawed thereon. Where the principal is
pardoned without attainder, the acceflbry cannot be
arraigned; it being a maxim in law, Ubi non eft prin¬
cipalis, non poteft ejfe accefforhts : but if the principal
be pardoned, or have his clergy after attainder, the ac¬
ceflbry fhall be arraigned ; 4 and 5 W. et M. cap. 4..
And by flat. 1 Anne, cap. 9. it is enabled, that where ed to a word, without entering into itseffential defini-
the principal is convidted of felony, or hands mute, or tion ; for every, word, notwithftanding its fignifica-
diallenges above 20 of the jury, it fhall be lawful to tion, will be either primitive, derivative, fimple, or
proceed againft the acceffory in the fame manner as if compound, which are the accidents of words. A.
the principal had been attainted ; and notwithftanding word is faid to be primitive, when it is taken from no
fuch principal fhall be admitted to his clergy, pardoned, other word in the language in which it is ufed : thus
or delivered before attainder. la fome cafes alfo, if heaven, king, good, are primitive words. It is Laid to
the principal cannot be taken, then the acceflbry may be derivative, when it is taken from fome other word:
be profecuted for a mifdemeanour, and punifhed by thus heavenly, kingdom, goodnefs, &c. are derivatives,
fine,. imprifonment, &c. In the loweft and higheft Afimple word is eafily diftinguifhed from a compound :
offences there are no acceflbries, but all are principals:
as in riots, routs, forcible entries,' and other trefpaffes,
which are the loweft offences. So alfo in the higheft
offence, which is, according to the Englifh law, high
treafon, there are no acceflbries.
thus juft, juft ice, are fimple words; unjuft, injuftice,
are compound: res is a fimple word, as well as publica;
but refpublica is a compound. Befides thefe accidents,
which are common to all forts of words, each particu¬
lar fpecies has its accident?: thus the accidents of the
Acceffories, in petty treafon, murder, and in felonies noun fubftantive are the gender, declenfion, and
of feveral hinds, are not to have their clergy. ^ There
can be no acceffory before the faft in manflaughter; be¬
caufe that is fudden and unprepenfed-
Accessory Nerves, in anatomy,, a pair of nerves,
which, arifing from the medulla in the vertebras of the
neck, afeend, and enter the fkull, and pafs out of it a-
ber ; and the adjeftive has another accident, namely, the
comparifon. See the articleGRAMMAR andLANGUAGE.
Accident, in heraldry, an additional point or mark
in a coat of arms, which may be either omitted or re¬
tained without altering the effence of the armour ; fuck
as, abatement, difference, and tin&ure.
ACCL
A C C [ 54 1 ACC
Accidental, ACCIDENTAL, in a general fenfe, implies fome-
Accipenfer. tjjjng t}iat happens by accident, -or that is not eflential
l>" to its fubjeA.
Accidental, in philofophy, is applied.to that ef-
feA which flows from fome caufe intervening by acci¬
dent, without being fubjeA, or at leaft -without any
appearance of being fubjeA, to general laws or regu¬
lar returns. In this fenfe, accidents oppofed to conjlant
and principal. Thus-the .fun’s place is, with refpeA to
the earth, 'the conftant and principal caiife of the heat
in fummer, and the cold in winter; whereas winds,
fnows, and rains, are the accidental caufes which of¬
ten alter and modify, the a&ion of the principal caufe.
Accidental Point, in perfpeftive, is that point in
tlie-horizontal line where the projections of two lines
. parallel to each other meet the perfpe&ive plane.
AceiDF.iiTAL Colours, are thofe which depend upon
the dffe&ions of the eye, in contradiftinAion to thofe
which belong to the light itfelf. The impreffions made
upon the eye by looking ftedfaftly at a particular co¬
lour are various, according to the fingle colour or com¬
bination of colours in the objeA; and they continue
for fome time after the eye is withdrawn, and give a
falfe colouring to other objeAs. Mr Buffon has en¬
deavoured to trace the conneAions which thefe acci¬
dental colours have with fuch as are natural, in a va¬
riety of inftances. The fubjeA has alfo been confidered
by De la Hire, and M. Epences ; and M. d’Arcy has
contrived a machine for determining the duration of
" v the effeAs of light, and after feveral trials, finds that
, it continues about eight thirds of a minute.
ACCIPENSER, in ichthyology, a genus of fifhes
belonging to the Amphibia Nantes of Linnaeus. The
accipenfer has a fingle linear noftril: the mouth is in
the under part of the head, and contains no teeth ; the
cirri are below the fnout, and before the mouth. There
are three fpecies of this genus, viz.
1. The ruthenus has 4 cirri, and 15 fquamo.us pro¬
tuberances. It is a native of Ruffia.
2. The hufo has 4 cirri; the body is naked, i. s. has
no prickles or protuberanoes. The dr in of the hufo
is fo tough and ftrong, that it is employed for ropes
in carts and other wheel-carriages; and the ichthyo-
collo, or isinglass of the Ihops, famous as an agglu-
tinant, and ufed alfo for the fining of wines, is made
from its found or feales. The ancients were acquaint¬
ed with the fiih that afforded this drug. The hufo is
the largeft of the genus, and grows to 24 feet in length.
•It inhabits the Danube and the rivers of ,Rufiia.
3. The fturio, or ftufgeon, with 4 cirri and n
fquamous protuberances on the back. This fifh an¬
nually afeends our rivers, but in no great numbers, and
is taken by accident in the falmon-nets. It feems a fpi-
ritlefs fifh, making no manner of refiftance when en¬
tangled, but is drawn out of the water like a lifelefs
lump. It is feldom taken far out at fea, but frequents
■fuch parts as are not remote from the aeftuaries of great
rivers. It is admired for the delicacy and firmnefs of
its fiefh, which is white as veal, and extremely good
when roafted. ft is generally pickled. The molt we
receive comes either from the Baltic rivers or North
America. Great numbers are taken during fummer in
■the lakes Frifchehaff, and Curifch-haff near Pillau, in
large nets made of fmall cord. The adjacent fhores are
/ormed into diftriAs, and .farmed out to companies of
fifhermen, fome of which are rented for fix thoufand Acdpltcr
guilders, or near three hundred pounds, per annum. Ac||;us>
They are found in vaft abundance in the American ri-. ‘
vers in May, June, and July,; at which time they leap
fome yards out of the water, and, falling.on their fides,
make a noife to be heard in Hill weather at fome miles
diftance.. Caviare is made of the roes of this, and alfo
of all the other forts of fturgeons, dried, falted, and
packed up clofe. Ichthyocolla, or ifinglafs, is likewife
made of the found of this fiih, as well as that of the
others; but in very fmall quantity. The Iturgeon *
grows to a great fize, to the length of 18 feet, and to
the weight of 500 pounds, but it is feldom taken in
our rivers of that bulk. In the manner of breeding,
this fifh is an exception among the cartilaginous kind,;
being, like the bony fifh, oviparous, fpaWning in wa¬
ter.
ACCIPITER, .the name of Linnoeus.’s firfl order of
Birds. See Zoology.
Among the Romans, the term accipiter fignified a
hawk, and which, from its being very -carnivorous,
they confidered as a bird of bad omen ;
Odimus aedpitrem, quia Jemper vivit in armis. Ovid.
Pliny, however, tells us, that in fome cafes, particu¬
larly in marriage, it was efteemed a bird of good
omen, becaufe it never eats the hearts of other birds ;
intimating thereby, that no differences in a married
flate ought to reach the heart. The accipiter was
worfhipped as a divinity by the inhabitants of Tentyra,
an ifland in the Nile, being confidered by them as the
image of the fun ; and hence we find, that luminary re-
prefented, in hieroglyphics, under the figure of a
hawk.
ACCISMUS, denotes a feigned refufal of foptc-
thing which a perfon earneftly defires. The word is
Latin ; or rather Greek, A-oue-^of, fuppofed to be form¬
ed from Acco, the name of a foolifh old woman noted,
in antiquity for an affeAation of this kind.
Accifmus is fometimes confidered as a virtue ; fome-
times as a vice, which Auguftus and Tiberius prac-
tifed with great fuccefs. Cromwell’s refufal of the
crown of England may be brought as an inflance of an
Accifmus.
Accismus is more particularly ufed, in rhetoric, as
a fpecies of irony.
ACCITUM, (anc. geog.), a town of Hifpania Ba-
tica, now Finiana, as appears from an ancient inferip-
tion; fituate on an eminence of the mountains Alpu-
xaras in Granada.
ACCIUS (Lucius), a Latin tragic poet, thefon of
a freedman, and, according to St Jerom, born in the
eonfulfhip of Hoftilius .Mancinus and Attilius Serra-
nus, in the year of Rome 583 ; but there appears
fomewhat of confufion and perplexity in this chronolo¬
gy. He made himfelf known before the death of Pa-
cuvius, a dramatic piece of his being exhibited the
fame year that Pacuvius brought one upon the ftage,,
the latter being then eighty years of age, and Accius
only thirty. We do not know the name of this piece
of Accius’s, but the titles of feveral of his tragedies
are mentioned by various authors. He wrote on the
moft celebrated ftories which had been reprefented on
the Athenian ftage; as Andromache, Andromeda, A-
treus, CLytemneftra, Medea, Meleager, Philocletes,
ACC [ 55 ] ACC
Accius, the civil wars of Thebes, Tereus, the Troades, &c.
Acclama- He d;d not aiways> however, take his fubjefts from
l ' i the Grecian ftory ; for he compofed one dramatic piece
wholly Roman : it was intitled Brutus, and related to
the expulfion of the Tarquins. It is affirmed by fome,
that he wrote alfo comedies ; which is not unlikely, if
' he was the author of two pieces, the Wedding and
the Merchant, which have been afcribed to him. He
did not confine himfelf to dramatic writing ; for he left
other productions, particularly his annals, mentioned
by Macrobius, Prifcian, Feilus, and Nonius Marcel-
lus. He has been cenfured for writing in too harlh a
ftyle, but in all other refpeCts has been elteemed a very
great poet. He was fo much elteemed by the public,
that a comedian was punilhed for only mentioning his
name on the Itage. Cicero fpeaks with great derifion
of one Accius who had written a hiftory ; and, as our
author had wrote annals, fome infiii that he is the per-
- fon cenfured : but as Cicero himfelf, Horace, Quinti¬
lian, Ovid, and Paterculus, have fpoken of our author
with fo much applaufe, we cannot think it is him whom
the Roman orator cenfures with fo much feverity.
There was alfo in this age a pretty' good orator of
the fame name, again!! whom Cicero defended Cluen-
tius. He was born in Pifaurum, and perhaps was a re¬
lation of our poet.
ACCIUS, a poet of the 16th century, to whom is
attributed A Parapbrafe of JEfop's Fables, on which
Julius Scaliger bellows great encomiums.
ACCLAMATION, a confufed noife or Ihout of
joy, by which the public exprefs their applaufe, elleem,
or approbation.
Acclamation, in a more proper fenfe,'denotes a
certain form of words, uttered with extraordinary ve¬
hemence, and in a peculiar tone fomewhat refembling
a fong, frequent in the ancient affemblies. Acclama¬
tions were ufually accompanied with applaufes, with
which they are fometimes confounded: though they
ought to be dillinguilhed; as acclamation -was given
by the voice, applaufe by the hands ; add, that accla¬
mation was alfo bellowed on perfons abfent, applaufe
only on thofe prefent. Acclamation was alfo given by
women, whereas applaufe feems to have been confined
to men.
Acclamations are of various kinds; ecclefiailical,
military, nuptial, fenatorial, fynodical, fcholallic, thea¬
trical, &c. We meet with loud acclamations, mulical,
and rythmical acclamations ; acclamations of joy and
refpeft, and even of reproach and contumely. The
former, wherein words of happy omen were ufed, were
alfo called, Laudationes, et bona vota, or good wilhes; .
the latter, Execrationes et convicia. Suetonius furnilhes
an inltance of this lalt kind in the Roman fenate, on
occafion of the decree for'demolilhing the llatues of
Domitian, when the fathers, as the hillorian reprefents
it, could not refrain from contumelious acclamations of
the deceafed. The like wrere Ihown after the death of
Commodus, where the acclamations run in the follow¬
ing ftrain : Hofti pair lie honores detrahantur, parricide
bonores detrahantur ; hojlis ftatuas undique, parricida
fatuas undique, gladiatoris fiatuas undique, &c.—The
formula, in acclamations, was repeated fometimes a
greater, fometimes a lelfer, number of times. Hence
we find in Roman writers, acclamatum ejl quinquies, et
tides; five times, and twenty times; fometimes. aifo
fdagics, and even oftuagies; fixty and eight times.
Acclamations were not unknown on the theatres in Ac
the earliell ages of the Roman commonwealth; but
they were artlefs then, and little other than confufed
fixouts. Afterwards they became a fort of regular con-,
certs. That mentioned by Phaedrus, Lztare incolumis
Roma falvo principe, which was made for Augullus, and
proved the occafion of a pleafant millake of a flute-
player called Princeps, Ihows that mufical acclamations
wrere in ufe in that emperor’s reign. Revertentem cx
Provinda moduiatis car minibus profequebantur, fays
Suetonius, who gives another inllance in the time of
Tiberius : a falfe report of Germanicus’s recovery be¬
ing fpread through Rome, the people ran in crowds to
the capitol with torches and victims, finging, Salva
Roma, Salva Patria, Salvus ejl Germanicus Nero,
paffionately fond of mufic, took fpecial care to improve
and perfeft the mufic of acclamations. Charmed with
the harmony wherewith the Alexandrians, who came
to the games celebrated at Naples, had fung his praifes,
he brought feveral over to inllruft a number of youth,
chofen from among the knights and people, in the dif¬
ferent kinds of acclamations pradlifed at Alexandria.
Thefe continued in ufe as long as the reign of Theb-
doric. But the people did not always make a fmgle
chorus ; fometimes there were two,, who anfwered each
other alternately: thus, when Nero played on the
theatre, Burrhus and Seneca, who were on either
hand, giving the fignal by clapping, 5000 foldiers
called Augullals, began to chant his praife, which the
fpeftators w-ere obliged to repeat. The whole was
conduced by a mufic-maller called Mefochorus or Pau-
farius.—rY\\c lionour of acclamations was chiefly ren¬
dered to emperors,.their children, and favourites ; and
to the mag ill fates who prefided at the games. Per¬
fons of. dillinguiflied merit alfo fometimes received
them, of which Quintilian gives us inllances in Cato
and Virgil. The moll ufual forms were, Feliciter, Lon-
giorem vitatn, Atmos /dices. The ablors themfelves,
and they who gained the prizes, in the games of the
circus, w'ere not excluded the honour of acclama¬
tions.
To theatrical acclamations may be added thofe of
the foldiery and the people in time of triumph. The
victorious army accompanied their general to the capi¬
tol ; and,, among the verfes they fung in his praifes, fre¬
quently repeated, lo Triumphe, wffiich the people
anfwered in the fame ftrain. It was alfo in the way
of acclamation, that the foldiers gave their general the
title of Imperator, after fome notable victory : a title
which he only kept till the time of his triumph.
The acclamations of the fenate were fomewhat more
ferious than the popular ones ; but arofe from the fame
principle, viz. a defire of pleafing the prince or his fa¬
vourites ; and aimed likewife at. the lame end, either to
exprefs the general approbation and zeal of the com¬
pany, or to congratulate him on his victories, or to
make him new proteftations of fidelity. Thefe accla¬
mations were ufually given after a report made by foms
fenator,,to which the reft all expreffed their confent by
crying Gmnes, Omn.es;: or elfe, uEquum:est, Jus-
tum est. Sometimes they began with acclamations*
and fometimes ended with them without.other debates.
It was after this manlier that all the elections and pro¬
clamations of emperors, made by the fenate, were con-
dubled ; fomething of which practice is ftill retained
at modem eledlions of kings and emperors, where Vivat
Rexy
ACC r sS 1 ACC
Acclama- Rex, Vive le Roy, and Long live the King, are cufto-
tion- ( mary forms.
» The Greeks borrowed the cuftom of receiving their
emperors in the public places from the Romans. Luit-
prand relates, that at a proceffion where he was pre-
fent, they fung to the emperor Nicephorus, vow* it* ;
that is, Many years : which Codin expreffes thus, by
to 4-xwsiv to 7ro\uxe,,“,'’> or by to and the
wiih or falutation by ■roxv^eo,,<rfJ-:,‘ And at dinner, the
Greeks then prefent wifhed with a loud voice to the
emperor and Bardas, Ut Deus annos multiplicet; as he
tranflates the Greek. Plutarch mentions an acclama¬
tion fo loud, upon occafion of Flaminius’s reftoring li¬
berty to Greece, that the very birds fell from heaven
with the Ihout. The Turks pra&ife fomething like
this on the fight of their emperors and grand viziers
to this day.
For the acclamations wherewith authors, poets, &c.
were received, who recited their works in public; it is
to be obferved, the alfemblies for this purpofe were held
with great parade in .the moft folemn places, as the ca-
pitol, temples, the Athenaeum, and the houfes of great
men. Invitations were fent every where, in order to
get the greater appearance. The chief care was, that
the acclamations might be given with all the order and
pomp poffible. Men of fortune who pretended to wit,
‘ kept able applauders in their fervice, and lent them to
their friends. Others endeavoured to gain them by
prefents and treats. Philoftratus mentions a young
man named Vavus, who lent money to the men of let¬
ters, and forgave the intereft to fuch as applauded his
exercifes. Thefe acclamations were condufted much
after the fame manner as thofe on the theatre, both as
to the mufic and the accompaniments: they were to
be fuited both to the fubjedl and to the perforu There
were particular ones for the philofophers, for orators,
for hiftorians, and for poets. Il» would be.difficult to
rehearfe all the forms of them ; one of .the moft ufual
was Sophos, which was to be repeated three times. Mar¬
tial comprehends feveral other ufual forms in this verfe:
Graviter, Cite, Nequitsr, Luge, Beate.
Neither the Greeks nor Romans were barren on this
head. The names of gods and heroes were given thofe
whom they would extol. It was not enough to do it
after each head of difeourfe, chiefly after the exordium;
but the acclamations were renewed at every fine paf-
fage, frequently at every period.
The acclamations wherewith the fpe&ators honoured
the victories of the athletas, were a natural confequence
of the impetuous motions which attended the gymna-
ftic games. The cries and acclamations of the people,
fometimes expreffing their compaffion and joy, fome-
times their horror and difguft, are ftrongly painted by
different poets and orators.
Acclamations made alfo a part of the ceremony of
marriage. They were ufed for the omen’s fake; being
the Lata Omina, fometimes fpoken of before marriage
in Roman writers.
Acclamations, at firft pradtifed in the theatre, and
palling thence to the fenate, &c. was in procefs of time
received into the a<fts of councils, and the ordinary af- -
femblies of the church. The people expreffed their
approbation of the preacher varioufiy; the more ufual
forms were. Orthodox! Third ApoJUe, &c. Thefe accla¬
mations being fometimes carried to excels, and often
mifplaced, were frequently prohibited by the ancient Ac-Uma-
doftors, and at length abrogated ; though they ap- tl°u
pear to have been in fome ufe as low as the time of Accommu-
St Bernard. datien.
Acclamation Medals, among antiquaries, fuch as —v—'
reprefent the people expreffing their joy in the pofture
of acclamation.
ACCLIVITY, the rife or afeent of a hill, ,40 oppo-
fition to the declivity or defeent of it. Some writers
in fortification ufe it for the talus of a rampart.
ACCOLAj among the Romans, fignified a perfon
who lived near fome place ; in which fenfe, it differed
from incola, the inhabitant of fuch a place.
ACCOLADE, a ceremony anciently ufed in the
conferring of knighthood.
Antiquaries are not agreed wherein the accolade
properly confifted. The generality fuppofe it to be the
embrace, or kifs, which princes anciently gave the new
knight, as a token of their affection: whence .the word
accolade ; q. d. a clafping^ or taking round the neck.
Others will rather have it to be a blow on the chine of
the neck, given on the fame .occafion. The Accolade
is of fome antiquity, in which foorer of the two fenfes
it be taken. Greg, de Tours writes, that the kings of
France, even of the firft race, in conferring the gilt
fhoulder-belt, killed-the knights on the left cheek. For
the accolee, or blow, ’John of Salifbury allures us, it was
in ufe among the ancient Normans: by this it was that
William the Conqueror conferred the honour of knight¬
hood on his fon Henry. At firft, it was given with
the naked fill; but was afterwards changed into a blow
.with the flat of thefword on the Ihoulder of the knight.
-ACCOLEE, fometimes fynonymous with Acco-
;x ade, which fee. — It is alfo ufed in various fenfes in he¬
raldry : fometimes it is applied to two things joined;
at other times, to animals with crowns, or collars about
their necks, as the lion in the Ogilvy’sarms; and, laft-
ly, to kews, battons, maces, fwords, &c. placed faltier-
wife behind the fliield.
ACCOLTI (Bernardo), fecretary to the republic
of Florence, was furnamed L’Unico, or the Nonfuch,
probably from the great extent of his underftanding,
the variety of fciencee he had acquired, and the ex¬
cellency of his poetic vein 4 which not only gained
him a feat among the academicians of the court of
Urbino, but made that great Mecasnas, pope Leo X.
in 1520, create him prince of the ftate of Nepi. He
wrote many pieces; among others, a colledlion of beau¬
tiful poems, printed at Venice in 1519 and 1553.
ACCOMMODATION, the application of one
thing, by analogy, to another; or the making two or
more things agree with one another.
To know a thing by accommodation, is to know it
by the idea of a fimilar thing referred thereto.
A prophecy of feripture is laid to be fulfilled vari¬
ous ways ; properly, as when a thing foretold come*
to pafs; and improperly, or by way of accommoda¬
tion, when an event happens to any place or people,
like to what fell out fome time before to another.—
Thus, the words of Ifaiah, fpoken to thofe of his own
time, are find to be fulfilled in thofe who lived in our
Saviour’s ; and are accommodated to them : “ Ye hy¬
pocrites, well did Ifaias prophecy of you,” &c. which
fame words St Paul afterwards accommodates to the
Jews of his time.
Ike
ACC
Acwmpa- The primitive, church accomviodated multitudes of
nin?,ent Jewifh, and even heathen ceremonies and praftices, to
i Accom- Chriitian purpofes; but the Jews had before done the
plilhment. fame by the Gentiles: fome will even have circumci-
t-..—\ 1 lion, the tabernacle, brazen ferpent, &c. to have been
originally of Egyptian ufe, and only accommodated by
i * Saurin. Mofes to the purpofes of Judaifm*. Spencer maintains,
Diff. O. T. molt 0f the rites of the old law were an imitation
[tom. i. ^ thofe 0f the Gentiles, and particularly of the Egyp¬
tians ; that God, in order to divert the children of If-
rael from the worlhip they paid to the falfe deities, con-
fecrated the greateft part of the ceremonies performed
by thofe idolaters, and had formed out of them a body
of the ceromonial law; that he had indeed made fome
alterations therein, as barriers againft idolatry; and
that he thus accomvwdated his worlhip to the genius
and occafions of his ancient people. To this conde-
f De legib. fcenfion of God, according to Spencerf, is owing the
jHebr. diff.i. origin of the tabernacle, and particularly that of the
.1.3. p. 3». arlCi Thefe opinions, however, have been controvert¬
ed by later writers.
ACCOMPANIMENT, fomething attending or
added as a circumltance to another, either by way of
ornament, or for the fake of fymmetiy.
Accompaniment, inmufic, denotes the inftruments
v/hich accompany a voice, in Order to fuftain it, as well
as to make the mufic more full. The accompaniment is
ufed in recitative, as well as in fong ; on the ttage, as
well as in the choir, &c. The ancients had likewife
their accompaniments on the theatre; they had even
different kinds of inftruments to accompany the chorus,
from thofe which accompanied the aiftors in the reci¬
tation.—The accompaniment, among the moderns, is
frequently a different part or melody from the fong it
accompanies. It is difputed whether it was fo among
the ancients. It is generally alleged, that their ac¬
companiments went no farther than the playing in
oftave, or in antiphony to the voice. The Abbe Fra-
guier, from a paffage in Plato, pretends to prove, that
they had actual fymphony, or mufic in parts: but his
arguments feem far from being conclufive.
Accompaniment, in painting, denotes fuch obje&s
as are added, either by way of ornament, or probability;
\ - as dogs, guns, game, &c. in a hunting-piece.
Accompaniment, in heraldry, any thing added to
a fhield by way of ornament; as the belt, mantling, fup-
porters, &c. It is alfo applied to feveral bearings about
a principal one; as a faltier, bend, fefs, chevron, &c.
ACCOMPLICE, one that has a hand in abufinefs ;
or is privy in the fame defign or crime with another.
See Accessory.
By the law of Scotland, the accomplice can only be
profecuted after the conviction of the principal offend¬
er, unlefs the acceflion of the accomplice is immediate,
in ipfo attu, fo as'in effeft to render them co-principal.
By the general rule, the accomplice fuffers the fame
punifhment with the principal offender ; yet if he be re¬
markably lefs guilty, juftice will not permit equal pu-
I nifhment.
The council of Sen's, and feveral other fynodical ftar-
tutes, exprefsly prohibit the revealing of accomplices.
ACCOMPLISHMENT, the entire execution or
fulfilling of any thing.
Accomplishment, is principally ufed in fpeaking
of events foretold by the Jewifh prophets in the Old
Teftament, and fulfilled under the New. We fay a
Vol. I.—Part I.
ACC
literal accomplifhment, a myftical or fpiritual accom- Acccm-
plifhment, a fingle accomplifhment, a double accom- P 11 ^en®
plifhment, a Jewifh accomplifhment, a Chriftian, a Accountant
heathen accomplifhment. The fame prophecy is fome-1—-w — *
times accomplifhed in all, or in feveral of thofe different
ways. Thus, of fome of the prophecies of the Old Te¬
ftament, the Jews find a literal accomplifhment in their
own hiftory, about the time when the prophecy was
given : the Chriftians find another in Chrift, or the
earlieft days of the church ; the heathens another, in
fome of their emperors ; the Mahometans another, in
their legiflator, &c. There are two principal ways of
accomplifhing a prophecy; direttly, and by accommo¬
dation. See Accommodation, and Prophecy.
Accomplishment, is alfo ufed for any mental or
perfonal endowment.
Accord, in painting, is the harmony that reigns
among the lights and fhades of a picture.
Accords (Stephen Tabourot, feigneur des), advo¬
cate in the parliament of Dijon in France, and king’s
advocate in the bailiwic and chancery of that city, born
in the year 1549. He was a man of genius and learn¬
ing ; but too much addicted to trifles, as appears from
his piece, intitled, “ Les Bigarrures,” printed at Paris
in 1582. This was not his firft produdtion, for he
had before printed fome fonnets. His work, in-
titled, “ Les Touches,” was publifhed at Paris in
1585 ; which is indeed a colleftion of witty poems,
but worked up rather in too loofe a manner, according
to the licentious tafte of that age. His Bigarrures are
Written in the fame ftrain. He was cenfured for this
way of writing, which obliged him to publifh an apo¬
logy. The lordfhip of Accords is an imaginary fief or
title from the device of his anceftors, which was a
drum, with the motto, a tous accords, “ chiming with
all.” He had fent a fonnet to a daughter of Mr Be¬
gat, the- great and learned prefident of Burgundy,
“ who (fays he) did me the honour to love me :—
And inafmuch (continues he), I had fubfcribed my
fonnet with only my device, a tous accords, this lady
firft nicknamed me, in her anfwer, Seigneur des Ac¬
cords; by which title her father alfo called me feveral
times. For this reafon I chofe this furname, not only
in all my writings compofed at that time, but even in
thefe books.” He died July 24th 1561, in the 46“*
year of his age.
ACCOUNT, or Accompt, in a general fenfe, a
computation or reckoning of any thing by numbers.—
Collectively, it is ufed to exprefs the books which mer¬
chants, traders, bankers, &c. ufe for recording their
tranfaCtions in bufinefs. See Book-keeping.
Chamber of Accounts, in the French polity, is a
fovereign court of great antiquity, which takes cog-
nifance of and regifters the accounts of the king’s re¬
venue. It is nearly the fame with the Englifti Court of
Exchequer.
Account is taken fometimes, in a particular fenfe,
for the computation of time : thus we fay, The Julian
Account, the Gregorian Account, Cfc. in which fenfe
it is equivalent tofyle.
ACCOUNTANT, or Accomptant, in the moft
general fenfe, is a perfon flailed in accounts. In a
more reftrifted fenfe, it is applied to a perfon, or of¬
ficer, appointed to keep the accounts of a public com¬
pany or office ; as the South-fea, the India-company,
the Bank, the Excife, &c.
H
[ 57 ]
ACCOUNT-
ACC [ 58 ] ACC
Account- ACCOUNTANTSHIP, the art of keeping and
antihip balancing accounts. See Book-keeping.
Accumula- ACCOUNTANT-general, a new officer in the
tion. court of Chancery appointed by a& of parliament to
l,—v receive all moneys lodged in court inftead of the ma¬
ilers, and ponvey the fame to the bank of England for
fecurity.
ACCOUTREMENT, an old term, applied to the
furniture of a foldier, knight, or gentleman.
ACCRETION, inphyfics, theincreafe, or growth
of an organical body, by the acceffion of new parts.
See Nutrition, Plants, and Vegetaples.
Accretion, among civilians, the property acquired
in a vague or unoccupied thing, by its adhering to or
following another already occupied: thus, if a legacy
be left to two perfons, one of'whom dies before the
teftator, the legacy devolves to the furvivor by right
of accretion.
ACCROCHE, in heraldryj denotes a thing’s be¬
ing hooked with another.
ACCUSATION, a poftlire of the body, between
fitting and lying., The word comes from the Latin accu--
bare, compounded of ad, to, and Cuba, I lie down, v/o
cubation, or Accubitus, was the table-pofture of the
Greeks and Romans ; whence we find the words par¬
ticularly ufed for the lying, or rather (as we call it) fit¬
ting, down to meat.. The Greeks introduced this po-
fture. The Romans, during the frugal ages of the re¬
public, were ftrangers to it: but, as luxury got footings
this pollure came to be adopted, at leaft by the men ;
for as to women, it was reputed an indecency in them
to lie down among the men : though, afterwards, this
too was got over. But children did not lie down, nor
fervants, nor foldiers, nor perfons of meaner condition ; ■
but took their meals fitting, as a pofture lefs indulgent*
The Roman manner of difpofing themfelves at table was
this : A low round table was placed in the coenaculum,
or dining-room; and, about this, ufually three, fome-
times only two, beds or couches ; according to the num¬
ber of which, it was called biclinium or triclinium.
Thefe were covered with a fort of, bed-clothes,., richer
or plainer according to the quality of the perfon,. and
furniftied with quilts and pillows, that the guefts might
lie the more commodioufty.. There were ufually three
perfons on each bed ;,to crowd more, was efteemed for¬
did. In eating, they lay down on their left fides, with
their heads refting on the pillows, or rather on their
elbows., The firft lay at the head of the bed, with
• his feet extended behind the back of the fecond; the
fecond lay with the back of his head towards the navel
of the firff, only feparated by a pillow, his feet behind
the back of the third; and fo of the third, or fourth.
The middle place was.efteemed the- moft honourable.
Before they came to table, they changed their clothes,
putting on what they called csenatoriayejlis, the dining-
garment ;, and pulled off their fhoes, to prevent fouling
the couch.
ACCUBITOR, an ancient officer of the emperors
of Conftantinople, whofe bufinefs was to lie near the
emperor. He was the head of the youth of the bed¬
chamber, . and had the cubicularius and procubitor un¬
der him.
ACCUMULATION, in a general fenfe, the a£l of
heaping or amaffing things together. Among lawyers,
it, is ufed in fpeaking of the concurrence of feveral titles
to the fame thing, or of feveral circumftances to the Aceumula-
fame proof. d'-'n
Accumulation of Degrees, in an univerfity, is the AccufLtion
taking feveral of them together, or at fmaller intervals .
than yfual or than is allowed by the rules of the uni¬
verfity.
ACCURSED, fdmething that lies under a curfe,
or fentence of excommunication.
In the Jewifh idiom, accurfed and crucified were fy-
nonymous.. Among them, every one wfas accounted
accurfed who died on a tree. This ferves to explain the
difficultpafiage in Rom. ix, 3. where the apoftle Paul
wiflies himfelf accurfed after the manner of Chrift, i. e.
crucified, if happily he might by fuch a death fave his
countrymen. The prepofition axl here made ufe of,
is ufed in the fame fenfe, 2. Tim. I. 3. where it ob-
vioufly fignifies after the manner of
ACCURSIUS, a law-profdfor in the i3rh century,,
born in Florence. His authority was for fome time
fo great, that he was called the Idol of the Lawyers..
— Other three lawyers of note had the fame name.
Accursius (Mariangelus), a famous critic of the
16th century, born at Aquilo in the kingdom of
Naples. His Diatrebes, printed at Rome in folio, in
1524, on Ovid and Solinus, are a proof of his abili¬
ties in that kind of erudition. In his edition of Am-
mianus Marcellinus there are five books more than in
any of the preceding ones ; and he affirms he had cor-
redled 500a errors in that hiftorian. His predomi¬
nant paffion was the fearching for and colle&ing of old
manufcripts: yet he made Latin and Italian verfes;
was complete mafter of the French, German, and Spa-
nifti tongues ; and underftood optics and mufic. He
purged himfelf by oath, being charged for being a pla¬
giary with regard to his Aufonius ; it being reported,
that he had appropriated to himfelf the labours of Fa-
bricio Varana, bifliop of Camerino.
ACCUSATION, the charging any perfon with
a criminal adlion, either in one’s own name, or in that
of the public. The word is compounded of ad, to ;
and caufari, to plead.
Writers on politics treat of the benefit and the in¬
conveniences of public accufations. Various argu¬
ments are alleged, both for the encouragement and
difeouragement of accufations againft great men. No¬
thing, according to Machiavel, tends more to the pre-
fervation of a ftate, than frequent accufations of per¬
fons trufted with the adminiftration of public affairs.
This, accordingly, was ftridtly obferved by the Ro¬
mans, in the inftances of Camillus, accufed of corrup¬
tion by Manlius Capitolinas, £sV. Accufations, how¬
ever, in the judgment of the fame author, are not more
beneficial than calumnies are pernicious; which is alfo
confirmed by the praftice of the Romans. Manlius
not being able to make good his charge againft Ca¬
millus, , was call into prifon.
By the Roman law, there was no public accufer for
public crimes; every private perfon, whether interefted
in the crime or not, might accuffi, and profecute the
accufed to punifhment, or abfolution. Cato, the moft
innocent perfon of his age, had been accufed 42 times,
and as often abfolved. But the accufation of private
crimes was never received but from the mouths of thofe
who were immediately interefted in them : None {e-g.)
but the hufband could accufe his wife of adultery.
ACE t 59 1 ACE
Accufative The ancient Roman lawyers diftinguifhed between artift could conceal all thefe blemifhes among the ftrokcs Acephali
■Acentitum P0fiu^atw,> ddatio, and accufatio. For, firft, leave was of his work ; but when it was to be formed into CUPS ^cep|ai0lis
defined to bring a charge againft one, which was called
pojlulare: then he againft whom the charge was laid,
was brought before the judge; which was called de¬
fer re, or nominis delatio : laftly, the charge was drawn
up and prefented, which was properly the accufatio.
The accufation properly commenced, according to
Paedianus, when the reus or party charged, being in¬
terrogated, denied he was guilty of the crime, and fub-
fcribed his name to the delatio made by his opponent.
In the French law', none but the Procureur general,
or his deputies, can form an accufation, except for
precious vafes, they always chofe the acentetum
which had no flaws or blemifties.
ACEPHALI, or Acephalit.®,’a term applied to
feveral fedls who refufed to follow fome noted leaden.
Thus the perfons who refufed to follow either John of
Antioch, or St Cyril, in a difpute that happened in the
council of Ephefus, were termed Aeepbali, wnthout a
head or leader. Such bifhops, alfo, as were exempt
from the jurifdicb'on and difcipline of their patriarch,
were ftyled Acephali.
Acephali, the levellers in the reign of king Henry I.
high-treafon and coining, where accufation is open to who acknowledged no head or fuperior. They were
every body. In other crimes, private perfons can on- reckoned fo poor, that they had not a tenement by which
ly aft the part of denouncers, and demand reparation they might acknowledge a fuperior lord,
for the offence, with damages. ACEPHALOUS, or Acephalus, in a general
In Britain, by Magna Charta, no man (hall be im- fenfe ; without a head,
prifoned or condemned on any accufation, without trial The term is more particularly ufed in fpeaking of
by his peers, or the law; none (hall be vexed with any certain nations, or people, reprefented by ancient na-
accufation, but according to the law of the land ; and turalifts and cofmographers, as well as by fome mo¬
no man may be molefted by petition to the king, &c. dern travellers, as formed without heads} their eyes,
unlefs it be by indiftment or prefentment of lawful men, mouths, &c, being placed in other parts,
or by procefs at common law. Promoters of fug- Such are the Blem'myes, a nation of Africa near the
geftions, are to find furety to purfue them ; and if head of the Niger, reprefented to be by Pliny and So-
they do not make them good, (hall pay damages to linus; Blemmyes traduntur capita dbejfe, ore et oculis
the party accufed, and alfo a fine to the king. No pettore affixis. Ctefias and Solinus mention others in
perfon is obliged to anfwer upon oath to a queftion India near the Ganges, fine cervice, oculos in humeris
whereby he may accufe himfelf of any crime. hahentes. Mela alfo fpeaks of people, quibus capita et
ACCUSATIVE, in the Latin grammar, is the vultus in petto re funt. And Suidas, Stephanus Byzan-
fourth cafe of nouns, and fignifies the relation of the tinus, Vopifcus, and others after them, relate the like,
noun on which the aftion implied in the verb termi- Some modern travellers ftill pretend to find acephalous
nates; and hence, in fuch languages as have cafes, thefe people in America.
nouns have a particular termination, called accufative: Several opinions have been framed as to the origin
as, Augufus vicit Antonium, Auguftus vanquilhed An- of the fable of the Acephali. The firft is that of Tho-
tony. Here Antonium is the noun, on which the ac- mas Bartholin, who turns the whole into a metaphor;
tion implied in the verb vicit terminates ; and, there- being convinced, that the name Acephali was anciently
Fore, muft have the accufative termination. Ovid, fpeak- ‘ given to fuch as had lefs brain, or condufted themfelves
ing of the palace of the fun, fays, Materiem fuperabat lefs by the rules of prudence, than others. Olearius
opus. The work furpaffed the materials. Here mate- rather apprehends, that the ancient voyagers, viewing
riem has the accufative termination ; becaufe it deter- certain barbarous people from the coafts, had been im-
mines the aftion of the verb fuperabat.—In the Engliih pofed on by their uncouth drefs; for that the Samo-
language there are no cafes, except the genitive ; the gitians, .being (hort of ftature, and going in the feve-
relation of the noun being (hown by the afliftance of rity of winter with their heads covered in hoods, feem
prepofitions, as of, to, from, &c. at a diftance as if they were heedlefs. F. Lafitau fays,
ACCUSIORUM Colonia (anc. geog.), an in- that by Acephali are only meant, people whofe heads
land town in the Cavares, in Gallia Narbonenfis : now are funk below their (boulders. In effeft, Hulfius, in
Grenoble, in Dauphine. See Grenoble. his epitome of Sir Walter Raleigh’s voyage to Guaiana,
ACE, among gamefters, a card or die marked only alfo fpeaks of a people which that traveller found in the
with one point. province of Irvipanama, between the lakes of Panama
ACELUM, or Acelium (anc. geog.), a town of and Caflipa, who had no head or neck; and Hondius,
the Venetian territory, now called Azolo, fituated to in his map, marks the place with the figures of thefe
the weft of Trevigi, at the fource of the rivulet Mu- monfters. Yet De Laet* rejefts the ftory; being in- ‘ Defcript.
fone. E. Long. 130. N. Lat. 450. formed by others, that the inhabitants of the banks Anier,''I7'
ACENTETUM, or Acanteta, in natural hifto- of the Caora, a river that flows out of the lake ofC‘ aS,‘
ry, a name given by the ancients to the pureft and Caflipa, have their head fo far funk between their
fineft kind of rock-cryftal: They ufed the cryftal in (boulders, that many believed they had their eyes in
many ways ; fometimes engraving on it, and fome- their (boulders and their mouths in their breafts.
times forming it into vafes and cups, which were held But though the exiftence of a nation of Acephali
next in value to the vaft murrhina of thdfe times, be ill warranted, naturalifts furnifli feveral inftances f In Ej h.
The cryftal they obtained from the illand of Cyprus of individuals born without heads, by fome lufus or aber-Ger. dec. r.
was much efteemed; but often faulty in particular ration of nature. Wepfer gives j- a catalogue of fuchan* 3- °l)f-
parts, having hairs, cracks, and foulneffes, which they acephalous births, from Schenckius, Licetus, Parteus, ^‘a^
called falts, in the middle of the large pieces. Pliny Wolfius, Mauriceau, See. obfer.' 148!
tells us, that when it was ufed for engraving on, the Acephalus, an obfolete term for the tsenia orp-ajS.
H 2 tape-
ACE [ 60 ] ACE
Acephalus, tape-worm, which was long fuppofed to be acephalous.
■A'er> See TjEnia. The firft who gave it a head was Tul-
Mapie-tree. Pius 5 and after hIm» FeIir : The former even makes it
v—biceps, or two-headed.
Acephalus, is alfo ufed to exprefs a verfe defective
in the beginning.
ACER, the Maple or Sycamore Tree : a genus
of the monoecia order, belonging to the polygamia clafs
of plants; and ranking under the 23d Natural Order,
Trihilatce.—The generic characters, both natural and
effential, are: The Hermaphrodite calyx is an a-
cute, coloured, one-leav’d perianthium, divided into
five fegments, flat and entire at the bafe, and perfiftent:
The corolla is five-petal’d, ovate, and expanding: The
fiamina confift of eight Tubulated Ihort filaments ; the
antherae Ample, the dull cruciform : The pijlillum has
a comprefled germen, immerfed in the receptacle, which
is convex, perforated, and large ; the ftylus is filiform ;
the ftigmata are two, pointed, {lender,, and reflex:
The pericarpium confifts of two or three capfuls unitr¬
ing at the bafe, roundifh, comprefled,, each terminated
with a large membranous wing r The feeds are folitary
and roundifh. The Male calyx, corolla, and Jla-
mina, are the fame as in the hermaphrodite.: The pif-
tilium has no germen. nor ftylus; the ftigma is bifid.
[Nota. On the firft opening of the flower, the Jligma
alone appears ; a few days after,, the Jlylus.—The her¬
maphrodite flowers on the fame umbel are frequently
of two forts: the inferior ones feniinine, the antheras
of which do not burft, but the piftillura quickly grows
into a fruit: the fuperior ones mafculine, of which the
antherae fcatter their pollen,, but the piftilla without in-
ereafing fall off.]
Species, 'with their afes and properties 1. The
pfeudb-platanus, 'or fycamore, is a very large and
beautiful tree, with broad leaves, divided into five
lobes ferrated in their edges; of a dark-green colour
on the upper fide, but paler and fomewhat hoary un¬
derneath ; the flowers are very fmall, and of a green-
ifh white colour. The corolla of this fpecies is
fcarcely diftinguifhable from the calyx, and the ft a-
mina are long.. The fruit is large, and beautifully
variegated with green and purple-. This fpecies is a
native of Germany, but thrives very well in Great
Britain, where it is frequent in plantations. It is very
proper for making plantations near the fea, or fhelter-
ing fuch as are already too near it; becaufe the fyca-
more-tree refifts the fpray of the ocean much better
than moft other trees. But it has this inconve¬
nience, that its leaves are devoured by infects, fo as
to become full of holes, and very unlightly; which
has caufed the planting of it to be much negledted of
late. It has, however, long been confidered as a tim¬
ber tree in this country,' having been much ufed by the
turners for wooden bowls, difhes, trenchers, &c.; but,,
fince the cuftom of ufing earthern ware has become fo
prevalent, its value for thofe purpofes has greatly de-
creafed. There are two varieties, one with broad
leaves and large keys, the other with variegated leaves.
By tapping it: yields a liquor not unlike that of the
birch-tree from which the Highlanders of Scotland
fometimes make an agreeable and wholefome wine..
2. The campeftris, or common maple, is too well
known to need any particular defcription, as it grows
very- frequently in hedge-rows in molt parts of Britain.
The timber of the common maple is far fuperior to Acer,
the beech for all the ufes of the turner. When itM the
abounds with knots, as it frequently does, it is highly ,
efteemed by joiners for inlayings. It is alfo frequently
employed for making mufical inftruments, on account
of its lightnefs; and for the whitenefs of its wood was
formerly, efteemed for making tables, &c. But the
principal value of the maple is for underwood ; it be¬
ing of a quick growth, and affording good fuel.
3. The negundo, or Virginian afh-leaved maple, is
a very ftrong {hooting tree ; and in Virginia, where it
is a native, is one of the largeft trees of this kind.
Its leaves are of a pale green, and well adapted to give
a variety of tint 5 but Hanbury fays, that this tree
ought not to be planted in expofed fituations, the
branches being fubjeftto be fplit off by the. winds. Its
ufes are fimilar to thofe of the fycamore..
4. The platanoides, or Norway-maple, grows na--
turally in Norway, Sweden, and other northern coun¬
tries of Europe. It rifes to a good height, and is well
furnifhed with branches with fmooth leaves, of a Ihining
green colour, and beautifully indented.. Thefe.have an
acrid milky juice,, which prevents them from being
preyed- upon by infefts as the fycamore is ; and as this
fpecies refifts the fpray of the fea equally with the firft,
it is preferred in plantations fituated near the fea. In
autumn the leaves dye to a golden yellow colour, which
caufes a delightful effedt at thatfeafon when the different
tints of decaying vegetables, are difplayed. The flow¬
ers are alfo beautiful; they come out early in the fpring,.
are of a fine yellow colour, and Ihow themfelves. to ad¬
vantage before the leaves come out. They are frequently
fucceeded by keys, which fometimes arrive at maturity
in this country. There is a variety with ftriped leaves.
5. The rubrum, or Virginian fcarlet flowering maple,
is a native of that country, and never grows to a large
fize in Britain. It is, however,, cultivated, in gardens
for the beauty of its flowers, which appear in the be- ■
ginning of April, imroundifti bunches, at the bottom
of the footftalks of the leaves. The feeds, are ripe in
five or. fix weeks after ; and ought to be immediately
fown, being otherwife very apt to periih. The tree
ought to be fheltered, efpecially whilft young, from tlie
north-eaft winds; it delights in a moift light foil, where
it will thrive much better,, as well as produce many
more flowers, and much better feeds, than in a dry
ground. A variety of this tree is known in England ,
by the name, of Sir Charles Wager's Flowering Maple^
from its being firft fent from America to Sir Charles,
Wager. The flowers of this kind come out, in larger
clufters than the other, and furround the fmall branches,,
fo that the tree appears, entirely covered with them, and
makes a much more beautiful appearance than the for--
mer, which is now not fo much efteemed.
6. The faccharinum, or fugar-maple, is-a large grow¬
ing tree ; will, arrive at the height of 40 feet; and has
broad thin leaves, divided into five principal'parts
which are again indented or cut at the edges into fe.-
veral acute fegments. Their furface is fmooth, of a
light green colour, whitilh underneath ; and they grow
on pretty long footftalks. The flowers come out in
the fpring, about the time of the Norway maple ; and
they are fucceeded by long keys, which fometimes ripen.
in England. In America, the inhabitants tap this
tree in the fpring, boil the liquor, and the feces af¬
ford: .
ACE T 61 1 ACE
■Acer, ford a ufeful fugar. The fycamore, the afli-leaved, and
_ tlie the Norway maples, alfo abound with a faccharine juice,
. a‘l J from which there is no doubt but a ufeful fugar might
be prepared.
7. The Penfylvameum, or American mountain-maple,
very much refembles the fugar-maple, only its leaves
are more pointed.
8. The opalus, or Italian maple, is very common
in moft parts of Italy, particularly about Rome ; but
in Britain is very rarely to be met with, though hardy
enough to bear the open air. It is one of the largeft
fpecies of trees in Italy, and affords a great fhade by
its numerous and large leaves. On this account it is
planted on the road-fides, and near habitations.
9. The monfpefulanum, or Montpelier maple, is
.common in the fouth of France, and in Italy ; but is
hardly met with in Britain. The leaves refemble thofe
of the common maple but are of a much thicker fub-
ftance, a fhining green colour, and not fo large. They
continue in verdure very late in the autumn, which
renders the trees more valuable.
10. The creticum, or Cretan maple, grows natural¬
ly in the Levant; it fomewhat refembles the laft fpe¬
cies ; but its leaves are of a much thinner texture, and
their footftalks covered with a foft hairy down ; where¬
as thofe of the other are fmooth and foft.
Propagation and culture.]-—i. By feeds. The fir ft
four fpecies are eafily propagated in this way. The
keys, when ripe in autumn, may be gathered, and- in a
few days after fown, about an.inch and an half deep, in
beds of common mould. In fpring the plants will ap¬
pear, and make a fhoot of about a foot and an half
by the autumn following,, if the ground of the femi-
nary be tolerably good, and they are kept free from
breeds. The fpring after they come up they fhould be
planted in the nurfery in rows two feet and an half
afunder; and their diftance in the rows nmft be one foot
and an half. Here they may remain till they are big
enough to plant out finally, with no further trouble than
taking off unfightly fide-branches, and fuch as have a
tendency to make the tree forked, except digging be¬
tween the rows, which mull always be done every
winter. For the other fpecies, their feeds, as they
do not ripen in this country, ought to be procured from
the places where they naturally grow, and managed in
the following manner : A cool ftiady part of the femi-
nary firould be appropriated for the purpofe ; the mould
fhoul&be made fine ; beds fliould be marked out four
feet wide,, and in length proportionable to the quantity;
and in thefe the feeds fhould be regularly fown, lifting
over them abouthalf an inch of the fineft mould. When
the plants come up, they mull be kept clean from weeds,
and frequently watered ; and this work muft be duly at¬
tended to all fummer.. The next fpring, the flrongell
■ may be drawn out, and planted in the nurfery, in rows
two feet afunder, and at the diftance of a foot from each
other in the rows; leaving-the others in the feminary
to gain ftrength. The fpring following they alfo muft
receive the fame culture ; and in the nurfery they may
remain, with no other trouble than keeping the ground
clean from weeds in the fummer, digging between the
rows in the winter, and taking off all ftrong and irre¬
gular fide-fhoots till they are planted out. Trees raifed
from feeds will grow fafter, and arrive at greater height,
than thofe raifed from layers : but they will not pro¬
duce fuch quantities of flowers; which makes the latter Acer,
method more eligible for thofe who want thefe plants ^
for a low ftirubbery.—Seeds of the variegated kinds al- "i ' ^ I
fo, when fown, will produce variegated plants in return;
which renders the propagation of thefe forts very expe¬
ditious where plenty of feeds may be had. Where thefe
are not to be obtained, the plants are propagated by
budding, as afterwards diredled.
2. By layers. All the fpecies may be propagated by
this method; though it is never pradlifed for the com¬
mon maple and the fycamore. The young ftioots may
be at any time laid down in the autumn, winter, or
early in the fpring. By the autumn following, they
will have ftruck root, and Become good plants ; when
the ftrongeft may be fet out in the places where they
are'to remain ; whilft the weakeft may be planted in
the nurfery, like the feedlings,. for a year or two, to
acquire ftrength.-
3. By cuttings : which method, however, is chiefly
practifed on the afh-leaved and Norway maples, which
more readily take root this way. The cuttings fliould
be the bottom parts of the laft year’s (hoots: They
fliould be taken off earjy'in Odlober, and planted in
rows in a moift ftiady place. The fpring and fummer
following, they muft be duly watered as often as dry
weather makes it neceflary, and be kept clean from
weeds. By the autumn they will be fit to remove into
the nurfery ; though if the cuttings are not planted
too clofe, they may remain in their fituation for a year
or two longer, and then be fet out. finally, w-ithout- the
trouble of being previoufly planted in the nurfery.
4. By budding, grafting, and inarching. Thefe
methods are only practifed for the variegated forts and
the large broad-leaved kind- The latter is to be conti¬
nued no otherw-ife than by budding it on flocks of the
common fycamore ; for from , the feeds, though fo large
themfelves, only the common fycamore is-produced.
In order to propagate thefe varieties by budding,,
let fome plants of the common fycamore, one year old,
be taken out of the feminary, and fet in the nurfery in
rows a yard afunder, and the plants about a foot and
a, half diftance from each other in the rows: Let the
ground be kept clean from weeds all fummer, and
turned in in the winter; and the fummer following the
flocks will be of a proper fize to receive the buds,
which fhould be taken from- the moft beautifully-ftriped
branches. The bed time for this work is the middle or
latter end of Auguft. Having then budded your (locks
with the eyes or buds fronting the north, early in Oc¬
tober take off the bals-matting, which before this time
will have confined the bark and pinched the bud, but1
not fo as to hurt it much. Then cut off the flock-
juft above the bud, and dig the ground between the
rowrs. The fummer following, keep the ground clean
from weeds; cut off all natural fide-buds from the flock
as they come out; and by autumn, if the land is good,
the buds will have (hot forth, and formed themfelves
into trees five or fix feet high. They may be then re¬
moved into the places where they are deftgned to re¬
main ; or a few of them only may be drawn out, lea¬
ving the. others to be trained up for larger ftandards.
Theftriped Norway maple (hould be budded on (locks
of its own kind ; for on thefe they take beft, and both
kinds are not very, liable to run away from their co¬
lours. Variegated plants in general muft be planted in
poor,:
ACE
Acerb poor, hungry, gravelly, or fandy foils, to feed the dif-
Aceta ea^e W^IC^ occafions thefe beautiful ftripes, and caufe
bulum. ^ to be more powerful, But thefe trees fhow their
-y—ftripes in greater perfeftion in a good foil: The plant,
though in ficknefs, has the appearance of health ; the
fhoots are vigorous and ftrong ; the leaves are large,
lefs liable to be hurt by infefts ; and the ftripcs appear
more perfeft, natural, and beautiful, than thofe on
.ftunted trees growing on a poor foil.
ACERB, a four rough aftringency of tafte, fuch as
that of unripe fruit.
ACERNO, a town of Italy, in the citerior princi¬
pality of Naples, with a biftiop’s fee. E. long. 15.46.
N. lat. 40. 50.
ACE RINA, in Ichthyology, a name given by Pliny
and other of the old naturalifts, to the fifh we at this
time call the ruffe. See Perca.
ACERRA, in antiquity, an altar erected, among
the Romans, near the bed of a perfon deceafed, on
which his friends daily oftei jd incenfe till his burial.—
The real intention probably was to overcome any offen-
;five fmell that might arifc about the corpfe. The Chi-
nefe have ftill a cuftom like this : they ere ft an altar
•to the deceafed in a room hung vith mourning; and
place an image of the dead perfon on the altar, to which
every one that approaches it bows four times, and of¬
fers oblations and perfumes.
The Acerra alfo fxgnified a little pot wherein were
put the incenfe and perfumes to be burnt on the altars
of the gods and before the dead. It appears to have
been the fame with what was otherwife called thuribu-
lum, and pyxis.
We find mention of Acerree in the ancient church.
The Jews had alfo their Acerrce, in our verfion render¬
ed confers; and the Romanifts ftill retain them under
the name of incenfe-pots. In Roman writers, we fre¬
quently meet with plena acerra, a full acerra: to un-
derftand which, it is to be obferved, that people were
obliged to offer incenfe in proportion to their eftate and
condition ; the rich in larger quantities, the poor only
a few grains; the former poured out acerras full on the
altar, the latter took out two or three bits with their
fingers.
ACERRA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and in the Terra di Lavoro ; feated on the ri¬
ver Agno. E. Lon. 15. 10. N. lat. 40. 55.
ACERRjE (anc. geog.), the ancient name of a
town on the Clanius, in Campania, not far from Naples,
now Acerra.—The name alfo of another town, now
called la Girola, in the territory and to the fouth-eaft
of Lodi, where the rivulet Serio falls into the Adda, to
the weft of Cremona and north of Placentia.
ACESCENT, a word ufed to denote any thing
- which is turning four, or which is fiightly acid. It is
only applied properly to the former of thefe two mean¬
ings. The fecond may be expreffed by either of the
two words, acidulous or fub-acid.
ACETABULUM, in antiquity, a meafure ufed by
the ancients, equal to one-eighth of our pint. It feems
to have acquired its name from. a veffel in which ace-
tum or vinegar was brought to their tables, and which
probably contained about this quantity.
Acetabulum, in anatomy, a cavity in any bone for
receiving the protuberant head of another, and there-
2
A C H
by forming that fpecies of articulation called Enar- Aeetit-
throsis. bulum
_ Acetabulum, in botany, the trivial name of a fpe- AciJLns.
cies of the peziza, or cup-peziza, a genus belonging to 1 ,
the ciyptogamia fungi of Linnaeus. It has got the
name oiacetabulum, from the refemblance its leaves bear
to a cup. SeePeziza.
ACETARY. Nehcmiah Grew,' in his anatomy of
plants, applies this term to a pulpy fubftance in certain
fruits, e. g. the pear, which is inclofed in a congeries of
fmall calculous bodies towards the bafe of the fruit, and
is always of an acid tafte.
ACETOSA, Sorrel ; by Linnaeus joined to the ge¬
nus of Dock, under the title of Ramix. See Rumex.
ACETOSELLA, in botany, a fpecies of Oxalis.
ACETOUS, an epithet applied to fuch fubftance?
as are four or partake of the nature of vinegar.
ACETUM, vinegar, the vegetable acid of the
chemifts. See Vinegar.
ACHABYTUS (anc. geog.), a high mountain in
Rhodes, on the top of which flood a temple of Jupiter.
ACfLEA (anc. geog.), a town of the ifland of
Rhodes, in the diftridl of Jalyfus, and the firft and
moft ancient of all, faid to be built by the Heliades, or
Grandfons of the Sun.
Achjea, a hamlet of Afiatic Sarmatia on the Eux-
ine. The inhabitants were called Achisi, a colony of
the Orchomenians.
ACPLEANS, the inhabitants of Achaia Pro^ '
pria, a Peloponnefian ftate. This republic was not con*
fiderable in early times, for the number of its troops,
nor for its wealth, nor for the extent of its territories;
but it was famed for its probity, itsjuftice, and its
love of liberty. Its high reputation for thefe virtues
was very ancient. The Crotonians and Sybarites, to
re-eftablilh order in their towns, adopted the laws and
cuftoms of the Achaeans. After the famous battle of
Leuftra, a difference arofe betwixt the Lacedaemonians
and Thebans, who held the virtue of this people in
fuch veneration, that they terminated the difpute by
their decifion. The government of the Achaeans was
democratical. They preferved their liberty till the
time of Philip and Alexander: But in the reign of
thofe princes, and afterwards, they were either fubjefk
to the Macedonians, who had made themfelves mafters
of Greece, or oppreffed by cruel tyrants. The Achaean
commonwealth confifted of twelve inconfiderable towns
in Peloponnefus. Its firft annals are not marked by any
great aftion, for they are not graced with one eminent
chara&er. After the death of Alexander, this little
republic was a prey to all the evils which flow from po¬
litical difeord. A zeal for the good of the community
was now extinguiflied. Each town was only attentive
to its private intereft. There was no longer any liabi¬
lity in the ftate ; for it changed its mafters with every
revolution in Macedonia. Towards the 124th Olym¬
piad, about the time when Ptolemy Soter died, and
when Pyrrhus invaded Italy, the republic of the A-
chasans recovered its old inftitutions and unanimity.
The inhabitants of Patas and of Dymae were the firft;
afferters of ancient liberty. The tyrants were banilh-
ed, and the towns again made one commonwealth.
A public council was then held, in which affairs of
importance were difeuffed and determined. A regifter
was
[ 62 ]
A C H [ 63 ] A C H
Achxi Was appointed to record the tranfaftions of the coun- Sea, on the fouth by Elis and Arcadia, and on the eatl Achaia
Aciaia c^‘ two prefidents, who were no- by Sicyonia: inhabitants, the Achaans, properly fo cal- Ac}jgen
. ' 1 minated alternately by the different towns. But in- led ; its metropolis, Patra. It is now called Romania \ —^—
ftead of two prefidents, theyfoon elected but one. Ma- Alta, in the Morea.
ny neighbouring towns which admired the conftitution Achaia was alfo taken for all thofe countries that
of this republic, founded on equality, liberty, the love joined in the Achaean league, reduced by the Romans
ofjuftice, and of the public good, were incorporated to a province. Likewife for Peloponnefus.
■with the Achaeans, and admitted to the full enjoyment Achaije Prejlyteri, or the Prefbyters of Achaia,
of their laws and privileges.—The arms which the were thofe who were prefent at the martyrdom of St
Achasans chiefly ufed were flings. They were trained Andrew the Apoftle, A. D. 59 ; and are faid to have
to the art from their infancy, by flinging from a great written an epiflle in relation to it. Bellarmin, and fe-
diftance. at a circular mark of a moderate circumfe- veral other eminent writers in the church of Rome, al-
rence. By long practice they took fo nice an aim,
that they were fure, not only to hit their enemies on
the head, but on any part of the face they chofe.
Their flings were of a different kind from thofe of the
Balearians, whom they far furpaffed in dexterity.
ACHiEI, (Achseans); the inhabitants of Achaia
Propria. In Livy, the people of Greece ; for the moft
part called Achivi, by the Roman poets. In Homer,
the general name for Grecians. See Achjeans.
ACHiEORUM portus, (Pliny) ; now Porto
Buon, a harbour of the Cherfonefus Taurica, on the
Euxine. Another, near Sigseum, into which the
Xanthus, after being joined by the Simois, falls.
ACHiEMENES, according to Herodotus, was fa¬
ther of Cambyfes, and grandfather of Cyms the firft,
king of Perfia. , Moft of the commentators of Horace
are of opinion, that the Achasmenes whom that poet
mentions, ode xii. of his 2d book, was one of the Per-
fian monarchs: but, if that were true, he muft have
reigned before the Medes fubdued the Perfians; for
we do not hear of any king of that name from the time
that the Perfians founded that great monarchy, which
is looked upon as the fecond univerfal one. However
this be, the epithet Achannenians is frequently given to
the Perfians, in the old Latin poets.
Achjemenes, fon .of Darius I. king of Perfia, and
brother of Xerxes, had the government of Egypt be¬
llowed on him, after Xerxes had forced the Egyptians
to return to their allegiance. He fome time after com¬
manded the Egyptian fleet in the celebrated expedition
which proved fo fatal to all Greece, The Egyptians
having again taken up arms after the death of Xerxes,
Aehsemenes was fent into Egypt to fupprefs the rebel¬
lion ; but was vanquifhed by Inarus, chief of the rebels,
fuccoured by the Athenians.
ACHiEUS, coufin-german to Seleucus CeraUnus
and Antiodhus the Great, kings of Syria, became a
very powerful monarch, and enjoyed the dominions he
had ufurped for many years ; but at laft he was pu-
niflied for his ufurpations in a dreadful manner, in the
* Lib. viii. 14.0th year of Rome, as related by Polybius*,
cap. 5. 6. ACHAIA, a name taken for that part of Greece
which Ptolemy calls Hellas; the younger Pliny, Gra¬
cia; now called Livadia: bounded on the north by
Theflaly, the river Sperchius, the Sinus Maliacus, and
mount Oeta ; on the weft by the river Achelous ; on
the eaft, turning a little to the north, it is walked by the
Archipelago, down to the promontory of Sunium ; on
the fouth, joined to the Peloponnefus, or Morea, by
the ifthmus of Corinth, five miles broad.
Achaia Propria, anciently a fmall diftrift in the
north of Peloponnefus, running weftward along the bay
of Corinth, and, bounded on the weft by the Ionian
low it to be genuine ; while Du Pin, and fome others,
exprefsly rejeft it.
ACHAIUS, fon of Ethwin, was raifed to the
crown of Scotland, A. D. 788. The emperor Char¬
lemagne fent an embaflay to defire an alliance with
him againft the Englilh, whofe pirates fo infefted the
' feas, that the merchants could not carry on their,
trade. This alliance was concluded in France upon
conditions fo advantageous to the Scots, that Achaius,
to perpetuate the memory of it, added to the arms
of Scotland a double field fowed with lilies. He died
in 819.
ACHALALACTLI, in ornithology, a fpecies of
king’s-fifher. See Alcedo.
ACHAN, the fon of Carmi, of the tribe of Judah,
at the taking of Jericho concealed two hundred ftiekels
of filver, a Babylonifli garment, and a wedge of gold,
contrary to the exprefs command of God. This fin
proved fatal to the Ifraelites, who were repulfed at the
fiege of Ai. In this dreadful exigence, Jofhua proftra-
ted himfelf before the Lord, and begged that he would
have mercy upon his people. Achan was difcovered
by calling lots, and he and his children were Honed to
death. This expiation being made, Ai was taken by
ftratagem. Jolh. vii. 8, 9.
ACHANE, an ancient Perfian corn meafure, con¬
taining 45 Attic medimni.
ACHARACA, anciently a town of Lydia, fituate
between Tralles and Nyfa ; in which were the temple
of Pluto, and the cave Charonium, where patients flept.
in order to obtain a cure.
ACHAT, in law, implies a purchafe or bargain..
And hence probably purveyors were called Achators,,
from their making bargains^.
ACHATES, the companion of Eneas, and his moft!
faithful friend, celebrated in Virgil.
Achates, in natural hiftory.. See Agate..
Achates (anc. geog.), a river of Sicily, now the
Drillo; which runs from north to fouth, almoft paral--
lel with, and at no great diftance from, the Gela ; and '
rifes in the north of the territory of Noto. It gave
name to the Achates, or Agate, faid to be firft found
there.
ACHAZIB, or Achz.ib, (anc. geog.), a town of-
Galilee, in the tribe of Afher, nine miles from Ptole-
mais.—Alfo a town in the more fouthern parts of the.
tribe of Judah.
ACHEEN, Ache', or Ac hen-, a kingdom of Su--
matra in the Eaft-Indies, lituated on the north-weftern.
part of the ifland.
The capital is fituated on a river which empties it-
felf near the north-weft point, or Acheen-head, about:
two miles .from the mouth. It lies in a wide valley,,
formed.!
A C H [ 64 ] A C H
Acfteen. formed like an amphitheatre by two lofty ranges of hills.
The river is not large, and by emptying itfelf in feveral
channels is rendered very (hallow at the bar. In the
dry monfoon it will not admit boats of any burthen,
much lets large veffels, which lie without, in the road
formed by the iflands off the point. Though no long¬
er the great mart of eaftern commodities, it ftill carries
on a confiderable trade with the natives of that part of
the coaft of Indoftan called Telinga, who fupply it with
the cotton goods of their country, and receive in re¬
turn, gold-duff, fapan-wood, betel-nut, patch-leaf (col-
fus Jndicus), a little pepper, fulphur, camphire, and
benzoin. The country is fupplied with Bengal opi¬
um, and alfo with iron, and many other articles of
^merchandize, by the European traders.
Acheen is efteemed, comparatively, healthy, being
more free from woods and fwamps than moft other por¬
tions of the iflandand the fevers and dyfenteries to
which thefe are fuppofed to give occafion, are there
laid to be uncommon. The foil is light and fertile;
and the produfts, befide thofe already enumerated as
articles of export trade, and a variety of line fruits, are
chiefly rice and cotton. There is likewife feme raw
filk procured in the country, of very inferior quality.
Gold duff is collefted in the mountains near Acheen,
but the greateft part is brought from the fouthern ports
of Nalaboo and Soofoo. The fulphur is gathered from
a volcano mountain in the neighbourhood, which fup-
plies their own confumption for the manufafture of
gun-powder, and admits of a large exportation.
In their perfons, the Achenefe differ from the reft of
the Sumatrans, being taller, ftouter, and darker com-
plexioned. They appear not to be a genuine people; but
are thought, with great appearance of reafon, to be a
mixture of Battas, Malays, and Moors from the weft of
India. In their difpofitions they are more aftive and
induftrious than their neighbours; they poffefs more
penetration and fagacity ; have more general know¬
ledge ; and as merchants, they deal upon a more exten-
live and liberal, footing. Their religion is Mahometa-
nifm ; and having a great number of mofques and
priefts, its forms and ceremonies are ftridlly obferved.
The appearance of the town, and the nature of the
buildings, are much the fame as are found in the ge¬
nerality of Malay bazars, excepting that the fuperior
wealth of this place has occaffoned a great number
of public edifices, but without the fmalleft pretenfions
to magnificence. The king’s palace, if it deferves the
appellation, is a very rude and uncouth piece'of archi-
tefture, defigned to refill the force of an enemy, and
furrounded for that purpofe by ftrong walls, but with¬
out any regular plan, or view to the modern fyftem of
military attack. The houfes in common are built of
bamboos and rough timber, and raifed fome feet from
the ground on account of the place being overflowed
in the rainy feafon.
A confiderable fabrick of a thick fpecies of cotton
cloth, and of fluff for the Ihort drawers worn both by
Malays and Achenefe, is eftablilhed here, and fupplies
an extenfive demand. They weave alfo very handfome
filk pieces, of a particular form, for that part of the
drefs which is called by the Malays cayen farrong.
The Achenefe are expert and bold navigators,
and employ a variety of veffels, according to the
No. 2. 1
voyages they undertake, and the purpofes for which Acheen,
they defign them. The river is covered with a mul- "
titude of filhing fampans or canoes, which go to fea
with the morning breeze, and return in the afternoon,
with the fea wind, full laden.
Having no convenient coins, though moft fpecies of
money will be taken there at a valuation, they com¬
monly make their payments in gold dull, and for that
purpofe are all provided with fcales or fmall lleelyards.
They carry their gold about them, wrapped up in
pieces of bladder, and often purchafe to fo fmall an a-
mount, as to make ufe of grain or feeds for weights.
The monarchy is hereditary ; and the king ufually
maintains a guard of zoo Seapoys about his palace.
According to Mr Marfden, “ the grand council
of the nation confifts of, the King or Sultan, four
Oolooballangs, and eight of a lower degree, who
fit on his right hand, and fixteen Cajoorangs, who
fit on his left. At the king’s feet fits a woman,
to whom he makes known his pleafure: by her it
is communicated to an eunuch, who fits next to
her, and by him to an officer named Cajoorang Gon-
dong, who then proclaims it aloud to the affembly.
There are alfo prefent two other officers, one of whom
has the government of the bazar or market, and the
other the fuperintending and carrying into execution
the punifhment of criminals. All matters relative to
commerce and the cuftoms of the port come under the
jurifdiclion of the Shabandar, who performs the ce¬
remony of giving the chap or licence for trade ; which
is' done by lifting a golden-hafted creefe over the head
of the merchant who arrives, and without which he
dares not to land his goods. Prefents, the value of
which are become pretty regularly afcertained, are then
fent to the king and his officers. If the ftranger be in
the ftyle of an ambaffador, the royal elephants are fent
down to carry him and his letters to the monarch’s
prefence ; thefe being firft delivered into the hands of
an eunuch, who places them in a filver dilh, covered
with rich filk, on the back of the largeft elephant,
which is provided with a machine {header) for that
purpofe. Within about an hundred yards of an open
hall where the king fits, the cavalcade Hops, and
the ambaffador difmounts, and makes his obeifance by
bending his body, and lifting his joined hands to his
head. When he enters the palace, if an European, he
is obliged to take off his fhoes; and having made a fe-
cond obeifance, is feated upon a carpet on the floor,
where betel is brought to him. The throne was fome
years ago of ivory and tortoifelhell, and when the place
was governed by queens, a curtain of gauze was hung
before it, which did not obftruft the audience, but pre¬
vented any perfeft view. The ftranger, after fome ge¬
neral difeourfe, is then conducted to a feparate build¬
ing, where he is entertained with the delicacies of the
country, by the officers of Hate, and in the evening re¬
turns in the manner he came, furrounded by a prodi¬
gious number of lights. On high days {areejryah ) the
king goes in great Hate mounted on an elephant richly
caparifoned, to the great mofque, preceded by his celoo-
ballangs; who are armed nearly in the European man¬
ner.”
The country under the immediate jurifdidlion of
Acheen, is divided into three diftricls, named Due
A C H
[ 65 ]
A C H
Atfcen, pooloo duo, Duo pooloo lesmo, and Duo pooloo anavt. the bellowing of their waters, or from their ploughing Aeheri
A diftrift is governed by a Pangleemo, and under the earth in their courfe: Hercules, reftraining by dykes
him an Imaum and four Pangeeches to each mofque.
“ Achen has ever been remarkable for the feverity
with which crimes are punifhed by their laws; the
fame rigour ftill fubfifts, and there is no commutation
admitted, as is regularly eftabliihed in the fouthern
countries. There is great reafon, however, to conclude,
that the poor alone experience the rod of juftice ; the
and mounds the inundations of the /Jcbelous, is faid to j.
have broken off one of his horns, and to have brought
back plenty to the country. See the preceding article.
ACHERI (Luke d’), a learned Benediftine of the
congregation of St Maur, was born at St Quintin, in
Picardy, in 1609; and made himfelf famous by printing
feveral works, which till then were only in manufcript:
nobles being fecure from retribution in the number of particularly, The epiftle attributed to St Barnabas;
their dependants. Petty theft is punifhed by fufpend-
ing the criminal from a tree, with a gun or heavy
weight tied to his feet j or by cutting off a finger, a
hand, or leg, according to the nature of the theft.
Many of thefe mutilated and wretched objects are daily
to be feen in the ftreets. Robbery on the highway and
houfe-breaking are puniflied by drowning, and after-
The works of Lanfrank, archbifhop of Canterbury j
A colleftion of fcarce and curious pieces, under the
title of Spicilegium, /. e. Gleanings, in thirteen vo¬
lumes, quarto. The prefaces and notes, which he an¬
nexed to many of thefe pieces, (how him to have been a
man of genius and abilities. He had alfo fome (hare in
the pieces inferted in the firft volumes of The afts of
wards expofing the body on a ftake for a few days. If the faints of the order of St Bennet; the title whereof
the robbery is committed upon an imaum or prieft, the
facrilege is expiated by burning the criminal alive. A
man who is convicted of adultery is feldom attempted
to be fcreened by his friends, but is delivered up to the
'friends and relations of the injured hufband. Thefe
take him to fome large plain, and forming themfelves
in a circle, place him in the middle. A large weapon
acquaints us that they were collefted and publiihed by
him and father Mabillon. After a very retired life,
till the age of 73, he died at Paris the 29th of April
1685, in the abbey of St Germain in the fields, where
he had been librarian.
ACHERNER, or Acharner, a ftar of the firft
magnitude in the fouthern extremity of the conftellation
called a Gadoobong, is then delivered to him by one of Eridanus, but invifible in our latitude.
his family ; and if he can force his way through thofe
who furround him, and make his efcape, he is not
liable to further profecution ; but it commonly happens
that he is inftantdy cut to pieces. In this cafe his re¬
lations bury him as they would a dead buffalo, refufing
to admit the corpfe into their houfe, or to perform any
funeral rites.” Thefe difcouragements to vice might
ACHERON, a river of Epirus. The poets feign¬
ed it to have been the fon of Ceres, whom ihe hid in
hell for fear of the Titans, and turned into a river, o-
ver which fouls departed were ferried in their way to
Elyfium.
Acheron, a river of Thefprotia, in Epirus; which,
after forming the lake Acherufia, at no great diftance
feem to befpeak a moral and virtuous people : yet all from, falls into the fea near, the promontory of Chi-
travellers agree in reprefenting the Achenefe as one of merium, to the weft of the Sinus Ambracius, in a courfe
the moft difhoneft and flagitious nations of the Eaft.
Achen was vifited by the Portuguefe in 1509, only
12 years after they had difcovered the paffage to the
Eaft-Indies by the Cape of Good Hope. They made
various attempts to eftablifli themfelves in the country,
but were expelled with difgrace. Scc Summatra.
ACHELOUS, in fabulous hiftory, wreftled with
Hercules, for no lefs a prize than Deianira, daughter
to king Genus : but as Achelous had the power of af-
fuming all lhapes,the conteft was long dubious : at laft,
as he took that of a bull, Hercules tore off one of his
horns ; fo that he was forced to fubmit, and to redeem
it by giving the conqueror the horn of Amalthea, the
fame with the Cornucopia or horn of plenty ; which
Hercules having filled with a variety of fruits, confe-
crated to Jupiter. Some explain this fable, by faying,
That Achelous is a winding river of Greece, whofe
ftream was fo rapid, that it roared like a bull, and over-
from north to fouth.
Acheron, or Acheros, a river of the Bruttii in
Italy, running from eaft to weft; where Alexander
king of Epirus was flain by the Lucani, being decei¬
ved by the oracle of Dodona, which bid him beware of
Acheron.
ACHERSET, an ancient meafure of corn, conjec¬
tured to be the fame to our quarter, or eight bufhels^
ACHERUSIA palus, a lake between Curnse and
the promontory Mifenum, now il Lago Della Collucia,
(Cluverius.) Some confound it with the Lacus Lucri-
nus, and others with the Lacus Averni. But Strabo
and Pliny diftinguilh them. The former takes it to be
an effufion, exundation, or wafties of the fea, and there¬
fore called by Lycophron, Acacia —■ Alfo a lake
of Epirus, through which the Acheron runs.—There
is alfo an Acherujia, a peninfula of Bithynia on the
Euxine, near Heraclea ; and a cave there of the fame
flowed its banks; but Hercules, by bringing it into name, through which Hercules is fabled to have de-
two channels, broke off one of the horns, and fo refto-
red plenty to the country. See the next article.
Achelous, a river of Acarnania; which rifes in
mount Pindus, and, dividing iEtolia from Acarnania,
falls from north to * fouth into the Sinus Corinthiacus.
It was formerly called Thoas, from its impetuofity, and
king of rivers, (Homer.) The epithet Acheloius is
ufed for Aqueus, (Virgil); the ancients calling all water
fcended to hell to drag forth Cerberus.
ACHIAR, is a Malayan word, which fignifies all
forts of fruits and roots pickled with vinegar and fpice.
The Dutch import from Batavia all forts of achiar,
but particularly that of Bamboo (fee Arundo),
a kind of cane, extremely thick, which grows in
the Eaft Indies. It is preferved there, whilft it is ftill
green, with very ftrong vinegar and fpice ; and is
Achelous, efpecially in oaths, vows, and facrifices, accor- called bamboo-achiar. Th e name changes according to
ding to Ephorus: Now called Afpro Potamo. Rivers the fruit with which the achiar is made,
are by the ancient poets called Taurifbrmes, either from ACHICOLUM, is ufed to exprefs the fornix, tho-
Vol. I. Part I. \ lus,
A C H [ 66 ] A C H
Achillas. /«/, or fudatorium of the ancient baths; which was a
"'v hot room where they ufed to fweat. It is alfo called
architholus.
ACHILLiEA, Yarrow, Milfoil, Nosebleed,
or. Sneezewort ; a genus of the order of thepolyga-
mia fuperflua, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs of
plants. The natural order to which it belongs is the
49th, Compojitx difcoides.
The characters are: The common calyx is ovate
and imbricated, with ovate, acute, converging fcales.
The compound corolla is rayed ; the hermaphrodite co-
rollets are tubular in the difc, the feminine lingui-
form and from 5 to 1 o in the rays : The proper co¬
rolla of the hermaphrodites is funnel-lhaped, expanded,
and divided into 5 fegments; that of the females,
tongue-fhaped, inverfely cordated, expanding, and of
3 fegments. The Jlamina in the hermaphrodites con-
fift of 5 very ftiort capillary filaments; the anthera is
cylindric and tubular. The pijlillum in the hermaphro¬
dites has a fmall germen ; the ftylus is filiform the
length of the ftamina ; the ftigma is obtufe and end-
notched : in the females, the germen is fmall; the fty¬
lus is filiform ; the ftigmata are 2, obtufe and refle&ed.
The pericarpiu?n is wanting ; the calyx fcarcely chan¬
ged ; the receptacle filiform, elongated at the difc of
the feeds, ovate, and twice as long as the calyx. The
feeds are folitary, ovate, and furnifhed with a lock of
wool; no pappus. The reccptaculum is chaffy and ele¬
vated.
Species and properties. There are 20 fpecies, of
which the following are the principal: 1. The mil¬
lefolium, or common yarrow, is found naturally on
banks, and by the fides of foot-paths, in moft parts of
England. It moft commonly bears white flowers,
though a variety of it is found which bears purple ones.
Thefe, however, do not long continue to bear flowers
of this colour, if tranfplanted into gardens. It was
formerly ufed in medicine; but though itmayilillhave
a place in fome difpenfatories, no phyfician of any note
expefts any virtue from it, or ever prefcribes it. It
creeps greatly by its roots, and alfo multiplies by the
feeds, fo that it becomes a troublefome weed where it
is once allowed to get a footing. The'cultivation of it
is recommended by Mr Anderfon, in his Effays on A-
griculture, as a proper food for cattle. This fpecies
was the proper achillsea of the ancients, fo named from
Achilles; who, having been the difciple of Chiron, firft
brought it into ufe for the cure of wounds and ulcers.
2. The fantolina, or eaftern fneezewort, is fometimes
cultivated in gardens; it has large yellow flowers, which
ftand upon pretty long footftalks placed fingly, not in
bunches as in the common kind. It has leaves like
lavender-cotton, which, when rubbed, emit a ftrong oily
odour. The flowers appear in June and July. 3. The
tomentofa, or woolly yarrow, is a native of the fouth of
Trance and Spain, but lives in the open air in England.
The flowers are of a bright yellow, and continue long
in beauty, growing in .clutters at the top of the ftalks,
which feldom rife above a foot high. The leaves are
finely cut, and very hoary. 4. The abrotanifolia, or
tall eaftern yarrow, is a native of the iflands in the Ar¬
chipelago : it grows to the height of two feet and a
half, with large umbels of yellow flowers on the top ;
the leaves refemble thofe of the common wormwood,
and are cut into long narrow fegments. 5. The cla-
venna, or Alpine umbelliferous wormwood, takes its Achillsa.
name from the mountains of which it is a native. It
feldom grows above fix or feven inches in height; it
fupports umbels of white flowers, like thofe of the com¬
mon fneezewort, which appear in April and May. The
leaves are filvery, and fhaped like thofe of wormwood,
which often decay in the autumn and winter. 6. The
tanacetifolia, or eaftern fneezewort, with tanfey leaves,
is a very humble plant, feldom rifing above fix inches
in height. The flowers are .nearly as large as thofe of
the common fneezewort, white, and growing in flat
umbels. They appear in June and July. The leaves
of the1 plant have fome likenefs to thofe of the common
wormwood, are very hoary, grow clofe to the ground,,
and decay in autumn fo as to make little appearance
in winter. Like the laft fpecies, this is a native of
the Alps. 7. The ageratum, or fweet maudlin, was
formerly much ufed in medicine and for culinary pur-
pofes, but has now fallen fo much into negleft as to
be totally unknown in the markets; fo that when it is
demanded, the white maudlin is fubftituted in its ftead.
The reafon of this fubftitution was, that the latter is
more hardy and eafily propagated than the fweet maud¬
lin, which is apt to rot in wet winters. The common
maudlin flowers in June and July, and the feeds are
ripe in September. 8. The Egyptiaca, or hoary fneeze¬
wort, is a native of the Archipelago. It hath very
hoary leaves, which remain all the year and the plants
growing clofe and low, make a pretty appearance at all
feafons. The flowers are yellow, and are produced in
umbels on the top of the ftalks; they appear in June,
and continue till the end of September. 9. The ptarmi-
ca, or common fneezewort, grows wild in the woods, and
other fliady places, in many parts of England; fo is
not admitted into gardens. There is a variety, however,
with double flowers, which is preferved in gardens, and
is commonly known by the name of double maudlin.
This fpecies creeps greatly by the roots, fo as foon
to overfpread a large fpot of ground. If planted in-
pots, fo as to confine its roots from creeping, the ftalks
grow clofe together, and make a tolerable appearance
when in flower; but when at a diftance, fo that the
roots have full liberty to run, the flowers appear but
indifferently. 10. The macrophylla, or Alpine fneeze¬
wort, with feverfew leaves, is a native of the Alps. It
produces many ftalks rifing near three feet high ; ha¬
ving loofe branching umbels of white flowers on their
top, refembling thofe of the common fneezewort, but
larger. 11. The nana, or hoary Alpine milfoil, is like-
wile a native of the Alps ; the leaves are hoary, and
the umbels of its flowers are more compaft than the
former; the ftalks do not rife more than a foot high.
12. The nobilis, or fweet milfoil, approaches to the
nature of the common milfoil; but its leaves are of a
paler green, and are neither fo long nor fo much cut
off as thofe of the common milfoil are: they have a
ftrong fweet fcent when bruifed. 13. The alpina, or
white maudlin, bears fome refemblance to the common
fneezewort; but the leaves are longer, of a deeper
green colour, and deeply indented in their edges; the
flowers are white, and the roots creep far under ground.
The plant will rife, in good land, to the height of four
feet.
Culture. All the forts of yarrow are eafily propa¬
gated by feeds, which may be fown either in the fpring
A C H [ 67 ] A C H
Achilleid, or autumn, upon a bed of common earth. When the
, Achilles. ^ plants COme up, and are ftrong enough for tranfplant-
v ing, they fiiould be planted in beds in the nurfery,
where they may continue till autumn, when they fhould
be tranfplanted to the places where they are to remain.
The Archipelago kinds, however, are often deftroyed by
fevere froft ; fo they ought to be flickered during the
winter. Thefe kinds alfo rarely bring their feeds to
perfection in England ; they are therefore to be pro¬
pagated by flips, which may be taken off and plant¬
ed in a fliady border any time in fummer, when they
will take root in about fix weeks, and then may be
tranfplanted where they are to remain.
ACHILLEID, Achilleis, a celebrated poem of
Statius, in which that author propofed to deliver the
whole life and exploits of Achilles ; but being prevent¬
ed by death, he has only treated of the infancy and e-
ducation of his hero. See Statius.
ACHILLES, one of the greatcft. heroes of ancient
Greece, was the fon of Peleus and Thetis. He was a
native of Phthia, in Theffaly. His mother, it is faid,
in order to confume every mortal part of his body, ufed
to lay him every night under live coals, anointing him
with ambrofia, which preferved every part from burn¬
ing but one of his lips, owing to his having licked it.
She dipped him alfo in the waters of the river Styx;
by which his whole body became invulnerable, except
that part of his heel by which flie held him. But this
opinion is not univerfal, nor is it a part of his charac¬
ter as drawn by Homer; for in the Iliad (B. xxi. 161.)
he is actually wounded in the- fight arm, by the lance
of Afteropaus, in the battle near the river Scamander.
Thetis afterwards intrufted him to the care of the cen¬
taur Chiron, who, to give him the llrength neceffary
for martial toil, fed him with honey and the marrow
of lions and wild boars. To prevent his going to
the fiege of Troy, flie difguifcd him in female apparel,
and hid him among the maidens at the court of king
Lycomedes: but Ulyffes difcovering him, perfuaded
him to follow the Greeks. Achilles diftinguiflied him-
felf by a number of heroic aftions at the fiege. Being
difgutted, however, with Agamemnon for the lofs of
Brifeis, he retired from the camp. But returning to
avenge the death of his friend Patroclus, he flew Hec¬
tor, faftened his corps to his chariot, and dragged it
round the walls of Troy. At laft Paris, the brother
of Hettor, wounded him in the heel with an arrow,
while he was in the temple treating about his marriage
with Philoxena, daughter to king Priam. Of this
wound he died, and was interred on the promontory of
Sigasum ; and after Troy was taken, the Greeks facri-
ficed Philoxena on his tomb, in obedience to his defire,
that he might enjoy her company in the Elyfian fields.
It is faid, that Alexander, feeing this tomb, honoured
it by placing a crown upon it; at the fame time, cry-;
ing out, that “ Achilles was happy in having, during
his life, fuch a friend as Patroclus; and, after his death,
a poet like Homer.” Achilles is fuppofed to have died
1183 years before the Chriftian asra.
Achilles Tatius. See Tatius.
Tendo AchiluS) in anatomy, is a ftrong tendinous
cord formed by the tendons of feveral mufcles, and in-
ferted into the os calcis. It has its name from the fa-,
tal wound Achilles is faid to have received in that part
from Paris the fon of Priam.
ACHILLINI (Alexander), born at Bologna, and Achilllni
doftor of philofophy in that univerfity. He flourilhed Acj^iet.
in the 15th and 16th centuries, and by way of eminence , ^ ;
was ftyled the Great Philofopher. He was a ftedfaft
follower and accurate interpreter of Averroes upon Ari-
ftotle, but moft admired for his acutenefs and ftrength
of arguing in private and public deputations. He made
a furprifing quick progrefs in his ftudies, and was very
early promoted to a profefforfhip in the univerfity ; in
which he acquitted himfelf with fo much applaufe that
his name became famous throughout all Italy. He con¬
tinued at Bologna till the year 1506 ; when the uni¬
verfity of Padua made choice of him to fucceed Anto¬
nio Francatiano in the firft chair of philofophy, and
his fame brought vaft numbers of ftudents to his lec¬
tures at Padua : but the war, wherein the republic of
Venice was engaged againft the league of Cambray,
putting a flop to the ledtures of that univerfity, he
withdrew to his native country ; where he was received
with the fame marks of honour and diftindtion as be¬
fore, and again appointed profeffor of philofophy in
Bologna. He fpent the remainder of his life in this
city, where he died, and was interred with great pomp
in the church of St Martin the Great, which belongs to
the Carmelite friars. Jovius, who knew Achillini, and
heard his ledtures, fays, that he was a man of fuch ex-
ceeding fimplicity, and fo unacquainted with addrefs
and flattery, that he was a laughing-ftock to the pert
and faucy young fcholars, although efteemed on account
of his learning. He wrote feveral pieces on philofo-
phical fubjedts, which he publiftied, and dedicated to
John Bentivogli.
Achillini (Claudius), grandfon of the former, read
ledtures at Bologna, Ferrara, and Parma ; where he
was reputed a great philofopher, a learned divine, an
excellent lawyer, an eloquent orator, a good mathe¬
matician, and an elegant poet. He accompanied Car¬
dinal Ludovino, who went as legate into Piedmont; but
being afterward negledled by this cardinal, when he
became pope under the name of Gregory XV. he left
Rome in difguft, and retired to Parma; where the duke
appointed him profeffor of law, with a good falary. He
publiflied a volume of Latin Letters, and another of
Italian poems, which gained him great reputation : he
died in 1640, aged 66.
ACHIOTTE, orAcHioTL, a foreign drug, ufed
in 'dying, • and in the preparation of chocolate. It is
the fame with the fubftance more ufually known by
the name of Arnotto ; which fee,
ACHIROPCETOS, a name given by ancient wri¬
ters .to certain miraculous pictures of Chrift and the
Virgin, fuppofed to have been made without hands.—
The moft celebrated of thefe is the picture of Chrift,
preferved in the church of St John Lateran at Rome ;
faid. to have been begun by St Luke, but finiflied by
the miniftry of angels.
ACHMET, fon of Seerim, has left a book concern¬
ing the interpretation of dreams according to the doc*
trine of the Indians, Pferfians, and Egyptians, which
was tranflated out of Greek into Latin by Leo Tuf-
cus in 1160. He lived in the 9th century.
ACHMET GEDUC, a famous general under Ma¬
homet II, and Bajazet II. in the 15th century. When
Mahomet II. died, Bajazet and Z-ezan both claimed
the throne : Achmet fided with the former, and by his
I 2 bravery
A C H [ 68 ] A C H
Aehmet- bravery and conduft fixed the crown on his head. But
Achmi'm ®ajazet t0°k away his life; Ihining virtue being always
^ an unpardonable crime in the eyes of a tyrant.
AChJMETSCHET, a town of the peninfula of
the Crimea, the refidence of the fultan Galga, who is
eldeft fon of the Khan of Tartary. Long. 51. 20. Lat.
45. o.
ACHMIM, a large town of Upper Egypt, fituated
on the eaftern bank of the Nile. “ One admires there
(fays Abulfeda, as quoted by Mr Savary) a temple,
which is comparable to the moft celebrated monuments
of antiquity. It is conftrufted with. Hones of a furpri-
fing fize, on which are fculptured innumerable figures.”
Though this town be fallen from its ancient fplendor,
it is ftill one of the mofl; beautiful of Upper Egypt.
According to Mr Savary, an Arab prince commands
there, and the police is well attended to. The ftreets
are wide and clean, and commerce and agriculture flou-
rifh. It has a manufactory of cotton, fluffs, and pot¬
tery, which are conveyed over all Egypt. It is the
fame that Herodotus calls Cbemmis, and Strabo Pano-
polis, or the city of Pan, who was worlhipped there.
Herodotus fays, that Perfeus was a native of this city,
and that his defcendants had eftablifhed feftivals there
in his honour. It has loft its ancient edifices, and much
of its extent; the ruins of the temple, defcribed by
Abulfeda, being without its; limits, to the north. No¬
thing remains of it but fome ftones, of fuch magnitude
that the Turks have not been aisle to move them. They
are covered with hieroglyphics. On one of them are
traced four concentric circles, in a fquare. The inner-
moft of thefe contains a fun. The two fucceeding ones,
divided into 12 parts, contain, one, 12 birds, the other,
12 animals almoft effaced, which appear to be the figns
of the zodiac. The fourth has no divifions, and pre-
fents 12 human figures ; which Mr Savary imagines to
reprefent the 12 gods, the 12 months of the year, and
the 12 figns of the zodiac. The Egyptians, fays He¬
rodotus, are the firft who divided the year into 12
months, and employed the names of the 12 gods. The
four feafong occupy the angles of the fquare, on the
fide of which may be diftinguifhed a globe with wings.
Mr Savary thinks it probable that this ftone belonged
to a temple dedicated to the fun, that the whole of
thefe hieroglyphics mark his paffage into the figns of
the zodiac, and his courfe, whole revolution forms the
year. The columns of this temple have been partly
broken to make lime and millftones. Some of them
have been tranfported into one of the mofques of Ach-
mim, where they are placed without tafte ; others are
heaped up in the fquares of the town.
Mr Savary tells us of a ferpent which is wor¬
lhipped here, and is the wonder of the country.
“ Upwards of a century ago (fays he), a religious
Turk called Scheilk Haridi died here. He paffed
for a faint among the Mahometans; who railed a
monument to him, covered with a cupola, at the
foot of the mountain. The people flocked from
all parts to offer up their prayers to him. One of
their priefts, profiting by their credulity, perfuaded
them that God had made the foul of Scheilk Haridi
pafs into the body of a ferpent. Many of thefe are
found in the Thebais, which are harmlefs ;- apd he had
taught one to obey his voice. He appeared with his
ferpent, dazzled the vulgar by his furprifing tricks,
and pretended to cure all diforders. Some lucky in- Achmim
ftances of fuccefs, due to nature alone, and fometimes Acjlras
to the imagination of the patients, gave him great ce-, ‘ ,
lebrity. He foon confined his ferpent Haridi to the
tomb, producing him only to oblige princes and per-
fons capable of giving him a handfome recompence.
The fucceflbrs of this prieft, brought up in the fame
principles, found no difficulty in giving fanClion to
fo advantageous an error. They added to the general
perfuafion of his virtue that of his immortality. They
had the boldnefs even to make a public proof of it.
The ferpent was cut in pieces in prefence of the Emir,
and placed for two hours under a vafe. At the inftant
of lifting up the vafe, the priefts, no doubt, had the
addrefs to fubftitute one exactly refembling it. A miracle
was proclaimed, and the immortal Haridi acquired a frefli
degree of confideration. This knavery procures them
great advantages. The people flock from all quarters to
pray at this tomb ; and if the ferpent crawls out from
under the ftone, and approaches the fuppliant, it is a fign
that his malady will be cured. It may be imagined,
that he does not appear till an offering has been made
proportioned to the quality and riches of the different
perfons. In extraordinary cafes, where the fick per-
fon cannot be cured without the prefence of the fer¬
pent, a pure virgin muft come to folicit him. To avoid
inconveniences on this head, they take care to choofe
a very young girl indeed. She is decked out in her beft
clothes, and crowned with flowers. She puts herfelf
in a praying attitude ; and as the priefts are inclined,
the ferpent comes out, makes circles round the young
fuppliant, and goes and repofes on her. The virgin,
accompanied by a vaft multitude, carries him in tri¬
umph amidft the general acclamation, No human
reafoning would perfuade thefe ignorant and credulous
Egyptians that they are the dupes of a few impoftors ;
they believe in the ferpent Haridi as firmly as in the
prophet.”
ACHONRY, a fmall town of Ireland, in the pro¬
vince of Connaught and county of Sligo, feated on the
river Shannon.
ACHOR, a valley of Jericho, lying along the river
Jordon, not far from Gilgal; fo called from Achan,
the troubler of Ifrael, being there ftoned to death.
Achor, in medicine, a fpecies of Herpes.
Achor, in mythology, the god of flies; to whom,
according to Pliny, the inhabitants of Cyrene facrifi-
ced, in order to obtain deliverance from the infefts and
the diforders occafioned by them.
ACHRADINA (anc. geog.), one of the four ci¬
ties or divifions of Syracufe, and the ftrongeft, largeft,
and moft beautiful part of it; feparated by a very ftrong
wall from the outer town, Tycba and Neapolis. It was
adorned with a very large forum, with beautiful por¬
ticos, a moft elegant prytaneum, a fpacious fenate-
houfe, and a fuperb temple of Jupiter Glympius.
ACHRAS, or Sapota Plum: a genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of
plants; and ranking in the 43d Natural Order, Du-
mofte.
The characters are: The calyx is a perianthium,
confifting of fix ovate concave ere ft leaflets, the ex¬
terior ones broader and fhorter, the interior ones co¬
loured. The corolla is compofed of one ovate petal,
the height of the calyx ; the border divided into fix
fegments-
A G H [ 69 ] A C I
Achras fegments. The Jlamina have fix fliort Tubulated fila-
ments at the throat of the corolla ; and the anther#
thL " are acut;e- The pijlillium has a roundifli depreffed ger-
—men ; the ftylus is Tubulated, and longer than the
corolla; the ftigma is obtufe. The pericarpium is a
globular twelve-celled pomum, with very Toft flefh.
The feeds are folitary, ovate, and gloffy.
There are four fpecies, all natives of the Weft In¬
dies. The principal are, 1. The fapota, with oblong
oval leaves, and fmooth turbinated fruit. 2. The mam-
mofa, with fpear-lhaped leaves, and large oval fruit.
The firft is common about Panama, and fome places
in the Spanifti Weft Indies; but is not to be found in
any of the Britifh fettlements in America. The fe-
cond fort is very common in Jamaica, Barbadoes, and
moft of the Weft India iflands, where the trees are
planted in the gardens for their fruit, which is by many
perfons greatly efteemed. They grow to the height of
35 or 40 feet, having a ftraight trunk covered with an
afh-coloured bark. The branches are produced on e-
very fide, forming a regular head ; and are befet with
leaves near a foot long, and almoft three inches broad
in the middle. The flowers are of a cream colour:
and are fucceeded by large oval fruit covered by a
brownifli Ikin, inclofing a thick pulp of a ruffet colour,
very lufcious, and called natural marmalade, from its
refemblance to that of quinces. The ftdnes taken in
emulfion are reckoned good againft the gravel.—Thefe
trees being natives of very hot climates, cannot be pre-
ferved in this country except in the warmeft ftoves.
ACHROMATIC, an epithet exprefling want of
colour. The word is Greek, being compounded of «,
privative, and xPaf*a’ cel°ur'
Achromatic Telefcopes, are telefcopes contrived to
remedy the aberrations in colours ; fee Aberration.
-—A particular account of the invention and conftruc-
tion of thefe inftruments will be found under Optics.
ACHTELING, a meafure for liquids ufed in Ger¬
many. Thirty-two achtelings make a heemer; four
fciltims or fciltins, make an achteling.
ACHYR, a ftrong town and caftle of the Ukrain,
fubjeft to the Ruffians fince 1667. It Hands on the
river Uorlklo near the frontiers of Ruffia, 127 miles
W. of Kiow, Long. 36. o. Lat. 49. 32.
ACHYRANTHES, in botany, a genus of the pen-
tandria order, belonging to the monogynia clafs of
plants, and affociating with the Mifcellanex, in the
54th Natural Order.
The characters are : The calyx is a double peri-
anthium; the exterior one confifting of three lan¬
ced acute leaves, which are perfiftent; the interior of
five leaves, alfo perfiftent. No corolla: The neftarium
is five-valved, furrounding the germen, bearded at the
top, concave* and falling off. The Jlamina confift of
five filaments the length of the corolla, the anther#
are ovate and incumbent. The pijlillum has a top-
(haped germen ; the ftylus is filiform, and the length
of the ftamina ; the ftigma is villous, and divided into
two fegments. The perianthium is a roundifh one-
celled capfule, not gaping. The feed \s fingle and ob-
long‘
Of this genus eight fpecies are enumerated ; but
the charafter of the genus does not agree in them all.
The fpecies are all natives of the Indies. Only one
of them, the amaranthus, is commonly cultivated in
botanical gardens, and that more for the fake of va- Acican-
riety than beauty. It grows to the height of three tll®ra»
feet, with oblong pointed leaves. The flowers come Acidity,
out in long fpikes from the extremities of the branches, u—v—»
and appear in July, the feeds ripening in September.
Plants of this kind muft be reared in a hot-bed, and
may be tranfplanted when they have acquired fufficient
ftrength. if kept in pots, and (heltered during the
winter in a warm green-houfe, they will live two or
three years.
ACICANTHERA, in botany, the trivial name“of
a fpecies of Rhexia.
ACICUL.dE, the fmall pikes or prickles of the
hedge-hog, echinus-marinus, &c.
ACIDALIUS (Valens) would, in all probability,
have been one of the greateft critics in thefe latter ages,
had he lived longer to perfect thofe talents which na¬
ture had given him. He was born at Witftock, in
Brandenburg ; and having vifited feveral academies in
Germany, Italy, and other countries, where he was
greatly efteemed, he afterwards took up his refidencc
at Breflaw, the metropolis of Silefia. Here he remain¬
ed a confiderable time, in expectation of fome employ¬
ment;. but nothing offering, he turned Roman-catho¬
lic, and was chofen reCtor of a fchool at Nieffa. It
is related, that about four months after, as he was fol¬
lowing a proceffion of the hoft, he was feized with a
fudden phrenzy; and being carried home, expired in a.
very ftiort time. But Thuanus tells us, that his ex-
ceffive application to ftudy was the occafion of his un¬
timely death ; and that his fitting up a-nights in compo-
fing his Conjectures on Plautus, brought upon him a
diftemper which carried him off in three days, on the
25th of May 1595, being juft turned of 28. He wrote
a Commentary on Quintus Curtius; alfo, Notes on Ta¬
citus, on the TwelvePanegyrics; befides fpeeches, let¬
ters, and poems. His poetical pieces are inferted in
the Delicia of the German poets, and confift of epic
verfes, odes, and epigrams. A little piece, printed in
1595, under the title of Mulieres non ejfe homines,
“ That women were not of the human fpecies,” was
falfely afcribed to him. But the faCt was, that Acida-
lius happening to meet with the manufcript, and think¬
ing it very whimfical, tranfcribed it, and gave it to the
bookfeller, who printed it. The performance was high¬
ly exclaimed againft, infomuch that the bookfeller be¬
ing feized, he difcovered the perfon who gave him the
manufcript, and a terrible outcry was made againft Aci-
dalius. A ftory goes, that being one day to dine at a
friend’s houfe, there happened to be feveral ladies
at table ; who fuppofing him to be the author, were mo¬
ved with fo much indignation, that they threatened to
throw their plates at his head- Acidalius, however, in—
genioufly diverted their wrath. In his opinion, he faid,
the author was a judicious perfon, the ladies being cer¬
tainly more of the fpecies ,of angels than of men.—Mr
Baillet has given him a place among his Enfans Cele-
bres; and fays, that he wrote a comment upon Plau¬
tus when he was but 17 or 18 years old, and that he
compofed feveral Latin poems at the fame age.
ACIDALUS, a fountain in Orchomenus, a city of
Bceotia, in which the Graces, who are facred to Venus,
bathed. Hence the epithet Acidalia, given to Venus,,
(Virgil.)
ACIDITY, that quality which rendershodies acid.
ACL
A C I
> ACIDOTON, in botany, the trivial name of a fpe-
, ciesof A DEI. [A.
[ 7° 1
A C I
with fuch powerful and even deftruftive properties
as many of the acids pofiefs. The late difcove- L
AGIDS, in chemiftry, the name by which one of ries concerning air of different kinds have fuggefted Mr Lavo;_
the general claffes of falls are diftinguifhed. The cha-
- General racterillic marks of them are, i. The peculiar tafte
properties* which we call four ; though this does not hold univer-
of acid 5. fally: for the acid of arfenic, which in other refpefts
manifefts a ftrong acid power, has not this four tafte ;
nor are the volatile fulphureous acid, or thofe of tuxg-
Jien and mo'ybdana, lately difcovered by Mr Scheele,
very diftinguifhable in. this way. On the other hand,
the ftrong acids of vitriol, nitre, and even fea-falt, are
altogether cauftic, and cannot be tailed until they have
been largely diluted with water. 2. With water they
combine into a fluid, the fpecific gravity of which is not
a medium betwixt the water and acid feparately taken.
This holds good with the ftrong acids, which grow hot
with water, and fhrink into lefs bulk by reafon of their
emitting a quantity of the fire they contain : but whe¬
ther it alfo takes place in the weaker acids, has not yet
been afcertained; though the probability is, that it will
take place in them alfo. 3. With fpirit of wine, they
acid princi¬
ple.
a new theory, firft publifhed by M. Lavoifier, and lire- fier’s hypa-
nuoufly maintained by the French chemifts, viz. That thefis that
the acid principle is contained in the air ; and, accor¬
ding as it combines itfelf with different fubftances, forms
acids of different denominations.
This theory he confiders as eftablilhed by numerous
indifputable experiments. Thefe cannot here be de¬
tailed ; but his conclufions from the whole are, That ^
“ dephlogijitcated air enters as a conftituent part intoBafsof de-
the compofition of feveral acids, particularly the phof- phlogiftica-
phoric, vitriolic, and nitrous ; that this pure and high-
ly refpirable air is the cdnftitutive principle of acidity th^acid ^
common to all acids ; and that the difference by which principle,
they are diftinguiftied from each other is produced
by the union of one or more principles befides this
air, fo as to conftitute the particular form under which
each acid appears.” To dephlogifticated air in its
ftate of fixity, therefore, he gives the title of the aci¬
difying or oxygenous principle ; and concludes farther
unite into a very volatile and inflammable fubftance cal- from his experiments, 1. “ That, when combined with
led ether. __ This alfo muft be underftood only of the
ftrong mineral acids, or of the acetous when very much
concentrated; for the acids of tartar, borax, arfenic,
lapis ponderofus (tungfien), and molybdaena, do not
produce any. 4. They change the blue colour of ve¬
getables to red, and heighten the colour of thofe which
are already red.—This property is more univerfal than
the matter of fire, heat, and light, this principle pro¬
duces dephlogifticated air ; though he confiders this
pofition as not capable of abfolute demonftration. It
muft not, therefore, be confounded with the follow¬
ing ; which, he fays, are fupported by experiment and
politive proofs. 2. That the fame acidifying principle,
combined with phlogiftic fubftances or charcoal, forms
thofe we have yet mentioned ; but the volatile fulphu- fixed air. 3. That with fulphur it forms vitriolic acid.
reotis acid, thofe of tungften and molybdsena, are excep¬
tions. 5. They unite with all kinds of earths except¬
ing the filiceous (though the fluor acid diffolves this
alfo1), with fixed and volatile alkalies, and with metalsj
4. That with nitrous air it forms nitrous acid. 5. That
with Kunckel’s phofphorus, it forms the phofphoric
acid. 6. With fugar it forms the acid of fugar,” &c.
The opinion of Mr Lavoifier concerning the com-
in fuch a manner as to form compounds confiderably pofition of acids has in part been adopted by Mr Kir- „
permanent, and whofe ingredients cannot be feparated
without fome difficulty. This is the moft univerfal and
wan; who,in histreatifeonPhlogifton,publifhediniyfly, ni0I)S>
informs us, that he is now of opinion “ that dephlogifti-
diftinguifhing mark; and there is not any acid but what cated air becomes an effential conftituent part of acids.
— c   .1   acids (he adds) confift of two principles : one pe¬
culiar to each, which, in the opinion of the antiphlo-
giftians, has not as yet been deCompofed, and confe-
fhows its attraftion for one or other of thefe fubftances,
efpecially the alkaline falls. Oils and fats, indeed, will
unite with alkalies; but they maybe feparated by the
weakett known acids, fo that there is no danger of quently muft be looked upon, relatively to the pre-
eonfounding the two together. 6. When mixed with
any fermentable liquor, they prevent that procefs from
taking place ; or, if it has already begun, they will
fent ftate of our knowledge, as a fimple fubftance :
the other, pure air, in a concrete ftate ; that is, de¬
prived of the greater part of its fpecific heat, and eon-
put a flop to it. This alfo muft be underftood only of denfed into a fmaller volume. The firft they call the
the ftronger acids, or at leaft will require a confiderable
quantity of the weaker to effeft it. 7. They cannot
be frozen but in a degree of cold below the freezing
point of water. This property is likewife not univerfal,
but is remarkable only in the ftronger acids.
a The nature of acids has long been a matter of fpe-
Of the na- culat’on, and of late has engaged the attention ofphi-
ture of acids, lofophers very confiderably. Some have fuppofed them
acid bajis ; the laft, the oxygenous principle : thus the
vitriolic acid, according to them, confifts of fulphur
as its bafis, and pure air in a concrete ftate as its aci¬
difying or oxygenous principle. This doftrine of the
compofition of acids has been admitted by fome of the
ableft defenders of phlogifton, and particularly by that
diftinguiftied philofophic chemift M. de Morveau, with
this Angle modification, that the bafes of acids contain
to be fim'ple chemical elements, while others imagined phlogifton, which they lofe on uniting to pure air:
them to be compofed of water and earth. Both
thefe opinions, however, are inadmiffible ; the former,
becaufe we are certain that moft acids may be entirely
decompofed, and refolved into aerial vapours of differ¬
ent kinds, which could not happen if they were fimple
and unchangeable elements; the latter, becaufe there
is not the finaHeft probability that two ingredients,
feemingly fo infipid and inactive as water and earth,
could by their union produce a compound endowed
yet it feems very difficult to conceive how pure air can
unite to phlogifton, a fubftance to which it has the
greateft affinity, without forming a new compound
endowed with very different properties from thofe which
it poffeffed before fuch union. It feems therefore more
reafonable to conclude, either that it forms water, as
Mr Cavendifh thinks ; or fixed air, as I lhall afterwards
endeavour to prove.”
In his explanation of the formation of acids, Mr'
Kirwan
A C I [ 7* 1 A G I
Kirwan firft ft ate s the opinion of the antiphlogiftians, gifticated air, phlogifticated air, and inflammable air,
viz.That the vitriolic acid, when confidered abftraftedly all in their concrete ftate. ^
from the water it contains, always confifts of fnlphur “ Red, yellow, green, and blue nitrous acids,
(which they conftder as a limple fubftance) united to a when thofe colours are intenfe, owe their origin to the
large portion of the oxygenous principle. “ In my opi- abforption of nitrous air ; and confequently the pro-
nion (fays he), it confifts of a bafts or radical principle, portion of their principles is variable, though all
which, when faturated with phlogifton, conftitutes ful- have the dephlogifticated acid for their ground. Thus
phur ; when faturated with fixed air, becomes common Dr Prieftley, having expofed ftrong pale-yellow nitrous
fixed vitriolic acid; and, when combined partly with the
one and partly with the other, becomes volatile vitri¬
olic acid. That fulphur, during its converfion into vi-
acid, whofe fpecific gravity could not be lefs than
1.400 to nitrous air, found that 100 grains of this
acid abforbed, in two days, 247 cubic inches of nitrous
triolic acid, unites to air of fome fort or other, is evident air : now, 100 grains of this fpirit muft have contain-
from the quantity of air which it abforbs, in whatever
way that converfion is brought about. Thus, firft, du¬
ring combuftion in refpirable air, 100 grains of fulphur
abforb 420 cubic inches of pure air, or about 143 grains:
but the proportion of this pure air united with a given
quantity of fulphur is not eafily determined, becaufe
it is vitriolic air that is conftantly formed; and this air
effentially contains fome portion of fulphur in folution,
which portion is variable. Secondly, Pyrites, during
their decompofition, abforb a confiderable proportion of
pure air, as Mr Lavoifier has obferved; fo alfo does
liver of fulphur expofed to the atmofphere, for after
fome time it is converted into tartar vitriolate.”
Mr Kirwan next proceeds to inquire, whether the
air abforbed during the combuftion of fulphur continues
b" to be pure air; or whether
tPeburning or fixed ? He inclines to the latter opinions, for va-
B of fulphur rious reafons * which he fpecifies.
ed, by my calculation, about 21 grains of dry acid,
and thefe 21 grains took up 91.39 grains of nitrous
air. When about 20 cubic inches of nitrous air were
abforbed (that is, about feven grains), the acid became
of an orange colour ; when 50 cubic inches were ab¬
forbed (about 18 grains), it became green ; and when
nearly the whole was abforbed, it evaporated in the
form of nitrous vapour, carrying off part of the wa¬
ter with it. Hence we fee, that nitrous vapour con¬
fifts of nitrous acid united to three or four times its
weight of nitrous air and a little water.”
Mr Kirwan next proceeds to conteft Mr Lavoifier’s 9
opinion, that nitrous air is a conftituent principle of the ^Ir,L?'V01'
nitrous acid. “ The following experiments (fays he) (-ontefted ^
fhow that nitrous air is not a conftituent principle of
be converted into water the nitrous acid, but that fixed air is. 1. There is not a
doubt but that pure nitrous acid enters entire, and with-
. _ _ out decompofition, into fixed alkalis, and forms nitre.
| continues to With regard to the nitrous*acid, the experiments of Now if nitre be diftilled in a good earthen retort, it
I b* Effa Cavendifti, as well as of the French chemifts, leave will be wholly decompofed ; and fo alfo will the acid
| p. 29.ay’ no room t0 doubt that it is produced during the defla- itfelf, except a few drops which pafs in the beginning
7 gration of dephlogifticated and inflammable air. Mr of the diftillation, and nothing but dephlogifticated
tl Formation Cavendifti has ftiown that the nitrous acid may be air, more or lefs pure, and confequently intermixed
|T crousadd ^orme^ taking the ele&ric fpark in a mixture of with phlogifticated air and a flight proportion of fixed
u tro s au . t]lree meafures 0f phlogifticated air and feven of de- air, will be found : thefe, therefore, are its true confti-
phlogifticated air, or, in weight, one part of the for- tuent parts when difengaged from fubftances that can-
mer and about 2.6 of the latter. Mr Lavoifier,. as not communicate phlogifton to it in any remarkable
has been already mentioned, fuppofes the nitrous acid- quantity, fuch as alkalis and earths ; but if it be fepara-
to be compofed of nitrous air united to the oxygenous ted from fubftances that contain phlogifton, fuch as me-
principle, or bafis of pure air ; and 100 grains of dry tals, it will the« indeed be refolved into nitrous air, and
nitrous acid confift' of 64 grains of nitrous air united
to 36 of pure air deprived of its fpecific fire ; or, ac¬
cording to Mr Kirwan’s calculation, 173 cubic inches
of nitrous air and 105 of pure air. But nitrous air,
as Mr Lavoifier himfelf has obferved, is a compound ;
100 grains of it, according to him, containing 32 of
phlogifticated and 68 of pure air ; confequently 64
grains of it contain 20.5' of phlogifticated air, and
43.5 of pure air. Hence, according to him, 100
grains of dry nitrous acid contain 794 of pure air and
g 204- of phlogifticated air. Mr Kirwan is of opinion
q Proportion t^iat 100 grains of pure, dry, and colourlefs nitrous
■iofitsconfti-acid contain 38.17 grains of fixed air as its acidifying
jfctuent parts, principle, 57.06 of nitrous bafis, and 4.77 of phlogifton
united to the nitrous bafis. With regard to the nitrous
bafis itfelf, he fays that one third of its weight is
phlogifticated and two thirds dephlogifticated air, both
in a concrete ftate.
dephlogifticated air more or lefs pure, the phlogifton
of the fixed air being detained by the metal. Mr Ber-
thollet, who feems to have made the experiment with
the greateft exa&nefs, produced 714 cubic inches of de¬
phlogifticated air from a Troy ounce of nitre. This,
however, was far from being of the pureft kind; and
Dr Prieftley, Mr Berthollet, and Mr Succow, obfer¬
ved, that the air which firft paffes contains fixed air,
and renders lime-water turbid. Here then we have
three of the conftituent parts of the nitrous acid, with
fcarce any nitrous air; which the antiphlogiftians fup-
pofe to be one of the conftituent parts of the acid,,
and to make two thirds of its bulk when exhibited in
an aerial form.”
To obviate an obje&ion that the quantity of fixed
air thus obtained is too fmall to deferve to be ranked-
among the conftituent. parts of the nitrous acid, Mr
Kirwan firft inquires in what proportion it ought to
“ Nitrous bafis (fays Mr Kirwan), faturated with exift there; and though this is variable, according to
phlogifton, conftitutes nitrous air : 100 grains of this the different ftates of the nitrous acid with refpecl to
bafis take up nearly 22 of phlogifton. lienee the con- phlogiftication, he reckons it at one-third of the acid
ftituent principles of nitrous acid are fixed air, dephlo- as exifting in the nitre ; . and, from tlie decompofition of
3 thii
A C I [ 72 1 A c r
Acids, tin's fixed air, and the phlogifton emitted by it of confe-
quence> he attributes the phlogiftication and rednefs of
the nitrous acid when expofed to more heat. As a
proof that fixed air may be decompofed in this man¬
ner, he adduces two experiments of Dr Prieftley. In
one of thefe, dephlogifticated air was obtained by means
of acetous acid in that concentrated ftate in which it
is called radical vinegar. Having mixed half an ounce
of the acid with two ounces of calcined whiting, he
obtained from it 350 ounce-meafures of air; of which
about one-third was fixed more in the firft: portions,
and lefs in the laft. The ftandard of the refiduum in
the firft portions was, 1.66, in the fecond, 1.42, and
in the third, 1.38 ; which is very near the goodnefs of
common air. The whiting then weighed 760 grains.
On adding a quarter of an ounce more of radical vine¬
gar, and repeating the operation, 120 ounce-meafures
of air were obtained, and the whiting was reduced to
73° grains* A third operation, in which another quar¬
ter of an ounce of vinegar was added, reduced the mat¬
ter to 489 grains ; but the laft portion of air extracted
had no fixed air, arid was confiderably better than that
of the atmofphere. The other experiment was made
with lime-ftone alone; from four ounces of the white
cryflahy of which 830 ounce-meafures of air were ob¬
tained, the firft portion of which had only one-fourth
of fixed air, and the ftandard of the refiduum was ne¬
ver better than 1.56, nor worfe than 1.66 ; fo that it
was nearly of the goodnefs of common air.
Our author then proceeds to relate feveral other ex¬
periments in which the nitrous acid was decompofed;
but a particular relation of them would fwell this ar¬
ticle beyond its due bounds. At laft, however, he
concludes in the following manner. “ If fpirit of
nitre be made to boil, and its vapour received through
a red-hot earthen tube, it will be converted into de¬
phlogifticated air, in which a portion both of phlogi-
fticated and fixed air is found, as Dr Prieftley has dif-
covered : the water through which this air paffes will
alfo contain fixed air. Here then are feveral ways of
decompofing the nitrous acid ; and in one only it is
refolved into nitrous and dephlogifticated air ; and in
this way it may, at leaft, be ftrongly fufpedled to re¬
ceive an addition of another principle. Why then fhould
10 thefe be regarded as its conftituent principles ? And as
Fixed air in the two fimpleft methods of decompofition, in which
elements "of ^ rea&ion of no foreign fubftanee can be fufpe&ed,
nitrousacid. ^ appears in the form of dephlogifticated, phlogiftica-
ted, and fixed air (the former always containing a por¬
tion of the two laft), why then fhould not thefe be ac-
11 counted its true conftituent parts ? This theory
How ni- is further confirmed by reflefting on the manner in
trims acid is nitrous acid is generated by nature. Mr
generated. Thouvenel found that this acid is conftantly produ¬
ced when chalk is expofed to a mixture of putrid air
and common air, or putrid and dephlogifticated air;
but if the putrid air be pafled through lime-water, it is
never generated ; and that it is rarely produced by the
expofure of quick-lime or fixed alkalis to thefe airs.
The reafon that alkalis, though aerated, are not fo
proper, is, that they do not combine with phlogiftica-
ted air as calcareous earths do. Mr Cavendifh, indeed,
produced nitrous acid without any apparent mixture
of fixed air ; but the atom of it neceffary for the for¬
mation of the fmall quaptity of nitrous acid he produ-
No. 2. 2
ced (about one-third of a grain), might well be con- Acids,
tained in the phlogifticated air he employed, or perhaps v—^
formed in the operation.”
Having thus far ftated the different opinions of
the moft celebrated French and Englifh philofophers
conceraing the compofition of acids, it is neceffary ra
to take notice of fome experiments made by Mr^*^1^
Watt, in order to determine whether the dephlo-jyir Wat:
gifticated air produced from nitre really proceeds from which
a decompofition of the acid, or what quantity of the ('eem cnH"
latter is required to conftitute a determinate ftuan‘Kirwan’* f
tity of the former. To afcertain this*, 240 grains of do&nne.
mercury were put into a glafs retort with 480 grains * Philof.
of diluted dephlogifticated nitrous acid, which was the Tranf.
quantity neceffary to diffolve the whole of the mercury; v‘ *x‘v'
and as foon as the common air was expelled, a proper^’ ^
veffel was applied to receive the air produced in the
operation. Sixteen ounce-meafures of nitrous air came
over during the folution, and on changing the recei¬
ver, a quantity of dilute, but highly phlogifticated ni¬
trous acid, was obtained. The air receiver being again
applied, four ounce meafures of ftrong and pure nitrous
air were obtained, which, by the dephlogifticated air
that arofe immediately after, were reduced to half an
ounce meafure. The produ&ion of dephlogifticated
air continued very rapid, the mercury being all the
while received, until the operation was ended by the
diftillation or fublimation of the whole of the mercury.
Two hundred and eighteen grains of the metal were
obtained in its running form, and 22 remained in the
form of an orange-coloured fublimate in the upper part
of the retort.—The 16 ounce-meafures of nitrous air,
firft obtained, were then converted into nitrous acid by
the gradual admiffion of common air, and then added
to the water in the bafon in which the receiver had
been inverted ; the whole quantity being about two
quarts, and very acid to the tafte, fparkling at the fame
time with nitrous air. To determine the quantity of
acid thus recovered, as well as that which remained in
the fublimate, a folution of alkali of tartar was made;
and by experiment it was found, that 120 grains of the
acid, originally employed in diffolving the mercury, fa-
turated 352 grains of this folution ; the orange colour¬
ed fublimate and all the acid liquor recovered being fa-
turated by 1395 grains of the fame. Hence it ap¬
pears, by the rule of proportion, that out of 480 grains
of nitrous acid originally employed, only five were loft;
“ a fmaller quantity (as Mr Watt juftly obferves) than
what might reafonably be fuppofed to be loft in the
procefs by the extreme volatility of the nitrous acid.”
His conclufion therefore is, that “ the nitrous acid
does not enter into the compofition of dephlogifticated
air: it feems only to ferve to abforb phlogifton from
the watery part of the mercurial nitre.”
This experiment was repeated with cubic nitre, and
only 30 ounce-meafures of air diftilled from an ounce
of the mineral alkali exaftly faturated with nitrous acid.
The water through which the air paffed was acid, and
the refiduum in the retort alkaline; but on mixing the
two together, the folution was found to be exactly neu¬
tral by every poflible teft.
Not fatisfied with thefe experiments, Mr Watt di¬
ftilled an ounce (480 grains) of common nitre, Hop¬
ping the procefs when 50 ounce-meafures of air had
been produced. This air had a ftrong fmell of the
nitrous
Anfwered
by Mr Kir-
wan.
A C I [ 73 ] A C I
nJlfom ncid, from which it could not be freed by vvafh- mation, in the temperature of the atmofphere, we A-;
J ing with the water in the bafon. The reliduum in the have no fort of proof. On the contrary, the ilnpof-
retort was alkaline as before, and the water {lightly fibility of accounting for the lofs of acid in this cafe is
acid ; nor was the fatilration completed by mixing the an evident proof of the fallacy of that hypothehs.
two together. Ten grains of weak nitrous acid, 105 —By Mr Lavoifier’s analyfis, too grains of ir‘tre Quantit of
grains of which contained the acid of 60 of nitre, com- contain 57 of cauftic alkali; by Mr Bergman’s, 49 ron.
pleted the faturation. Thefe ten grains contained the by Mr Wenzel’s, 52; by Mr Wiegleb’s, 46!; by ..media
acid of 57 grains of nitre ; which, by Mr Kirwan’s ex- mine, 63 : the mean of all which is-, $?,i; which leaves nitre,
periments, is equal to two grains of real nitrous acid. 46.5 for acid and water, which is very nearly the
We have therefore (fays Mr Watt) 34 grains weight weight of the air expelled. The different quantity of
of dephlogifticated air produced, and only two grains of acid affigned by different perfons to nitre, is in part
real acid miffing; and it is not certain that even this owing to its degree of phlogiftication in nitre. I be-
quantity was deflroyed, becaufe fome portion of the glafs lieve at prefent, that 100 grains of nitre contain 34 of
of the retort was diffolved by the nitre, and fome part acid and about 12 of water, including the water in the
of the materials employed in making the glafs being acid and that of cryftallization.”
alkali, we may conclude, that the alkali of the nitre- Mr Kirwan next proceeds to confider, in a manner
would be augmented by the alkali of that part of the fimilar to that above related, the compofition of the
glafs it had diffolved; but as the glafs cracked into other acids.—The marine acid, according to him, con- _
fmall pieces on cooling, and fome part of the coating fifts of a peculiar bails united to phlogiflon, and a cer-
adhered firmly to it, the quantity of the glafs that was tain quantity of fixed air 5 to both of which the bafis rjue ac:
diffolved could not be afeertained.” ' feems to have a ftrong affinity. On depriving it of
To avoid the force of objections drawn from thefe this phlogiflon, the affinity of the acid to fixed air be-
experiments, and which feem ready to overthrow his comes much flronger, and it faturates itfelf fo largely
hypothefis, as well as that of Mr Lavoifier entirely, Mr with it, that its attractions for other fubftances, con-
Kirwan makes the following reply. “ My inge- taining little or no phlogiflon, become nearly as weak
nious friend Mr Watt, as well as Mr Cavendifh, are as thofe of fixed air itfelf when equally condenfed; but
of opinion, that the whole quantity of dephlogiflicated with refpeft to bodies that contain a confiderable quan-
air, produced'from the diflillation of nitre, arifes from tity of phlogiflon, its affinities are much flronger, as
the dephlogiflication of the water it contains, it being its bafis attraCls the phlogifton, while thofe bodies at-
decompofed by the nitrous acid, which then becomes trad its excefs of fixed air. In this flate it does not
phlogifticated. This opinion'is expofed to infurmount- expel fixed air from aerated fixed alkalis or earths
able difficulties. For, in the firfl place, nitre affords de- until it is heated ; and then dephlogiflicated air fepa-
phlogiflicated air at the rate of 146.125 cubic inches rates from it, and it becomes, in all refpefts, common
for every 100 grains of nitre, which, by the proper al- marine acid. For as it contains an excefs of fixed air,
lowances for phlogifticated air, fhould weigh 46.77 it afts nearly as an acid of the fame nature ; but when
grains : but then dephlogiflicated air is only one of the heat is applied, its bafis dephlogiilicates its own fixed
conflituent parts of water, for it contains 13 per cent, air, which then becomes dephlogifticated air, at the
of inflammable air, that is to fay, 87 grains of de- fame time that the acid becomes common marine a'cid,
phlogifticated air: to form too grains of water re- and ails as fuch.
quires an addition of 13 grains of inflammable air; Mr Lavoifier, and other philofophers, who deny the 16
confequently 46.77 grains of dephlogifticated air re- exiftence of phlogifton, are of opinion, that the com- Mr Lavoi-
quire nearly 7 of inflammable air, and would then mon marine acid confifts of a peculiar bafis united to a ^ 8‘l11'
form 53.77 grains of water, which exceeds half the fmall proportion of pure air, or oxygenous principle,
weight of the nitre ; a quantity of water, as Mr Watt and the dephlogifticated marine acid differs from it only
owns, certainly inadmiffible.—Mr Watt found, that by containing an excefs of this principle.—This opi-
the water over which the air proceeding from the nion they are chiefly induced to maintain, becaufe
decompofition of 960 grains of nitre had been re- the" acid in its dephlogifticated ftate is procured by
ceived, contained only the acid belonging to 120 diftilling common marine acid from manganefe; and
grains of nitre ; and even this fmall quantity he infer- the manganefe, if diftilled by itfelf, before the acid is
red only from my experiments. But my experiments diftilled from it, affords dephlogifticated air ; but after
are totally inapplicable in this cafe; for I ufed only the acid is diftilled from it, it yields none.—“ This ex- *7
the dephlogifticated nitrous acid : and alkalis are fa- periment, however, (fays Mr Kirwan), proves no more
turable by a much fmaller quantity of phlogifticated but that the manganefe contains fome air which is de-waiu
than of dephlogifticated acids, as is evident in the cafe phlogifticated during the calcination. And that this air
of the dephlogifiicated marine acid, as Stahl long ago ob- is fixed air, appears from the following confiderations:
ferved ; for he fays, that the volatile acid of fulphur The black calx of manganefe almoft always gives out
faturates 10 times as much alkali as the fixed. Mr fixed air at firft, before any depblogifticated air ap-
Bergman and Mr Scheele obferved, that melted nitre pears ; whence it is natural to think, that the dephl j-
is ftill neutral, though it be phlogifticated; therefore gifticated air proceeds from the dephlogiftication of the
it is air, and not water, which it wants. Accordingly fixed. And hence, if it be diftilled with filings of iron.
Hr PritftJey found it to injure common air by attraft- or in a gun-barrel, it fcarce gives out any other than
ing its dephlogifticated part: but if it be kept in fu- fixed air; if at any time it gives out dephlogifticated
fion for fome time, it lofes its acid, and becomes alka- air, with little or no mixture of fixed air, this is owing
line; and the air it receives mull furely be deemed rather to a very perfedl dephlogiftication of the calx, and to
to recompofe the acid than to form water; of whole for- its containing very little moiilure; Thus Dr Prieilley,
Vol. I. Part I. K having
A G I [ 74 1 A C I
Acids, having pafled the fleam of boiling water through man-
ganefe heated in an earthen tube, obtained a very large
quantity of fused air, and fcarce any other ; though on
repeating- this experiment with manganefe well freed
from calcareous earth, I obtained a large portion of de-
phlogifticated air ; but I believe much depends on the
degree of heat to which the tube is fubjected. But
having diftilled manganefe, which yielded of itfelf feme
fixed air with common fpirit of fait, I obtained de-
phlogifticated marine acid, and not a particle of fixed
air ; which fhows that this laft combined with the de»
phlogillicated bafis, and formed the dephlogifticated
acid. Mr Hermftadt having diffolved the black calx
in common marine acid, and precipitated it with an ae¬
rated fixed Alkali, obtained, as ufual,. a-white precipi¬
tate; which, when heated, afforded a great part of the
fixed air it had abforbed from the alkali; but when
heated to fuch a degree as to be of a brown red colour,
and confequently dephlogifticated; it converted- com¬
mon fpirit of fait; into a dephlogifticated acid,which could
proceed!; only-from, fome fixed air yet unexpelled : Yet
if fal-ammoniac be diftilled with the black calx of man¬
ganefe, it will be expelled in a cauftic ftate ; 'for the
fixed air unites to the dephlogifticated marine bails'in
preference to the volatile alkali.
jg Several other experiments are related by Mr Kirwan,
Decifive ex-which the limits-, of this article will not allow us to in-
periment in.fert. but the following,.he is of opinion, fully confirms
his favour, pjg hypothefis, and fubverts that of the antiphlogiftians.
“ Six.cubic inches .of inflammable air were mixed with
as much dephlogifticated marine air over lime-water.
In about 10 minutes after the greater part of the di¬
minution had taken place, a white cloud appeared on
the furface [a) of the lime-water,, and by agitation it
became ftill more turbid. As it was poffible that, the
manganefe might be mixed with calcareous earth, fome
dephlogifticated marine air was extracted from another
portion of it, and received on lime-water ; but it was
wholly abforbed, without forming the leaf! cloud, tho’
there was lime enough ; for, on adding aerated water,
a cloud appeared.”
jp The other acids particularly treated of fey Mr Kir-
Phofphoric wan are the phofphorie and faccharine. In his treatife
acid. on the former, he adopts the analyfis of Mr Lavoifter,
changing only his acid principle of dephlogifticated
for fixed air. From this it appears, that the phofpho-
ric acid confifts of a peculiar bafis united to 2.265
its weight of the acid principle ; or, in other words,
roo grains of dry phofphoric acid contains about 6g o{
fixed air and 31 of its peculiar bafis r too grains of
the phofphoric bafis take up 226,5 hxed air, or
32.9 of phlogifton when it becomes phofpHorus ; and
100 grains of phofphorus contain 75.24 of bafis and
34.76 of phlogifton.—The bafis of this acid is the only
one that can be procured free, both from the phlogi¬
fton and the acidifying principle ; it is called, though
improperly, as it is not foluble in water, the glacial
phofpboric acid., Mr Lavoifier and others are of opi¬
nion, that phofphorus is a Ample fubftance containing
no phlogifton, and that the acid confifts of the oxyge¬
nous principle united to it.
With regard to the acid of fugar, Mr Kirwan ob- Acids,
ferves, that fugar itfelf is a compound of fixed air with ^
a much larger proportion of inflammable air, and fome s -.eclianae
water, all condenfed to a degree of which we are ig-acid.
norant, but retaining, upon the whole, much more fpe-
eific heat than either oil or charcoal; though he feems
inclined to the hypothefis of Mr Morveau, that this
fubflance has for its bafis a fine ethereal oil, to which
a-large proportion of condenfed inflammable-air is fu-
peradded. The acid of fugar, then, according to him,
confifts of this peculiar bafis deprived of its fuperfluous
phlogifton, and united to a great quantity of fixed air in
a concrete ftate. He is alfo of opinion, that it does
not exift ready formed in the fugar, but is produced in
the operations that fubftance undergoes: that it de¬
rives moft of its acid principle from the nitrous acid
employed ; the nitrous bafts taking up the phlogifton,
and the fixed air of the nitrous acid combining with
the faccharine bafis. He contefts ftrongly an opinion
of Mr Lavoifier, that fugar is a fort of charcoal, which,
uniting with the oxygenous principle of the nitrous
acid, decompofes it, fets loofe the nitrous air, and
forms the faccharine acid ; and that, towards the end
of the operation, the faccharine acid itfelf is decom-
pofed; the confequence of which is the produc¬
tion of fixed air, which, according to'him, is only the
oxygenous principle combined with charcoal. On this
Mr Kirwan remarks, 1. “ That, according to this the¬
ory, the acid of fugar fliould be the fame with fixed
air, fince both are compofed of the oxygenous prin¬
ciple united with charcoal: or, if Mr Lavoifier (hould
reply, that fugar is different from common char¬
coal,. he reminds him, that, according to his own ta¬
ble of affinities, the oxygenous principle has a much
ftronger attra&ion for charcoal than for fugar, and
confequently that the latter ought to be decompofed
by-the former; nay, that it ftiould be regenerated by
various metallic fubftances, which, according to him,,
have a greater attra&ion for this principle. 2. Accor¬
ding to this hypothefis, the faccharine acid ought to
weigh more than the fugar employed in the operation;
which is fo far from being the cafe, that it is univer-
fally agreed to be much lefs; Bergman making it only
•fd, Mr Chaptal from -fd to f-ths, and Mr Sage -f-^tha.
3. If the faccharine acid confifted of fugar, or confift-
ed of that fubftance undecompofed, and barely united
to the oxygenous principle, it ought to be formed by
treating fugar with the black calx of manganefe, or
with dephlogifticated marine acid ; both of which, ac¬
cording to him, have lefs attradlion for the oxygenous
principle than'fugar. Laftly, (fays Mr Kirwan), If the . 2r,
acid of fugar be diftilled, it is wholly converted into
water, fixed inflammable air, and not a particle of coalpr;nc;pie>.
or dephlogifticated air is found in it. It is; not there-according
fore reafbnable to- look on either of them as its confti-t0 Kir“~
tuent principles; but as fixed air alone can be extrac- wan‘
ted from all vegetable acids, it feems to be the true a-
cidifiable principle ”
Having given a view of the prefent opinions re¬
lative to the original formation of acids,- it remains to
treat a little more particularly of each of the different
kinds..
(a) On mixing thefe, a denfe white cloud appears ; one half the, bulk of both difappears, and the refidimm ex¬
plodes like a mixture of inflammable and dephlogifticated air.
A C I
Acids, kinds. They are divided into three different claffes,
' ^ expreffive of their origin, viz. the Mineral, Vegetable,
Acids howan^ Animal. The mineral acids are thofe of vitriol,
divided. nitre, fea-falt, borax, amber, fluor, arfenic, tungften,
molybdsena, &c. The vegetable are, thofe of vine¬
gar, tartar, fugar, benzoin, apples, citrons, lemons,
tamarinds, forrel, cork, &c. The animal acids are,
the microfmic or acid of urine, and that of bones, both
of which are alfo called the phofphoric, though this
might be accounted a vegetable acid, as it is procured
by diHilling muftard and fome other vegetables by a
violent fire. Befides thefe, there are the acids of ants,
wafps, bees, filk-worms, milk, &c. It has alfo been
difcovered, that the human calculus is formed for the
moll part of a peculiar acid, which has received the
name of lithidjic acid. Laftly, As • an acid dillinft
from all thefe, we may now add fixed air, by fome cal¬
led the aerial, and by others the cretaceous acid ; the
latter appellation it derives from creta, chalk, becaufe
it is found in that fubltance in great quantity. See
Aerology.
The general properties of acids have already been e-
CounT ofaC" numerated > molt remarkable of which is their attrac-
thcirattrac- t;'on f°r alkaline falts, earths, and metals. Though this
ions for al- is common to all, yet very confiderable differences are ob-
talis, &c, ferved among them in this re{pe£l, and on thofe differences
depend almoft all the phenomena of that part of Che¬
mistry which treats of falts. As thefe phenomena
are particularly confidered under that article, we lhall
here only in general take notice, that the three acids
named the vitriolic, nitrous, and marine, are the llrong-
ell of them all; that is, if any other acid be united to
[ is 1
A C I
attraction for phlogiilon; and unite with certain oily Acidulous
and inflammable matter fo vehemently as to occafion
great heat, and fometimes even violent and unextin-. ^ ~ .
guifliable flame. This is particularly the cafe with
the nitrous acid, or with a mixture of the two; and
indeed the nitrous acid, though weaker than the vi¬
triolic, (hows itfelf in every inftance to be far more ac¬
tive, and to perform all its operations with vaftly great¬
er rapidity, than the other. All thefe particulars, how¬
ever, as they properly fall under the article Chemi¬
stry, are there explained at length : together with the
origin and peculiar methods of preparing each of the
acids, and the various ufes to which they may be ap¬
plied in arts and manufadtures. See alfo their diffe¬
rent titles as they occur in the order of the alphabet;
as, Nitre, Vinegar, Vitriol, &c.
ACIDULOUS denotes a thing that is flightly acid;
it is fynonymous with the word fub-acid.
ACIDULiE. Mineral waters that contain a brilk
fpirit, when unaccompanied with heat, are thus named;
but if they are hot alfo they are called Thermae. See
Mineral Waters.
ACIDULATED, a name given to medicines that
have an acid in their compofition.
ACIDUM aereum, the fame with Fixed Aik.
Acidvm pingue, an imaginary acid, which fome
German chemiits fuppofed to be contained in fire, and
by combining with alkalis, lime, &c. to give them
their cauftic properties; an effedt which is found cer¬
tainly to depend on the lofs of their fixed air.
ACILA, Ocila, or Ocelis (anc. geog.), a ftaple
or mart town in Arabia Felix, on the Arabic gulf.
an alkali, earth, or metal, the union will be broken by from which, according to Pliny, they fet fail for In¬
adding to that compound any of the three acids juft dia. Now Ziden.
mentioned. Neither are thefe equal in power among
themfelves; for the vitriolic is ftronger than the ni¬
trous, and the nitrous ftronger than the marine. The
rule, however, is liable to certain exceptions and vari¬
ations, depending chiefly on the circumftances of heat
or cold, moifture or drynefs, and particularly on the
ftate of the marine acid with regard to its being in the
form of an aqueous fluid or reduced to a dry vapour.
ACILIUS GLABRIO (Marcus), conful in the
year of Rome 562, -and 211 years before the Chriftian
sera, diftinguilhed himfelf by his bravery and conduct
in gaining a complete victory over Antiochus the
Great, king of Syria, at the ftreights of Thermopylae
in Theffaly, and on feveral other occafions. He built
the Temple of Piety at Rome, in confequence of a vow
he made before the above mentioned battle: and the
In this laft cafe it feems ftronger than either the vi- reafon of his giving it that name is very remarkable,
triolic or nitrous; and even when in an aqueous ftate. The ftory is mentioned by Pliny, Valerius Maximus,
both the nitrous and marine acids, when added in great and others. See the article Piety.
quantity, feem to opprefs and overwhelm the ftronger
vitriolic acid, fo that they wall partly expel it from an
alkaline fait. This does not depend on the mere quan¬
tity of acidity they poffefs': for the acetous acid may
be concentrated to fuch a degree as to become ftronger
in tliis refpect than fpirit of fait; yet it will always be in¬
ferior in point of real ftrength, when tried with an alkali
in competition with the latter. The aerial acid is the
weakeft of all; and may be expelled not only by vine¬
gar, but by the acid juices of fruits, tartar, and the
acids of tungften and molybdsena.
Some acids have the property of refilling the .fire,
and melting into a kind of glafs, fuch as that of borax
and phofphorus. This circumftance gives them an ad-
ACINIPPO (anc. geog.), a town of Baetica; its
ruins, called Ronda la Viega, are to be feen near A-
runda, in the kingdom of Granada.
ACINODENDRUM, in botany, the trivial name
of a fpecies of Melastoma.
ACINOS, in botany, the trivial name of a fpecies
of Thymus.
ACINUS, or Acini, the fmall protuberances of
mulberries, Itrawberries, &c. and by fome applied to
grapes. Generally it is ufed for thofe fmall grains
growing in bunches, after the manner of grapes, as
Lignjlrum, See.
ACTS, in fabulous hiftory, the fon of Faunus and
Simetheis, was a beautiful fhepherd of Sicily, who be-
vantage over the ftronger acids which are volatile ; and ing beloved by Galatea, Polyphemus the giant was fo
thus the two juft mentioned, as well as thofe of arfenic enraged, that he dallied out his brains againft a rock ;
and fungften, will, in a very ftrong heat, expel the acid after which Galatea turned him into a river, which
of vitriol itfelf, though the latter will, in the cold, ex- was called by his name.
pel any one of them with great eaft. Acis, (Ovid, Theocritus) ; a river of Sicily, run-
Both the vitriolic and nitrous acids have a very ftrong ning from a very cold fpring, in the woody and ftiady ■
. 2 K 2 foot
A C N [ ] AGO
Acknow- foot of mount iEtna, eaftward into, and not much a-
edgn.ent ^ove a mjje from) the fea, along green and pleafant
Acoemet®. banks, with the fpeed of an arrow, from which it takes
vr«—1 its name. It is now called sfci laci, or Chinci, accor¬
ding to the different Sicilian diale&s : Antonine calls
it Adas. Alfo the name of a hamlet at the mouth of
the Ads.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT, in a general fenfe, is a
perfon’s owning or confe'lling a thing ; but, more par¬
ticularly, is the expreflion of gratitude for a favour.
AcKNowLEVGMENr-Money, a certain fum paid by
tenants, in feveral parts of England, on the death of
their landlords, as an acknowledgment of their new
lords.
ACLIDES, in Roman antiquity, a kind of miffive
weapon, with a thong affixed to it, whereby to draw it
back. Moft authors defcribe it as a fort of dart or ja¬
velin ; but Scaliger makes it roundiih or globular, and
full of fpikes, with a ilender wooden item to poife
it by.
ACLOWA, in botany, a barbarous name of a fpe-
cies of Colutea. It is ufed by the natives of Guinea
to cure the itch : They rub it on the body as we do
unguents.
ACME, the top or height of any thing. It is
ufually applied to the maturity of an animal juft before
it begins to decline ; and phylicians have ufed it to exr
prefs the utmoft violence or crifts of a difeafe.
ACMELLA, in botany, the trivial name of. a fpe-
eies of Spilantthus.
ACMONIA, and Agmonia, in Peutinger’s map,
a town of Phrygia Major, now in ruins. The inhabi¬
tants are called Acsnonenfes by Cicero, and the city 67-
vitas Acm.nenfts.. Alfo a city of Dacia (Ptolemy), on
the Danube, near the ruins of Trajan’s bridge, built
fey Severus, and called Severicum; diftant 12 German
miles from Temefwar, to the fouth-eaft.
ACNIDA, Virginian Hemp, in botany, a ge¬
nus of the dkecia order, belonging to the pentandria
«lafs of plants; and, in the Natural Order, affocia-
ting with the Seabrid.t (53)., The characters are:
In the male, the calyx is a perianthium confifting of
five leaves, ovate, concave, acute, and membranous on
the margin. No corolla. The jlaviina confift of five
very ftiort capillary filaments j the anthers are verfa-
tile, two-celled, and forked at both ends.—Female on
a feparate plant of which the calyx confifts of an in-
volucrum many-leav’d, linear, and deciduous; and a
perianthium two-leaved, very fmall, and perfillent. No
corolla. The pijlillum has an ovate germen ; the ftyli
are five, long, reflected, and downy; the ftigmata are
fimple. The pericarphwi is an egg-ffiaped fruit, com-
prcffed, many-angled, fulcated, and covered with a
fiicculent calyx. The feed is folitary, round, and com-
preffed. There is only one fpecies of it, viz. the ae-
nida cannabina. It is a native of Virginia; but rarely
cultivated in Europe, except for the fake of variety.
It has little beauty, and at prefent is applied to no
ufeful purpofe.
ACNUA, in Roman antiquity, fignified a certain
mcafure of Lnd, near about the Englifh rood, or fourth
part of an acre.
ACOEMETiE, or Acoemeti, in church-hiftory ;
or, Meft who lived without fleep: A fet of monks who
chanted the divine ftrvice night and day in their pla¬
ces of worffiip. They divided themfelves into three Aeoluthi
bodies, who alternately fucceeded one another, fo that ^
their churches were never filent. This practice they . co ' 1 1
founded upon the precept, Pray without ceafing. They
flourifhed in the eaft about the middle of the 5th cen¬
tury. There are a kind of acoemeti ftill fubfifting in
the Roman church, viz. the religious of the holy facra-
ment, who keep up a perpetual adoration, fome one or
other of them praying before the holy facrament day
and night.
ACOLUTHI, or Acoluthists, in antiquity, was
an appellation given to thofe perfons who were fteady
and immoveable in their refolutions : and hence the
ftoica, becaufe they would not forfake their principles,,
nor alter their refolutions, acquired the title of Acolu-
thi. The word is Greek, and compounded of *, priv.
and xoXfuS©-, way; as never turning from the original
courfe.
Acoluthi, among the ancient Chriftians, implied a
peculiar order of the inferior clergy in the Latin church;
for they were unknown to the Greeks for above 400
years. They were next to the fub-deacon ; and we
learn from the fourth council of Carthage, that the
archdeacon, at their ordination, put into their hands a
candleftick with a taper, giving them thereby to under-
ftand that they were appointed to light the candles of
the church; as alfo an empty pitcher, to imply that
they were to furniffi wine for the eucharift. Some
think they had another office, that of attending the
bifhop wherever he went*. The word is Greek, and
compounded of «, privy and xoxua, to hinder or di-
fturb.
AQOLYTHIA, in the Greek church, denotes the
office or order of divine fervice; or the prayers, cere¬
monies, hymns, . &c. whereof the Greek fervice is com-
pofed.
ACOMA, a town of North America, in New Mexi¬
co, feated on a hill, with a good caftle. To go into
the town, you muft walk up 50 fteps cut out of the
rock. It is the capital of that province, and was taken
by the Spaniards in 1593. W. Long. 104. 15. Lat.
35- °-
ACOMAC, the name of a county in Virginia. It
is on the eaftern fide of the Chefepeak bay, on a flip of.
land, by the Virginians called the eajlertt Jhore.
ACOMINATUS (Nicetas), was fecretary to Alex¬
ius' Comnenus and to Ifaacus Angelus fucceffively : he
wrote an hiftory from the death of Alexius Comnenus
1118,, where Zonaras ended his, to the year 1203,
which has undergone many impreffions, and is much
applauded by the bell critics. .
ACONITE. See Aconitum.
Winter Aconite. See Helleborus
ACONCROBA, in botany, the indigenous name of
a plant which grows, wild in Guinea, and is in great
clleem among the natives for its virtues in the fmall-
pox. They give an infufion of it in wine. The leaves
of this plant are opake, and as ftiff as thofe of the phi-
lyrea ; they grow in pairs, and Hand on ftiort foot-
ftalks; they are fmall at each end, and broad in the
middle ; and the large ft of them are about three inches
in length, and an inch and quarter in breadth in the
middle. Like thofe of our bay, they are of a dulky
colour on the upper fide, and of a pale green under¬
neath.
ACONITI,
AGO L 77 1 AGO
Acomti, ACQNITI, in antiquity, an appellation given to
Acomtum. pome 0£ the Athlete, but differently interpreted.
' *- Mercurialis underftands it of thofe who only anointed
their bodies with oil, but did not ftnear themfelves over
with dull, as was the ufual practice.
ACONITUM, Aconite, Wolfsbane, or Monks¬
hood ; a genus of the trigynia order, belonging to
the polyandria clafs of plants. In the natural order,
it affociates with the Multifiliqux, 26. The cha-
ratters are : There is no calyx. The corolla confifts of
five unequal petals oppofite in pairs; the higheft hel¬
met-tubed, inverted, and obtufe ; the two lateral ones,
broad, roundilh, oppofite, and converging; the two
loweft, oblong, and looking downwards: The nedfaria
are two, piped, nodding, and fitting on long fubulated
peduncles, and concealed under the higheft petal: The
fcales are fix, very (hort, coloured, and in an orb with
the nedtaria. The Jlamina confift of numerous fmall
fubulated filaments ; the antherae are eredl and fmall.
Thepijlillum has three [five] oblong germens, ending in
ftyli the length of the ftamina ; the ftigmata are fimple
and refledled. The pericarplum has three or five uni¬
valve capfules gaping inward. The feeds are numerous,
angular, and wrinkled.
Species, f. The lycodlonum, or yellow wolfsbane,
grows upwards of three feet high, flowers about the
middle of June, and if the feafon is not warm will con¬
tinue in flower till Auguft. 2. The altifiimum, or
greateft yellow wolfsbane, grows upwards of four
feet high, and the fpikes of its flower are much longer
in this fort than the former. 3. The variegatum,
or leffer wolfsbane, feldora grows more than two feet
high ; it carries blue flowers, and the fpikes of them
are much fllorter than either of the two laft. 4. The
anthora, or wholefome wolfsbane, flowers in the middle
of Auguft, and often continues in beauty till the middle
of September; its flowers are not large, but are of a
beautiful fulphur-yellow colour. 5;. The napellus, bears
large blue flowers, which appear in Auguft, and make
a pretty appearance. There are two or three varieties
of this kind ; one with white, another with rofe-co-
loured, and a third with variegated flowers ; but thefe
are only varieties which often change. 6. The pyra-
midale, or common blue monklhood, bears a long fpike
of blue flowers, which appear fooner than any of the
other forts, being fo early as June, or fometimes even
May. The fpikes of flowers are upwards of two feet
long, fo that it makes a pretty appearance ; the feeds
are ripe in September. 7. The alpinum, or large*
flowered monklhood, flowers in Auguft, and will grow
to the height of five feet in good ground ; the flowers
are very large, of a deep blue colour, but not many
upon each fpike. 8, The pyreniacum, or Pyrenean
mcnklhood, flowers in July. It grows about four feet
high, and carries a long fpike of yellow flowers. 9. The
eammarum, grows about four feet high, and flowers in
the beginning of July. 1 o. The orientale, or eaftern
monkfhood, grows fometimes more thUn fix feet high,
and bears a white flower.
Culture. All thefe fpecies, except the laft, are na¬
tives of the Alps, the mountains- of Germany, Au-
ftria, and Tartary ; fo require a Cool lhady fituation,
except the wholefome woolfsbafie, which muft have an
©pen expofure. They thrive better in a moift than dry
foil: but. the ground, muft not be fo wet as. to have the
water Handing near their roots in the winter-time. Acomtum.
They may all be propagated by lowing their feeds in ' ’Y
autumn, upon a north border, where they are fereened
from the fun. The plants will come up in the fpring,
when they mint be kept clean from weeds during the
fummer-months ; and, in very dry feafons, if they are
frequently refrelhed with water, their growth will be
greatly promoted. The following autumn they fhould
be tranfplanted into ftlady borders, in rows a foot afun-
der, and the plants fix inches diftant from one another.
In this fituation they may remain two years, when they
will carry flowers, and fo may be tranfplanted to thofe
places where they are to remain. The eaftern monks¬
hood is a native of the Levant, from whence the feeds
of it were firft fent by Dr Tournefort to the royal gar¬
den at Paris, from whence fome other gardens have been
furniihed with feeds. It is very rare in Europe at pre-
fent.
Qualities. Since the time of Theophraftus, moft of
the fpecies of monkfhood have been reckoned a deadly
poifon both to men and brutes. Diofcorides, however,
recommends the external application of common monks¬
hood for pains of the eyes. The flowers of a great
many fpecies communicate their noxious quality by
being fmelled to ; and thofe of the fpecies called na¬
pellus being placed on the head, occafion a violent me¬
grim. Of the bad" qualities of thefe plants we fome¬
times avail ourfelves to get rid of vermin. A decoc¬
tion of the roots deftroyed bugs ; the fame part being
powdered, and adminiftered in bread or fome other pa¬
latable vehicle to rats and mice, corrodes and inflames
their inteftines, and foon proves mortal. The juice of
the plant is ufed to poifon flefh with, for the deftruc-
tion of wolves, foxes, and other ravenous beafts. The
beft antidote to the poifon of the different monks¬
hoods is faid to be the root of the anthora, a fpecies of
the fame genus, hence termed healthful or ivholefome
monkjhood. The fame plant is regarded as efficacious
againft bites of ferpents and other venomous creatures.
The roots have a bitter acrid tafte ; the leaves are only
bitter : the former are chiefly ufed in medicine ; and,
befides the Excellent quality juft mentioned, are fto-
machic, and promote perfpiration. The peafants, who
gather the plants on the Alps and Pyrenees, are laid to
ufe it with fuccefs againft the biting of mad dogs, and ■
to cure the colic. It is remarkable, that the monks¬
hoods with blue flowers are much more virulent than
the yellow or white-flowered kinds. Miller afferts
that the huntfmen of the wolves and other wild beafts
on the Alps, dip their arrows into the juice of thofe
plants, which renders the wounds made by them
deadly.
That the anthora is an antidote to the poifon of the
reft of the fpecies, is not confidered as a fail fufficient-
ly eftabliftied. Of the effedls of the above, indeed,
and other vegetable poifons, medical writers give but
a confufed account. In general, thofe which are not
of the narcotic kind, nor excite violent vomitings and
purgings, produce their pernicious effefts by irritating
the nervous coats of the ftomach and inteftines, fo as to
occafion violent convulfions, not- only in them, but
through the whole body. The proper cure is evacua¬
tion by vomit: but this is not to be obtained without
fome difficulty ; becaufe there is ufually fuch a contrac-*
tion about the upper orifice of the ftomach,, that no¬
thing •
Acoms
AGO
[ 78 ]
AGO
Acer.tia? thing can either be fwallowed or thrown up. In this terminating in a point; the root is pretty long, o£ a
cafe,~ an infufion of tobacco has been recommended,
j and may probably be of fervice : for being itfelf of a
whitifh, reddiih, and partly greenifh colour. Among AcJ[fl;c
the leaves there arifes a fingle one, thicker and more . ‘.
very ftimulating nature, it may for a moment take off robuft than the reft, furrowed on the furface, and of a
th,e violent fpafms occafioned by the poifon ; in which
cafe, a violent vomiting will immediately enfue.—The
ftomach being thoroughly emptied, and deglutition
rendered eafy, the cure may be completed by oily and
mucilaginous medicines. On account of the poifonous
qualities of monkftiood, no fpecies of it fhould be plant¬
ed where children have accefs, left they fttould fuffer
by putting the leaves or flowers in their mouths, or
rubbing them about their eyes; for the juice of the
kaves will occafion great diforder by being only rubbed
upon very tender flefti; and the farina of the flowers,
when blown into the eyes, caufes them to fwell greatly.
ACONT-IAS, in zoology, an obfolete name of the
paler green. On this grow frequently two fpikes of
flowers, by many writers called juli. Thefe are of a
brown colour, having a chequered furface. The root
of this plant has a very agreeable flavour, which is
greatly improved by drying. It is reckoned carmina-:
tivc and ftomachic, having a warm, pungent, bitterifh
tafte 5 fo is frequently ufed as an ingredient in bitters.
It has been complained of, however, as communicating
a naufeous flavour to thofe bitters in which it was in-
fufed ; and Neumann obferves, that its agreeable fla¬
vour, as well as its diftinguiftiing tafte, refide entirely
in a volatile effential oil; the refiduum after diftillation
having a naufeous flavour, not at all refembling that of
anguis jaculis, or dart-fnake, belonging to the order the calamus. It is an ingredient in the mithridate and
-of amphibia ferpentes. See Anguis.
ACONTIUM, cncoWiov, in Grecian antiquity, a kind
of dart or javelin, refembling the Roman pilum.
ACONTIUS (James), a philofopher, civilian, and
divine, born at Trent in the 16th century: he embraced
the reformed religion; and, coming into England in the
reign of queen Elifabeth, was much honoured by her,
which he acknowledges in a book dedicated to that
queen. This work is his celebrated Colle&ion of the
Stratagems of Satan, which has been fo often tranfla-
ted, and borne fo many editions.
AGO STAN, a mountainous ifland in the north
feas between Afia and America, obferved by captain
Cook.
ACORN, the fruit of the oak-tree. See Quercus.
Acorn, (in fea-hnguage), a little ornamental piece
of wood, fafhioned like a cone, and fixed on the upper-
moft point of the fpindle, above the vane, on the maft-
head. It is ufed to keep the vane from being blown
off from the fpindle in a whirlwind, or when the ftiip
leans much .to one fide under fail.
ACORUSj'CalamusAromaticus,.Sweet Flag,
theriaca of the London pharmacopoeia; and in the aro¬
matic and ftomachic tinctures, and compound arum
powder, of the Edinburgh. The frefli root candied is
faid to be employed at Conftantinople as a prefervative
againft epidemic difeafes. The leaves of this plant have
a fweet fragrant fmell, more agreeable, though weaker,
than that of the roots. Neither horfes, cows, goats,
fheep, nor fwine, will eat the herb, or its roots.
Culture. The acorus being a perennial plant, may
be tranfplanted into a garden, where it will thrive very
well if the ground is moift ; but never flowers unlefs it
grows in water. It loves an open fituation, and will
not thrive well under the fhade of trees. The flowers
appear tire latter end of June, and continue till Au-
g-uft.
Acgrus, in the materia medica, a name fometimes
given to the great galangal. See Kempferia.
Acorus, in natural hiftory, blue coral. The true fort
is very fcarce ; fome, however, is filhed on the coafts
of Africa, particularly from Rio del Re to the river of
the Camarones. This coral is part of the merchandife
which the Dutch trade for with the Camarones : that
or Sweet Rush.: A genus of the monogynia order, of the kingdom of Benin is alfo very much efteemed.
belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants; and ranking
in the fecond natural order, Piperitx. The characters
are : The calyx is a cylindric Ample fpadix covered
with florets-; there is no fpatha, nor perianthium. The
corolla is compofed of fix obtufe, concave, loofe petals.
The Jlamina confift of fix thickifti filaments, fomewhat
longer than the corolla; the antherse are thickifti and di-
dymous. The piflillum has a gibbous oblong germen the
length of the ftamina ; no ftylus ; the ftignaa a promi¬
nent point. The pericarpium is a ftiort triangular,
obtufe, three-celled capfule, attenuated at both ends.
The feeds are -numerous, and of an oblong egg-lhape.
There is but one fpecies, the acorus calamus. It
grows naturally in ftiallow ftanding waters, and is"
found wild in feme parts of Britain. It grows plenti¬
fully in rivulets and marfliy places about Norwich and
other parts of this ifland, in the canals of Holland, in
.Switzerland, and in other countries of Europe. The
. fliops have been ufually fupplied from the Levant with
dried roots, w hich do not appear to be fuperior to thofe
of our own growth. The leaves are fometimes two feet
long, narrow', compreffed, fmooth, and of a bright green,
It grows in form of a tree on a rocky bottom.
ACOUSMATICI, fometimes alfo called Acoujlici,
in Grecian antiquity, fuch of the difciples of Pythagoras
as had not completed their five years probation.
ACOUSTIC, in general, denotes any thing that re¬
lates to the ear, the fenfe of hearing, or the doeftrine of
founds.
Acoustic Dull, in anatomy, the fame with meatus
auditorius, or the external paffage of the ear. See A-
NATOMY.
Acoustic luftrumcnt, or auricular tube. See Acou¬
stics, n° 26.
Acoustic Keffels, in the ancient theatres, were a
kind of veffels, made of brafs, fhaped in the bell fa-
Ihion, which being of all tones within the pitch of the
voice or even of inftruments, rendered the founds more
audible, fo that the aftors could be heard through all
parts of theatres, which were even 400 feet in diameter.
Acoustic Difciples, among the ancient Pythago¬
reans, thofe more commonly called Acousmatici.
The Science of
ACOUSTICS
ACOUSTICS
BiacoufHcs T NSTRUCTS us in the nature of found. It is di-
’ vided by fome writers into Diacoujlicsy which ex-
25 plains the properties of thofe founds that come directly
Catacou- from the fonorous body to the ear; and Catacoujiicsy
ftics. which treats A>f reflefted founds : but fuch diftin&ion
does not appear to be of any real utility.
Chap. I. Different Theories of Sound.
3 , Moll founds, we all know, are conveyed to us on
c’esof fbund t^le bofopi of the air. In whatever manner they either
float upon it, or are propelled forward in it, certain it
is, that, without the vehicle of this or fome other fluid,
we fliould have no founds at all. Let the air be ex-
haufted from a receiver, and a bell fliall emit no found
when rung in the void ; for, as the air continues to
grow lefs denfe, the found dies away in proportion, fo
that at laft its ftrongeft vibrations are almoft totally
filent.
4 Thus air is a vehicle for found. However, we mall
Air nut the not, with fome philofophers, affert, that it is the only
only one. vehicle ; that, if there were no air, we fliould have no
founds whatfoever: for it is found by trial, that founds
are conveyed through water almoft with the fame faci¬
lity with which they move through air. A bell rung in
water returns a tone as diftinft as if rung in air. This
was obferved by Derham, who alfo remarked that the
tone came a quarter deeper. Some naturalifts affure
us alfo, that fillies have a ftrong perception of founds,
even at the bottom of deep rivers (a). From hence,
it would feem not to be very material in the propaga¬
tion of founds, whether the fluid which conveys them
be elaftic or otherwife. Water, which, of all fubftan-
ees that we know, has the leaft elafticity, yet ferves to
carry them forward; and if we make allowance for the
difference of its denfity, perhaps the founds move in it
with a proportional rapidity to what they are found to
do in the elaftic fluid of air.
One thing however is certain, that whether the fluid
which conveys the note be elaftic or non-elaftic, what¬
ever found we hear is produced by a ftroke, which the
founding body makes againft the fluid, whether air or
water. The fluid being ftruck upon, carries the im-
preflion forward to the ear, and there produces its fen-
fation. Philofophers are fo far agreed, that they all 5
allow that found is nothing more than the impreffion's
made by an elaftic body upon the air or water (b), and propagated.'
this impreflion carried along by either fluid to the or¬
gan of hearing. But the manner in which this convey¬
ance is made, is ftill difputed : Whether the found is
diffufed into the air, in circle beyond circle, like the
waves of. water when we difturb the fmoothnefs of its
furface by dropping in a ftone; or whether it travels
along, like rays diffufed from a centre, fomewhat in the
fwift manner that ele&ricity runs along a rod of
ron; thefe are the queftions which have divided the
learned.
Newton was of the firft opinion. He has explained 5
the progreflion of found by an undidatory, or rather a Newton'*
vermicular, motion in the parts of the air. If we have theory,
an exadt idea of the crawling of fome infedts, we fliall
have a tolerable notion of the progreffion of found upon
this hypothefis. The infeft, for inftance, in its motion,
firft carries its contractions from the hinder part, in or¬
der to throw its fore-part to the proper diftance, then
it carries its contractions from the fore-part to the hin¬
der to bring that forward. Something fimilar to this .
(a) Dr Hunter has proved this, and demonftrated the auricular organ in thefe animals. See Fish, and Compa¬
rative Anatomy.
(b! Though air and water are both vehicles of found, yet neither of them feems to be fo by itfelf, but only
as it contains an exceedingly fubtile fluid capable of penetrating the moft folid bodies. Hence, by the medium of
that fluid, founds can be propagated through wood, or metals, even more readily than through the open air. By the
fame means, deaf people may be made fenfible of founds, if they hold a piece of metal in their mouth, one end of
which is applied to the founding body. As it is certain, therefore, that air cannot penetrate metals, we muft ac¬
knowledge the medium of found to be of a more fubtile nature ; and thus the electrical fluid will naturally occur as
the proper one. But why then is found no longer heard in an exhaufted receiver, if the air is not the fluid by whicfi
it is conveyed, feeing the eledtrical matter cannot be excluded ? The reply to this is obvious: The electrical fluid is
1 fo exceedingly fubtile, and pervades folid bodies with fo much eafe, that any motion of a folid body in a quantity of
eleCtric matter by itfelf, can never excite a degree of agitation in it fufficient for producing a found ; but if the elec¬
tric fluid is entangled among the particles of air, water, wood, metal, &c. whatever affedts their particles Will alfo af-
fedt this fluid, and produce an audible noife. In the experiment of the air-pump, however, there may be an ambi¬
guity, as the gradual exhaufting of the air creates an increafmg difference of preffure on the outfide, and may occa-
!' fion in the glafs a difficulty of vibrating, fo as to render it lefs fit to communicate to the air without the vibrations
that ftrike it from within. From this caufe the diminution of found in an exhaufted receiver may be fuppofed ter
proceed, as well as from the diminution of the air. But if any internal agitation of its parts fhould happen to the
eledtrical fluid, exceeding loud noifes might be propagated through it, as has been the cafe when large meteors have
H ' kindled at a great diftance from the earth. It is alfo difficult to account for the exceeding great fwiftnefs of found,
upon the fuppofition that it is propagated by means of air alone; for nothing is more certain, than that the ftrongeft'
and mofi.violent gale is, in its courfe, inert and fluggifh, compared with the motion of found.
l
■So
ACOUSTICS.
Ch.T
Different is the motion of the air when ftruck upon by a founding
^'Sound ofbody* d-'° be a httle more precife, fuppofe ABC, the
■ ° ^ ' j ftring of an liarpfichord ferewed to a proper pitch, and
Plate I. drawn out of the right line by the finger at B. We
fig-1- (hall have occafion elfewhere to obferve, that fuch a
firing would, if let go, vibrate to E; and from E toD,
and back again ; that it would continue thus to vibrate
like a pendulum for ever, if not externally refifted, and,
like a pendulum, all its little vibrations would be per¬
formed in equal times, the laft and the firft being e-
cpially long in performing ; alfo, that, like a pendulum,
its greateft fwiftnefs would always be when it arrived
at E, the middle part of its motion. Now then, if this
ftring be fuppofed to fly from the finger at B, it is ob¬
vious, that whatever be its own motion, fuch alfo will
be the motion of the parts of air that fly before it. Its
motion, as is obvious, is firft uniformly accelerated for¬
ward from B to E, then retarded as it goes from E to
ID, accelerated back again as it returns from D to E,
^ and retarded from E to B. This motion being there¬
fore fent in fucceffion through a range of elaftic air, it
muft happen, that the parts of one range of air muft
be fent forward with accelerated motion, and then with
a retarded motion. This accelerated motion reaching
the remoteft end of the firft range will be communi¬
cated to a fecond range, while the neareft parts of the
firft range being retarded in their motion, and falling
back p ith the receffion of the ftring, retire firft with
an accelerated, then with a retarded motion, and the
remoteft parts will foon follow. I n the mean time,
while the parts of the firft range are thus falling back,
the parts of the fecond range are going forward with
an accelerated motion. Thus there will be an alter¬
nate condenfation and relaxation of the air, during the
time of one vibration ; and as the air going forward
ftrikes any oppofing body with greater force than upon
retiring, fo each of thefe accelerated progreffions have
been called by Newton a pulfs of found.
Thus will the air be driven fonvard in the dire&ion
of the ftring. But now we muft obferve, that thefe
pulfes will move every way ; for all motion imprefled
upon fluids in any direction whatfoever, operates all
around in a fphere : fo that founds will be driven in all
directions, backwards, forwards, upwards, downwards,
and on every' fide. They will go on fucceeding each
other, one on the outfide of the other, like circles in
difturbed water; or rather, they will lie one without
the other, in concentric fhells, fhell above fiiell, as we
Tee in the coats of an onion.
All who have remarked the tone of a bell, while its
founds are decaying away, muft have an idea of the
pulfes of fpund, which, according to Newton, are form¬
ed by the air’s alternate progreflion and recefiion. And
it muft be obferved, that as each of thefe pulles is
formed by a Angle vibration of the ftring, they muft
be equal to each other; for the vibrations of the ftring
are known to be fo.
Again, as to the velocity' with which founds travel,
this Newton determines, by the moft difficult calcuht*
tion that can be imagined, to be in proportion to the
thicknefs of the parts of the air, and the diftance of
thefe parts from each other. From hence he goes on
to prove, that each little part moves backward and for-
ward like a pendulum ; and from thence he proceeds
to demonftrate, that if the atmofphere were of the fame
No. 2. 3
denfity every where as at the furface of the earth, in Different
fuch a cafe, a pendulum, that reached from its higheft^^^*^
furface down to the furface of the earth, would by its . ^ ' .
vibrations difeover to us the proportion of the velocity
with which founds travel. The velocity with which
each pulfe would move, he (hows, would be as much
greater than the velocity of fuch a pendulum fwinging
with one complete vibration, as the circumference of a
circle is greater than the diameter. From hence he
calculates, that the motion of found will be 979 feet
in one fecond. But this not being confonant to ex¬
perience, he takes in another confideration, which de-
ftroys entirely the rigour of his former demonftration,
namely, vapours in the air j and then finds the motion
of found to be 1142 feet in one fecond, or near 13 miles
in a minute : a proportion which experience had efta-
blifhed nearly before.
Thus much will ferve to give an obfeure idea of ap
theory which has met with numbers of oppofers. Even ’Theory^
John Bernouilli, Newton’s greateft difciple, hiodeftly pofed.
owns that he did not pretend to underftand this part
of the Principia. He attempted therefore to give a
more perfpicuous demonftration of his own, that might
confirm and illuftrate the Newtonian theory. The
fubjeft feemed to rejeft elucidation : his theory is ob-
vioufly wrong, as D’Alembert has proved In his The¬
ory of Fluids.
Various have been the objections that have been ^ _
made to the Newtonian fyftem of founds. It is urged, ™es*Jec
that this theory can only 'agree with the motion of
found in an elaftic fluid, whereas founds are known to
move forward through water that is not elaftic. To
explain their progrefs therefore through water, a fe¬
cond theory muft be formed : fo that two theories muft
be made to explain a fimilar effect; which is contrary-
to the fimplicity of true philofophy, for it is contrary
to the firaplicity of nature. It is farther urged, that
this flow vermicular motion but ill reprefents the velo¬
city with which founds travel, as we know by experi¬
ence that it is almoft 13 miles in a minute. In (hort,
it is urged, that ftich undulations as have been deferi-
bed, when coming from feveral fonorous bodies at once,
would crofs, obliruft, and confound each other ; fo
that, if they were convey-ed to the ear by- this means,
we fhould hear nothing but a medley of difeord and
broken articulations. But this is equally with the reft
contradictory- to experience, fince we hear the fulleft
concert, not only without eonfufion, but with the high-
eft pleafure. Thefe objections, whether well founded
or not, have given rife to another theory-: which we
fnall likewife lay before the reader ; though it too ap¬
pears liable to objections, which fliall be afterwards
mentioned.
Every' found may be ccnfidered as driven off from 9
the founding body in ftraight lines, and impreffed upon Another
the air hr one direction only-: but whatever impreffion Theory,
is made upon a fluid in one direction, is diffufed upon
its furface into all directions ; fo that the foundftirit
driven diredtly forward fcon fills up a wide- fphere, and
is heard on every fide. Thus, as it is imprefled, it in-
ftantaneoufly travels forward w ith a very fwift motion,
refembling the velocity- w-ith which w-e know- electricity
flies from one end of a line to another.'
Now, as to the pulfes, or clofe ihakes as the mufi-
cians exprefs it, which a founding body- is known to
- make
Ch.L A C O U !
Cifferent make, each pulfe (fay the fupporters of this theory)
|Theories of ^ a diftinif and perfect found, and the interval
. aun('' , between every two pulfes is profoundly filent. Con-
1 tinuity of found from the fame body is only a decep¬
tion of the hearing ; for as each diftinA found fucceeds
at very fmall intervals, the organ has no time to tranf-
mit its images with equal fwiftnefs to the mind, and
the interval is thus loft to fenfe: juft as in feeing a
flaming torch, if flared round in a circle, it appears
as a ring of fire. In this manner a beaten drum, at
fome fmall diftance, prefents us with the idea of" con¬
tinuing found. When children run with their fticks
along a rail, a continuing found is thus reprefented,
though it need fcarce be obferved that the ftroke a-
gainft each rail is perfectly diftindl and infulated.
According to this theory, therefore, the pulfes are
nothing more than diftindt founds repeated by the fame
body, the firft ftroke or vibration being ever the loud-
eft, and travelling farther than thofe that follow; while
each fucceeding vibration gives a new found, but with
diminifhed force, till at laft the pulfes decay away to¬
tally, as the force decays that gives them exiftence.
All bodies whatfoever that are ftruck return more
or lefs a found: but fome, wanting elafticity, give back
no repetition of the found ; the noife is at once begot¬
ten and dies: while other bodies, however, there are,
which being more elaftic and capable of vibration, give
back a found, and repeat the fame feveral times fuc-
ceffively. Thefe laft are faid to have a tone 5 the others
are not allowed to have any.
This tone of the elaftic fixing, or bell, is notwith-
ftanding nothing more than a fimilar found of what
the former bodies produced, but with the difference of
being many times repeated while their note is but Angle.
So that, if we would give the former bodies a tone, it
will be neceffary to make them repeat their found, by
repeating our blows fwiftly upon them. This will ef-
fecftually give them a tone ; and even an unmufical in-
ftrument has often had a fine effect by its tone in our
concerts.
Let us now go on then to fuppofe, that by fwift
and equably continued ftrokes we give any non-elaftic
body its tone: it is very obvious, that no alterations
will be made in this tone by the quicknefs of the ftrokes,
though repeated ever fo faft. Thefe will only render
the tone more equal and continuous, but make no al¬
teration in the tone it gives. On the contrary, if we
make an alteration in the force of each blow, a diffe¬
rent tone will then undoubtedly be excited. The dif-
ference will be fmall, it muft be confeffed; for the tones
of thefe inflexible bodies are capable but of fmall va¬
riation ; however, there will certainly be a difference.
The table on which we write, for iaftance, will return
a different found when ftruck with a club, from what
it did when ftruck only with a fwitch. Thus non-elaftic
bodies return a difference of tone, not in proportion
to the fwiftnefs with which their found is repeated, but
in proportion to the greatnefs of the blow which pro¬
duced it; for in two equal non-elaftic bodies, that body
produced the deepeft tone which was ftruck by the great-
eft blow’.
We now then come to a critical queftion, What
is it that produces the difference of tone in two elaftic
founding bells or firings ? Or what makes one deep and
the other fhrill ? This queftion has always been hitherto
Vol. I. Part I.
I T I C S. 81
anfwered by faying, that the depth or height of the Different
note proceeded from the flownefs or fwiftnefs of the Theories of
times of the vibrations. The flovveft vibrations, it has , Soua°s-^
been faid, are qualified for producing the deepeft tones, v
while the fwifteft vibrations produce the higheft tones.
In this cafe, an effeft has been given for a caufe. It is
in faft the force with which the founding ftring ftrikes
the air when ftruck upon, that makes the true diftinc-
tion in the tones of founds. It is this force, with great¬
er or lefs impreffions, refembling the greater or lefs force
of the blows upon a non-elaftic body, which produces
correfpondent affeftions of found. The greateft forces
produce the deepeft founds: the high notes are the ef-
feft of fmall efforts. In the fame manner a bell, wide
at the mouth, gives a grave found ; but if it be very
maffy withal, that wall render it ftill graver; but if
maffy, wide, and long or high, that will make the tone
deepeft of all.
Thus, then, udll elaftic bodies give the deepeft found,
in proportion to the force wdth wjiich they ftrike the
air : but if we ftiould attempt to increafe their force by
giving them a ftronger blow, this will be in vain ; they
will ftill return the fame tone; for fuch is their forma¬
tion, that they are fonorous only becaufe they are ela¬
ftic, and the force of this elafticity is not increafed by
our ftrength, as the greatnefs of a pendulum’s vibra¬
tion will not be increafed by falling from a greater
height.
Thus far off the length of chords. Now as to the fre¬
quency with which they vibrate the deepeft tones, it
has been found, from the nature of elaftic fixings, that
the longeft firings have the wideft vibrations, and con-
fequently go backward and forward floweft ; while, on
the contrary, the Ihorteft firings vibrate the quickeft,
or come and go in the fhorteft intervals. From hence
thofe who have treated of founds, have afferted, as was
faid before, that the tone of the ftring depended upon
the length or the Ihortnefs of the vibrations. This,
however, is not the cafe. One and the fame ftring,
when ftruck, muft always, like the fame pendulum, re¬
turn precifely fimilar vibrations; but it is well known,
that one and the fame ftring, when ftruck upon, does
not always return precifely the fame tone : fo that in
this cafe the vibrations follow one rule, and the tone
another. The vibrations muft be invariably the fame
in the fame ftring, which does not return the fame tone
invariably, as is well known to muficians in general. In
the violin, for inftance, they can eafily alter the tone of
the firing an o&ave or eight notes higher, by a fofter
method of drawing the bow ; and fome are known thus
to bring out the moft charming airs imaginable. Thefc
peculiar tones are by the Englifti fiddlers called flute-
notes. The only reafon, it has been alleged, that can
be affigned for the fame ftring thus returning different
tones, muft certainly be the different force of its ftrokes
upon the air. In one cafe, it has double the tone of
the other; becaufe upon the foft touches of the bow,
only half its elafticity is put into vibration.
This being underftood (continue the authors of
this theory), we {hall be able clearly to account for
many things relating to founds that have hitherto
been inexplicable. Thus, for inftance, if it be aflc-
ed, When two firings are ftretched together of equal
lengths, tenfions, and thicknefs, how does it happen,
that one of them being ftruck, and made to vibrate
L throughout,
82 ACOUSTICS. Ch.I
Different throughout, the other fliall vibrate throughout alfo ?
°^the anfwer is obvious: The force that the firing ftruck
. ^ , receives is communicated to the air, and the air com¬
municates the fame to the fimilar firing; which there¬
fore receives all the force of the former; and the force
being equal, the vibrations mufl be fo too. Again,
put the queflion. If one firing be but half the length
of the other, and be flruck, how will the vibrations
be ? The anfwer is. The longefl firing will receive all
the force of the firing half as long as itfelf, and there¬
fore it will vibrate in proportion, that is, through half
its length. In the fame manner, if the longefl firing
were three times as long as the other, it would only
vibrate in a third of its length ; or if four times, in a
fourth of its length. In fhort, whatever force the
fmaller firing impreffes upon the air, the air will im-
prefs a fimilar force upon the longer firing, and par¬
tially excite its vibrations.
*0 From hence alfo we may account for the caufe of
See1 Kat^l' thofe charming, melancholy gradations of found in the
fig. 2. ' Eolian lyre ; an inflrument (fays Sir John Hawkins)
lately obtruded upon the public as a new invention,
* Vide Kir- though defcribed above a century ago by Kircher *.
cheri Mu- This inflrument is eafily made, being nothing more
Jjrgia, than a long narrow box of thin dale, about 30 inches
long, 5 inches broad, and t-% inches deep, with a cir¬
cle in the middle of the upper fide or belly about 1J
inch diameter, pierced with fmall holes. On this fide are
feven, ten, or (according to Kircher) fifteen or more
firings of very fine gut, flretched over bridges at each
end, like the bridge of a fiddle, and fcrewed up or re¬
laxed with fcrew-pins (b). The firings are all tuned
to one and the fame note ; and the inftrument is placed
in fome current of air, where the wind can brufhr over
its firings with freedom. A window with the fafh
juft raifed to give the air admiffion, will anfwer this
purpofe exaftly. Now when the entering air blows
upon thefe firings with different degrees of force, there
will be excited different tones of found; fometimes the
blafl brings out all the tones in full concert; fometimes
it finks them to the foftefl murmurs; it feels for every
tone, and by its gradations of ftrength folicits thofe
gradations of found which art has taken different me¬
thods to produce.
It remains, in the lafl place, to confider (by this
theory) the loudnefs and lownefs, or, as the muficians
fpeak, the flrength and foftnefs of found. In vibra¬
ting elaflic firings, the loudnefs of the tone is in pro¬
portion to the deepnefs of the note; that is, in two
firings, all things in other circumflances alike, the
deepefl tone will be loudefl. In mufical inflruments
upon a different principle, as in the violin, it is other-
wife ; the tones are made in fuch inflmments, by a
number of fmall vibrations crowded into one flroke.
The rofined bow, for inflance, being drawn along a
firing, its roughneffes catch the firing at very fmall
intervals, and excite its vibrations. In this inflrument,
therefore, to excite loud tones,- the bow muff be drawn
quick, and this will produce the greatefl number of vi¬
brations. But it mull be obferved, that the more
quick the bow paffes over the firing, the lefs apt will
the roughnefs of its furface be to touch the firing at Different
every inflant; to remedy this, therefore, the bow mufl
be preffed the harder as it is drawn quicker, and thus. ou^n ' ■
its fullefl found will be brought from the inflrument.
If the fwiftnefs of the vibrations in an inflrument thus
rubbed upon, exceed the force of the deeper found in
another, then the fwift vibrations will be heard at a
greater diflance, and as much farther off as the fwiftnefs
in them exceeds the force in the other. It
By the fame theory (it is alleged) may all the phe-The nature
nomena of mufical founds be eafily explained.—The fa- °f Mufical
bles of the ancients pretend, that mufic was firfl found } d*
out by the beating of different hammers upon the
fmith’s anvil. Without purfuing the fable, let us en- the "fame -<
deavour to explain the nature of mufical founds by a theory,
fimilar method. Let us fuppofe an anvil, or feveral fi¬
milar anvils, to be flruck upon by feveral hammers of
different weights or forces. The hammer, which is
double that of another, upon linking the anvil will pro¬
duce a found double that of the other : this double
found muficians have agreed to call an Odtave. The
ear can judge of the difference or refemblance of thefe
founds with great eafe, the numbers being as one and
two, and therefore very readily compared. Suppofe
that an hammer, three times Id’s than the firfl, flrikes
the anvil, the found produced by this will be three
times lefs than the firfl: fo that the ear, in judging the
fimilitude of thefe founds, will find fomewhat more
difficulty ; becaufe it is not fo eafy to tell how often
one is contained in three, as it is to tell how often it
is contained in two. Again, fuppofe that an hammer
four times lefs than the firfl llrikes the anvil, the ear
will find greater difficulty Hill in judging precifely the
difference of the founds; for the difference of the num¬
bers four and one cannot fo foon be determined with
precifion as three and one. If the hammer be five
times lefs, the difficulty of judging will be flill greater.
If the hammer be fix times lefs, the difficulty flill in-
creafes, and fo alfo of the feventh, infomuch that the
ear cannot always readily and at once determine the
precife gradation. Now, of all comparifons, thofe
which the mind makes moll eafily, and with leafl la¬
bour, are the mofl pleafing. There is a certain re¬
gularity in the human foul, by which it finds happi-
nefs in exa6t and flrieking, and eafily-made comparr-
fons. As the ear is but an inflrument of the mind, it
is therefore mofl pleafed with the combination of any
two founds, the differences of which it can mofl rea¬
dily diflinguifh. It is more pleafed with the concord
of two founds which are to each other as one and two,
than of two founds which are as one and three, or one
and four, or one and five, or one and fix or feven. Up¬
on this pleafure, which the mind takes in comparifon,
all harmony depends. The variety of founds is infi¬
nite ; but becaufe the ear cannot compare two founds
fo as readily to diflinguifh their diferiminations when
they exceed the proportion-of one and feven, muficians
have been content to confine all harmony within that
compafs, and allowed but feven notes in mufical com-
pofition.
Let us now then fuppofe a flringed inflrument fitted
UP
(b) The figure reprefents the inflrument with ten chords ; of which fome dirtil only eight to be tuned unifons,
and the two Outernaoft odtaves below them. But this feems not to be material.
ICh.I. A C O U
Of Muficalup in the order mentioned above. For inftance : Let
Sounds. t}ie ftnng be twice as long as the fecond ; let the
third ftring be three times ihorter than the firft; let the
fourth be four times, the fifth ftring five times, and
the fixth fix times as ftiort as the firft. Such an in-
ftrument would probably give us a reprefentation of
the lyre as it came firft from the hand of the inven¬
tor. This inftrument will give us all the feven notes
Following each other, in the order in which any two
of them will accord together moft pleafingly ; but yet
it will be a very inconvenient and a very difagreeable
inftrument: inconvenient, for in a compafs of feven
firings only, the firft muft be feven times as long as
the laft ; and difagreeable, becaufe this firft ftring will
be feven times as loud alfo ; fo that when the tones are
to be played in a different order, loud and foft founds
would be intermixed with moft difgufting alternations.
In order to improve the firft inftrument, therefore,
fucceeding muficians very judicioufly threw in all the
other firings between the two firft, or, in other words,
between the two Oftaves, giving to each, however, the
fame proportion to what it would have had in the firft
natural inftrument. This made the inftrument more
portable, and the founds more even and pleafing. They
therefore difpofed the founds between the Ocftave in their
natural order, and gave each its own proportional di-
menfions. Of thefe founds, where the proportion be¬
tween any two of them is moft obvious, the concord
between them will be moft pleafing. Thus Octaves,
which are as two to one, have a moft harmonious effect;
the fourth and fifth alfo found fweetly together, and
they wil^ be found, upon calculation, to bear the fame
proportion to each other that Octaves do. “ Let it
“ not be fuppofed (fays Mr Saveur), that the mufical
“ fcale is merely an arbitrary combination of founds ;
“ it is made up from the confonance and differences of
“ the parts which compofe it. Thofe who have often
“ heard a fourth and fifth accord together, will be
“ naturally led to difcover their difference at once ; and
“ the mind unites itfelf to their beauties.” Let us then
ceafe to affign the coincidences of vibrations as the caufe
of harmony, fince thefe coincidences in two firings vi¬
brating at different intervals, muft at heft be but for¬
tuitous ; whereas concord is always pleafing. The true
caufe why concord is pleafing, muft arife from our power,
in fuch a cafe, of meafuring more eafily the differences
of the tones. In proportion as the note can be mea-
fured with its fundamental tone by large and obvious
diftin&ions, then the concord is moft pleafing ; on the
contrary, when the ear meafures the difcriminations of
two tones by very fmall parts, or cannot meafure them
at all, it lofes the beauty of their refemblance: the
whole is difcord and pain (c).
But there is another property in the vibration of a
muficalftringnot yet taken notice of, and which is alleged
to confirm the foregoing theory. If we ftrike the ftring
of an harpfichord, or any other elaftic founding chord
whatever, it returns a continuing found. This till of
late was confidered as one fimple uniform tone ; but all
S T I C S. 83
muficians now confefs, that inftead of one tone it ac- Of Mufical
tually returns four tones, and that conftantly. The, Sounds- _
notes are, befide the fundamental tone, an odlave above, ' v
a twelfth above, and a feventeenth. One of the bafs-
notes of an harpfichord has been diffefted in this man¬
ner by Rameau, and the adlual exiftence of thefe tones
proved beyond a poffibility of being controverted. In
fa ft, the experiment is eafily tried ; for if we fmartly
ftrike one of the lower keys of an harpfichord, and
the'n take the finger brilkly away, a tolerable ear will be
able to diftinguifh, that, after the fundamental tone has
ceafed, three other fhriller tones will be diftinclly heard;
firft the octave above, then the twelfth, and laftly the
feventeenth : the octave above is in general almoft mix¬
ed with the fundamental tone, fo as not to be eafily per¬
ceived, except by an ear long habituated to tire minute
difcriminations of founds. So that we may obferve,'
that the fmalleft tone is heard laft, and the deepeft and
largeft one firft : the two others in order.
In the whole theory of founds, nothing has given
greater room for fpeculation, conjeflure, and difap-
pointment, than this amazing property in elaftic firings.
The whole ftring is universally acknowledged to be in
vibration in all its^ parts, yet this fingle vibration re¬
turns no lefs than four different founds. They who
account for the tones of firings by the number of their
vibrations, are here at the greateft lofs. Daniel Ber¬
noulli! fuppofes, that a vibrating ftring divides itfelf
into a number of curves, each of which has a peculiar
vibration ; and though they all fwing together in the
common vibrationy yet each vibrates within itfelf. This
opinion, which was fupported, as moft geometrical
fpeculations are, with the parade of demonftration,
was only hern foon after to die. Others have aferibed
this to an elaftic difference in the parts of the air, each
of which, at different intervals, thus received different
impreffions from the ftring, in proportion to their ela-
flicity. This is abfurd. If we allow the difference of
tone to proceed from the force, and not the frequency,
of the vibrations, this difficulty will admit of an eafy
folution. Thefe founds, though they feem to exift to¬
gether in the firing, actually follow each other in fuc-
ceffion : while the vibration has greateft force, the
fundamental tone is brought forward : the force of the
vibration decaying, the oclave is produced, but almoft
only inftantaneoufly ; to this fucceeds, with diminifhed
force, the twelfth ; and, laftly, the feventeenth is heard
to vibrate with great diftindlnefs, while the three other
tones are always filent. Thefe founds, thus excited,
are all of them thef harmonic tones, whofe differences
from the fundamental tone are, as was faid, ftrong, and
diftindl. On the other hand, the difeordant tones can¬
not be heard. Their differences being but very fmall,
they are overpowered, and in a manner drowned in the
tones of fuperior difference: yet not always neither ;
for Daniel Bernouilli has been able, from the fame
ftroke, to make the fame ftring bring out its harmo¬
nic and its difeordant tones alfo (d.) So that from
hence we may juflly infer, that every note whatfoever
(c) It is certain, that in proportion to the fimplicity of relations in found, the ear is pleafed with its combinations ;
but this is not to be admitted as the caufe why muiicians have confined all harmony to an ('Clave. Difcriminated
founds, whofe vibrations either never coincide, or at leaft very rarely, do not only ceafe to pjeafe, but violently grate,
the ear. Harmony and difcord, therefore, are neither difcriminated by the judgment of hearers, nor the iuilitution
of muficians, but by their own efiential and immutable nature.
(d) Via. Meraoires de 1’Academic de Berlin, 1753, p. 153.
84 A C O U S T
Of Mufical is only a fucceffion of tones ; and that thofe are moft {harp.
S(>ur‘ds- diftinftly heard, whofe differences are moft eafily per-
^ ' ceivable.
To this theory, however, though it has a plaufible
to the prece- aPPcarance> there are ftrong and indeed infuperable
time theory, objections. The very fundamental principle of it is
I C S. Ch. L
A battery confifting of fixty-four jars, each of Mufical
containing half a fquare foot, founded F below the C. , Sounds* ,
“ The fame battery, in conjunction with another of v f
thirty-one jars, founded C {harp. So that a greater
quantity of coated glafs always gave a deeper note.
Differences in the degree of a charge in the fame
falfe. No body whatever, whether elaftic or non-ela- jar made little or no difference in the tone of the ex¬
ilic, yields a graver found by being {truck with a large
inftrument, unlefs either the founding body, or that
part of it which emits the found, is enlarged. In this
cafe, the largeft bodies always return the graveft
founds.
In fpeaking of elaftic and non-elaftic bodies in a i
ploffon : if any, a higher charge gave rather a deeper
note.”
Thefe experiments (how ns how much the gravity or
acutenefs of founds depend on the quantity of air put in
agitation by the founding body. We know that the
noife of the eleftric explofion arifes from the return
ffcal fenfe, we are not to pufh the diftin&ion fo far as, of the air into the vacuum produced by the eleftric
when we fpeak of them philofophically. A body is mu- ftafh. Tire larger the vacuum, the deeper was the note :
fteally elaftic, all of whofe parts are thrown into vibra- for the fame feafon, the difcharge of a mufket produ-
tions fo as to emit a found when only part of their fur-
face is ftruck. Of this kind are bells, mufical firings^
and all bodies whatever that are confiderably hollow.—
Mufical non-elaftics are fuch bodies as emit a found
more acute note than that of a cannon j and
thunder is deeper than either. r
Befides this, however, other circumftances concur
to produce different degrees of gravity or acutenefs in
only from that particular place which is ftruck : thus, founds. The found of a table ftruck upon with a piece
a table, a plate of iron nailed on wood, a bell funk
in the earth, are all of them non-elaftics in a mufical
fenfe, though not philofophically fo. When a folid bo¬
dy, fuch as a log of wood, is ftruck with a fwitch, only
that part of it emits a found which comes in contaft
with the fwitch ; the note is acute and loud, but would
be no lefs fo though the adjacent parts of the log were
removed. If, inftead of the fwitch, a heavier or lar¬
ger inftrument is made ufe of, a larger portion of its
furface then returns a found, and the note is confe-
quently more grave; but it would not be fo, if the
large inftrument ftruck with a ftiarp edge, or a furface
only equal to that of the fmall one.
In founds of this kind, where there is only a fingh
of wood, will not be the fame with that produced from
a plate of iron ftruck by the fame piece of wood, even
if the blows {hould be exattly equal, and the iron per-
feftly kept from vibrating.—Here the founds are gene¬
rally faid to differ in their degrees of acutenefs, accord¬
ing to the fpecific gravities or denfities of the fubftan-
ces which emit them. Thus gold, which is the moft
denfe of all metals, returns a much graver found than
filver; and metalline wires, which are more denfe than
therms, return a proportionably greater found.—But
neither does this appear to be a general rule in which
we can put confidence. Bell-metal is denfer than cop¬
per, but it by no means appears to yield a graver found j
on the contrary, it feems very probable, that copper
thwack,, without any repetition, the immediate caufe of will give a graver found than bell-metal, if both a
the gravity or acutenefs feems to be the quantity of air ftruck upon in their non-elaftic ftate ; and we can by
difplaced by the founding body ; a large quantity of no means think that a bell of pure tin, the leaft denfe
air difplaced, produces a grave found, and a fmaller
quantity a more acute one, the force wherewith the air
is difplaced fignifying very little.—What we hear ad¬
vance is confirmed by fome experiments made by Dr
Prieftley, concerning the mufical tone of eleftrical dif-
charges. The paffage being curious, and not very long,
we {hall here tranferibe it:
“ As the courfe of my experiments has required a
great variety of eleftrical explofions, I could not help
obferving a great variety in the mufical tone made by
the reports. This excited my curiofity to attempt to
reduce this variation to fome meafure. According¬
ly, by the help of a couple of fpinets, and two per-
fons who had good ears for mufic, I endeavoured to
afeertain the tone of fome eleftrical difeharges; and
obferved, that every difcharge made feveral firings, par¬
ticularly thofe that were chords to one another, to vi¬
brate : but one note was always predominant, and
founded after the reft. As every explofion was repeat¬
ed feveral times, and three of us feparately took the
fame note, there remained no doubt but that the tone
we fixed upon was at leaft very near the true one. The
refult was as follows:
“ A jar containing half a fquare foot of coated glafs
founded F ftiarp, concert pitch. Another jar of a dif¬
ferent form, but equal furface, founded the fame.
M A jar of three fquare feet founded C below F
of all the metals, will give a more acute found than
one of bell-metal, which is greatly more denfe.—In
fome bodies hardnefs feems to have a confiderable ef-
feft. Glafs, which is confiderably harder than any
metal, gives a more acute found ; bell-metal is harder
than gold, lead, or tin, and therefore founds much,
more acutely; though how far this holds with regard
to different fubftances, there are not a fufficient number
of experiments for us to judge.
In bodies mufically elaftic, the whole fubftance vi¬
brates with the flighteft ftroke, and therefore they al¬
ways give the fame note whether they are ftruck with
a large or with a fmall inftrument; fo that ftriking a
part of the furface of any body mufically elaftic is e-
quivalent, in it, to ftriking the whole furface of a non-
elaftic one. If the whole furface of a table was ftruck .
with another table, the note produced would be neither
more nor lefs acute whatever force was employed; be-
caufe the whole furface would then yield a found, and
no force could increafe the furface: the found would
indeed be louder in proportion to the force employed,
but the gravity would remain the fame. In like man¬
ner, when a bell, or mufical ftring, is ftruck, the whole
fubftance vibrates, and a greater ftroke cannot increafe
the fubftance.—Hence we fee the fallacy of what is
faid concerning the Pythagorean anvils. An anvil is
a body mufically elaftic, and no difference in the tone
j-Ch.I. ACOUSTICS.
0 Of Muficalcan be perceived whether it is ftruck with a large, or
1 , Snunds- with a fmall hammer; becaufe either of them are fuf-
v ficient to make the whole fubftance vibrate, provided
nothing but the anvil is ftruck upon: fmiths, however,
do not ftrike their anvils, but red-hot iron laid upon
their anvils; and thus the vibrations of the anvil are
ftopped, fo that it becomes a non-elaftic body, and the
differences of tone in the ftrokes of different hammers
proceed only, from the furface of the large hammers
covering the whole furface of the iron, or at leaft a
greater part of it than the fmall ones. If the fmall
hammer is fufficient to cover the whole furface of the
iron as well as the large one, the note produced will be
the fame, whether the large or the fmall hammer is ufed.
JLaftly, The argument for the preceding theory,
grounded on the production of what are. called flute-
H „ notes on the violin, is built on a falfe foundation ; for
the bow being lightly drawn on an open ftring, pro¬
duces no flute-notes^ but only the hartnonies of the note
to which the ftring is tuned. The flute-notes are pro¬
duced by a particular motion of the bow, quick and
near the bridge, and by fingering very gently. By
this management, the fame founds are produced, tho’
at certain intervals only, as if the vibrations were tranf-
ferred to the fpace between the end of the finger-board
and the finger, inftead of that between the finger and
the bridge. Why this fmall part of the ftring fhould
vibrate in fuch a cafe, and not that which is under the
immediate aftion of the bow, we muft own ourfelves
ignorant: nor dare we affirm that the vibrations really
are transferred in this manner, only the fame founds
are produced as if they were.
Though thefe objections feem fufficiently to over¬
turn the foregoing theory, with regard to acute founds
being the effefts of weak ftrokes, and grave ones of
-ftronger impulfes, we cannot admit that longer or
ffiorter vibrations are the occafion of gravity or a-
cutenefs in found. A mufical found, however length¬
ened, either by ftring or bell, is only a repetition of a
fingle one, whofe duration by itfelf is but for a mo¬
ment, and is therefore termed inappretiable, like the
fmack of a whip, or the explofion of an elecftrical bat¬
tery. The continuation of the found is nothing more*
than a repetition of this inftantaneous inappretiable
noife after the manner of an echo, and it is only this
echo that makes the found agreeable. For this reafon,
mufic is much more agreeable when played in a large
hall where the found is reverberated, than in a fmall
room where there is no fuch reverberation. For the
fame reafbn, the found of a ftring is more agreeable
when put on a hollow violin than when fattened to
a plain board, &c.—In the found of a bell, we cannot
avoid obferving this echo very diftinCtly. The found
appears to be made up of diftinct pulfes, or repetitions
of the fame note produced by the ftroke of the hammer.
It can by no means be allowed, that the note would be
more acute though thefe pulfes were to fucceed one
another more rapidly ; the found would indeed become
more Ample, but would ftill preferve the fame tone.—
In mufical firings the reverberations are vaftly more
quick than in bells 5 and therefore their found is more
uniform or fimple, and confequently more agreeable
* See Ear- than that of bells. In mufical glaffes*, the vibrations
Qmaaica. muft be inconceivably quicker than in any bell, or
ftringed inftrument: and hence they are of all others
85
the moft fimple and the moft agreeable, though neither Propaga-
the moft acute nor the loudeft.—As far as we can
judge, quicknefs of vibration contributes to the unifor-, °“n ' ,
mity, or fimplicity, but not to the acutenefs, nor to
the loudnefs, of a mufical note.
It may here be objefted, that each of the different
pulfes, of which we obferve the found of a bell to be
compofed, is of a very perceptible length, and far from
being inftantaneous; fo that it is not fair to infer that
the found of a bell is only a repetition of a fingle inftan¬
taneous ftroke, feeing it is evidently the repetition of a.
lengthened note.—To this it may be replied, that the in¬
appretiable found which is produced by ftriking a bell
in a non-elaftic ftate, is the very fame which, being firft
propagated round the bell, forms one of thefe fhort
pulfes that is afterwards re-echoed as long as the vibra¬
tions of the metal continue, and it is impoffible that
the quicknefs of repetition of any found can either in-
creafe or diminifti its gravity.
Chap. II. Of the propagation of Sound. Ne\u~
ton's DoPirine explained and vindicated.
13
The writers on found have been betrayed into thefe Propaga-
difficulties and obfcurities, by rejecting the 47th pro- tion o£
pofition, B. iL of Newton, as inconclufive reafoningr f°un^
Of this propofition, however, the ingenious Mr Young
of Trinity college, Dublin, has lately given a clear,
explanatory, and able defence. He candidly owns that
the demonftration is obfeurely ftated, and takes the li¬
berty of varying, in fome degree, from the method of
Newton.
“ 1. The parts of all founding bodies, (he obferves),
vibrate according to the law of a cycloidal pendulum :
for they may be confidered as compofed of an indefi¬
nite number of elaftic fibres; but thefe fibres vibrate
according to that law. Fide Heljham, p. 270.
“ 2. Sounding bodies propagate their motions on all
fides in direftum, by fucceffive condenfations and rare-
fa&ions, and fucceffive goings forward and returning^
backward of the particles. Vide prop. 43. B. 2. Newton.
“ 3. The pulfes are thofe parts of the air which vi
brate backwards and forwards; and which, by going
forward, ftrike [pulfant) againft obftacles. The lati¬
tude of a pulfe is the rectilineal fpace through which
the motion of the air is propagated during one vibra¬
tion of the founding body.
“ 4. All pulfes move equally faft. This is proved
by experiment; and it is found that they deferibe
1070 Paris feet, or 1142 London feet in a fecond,
whether the found be loud or low, grave or acute.
“ 5. Prob. To determine the latitude of a pulfe.
Divide the fpace which the pulfe defcribes in a given
time (4) by the number of vibrations performed in the
fame time by the founding body, {cor. 1. prop. 24.
Smith's Harmonics'), the quotient is the latitude.
“ M. Sauveur, by fome experiments on organ-pipes,
found that a body, which gives the graveft harmonic
found, vibrates 12 times and a half in a fecond, and
that the flirilleft founding body vibrates 51.100 times
in a fecond. At a medium, let us take the body which
gives what Sauveur calls his fixed found: it performs
100 vibrations in a fecond, and in the fame time the
pulfes deferibe 1070 Parifian feet; therefore the fpace
deferibed by the pulfes whilit the body vibrates once,
that
86 A C O U S
Propaga- that is, the latitude or interval of the pulfe, will be
tinn of iO'J feet.
■ <n‘n ' . “ 6. Prob. To find the proportion which the
greatefl fpace, through which the particles of the air
vibrate, bears to the radius of a circle, whofe perimeter
k equal to the latitude of the pulfe.
“ During the firft half of the progrefs of the elaftic
fibre, or founding body, it is continually getting near¬
er to the next particle ; and during the latter half of
its progrefs, that particle is getting farther from the
fibre, and thefe portions of time are equal (Heljhatn) :
therefore we may conclude, that at the end of the pro¬
grefs of the fibre, the firft particle of air will be nearly
as far diftant from the fibre as when it began to move ;
and in the fame manner we may infer, that all the par-
tides vibrate through fpaces nearly equal to that run
over by the fibre.
“ Now, M. Sauveur ( Acad. Science, an. 1700, />. 141)
has found by experiment, that the middle point of a
chord which produces his -fixed found, and whofe dia¬
meter is 3-th of a line, runs over in its fmalleft fenfible
vibrations V-g-th of a line, and in its greateft vibrations
72 times that fpace; that is 72X-1,-gth of a line, or
4 lines, that is, yd of .n inch.
“ The latitude of the pulfes of this fixed found is 10.7
feet (5) ; and fince the circumference of a circle is to
its radius as 710 is to 113, the greateft fpace defcribed
by the particles will be to the radius of a circle, whofe
periphery is equal to the latitude of the pulfe as yd of
an inch is to 1.7029 feet, or 20.4348 inches, that is,
as 1 to 61.3044.
“ If the lengtn of the fixing be increafed or diminifti-
td in any proportion, cateris paribus, the greateft
fpace defcribed by its middle point will vary in the
fame proportion. For the inflefting force is to the
tending force as the diftance of the fixing from the
middle point of vibration to half the length of the
fixing \fee Helfham and Martin); and therefore the
inflecting and tending forces being given, the fixing
will vibrate through fpaces proportional to its length ;
but the latitude of the pulfe is inverfely as the number
. of vibrations performed by the firing in a given time,
(5) that is, direCtly as the time of one vibration, or
diredtly as the length of the firing {prop. 24. cor. 7.
Smith’s Harmonics) ; therefore the greateft fpace
through which the middle point of the firing vibrates,
will vary in the direCt ratio of the latitude of the pulfe,
or of the radius of a circle whofe circumference is .e-
qual to the latitude, that is, it will be to that radius
as 1 to 61.3044.
“7. If the particles of the aerial pulfes, during any
part of their vibration, be fucceffively agitated, accord¬
ing to the law of a cycloidal pendulum, the compara¬
tive elaftic forces arifing from their mutual aCtion, by
which they will afterwards be agitated, will be fuch as
will caule the particles to continue that motion, accor¬
ding to the fame law, to the end of their vibration.
Plate 1. Let AB, BC, CD, &c. denote the equal dif-
hg- 7* ances of the fucceftive pulfes; ABC the direction
of the motion of the pulfes propagated from A to¬
wards .B; E, F, G, three phyficnl points of the
quiefeerit medium, fituated in the right line AC at e-
qual diftances from each other; E», Yfi Gg the very
fmall equal fpaces through which thefe particles vi¬
brate ; E, f, y any intermediate places of thefe points.
T I C S.
ch.ir.
Draw the right line PS equal to Er, bifeft it in O, Prepaga-
and from the centre O with the radius O P deferibe
the circle SIPL Let the whole time of the vibration . ° ^ * .
of a particle and its parts be denoted by the circum¬
ference of this circle and its proportional parts. And
fince the particles are fuppofed to be at firft agitated
according to the law of a cycloidal pendulum, if at any
time PH, or PHSL the perpendicular HL or kl, be let
fall on PS, and if E? be taken equal to PL or P/, the
particle E (hall be found in £. Thus will the particle
E perform its vibrations according to the law of a
cycloidal pendulum. Prop. 52. B. 1. Principia.
“ Let us fuppofe now, that the particles have been,
fucceffively agitated, according to this law, for a cer¬
tain time, by any caufe whatfoever, and let us examine
what will be the comparative elaftic forces arifing from
their mutual aft ion, by which they will afterwards con¬
tinue to be agitated.
“ In the circumference PH S/6 take the equal arches
HI, IK in the fame ratio to the whole circumference
which the equal right lines EE, EG have to BC the
whole interval of the pulfes; and let fall the per¬
pendiculars HL, IM, KN. Since the points E, F, G
are fucceffively agitated in the fame manner, and per¬
form their entire vibrations of progrefs and regrefs
while the pulfe is propagated from B to C, if PH be
the time from the beginning of the motion of E, PI
will be the time from the beginning of the motion of
F, and PK the time from the beginning of the motion
of G; and therefore E£, Fp, Gy will be refpeftively
equal to PL, PM, PN in the progrefs of the particles.
Whence or EF+Fp—Et is equal to EF—LM. But
Ej is the exparifion of EF in the place £?>, and therefore
this expanfion is to its mean expanfion as EF—LM to
EF. But LM is to IH as IM is to OP, and IH is
to EF as the circumference PHS/; is to BC ; that is,
as OP is to V, if V be the radius of a circle whofe
circumference is BC; therefore, ex aequo, LM is to
EF as IM is to V ; and therefore the expanfion of EF
in the place is to its mean expanfion as V—IM is to
V; and the elaftic force exifting between the phy-
fical points E and F is to the mean elaftic force as
y—1 is to ^ {Cotes Pncutn. Led. 9.) By the fame
argument, the elaftic force exifting between the phy-
fical points F and G is to the mean , elaftic force as
■ is to vG and the difference between thefe
V—KN V
forces is to the mean elaftic force as
IM—KN . 1 , .
w—v.iM—v.kn+Tm.kn '18 v; hat ^ as
IMrd™ is to A or as IM—KN is to V; if on¬
ly (upon account of the very narrow limits of the vi¬
bration) we fuppofe IM and KN to be indefinitely lefs
than V. Wherefore, fince V is given, the difference
of the forces is as IM—KN, or as HL—IM (becaufe
KH is bifefted in I) ; that is, (becaufe HL—IM is
to IH as OM is to 01 or OP, and IH and OP are
given quantities) as OM; that is, if I/be bifefted in
n as np.
“ In the fame manner it may be Ihown, that if PHS/6
be the time from the beginning of the motion of E,
PH Si will be the time from the beginning of the mo¬
tion of F, and PHSi the time from the beginning of
the
A C O U
the motion of G ; and that the expanfion of EF in
the place is to its mean expanfion as EF+Fp—E?,
j or as EF+/;» is to EF, or as \-\-hl is to V in its re-
grefs ; and its elaflic force- to the mean elaflic force as
5'3 t0 V 5 an<^ '^iat t^e difference of the elaftic
forces exifting between E and F, and between F and
G is to the mean elaftic force as kn—im is to V; that
is, diredUy as ru.
“ But this difference of the elaftic forces, exifting be¬
tween E and F, and between F and G, is the com¬
parative elaftic force by which the phyfical point is
agitated: and therefore the comparative accelerating
force, by which every phyfical point in the medium
will continue to be agitated both in progrefs and re-
grefs, will be directly as its diftance from the middle
point of its vibration ; and confequently, will be fuch
as will caufe the particles to continue their motion, un-
difturbed, according to the law of a cycloidal pen¬
dulum. Prop. 38. /. t. Newtoti.
“ Newton rejects the quantity -fVXlM-bKN-f-IMX
KN, on fuppofition that IM and KN are indefinitely
lefs than V. Now, although this may be a reafonable
hypothefis, yet, that this quantity may be fafely re¬
jected, will, I think, appear in a more fatisfaftory
manner from the following confiderations derived from
experiment: PS, in its greateft poffible ftate, is to V
as 1 is to 61.3044 (6) ;.and therefore IM or KN, in
its greateft poflible ftate, (that is, when the vibrations
of the body are as great as poffible, and the particle in
the middle point of its vibration) is to V as 1 is to
122.6. Hence V*e=i5030.76,—VXlM+KN=245.a
and IMxKN=i ; therefore V* is to V*—VXlM-t-
KN+IMxKN as 15.03076^0 14786.56; that is,
as 61 is to 60 nearly.
“ Hence it appears, that the greateft poffible error
in the accelerating foxxe, in the middle point, is the
-g-Vft part of the whole. In other points it is much
lefs; and in the extreme points the error entirely va-
nifhes.
We fhould alfo obferve, that the ordinary founds
we hear are not produced by the greateft poffible vi¬
brations of which the founding body is capable; and
that in general IM and KN are nearly evanefcent with
refpedt to V. And very probably the difagreeable fen-
fations we feel in very loud founds, arife not only from
IM or KN bearing a fenftble proportion to V, by which
means the cycloidal law of the pulfes may be in fome
meafure difturbed, but alfo from the very law of the
motion of the founding body itfelf being difturbed.
For, the proof of this law’s being obferved by an e-
laftic fibre is founded on the hypothefis that the fpace,
through which it vibrates, is indefinitely little with re-
fpect to the length of the firing. See Smith's Har¬
monics, pi 237, Heljham, p. 270.
“ 8. If a particle of the medium be agitated, ac¬
cording to the law of a cycloidal pendulum, the com¬
parative elaftic force, afting on the adjacent particle,
from the inftant in which it begins to move, will be
fuch as will caufe it to continue its motion according
to the fame law.
“ For let us fuppofe, that three particles of the me¬
dium had continued to move, for times denoted by the
arches PK, PI, PH, the comparative elaftic force,
s t 1 c S. 87
a fling on the fecond during the time of its motion, Propaea-
would have been denoted by HE—IM, that is, would llon °.f
have been diredlly as MO (7). And if this time be k°UJ1 ' ■
diminiffied till I becomes coincident with P, that is, if
you take the particles in that ftate when the fecond is
juft beginning to move, and before the third particle
has yet been fet in motion ; then the point M will fall
on P, and MO become PO ; that is, the comparative
elaftic force of the fecond particle, at the inftant in
which it begins to move, will be to the force with
which it is agitated in any other moment of time, be¬
fore the fubfequent particle has yet been fet in motion,
directly as its diftacce from the middle point of vibra¬
tion. Now this comparative elaftic force, with which
the fecond particle is agitated in the very moment in
which it begins to move, arifes from the preceding
particle’s approaching it according to the law of a pen¬
dulum ; and therefore, if the preceding particle ap¬
proaches it in this manner, the force by which it will
be agitated, in the very moment it begins to move,,
will be exactly fuch as ffiould take place in order to
move it according to the law of a pendulum.- It there¬
fore fets out according to that law, and confequently
the fubfequent elaftic forces, generated in every fuc-
ceffive moment, will alfo continue to be of the jufic
magnitude which fhould take place, in order to produce;
. fuch a motion.
“ 9. The pulfes of the air are propagated from’
founding bodies, according to the law of a cycloidal
pendulum* The point E of any elaftic fibre pro- Plate L
ducing a found, may be confidered as a particle of^fh 7*
air vibrating according to the law of a. pendulum (1).
This point E will therefore move, according to this
law for a certain time, denoted by the arch IH, before
the fecond particle begins to move ; for found is pro¬
pagated in time through the fucceffive particles of air
(4). Now from that inftant, the comparative elaftic
force which agitates F, is (8) diredlly as its diftance
from the middle point of vibration. F therefore fets
out with a motion according to the law of a pendulum:.
and therefore the comparative elaftic force by which it
will be agitated until G begins to move, will continue
that law (8). Confequently F will approach G in the
fame manner as E approached F, and the comparative
elaftic force of G, from the inftant in which it begins
to move, will be diredlly as its diftance from the middle
point of vibration ; and fo on in fucceffion. Therefore
all the particles of air in the pulfes fucceffively fet ow
from their proper places according to the law of a pen¬
dulum, and therefore (.7) will finifh their, entire vibra¬
tions according to the fame law.
“ Cor. 1. The number of pulfes propagated is the
fame with the number of vibrations of the tremulous
body, nor is it multiplied in their progrefs: becaufe
the little phyfical line -"/, (fg. 7.) as foon as it returns
to uts proper place, will there quiefce ; for its velocity,
which is denoted by the fine IM, then vaniffies, and its
denfity becomes the fame with that of the ambient me¬
dium. This line, therefore, will no longer move, un-
lefs it be again driven forwards by the impulfe of the
founding body, or of the pulfes propagated from it.
“ Cor. 2. In the extreme points of the little fpace
through which the particle vibrates, the expanfion of
the air is in its natural ftate ; for the expanfion of the
phyfical line is to its natural expanfion as V -j-IM.is
SB A C O U
Propaga- to V; but IM is then equal to nothing. In the middle
Souncf P°^nt t^ie Progrefs the condenfation is greateft ; for
~‘n. ‘ . IM is then greateft, and confequently the expanfion
V—IM leaft. In the middle of the regrefs, the rare-
faftion'is greateft; for im, and confequently V+/'», is
then greateft.
“ 10. To find the velocity of the pulfes, the den-
fity and elaftic force of the medium being given.
“ This is the 49th prop. B. 2. Newton, in which he
ftiows, that whilft a pendulum, whofe length is equal
to the height of the homogeneous atmofphere, vibrates
once forwards and backwards, the pulfes will defcribe
a fpace equal to the periphery of a circle defcribed with
that altitude as its radius.
“ Cor. 1. He thence ftiows, that the velocity of the
pulfes is equal to that which a heavy body would ac¬
quire in falling down half the altitude of that homoge¬
neous atmofphere ; and therefore, that all pulfes move
equally fail, whatever be the magnitude of PS, or the
time of its being defcribed; that is, whether the tone
be loud or low, grave or acute. See Hales de Sonis,
§ 49*
“ Cor. 2. And alfo, that the velocity of the pulfes
is in a ratio compounded of the diredt fubduplicate ra¬
tio of the elaftic force of the medium, and the inverfe
fubduplicate of its denfity. Hence founds move fome-
what fafter in fummer than in winter. See Hales de
Sonis, p. 141.
“ n. The ftrength of a tone is as the moment of
the particles of air. The moment of thefe particles,
(the medium being given) is as their velocity ; and the
velocity of thefe particles is as the velocity of the firing
which fets them In motion (9). The velocities of two
different firings are equal when the fpaces which they
defcribe in their vibrations are to each other as the
times of thefe vibrations: therefore, two different tones
are of equal ftrength, when the fpaces, through which
the firings producing them vibrate, are dire fitly as the
times of their vibration.
ad Plate II. “ 12. Let the ftrength of the tones of the two
firings AB, CD, which differ in tenfion only (fig. 1,
2.) be equal. Q_uere the ratio of the inflefiling forces
F and / From the hypothefis of the equality of the
ftrength of the tones, it follows (n), that the fpace
GE muft be to the fpace HF as/’•y to F4-, {Smith's
Harm. Prop. 24. Cor. 4.) Now the forces inflefiling
AB, CD through the equal fpaces GE, HP are to
♦ach other as the 'tending forces, that is, as F toyj
[Malcolm's Treatife on Muftc, p. $2.) But the force
inflefiling CD. through HP is to the force inflefiling it
through HF as HP or GE to HF, 47.) that is,
by the hyp. as /'4- to F4-. Therefore, ex a quo, the forces
inflefiling AB and CD, when the tones are equally
ftrong, are to each other as FX/'4 to or as F4-
to f\. That is, the forces neceffary to produce tones
of equal ftrength in various firings which differ only in
tenfion, are to each other in the fubduplicate ratio of
the tending forces, that is, inverfely as the time of one
vibration, or direfilly as the number of vibrations per¬
formed in a given time. Thus, if CD be the acute
cfilave to AB, its tending force will be quadruple that
of AB, {Malcobn's Treatife on Mujic, />. 53) ; and
therefore to produce tones of equal ftrength in thefe
firings, the force impelling CD muft be double that
impelling AB ; and fo in other cafes.
N°3-
S T I C S. Ch.lL
“ Suppofe, now, that the firings AB, CD, (fig. 2, Propaga-
3.) differ in length only. The force inflefiling AB
through GE is to the tending force, which is given, as 1 .
GEto AG; and this tending force is to the force piaten,
inflefiling CD through the fpace HP equal to GE, as
HD to HP. Therefore, ex cequo, the forces inflefiling
AB and CD through the equal fpaces GE and HP,
are to each other as HD to AG, or as CD to AB.
But the force inflefiling CD through HP is to the force
inflefiling it through HF, as HP or GE to HF, that
is, becaufe thefe fpaces are as the times (11), as AB
to CD. Therefore, ex cequo, the forces inflefiling AB
and CD, when the tones are equally ftrong, are to each
other in a ratio of equality. Hence we ftiould fuppofe,
that in this cafe, an equal number of equal impulfes
would generate equally powerful tones in thefe firings.
But we are to obferve, that the longer the firing, the
greater, ceeteris parilus, is the fpace through which a
given force inflefils it ( Malcolm) ; and therefore what¬
ever diminution is produced in the fpaces through which
the firings move in their fucceffive vibrations, arifing
either from the want of perfefit elafticity in the firings,
or from the refiftance of the air, this diminution will
bear a greater proportion to the lefs fpace, through
which the fhorter firing vibrates. And this is confirm¬
ed by experience; for we find that the duration of the
tone and motion of the whole firing exceeds that of anv
of its fubordinate parts. Therefore, after a given in¬
terval of time, a greater quantity of motion will remain
in the longer firing; and confequently, after the fuc
ceflive equal impulfes have been made, a greater degree
of motion will ftill fubfift in it. That is, a given num¬
ber of equal impulfes being made on various firings dif¬
fering in length only, a ftronger found will be produced
in that which is the longer."
Chap. III. Cf the Velocity, &c. of Sound. Axioms.
Experience has taught us, that found travelsatabout Velocity of
the rate of 1142 feet in a fecond, or near 13 miles in a found,
minute ; nor do any ohftacles hinder its progrefs, a con¬
trary wind only a fmall matter diminifhing its velocity.
The method of calculating its progrefs is eafily madc.
known. When a gun is difcharged at a diftance, we
fee the fire long before we hear the found. If then we
know the diftance of the place, and know the time of h*
the interval between our firft feeing the fire and then calculated 1
hearing the report, this will fhow us exafilly the time^ cu a e *
the found has been travelling to us. For inftance, if
the gun is difcharged a mile off, the moment the flafh is
feen, you take a watch and count the feconds tillyou hear
the found ; the number of feconds is the time the found
has been travelling a mile.—Again, by the above ax -
iom, we are enabled to find the diftance between ob-
jefils that would be otherwife immeafurable. F°r ex-DHlances
ample, fuppofe you fee the flafh of a gun in the night at calculated .
fea, and tell feven feconds before you hear the report,by means of i
it follows therefore, that the diftance is feven times 1142 found- *
feet, that is, 24 yards more than a mile and a half. In
like manner, if you obferve the number of feconds be¬
tween the lightning and the report of the thunder,
you know the diftance of the cloud from whence it pro¬
ceeds. T7 ,,
Derham has proved by experience, that all founds ^lefatthl
whatever travel at the fame rate. The found of a gun, fame rate.
and
Ch.III. A C O U
Revcbe- an3 the ftriking of a hammer, are equally fwiftin their
motions; the fofteft whifper flies as fwiftly, as far as it
goes, as the loudeft thunder.
To thefe axioms we may add the following.
18 Smooth and clear founds proceed from bodies that
are homogeneous, and of an uniform figure ; and harfti
or obtufe founds, from fuch as are of a mixed matter
and irregular figure.
zg The velocity of found is to that of a briflt wind as
fifty to one.
so The ftrength of founds is greateft in cold and denfe
air, and leall in that which is warm and rarefied.
ai Every point againft which the pulfes of found {trike,
becomes a centre from which a new feries of pulfes are
propagated in every direction.
23 Sound defcribes equal fpaces in equal times.
Chap. IV. Of Reverberated Sounds.
23' Sound, like light, after it has been refledted from
feveral places, may be colledted in one point, as into a
focus; and it will be there more audible than in any
other part, even than at the place from whence it pro*
ceeded. On this principle it is that a whifpering gal¬
lery is conftru&ed.
24 The form of this gallery mult be that of a concave
jVhifpering hemifphere ( e ), as ABC; and if a low found or whifper
tat’Y’ bs uttered at A, the vibrations expanding themfelves
jgi ^ ' every way will impinge on the points DDD, See. and
from thence be reflected to EEE, and from thence to
the points F and G, till at laft they all meet in C,
where, as we have faid, the found will be the moft
diftindtly heard.
> The augmentation of found by means of fpeaking-
ipeaking- trumpets, is ufually illullrated in the following manner:
rumpet, Let ABC be the tube, BD the axis, and B the mouth-
4' piece for conveying the voice to the tube. Then it is
evident, when a perfon fpeaks at B in the trumpet, the
whole force of his voice is fpent upon the air contained
in the tube, which will be agitated through the whole
length of the tube; and, by various refledlions from the
fide of the tube to the axis, the air along the middle
part of the tube will be greatly condenfed, and its mo¬
mentum proportionably increafed, fo that when it comes
to agitate the air at the ofifice of the tube AC, its
force will be as much greater than what it would have
been without the tube, as the furface of a fphere, whofe
radius is equal to the length of the tube, is greater than
the furface of the fegment of fuch a fphere whofe bafe
is the orifice of the tube. For a perfon fpeaking at B,
without the tube, will have the force of his voice fpent
in exciting concentric fuperficies of air all around the
point B; and when thofe fuperficies or pulfes of air are
diffufed as far as D every way, it is plain the force of
the voice will there be diffufed through the whole fu¬
perficies of a fphere whofe radius is BD; but in the trum¬
pet it will be fo confined, that at its exit it will be dif¬
fufed through fo much of that fpherical furface of air
as correfponds to the orifice of the tube. But fince the
orce is given, its intenfity will be always inverfely as
the number of particles it has to move ; and therefore
Vo l. I. Parti.
S T I C S.
in the tube it will be to that without, as the fuperficies
of fuch a fphere to the asra of the large end of the tube
nearly.
But it is obvious, Mr Young obferves, that the con¬
finement of the voice can have little effedt in increafing
the ftrength of the found, as this ftrength depends on
the-velocity with which the particles move. Were this
reafoning conclufive, the voice (hould ifiue through the
fmalleft poffible orifice; cylindrical tubes would be pre¬
ferable to any that increafed in diameter; and the lefs
the diameter, the greater would be the effedt of the in-
ftrument; becaufe the plate or mafs of air to be moved,
would, in that cafe, be lefs, and confequently the effefit
of the voice the greater; all which is contradidled by
muft therefore be derived from fome other principles :
and amongft thefe we ftiall probably find, that what the
ingenious Kircher hasfuggefted in hisPhonurgia is the
moft deferring of our attention. He tells us, that “ the
augmentation of the found depends on its refleftion from
the tremulous fides of the tube ; which reflections, con*
fpiring in propagating the pulfes in the fame diredtion,
muft increafe its intenfity.” Newton alfo feemstohave
confidered this as the principal caufe, in the fcholium
of prop. 50. B. 2. Princip. when he fays, “ we hence
fee why founds are fo much increafed in ftentorophonic
tubes, for every reciprocal motion is, in each return,
increafed by the generating caufe.
Farther, when we fpeak in the open air, the effedt
on the tympanum of a diftant auditor is produced mere¬
ly by a fingle pulfe. But when we ufe a tube, all the
pulfes propagated from the mouth, except thofe in the
diredlion of the axis, ftrike againft the fides of the tube,
and every point of impulfe becoming a new centre, from
whence the pulfes are propagated in all diredtions, a
pulfe will arrive at the ear from each of thofe points ;
thus, by the ufe of a tube, a greater number of pulfes
are propagated to the ear, and confequently the found
increafed. The confinement too of the voice-may have
fome effedt, though not fuch as is aferibed to it by
fome ; for the condenfed pulfes produced by the naked
voice, freely expand every way ; but in tubes, the late¬
ral expanfion being diminiftied, the direct expanfion will
be increafed, and confequently the velocity of the par¬
ticles, and the intenfity of the found. The fubftance
alfo of the tube has its effedt; for it is found by expe¬
riment, that the more elaftic the fubftance of the tube,
and confequently the more fufceptible it is of thefe tre¬
mulous motions, the ftronger is the found.
If the tube be laid on any non-elaftic fubftance, it
deadens the found, becaufe it prevents the vibratory
motion of the parts. The found is increafed in-fpeaking-
trumpets, if the tube be fufpended in the air ; becaufe
the agitations are then carried on without interruption.
Thefe tubes {hould increafe in diameter from the mouth¬
piece, becaufe the parts* vibrating in diredtions perpen¬
dicular to the furface, will conlpire in impelling for¬
ward the particles of air, and confequently, by increa--
fing their velocity, will increafe the intenfity of the
found: and the furface alfo increafing, the number of
points of impulfe and of new propagations will increafe
M pro-
(e) Acylindric or elliptic arch will anfwer ftill better than one that is circular.
90 A C 0 U i
Reverbe- proportionally. Tlie feveral caufes, therefore, of the
Sounds increafe °* found in thefe tubes, Mr Young concludes
i- . ^ , to be, i. The diminution of the lateral, and confe-
quently the ihcreafe of the direft, expanfion and velo¬
city of the included air. 2. The increafe of the num¬
ber of pulfes, by increafing the points of new propaga¬
tion. 3. The refle&ions of the pulfes from the tremu¬
lous fides of the tube, which impel the particles of air
forward, and thus increafe their velocity.
Echoes An echo is a refle&ion of found ftriking againft fome
objedf, as an image is refledted in a glafs : but it has
been.difputed what are the proper qualities in a body
for thus reflecting founds. It is in general known, that
caverns, grottoes, mountains, and ruined buildings, re¬
turn this image of found. We have heard of a very ex¬
traordinary echo, at a ruined fortrefs near Louvain, in
Flanders- If a perfon fung, he only heard his own
voice,, without any repetition : on the contrary, thofe
who flood at fome diftance, heard the echo but not the
voice; but then they heard it with furprifing varia¬
tions, fometimes louder, fometimes fofter, now more
near, then more diftant. There is an account in the
memoirs of the French academy, of afimilar echo near
Rouen.
As (by n° 21 and 22) every point againft which the
pulfes of found ftrike becomes the centre of a new fe-
ries of pulfes, and found defcribes . equal diftances in
equal times ; therefore, when any found is propagated
from a centre, and its pulfes ftrike againft a variety of
obftacles, if the fum of the right lines drawn from that
point to each of the obftacles, and from each obftacle
to a fecond' point,, be equal, then will the later be a
point in which an echo will be heard. “ Thus let A
be the point from which the found is propagated in all
directions, and let the pulfes ftrike againft the obfta¬
cles C, D, E, F, G, H, I, &e- each of thefe points
becomes a new centre of pulfes by the firft principle,
and therefore from each of them one feries of pulfes will
pafs through the point B. Now if the feveral fums of the
right lines AC+CB, AD+DB, AE+EB, AG+GB;
AH+HB, AI + IB, &c. be all equal to each other,
it is obvious that the pulfes propagated from A to thefe
points, and again from thefe points to B, will all ar¬
rive at B at the fame inftant, according to the fecond
principle ; and therefore, if the hearer be in that point,
his ear will at the fame inftant be ftruck by all thefe
pulfes. Now it appears from experiment {fee Mujfchen-
broek, V. ii. p. 210), that the ear of an exercifed mu-
fician can only diftinguifti fuch founds as follow one
another at the rate of g or 1 o in a fecond, or any flow¬
er rate : and therefore, for a diftinCt perception of the
direft and reflected found, there fliould intervene the
interval’ of -^th of a fecond ; but in this time found
defcribes i—Li or 127 feet nearly. And therefore,
unlefs the fum of the lines drawn from each of the ob¬
ftacles to the points A and' B. exceeds the interval AB
by 127 feet, no echo will be heard at B. Since the
feveral fums of the lines drawn from the obftacles to
the points A and B are of the fame magnitude, it ap¬
pears that the curve pafling through all the points C,
D, E, F, G, H, I, &c. will be an ellipfe, (prop.14.
B. 2. Ham. Con.) Hence all the points of the obfta-
cles. which produce an echo, muft lie in the furface of
2
5 T I C S. Ch. IV.
the oblong fphseroid, generated by the revolution of Reverbe-
this ellipfe round its major axis. Sounds
“ As there may be feveral fphaeroids of different ■ ^ ^.
magnitudes, fo there may be feveral different echoes of
the fame original found. And as there may happen to
be a greater number of reflecting points in the furface
of an exterior fphteroid than in that of an interior, a
fecond or a third echo may be much more powerful
than the firft, provided that the fuperior number of re¬
flecting points, that is, the fuperior number of reflec¬
ted pulfes propagated to the ear, be more than fuffi-
cient to compenfate for the decay of found which a-
rifes from its being propagated through a greater fpace.
This is finely illuftraied in the celebrated echoes at the
lake of Killarney in Kerry, where the firft return of
the found is much inferior in ftrength to thofe which
immediately fucceed it.
“ From what has been laid down it appears, that for
the moft powerful echo, the founding body Ihould be in
one focus of the ellipfe which is the fection of the echo¬
ing fphseroid, and the hearer in the other. However^
an echo may be heard in other fituations, though not fo
favourably; as fuch a number of refleCled pulfes may
arrive at the fame time at the ear as may be fufficient
to. excite a diftinCt perception. Thus a perfon often
hears the echo of his own voice ; but for this purpofe
he fhould ftand at leaft 63 or 64 feet from the reflect¬
ing obftacle, according to what has been faid before.
At the common rate of fpeaking, we pronounce not
above three fyllables and an half, that is, feven half
fyllables in a fecond ; therefore, that the echo may re¬
turn juft as foon as three fyllables are expreffed, twice
the diftance of the fpeaker from the reflecting objeCl
muft be equal to 1000 feet; for, as found defcribes
1142 feet in a fecond, ®ths of that fpace, that is, 100a
feet nearly, will be defcribed while fix half or three
whole fyllables are pronounced : that is, the fpeaker
muft ftand near 500 feet from the obftacle. And in
general, the diftance of the fpeaker from the echoing
furfaee, for any number of fyllables, muft be equal to
the feventh part of the produCt ©f 1142 feet multiplied
by that number.
“ In churches we never hear a diftinCt echo of the
voice, but a confuted found when the fpeaker utters
his words too rapidly; becaufe the greateft difference
of diftance between the direCt and reflected courfes of
fuch a number of pulfes as would produce a diftinCt
found, is never in any church equal to 12 7 feet, the li¬
mit of echos.
“ But though the firft reflected pulfes may produce
no echo, both on account of their being too few in¬
number, and too rapid in their return to the ear ; yet
it is evident, that the reflecting furface may be fo
formed, as that the- pulfes- which come to the ear after
two reflections or more may, after having defcribed
127 feet or more, arrive at the ear in fufficient num¬
bers, and alfo fo nearly at the fame- inftant, as to pro¬
duce an echo, though the diftance of the reflecting fur¬
face from the ear be lefs than the limit of echoes. This-
is confirmed by a Angular echo in a grotto on the bankr^
of the little brook called the Dinan, about two miles’
from Caftlecomber, in the county of Kilkenny. As-
you enter the cave, and continue fpeaking loud, no re¬
turn of the voice is perceived ; but on your arriving at'
a*
:ch. IV. A C O U
ji| Entertain- a certain point, vVhicIi is not above 14 or 15 feet from
¥!*ng ExPe™-the refledting furface, a very diftinCt echo is heard.
|rent;, c\ Now this echo cannot arife from the firfl: courfe of pul-
fes that are reflefted to the ear, becaufe the breadth of
the cave is fo fmall,' that they would return too quick¬
ly to produce a diftinct fenfation from that of the ori¬
ginal found : it therefore is produced by thofe pulfes,
which, after having been reflected, feveral times from
one fide of the grotto to the other, and having run o-
ver a greater fpace than 12 7 feet, arrive at the ear in
conliderable niunbers, and not more diftant from each
other, in point of time, than the ninth part of a fecond.”
This article rtiall be difmiffed with a few inventions
| j founded on fome of the preceding principles, which may
amufe a number of our readers.
Entertaining Experiments and Contrivances.
I *7 ~ .
HI. TheCon- I.Place aconcave mirror of about two feet diameter,
Mverfive Sta-as AB (g), ina perpendicular direction. The focus of
■Plkte I t^1*3 m,"rror may ke fit 15 or 18 inches diftance from
Hg 5. * lts ^ur^ce* At the diftance of about five or fix feet
fj let there be a partition, in which there is an opening
E F, equal to the fize of the mirror ; againft this
opening muft be placed a picture, painted in water¬
colours, on a thin cloth, that the found may eafily pafs
through it (h).
Behind the partition, at the diftance of two or three
feet, place another mirror G H, of the fame lize as the
former, and let it be diametrically oppofite to it.
At the point C let there be placed the figure of a
man feated on a pedeftal, and let his ear be placed ex-
a£lly in the focus of the firft mirror : his lower jaw
muft be made to open by a wire, and ftiut by a fprng;
and there may be another wire to move the eyes: thefe
; wires muft pafs through the figure, go under the floor,
and come up behind the partition.
Let a perfon, properly inftrufted, be placed behind
the partition near the mirror. You then propofe to
any one to fpeak foftly to the ftatue, by putting his
tnouth to the ear of it, afliiring him that it will anfwer
inftantly. You then give the fignal to the perfon be¬
hind the partition, who, by placing his ear to the fo¬
cus I, of the mirror G H, will hear diftinffly what the
other faid; and, moving the jaw and eyes of the ftatue
by the wires, will return an anfwer diredtly, which
will in like manner be diftinctly heard by the firft
fpeaker.
This experiment appears to be taken from the
Century of Inventions of the Marquis of Worcef-
ter; whofe defigns, at the time they were publiftied,
were treated with ridicule and negledt as being im-
prafticable, but are now known to be generally, if not
univerfally practicable. _ The words of the Marquis are
thefe : “ How to make a brazen or ftone head in the
midft of a great field or garden, fo artificial and natu-
S T I C S. 9t
ral, that though a man fpeak ever fo foftly, and even Entertain
whifper into the ear thereof, it will prefently open its10* Ex^.c£1*
mouth, and refolve the queftion in French, Latin. *nent*’ ^
Welfh, Iriih, orEnglifh, in good terms, uttering it out
of its mouth, and then ftiut it until the next queftion
be. allied.”—The two following, of a iimilar nature,
• appear to have been inventions of Kircher, by means
of which (as he informs us *) he ufed to “ utter * Phonur-
feigned and ludicrous confultations, with a view to i'aNova,
ihow the fallacy and impofture of ancient oracles.” L 'v:'c' r‘
II. Let there be two heads of plafter of Paris, placed,
on pedeftals, on the oppofite fides of a room. There muft 1 e .c°m*
be a tm tube or an inch diameter, that mult pals rrom the Bafts,
ear of one head, through the pedeftal, under the floor,
and go up to the mouth of the other. Obferve, that
the end of the tube which is next the ear of the one
head, Ihould be confiderably larger than that end which
comes to the mouth of the other. Let the whole be
fo difpofed that there may not be the leaft fufpicion of
a communication.
Now, when a perfon fpeaks, quite low, into the ear
of one bull, the found is reverberated thro’ the length
of the tube, and will be diftinctly heard by any one
who lhall place his ear to the mouth of the other. It
is not neceflary that the tube Ihould come to the lips
of the bull.—If there be two tubes, one going to the
ear, and the other to the mouth, of each head, two per-
fons may converfe together, by applying their mouth
and ear reciprocally to the mouth and ear of the bulls; .
and at the fame time other perfons that Hand in the
middle of the chamber, between the heads, will not
hear any part of their converfation.
III. Place a bull on a pedeftal in the corner of a 29
room, and let there be two tubes, as in the foregoing The Oracu-
amufement, one of which muftgo from the mouth andlar ea *
the other from the ear of the bull, through the pedeftal,
and the floor, to an under, apartment. There may be
likewife wires that go from the under jaw and the eyes
of the bull, by which they may be eafily moved.
A perfon being placed in the under room, and at a
fignal given applying his ear to one of the tubes, will
hear any queftion that is allied, and immediately re¬
ply ; moving at the fame time, by means of the wires,
the mouth and the eyes of the bull, as if the reply
came from it.
IV. In a large cafe, fuch as is ufed for dials and fpring- . „ c
clocks, the front of which, or at leaft the lower part of nata° ar ***
it, muft be of glafs, covered on the infide with gauze,
let there be placed a barrel-organ, which, when wound
up, is prevented from playing, by a catch that takes a
toothed wheel at the end of the barrel. To one end of
this catch there mull be joined a wire, at the end of
which there is a flat circle of cork, of the fame dimen-
fion with the infide of a glafs tube, in which it is to rife
and fall. This tube muft communicate with a refer-
vo-ir that goes acrofs the front part of the bottom of the
cafe, which is to be filled with fpirits, fuch as is ufed in
M 2 ther-
.
(g) Both the mirrors here ufed may be of tin or gilt pafteboard, this experiment not requiring fuch as are very ac¬
curate.
(h) The more effedtually to conceal the caufe of this allufion, the mirror AB may be fixed in the wainfcot, and a
gauze of any other thin covering thrown over it, as that will not in the lealt prevent the found from being refledled.
An experiment of this kind may be performed in a field or garden, between two hedges, in one of which the mirror
A B may be placed, and in the other an opening artfully contrived.
02
Entertain- thermometers, hut not coloured, that it may be the
jnent^t?1' ^etter concealed by the gauze.
* ‘I ' This cafe being placed in the fun, the fpirits will be
rarefied by the heat; and riling in the tube, will lift up
the catch or trigger, and fet the organ in play : which
it will continue to do as long as it is kept in the fun ;
for the fpirits cannot run out of the tube, that part of
the catch to which the circle is fixed being prevented
from rifing beyond a certain point by a check placed
over it.
When the machine is placed againft the fide of a
room on which the fun fhines ftrong, it may conftantly
remain in the fame place, if you inclofe it in a fecond.
cafe, made of thick wood, and placed at a little di-
ftance from the other. When you want it to perform,
it will be only neceffary to throw open the door of the
outer cafe, and expofe it to the fun.
But if the machine be moveable, it will perform in
all feafons by being placed before the fire j and in the
winter it will more readily flop when removed into the
cold.
A machine of this fort is. faid to have been invented
by Cornelius Dreble, in the laft century. What the
conftrudtion of that was, we know not; it might very
likely be more complex, but could fcarce anfwer the
intention more readily.
.j V. Under the keys of a common harpfichord let there
Automa- be fixed a barrel, fomething like that in a chamber or-
tous Harp-gan, with ftops or pins correfponding to the tunes you
fichord. would have it play. Thefe Hops mult be moveable, fo
that the tunes may be varied at pleafure. From each
of the keys let there go a wire perpendicular down i
the ends of thefe wires mull be turned up for about one-
fourth. of an inch. Behind thefe wires let there be an
iron bar, to prevent them from going too far back.
Now, as the barrel turns round, its pins take the ends
of the wires, which pull down the keys, and play the
harpfichord. The barrel and wares are to be all in-
clofed in a cafe.
In the chimney of the fame room where the harpfi¬
chord Hands, or at leaft in one adjacent, there mult be
a fmoke jack, from whence comes down a wire, or
cord, that, palling behind the wainfcot adjoining the
chimney, goes under the floor, and up one of the legs
Ch.IV.
.of the harpfichord, into the cafe, and round a fmall Entertain- |
wheel fixed on the axis of that firft mentioned. There |
Ihould be pullies at different diftances, behind the wain- , ^ c',
fcot and under the floor, to facilitate the motion of the 1
chord.
This machinery may be applied to any other keyed
inftrument as well as to chimes, and to many other
purpofes where a regular continued motion is required.
An inftrument of this fort may be confidered as a
perpetual motion, according to the vulgar accepta¬
tion of the term ; for it will never ceafe going till the
fire be extinguilhed, or fome parts of the machinery be -
wrorn out.
VI. At the top of a fummer-houfe, or other building,. 3* f
let there be fixed a vane AB, on which is the pinion C, A Ventofal
that takes the toothed wheel D, fixed on the axis EF, ^ep”°ny>
• which at its other end carries the wheel G, that takes fig. 6.
the pinion Hr. All thefe wheels and pinions are to be
between the roof and the ceiling of the building. The
pinion H is fixed to the perpendicular axis IK, which
goes down very near the wall of the. room, and may be
covered after the fame manner as are bell-wires: At
the lower end of the axis IK there is a fmall pinion L,
that takes the wheel M, fixed on the axis of the great
w'heel NO. In this wheel there muft be placed a num¬
ber of ftops, correfponding to the tunes it is to play.
Thefe ftops. are to be moveable, that the tunes may be
altered at pleafure. Againft this wheel there muft
hang i 2 fmall bells, anfwering to the notes of the ga¬
mut. Therefore, as the wheel turns round, the ftops
ftriking againft the bells, play the feveral tunes. There
ftiould be a fly to the great wheel, to regulate its mo¬
tion when the wind is ftrong. The wheel NO, and the
bells, are to be inclofed in a cafe.
There may be feveral fets of bells, one of which
may anfwer to the tenor, another to the treble, and a
third to the bafs ; or they may play different tunes, ac¬
cording to the fize of the wheel. As the bells are
fmall, if they are of filver, their tone will be the more
pleafing.
Inftead of bells, glaffes may be here ufed, fo difpo-
fed as to move freely at the ftroke of the ftops. This
machinery may likewife be applied to a barrel-organ ;
and to many other ufes.
ACOUSTICS.
A C
^cqS ACQS, a town at the foot of the Pyrenaean moun-
|| tains, in the government of Foix in France. It takes its
Acqui. name from the hot waters in thqfe parts. E. long, i. 40.
—' lat. 43. o.
ACQUAPENDENTE, a pretty large town of I-
taly, in the territory of the church, and patrimony of
St Peter, with a bilhop’s fee. It is feated on a moun¬
tain, near the river Paglia, ten miles W. of Orvietto,
and 57 N. by W. of Rome. E. long. 11. 53. Lat.
42. 43.
ACQUARIA, a fmall town of Italy, in Frigana, a
diftrict of Modena, which is remarkable for its medici¬
nal waters. It is 12 miles fouth of the city of Modena.
E. long. 11. 17. Lat. 44. 24.
ACQUEST, or Acquist, in law, fignifies goods
■jgot by purchafe or donation. See Conquest.
ACQUI, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Mont-
A C Q_
ferrat, with a biftiop’s fee, and commodious baths. It Acquifition 1
was taken by the Spaniards in 1745, and retaken by II •.
the Piedmontefe in 1746 ; but after this, it was taken ^naf" '
again and difmantled by the French, who afterwards ■ - ■
forfook it. It is feated on the river Bornio, 25 miles
N. W. of Genoa, and 30 S. of Cafal. E. long. 8. 30.
Lat. 44.40.
ACQUISITION, in general, denotes the obtaining
or procuring fomething. Among lawyers, it is ufed
for the right or title to an eftate got by purchafe or
donation.
ACQUITTAL, a difcharge, deliverance, or fit¬
ting of a perfon free from the guilt or fufpicion of an
offence.
ACQUITTANCE, a releafe or difcharge in wri¬
ting for a fum of money, witneffing that the party has
paid the faid fum.—No maa is obliged to pay a fum of
money
Plate I.
Ajirll PIUN. WAL. SrrLP 7 i//,‘ fM .
WHO
A C R [ 93 ] A C R
money if the demandant refufes to give an acquittance,
which is a full difcharge, and bars all actions, &c. An
acquittance given by a fervant for a fum of money re¬
ceived for the ufe of his mailer, lhall be a good dif¬
charge for that fum, provided the fervant ufed to re¬
ceive his mailer’s rents, debts, See.
ACRA, a town of Africa, on the coall of Guinea,
where the Englilh, Dutch, and Danes, have ftrong
forts, and each fort its particular village. W. long. o. 2.
Lat. 5. o.
Acra (anc. geog.), one of the hills of Jerufalem,
on. which llood the lower town, which was the Old Je-
rufalem ; to which was afterwards added Zion, or the
city of David. Probably called Acra, from the fort-
refs which Antiochus built there in order to annoy the
temple, and which Simon Maccahaeus took and razed
to the ground.
Acra Japygia (anc. geog.), called Salentia by Pto¬
lemy ; now Gapo di San Maria di Leuca: A promon¬
tory in the kingdom of Naples, to the fouth-eall of O-
tranto, where formerly wras a town, now lying in ruins,
on the Ionian fea, over agcjfnll the Montes Acrocerau-
nii of Epirus.
Acrje (anc. geog.), a town of Sicily, whofe inhabi¬
tants were called Acrenfes. It Hood to the fouth of
Syracufe at the dillance of 24 miles, near the place now
called the monallery of Santa Maria d’ Arcia, on an
eminence, as appears from Silius Italicus. The Syra-
cufans were the founders of-it, according to Thucidy-
des, 70 years after the building of Syracufe, or 665 be¬
fore Chrift. Hence the epithet Acrceus.
ACRAGAS, or Agragas (anc. geog.), fo called
by the Greeks, and fometimes by the Romans, but
more generally Agrigentum by the latter; a town of
Sicily. In Greek medals the inhabitants are called
akpitantinoi, and Agrigentini by Cicero. The town
flood upon a mountain, at the confluence of the Acra-
gas and Hypfa, near the port called by Ptole¬
my, but Etiv.-iov, or the Dock, by Strabo ; and in the
time of the latter, fcarce a trace of all that fide remain¬
ed. In the year before Chrift 584, the people of Gela
built Acragas, 108 years after building their own city.
It took its name from the river running by it; and be¬
ing but two miles from, enjoyed all the conveniences
that fhould come by, the fea. It was a place of great
flrength, Handing on the top of a very fteep rock, and
wafhed on the fouth fide by the river Acragas, now
called Fiume di Gergenti, and on the fouth-weft by the
Hypfar with a citadel to the fouth-eaft, externally fur-
rounded by a deep gulf, which made it inacceffible but
on the fide next the town. It was famous for the ty¬
rant Phalaris and his brazen bull. They were a people,
luxurious in their tables, and magnificent in their dwell¬
ings; of whom Empedocles, in Diogenes Laertius, fays,
that they lived to-day as if they were to die to-morrow,
and built as if they were to live for ever. The coun¬
try round the city was laid out in vine and olive yards,
in the produce of which they carried on a great and
profitable commerce with Carthage. E. long. 1.3. 30.
Lat. 37. 20.
AC R AS I A, among phyficians, implies the predo¬
minancy of one quality above another, either with re¬
gard to artificial mixtures, or the humours of the hu-
man^body. The word is Greek, and compounded of
3
priv. and to mix ; q. d. not mixed in a juft Acrath,
proportion. Acre-
ACRATH (anc. geog.), a place in Mauritania Tin- v "
gitana, now fuppofed to be Velez de Gomara : A for¬
tified town in the kingdom of Fez, with a citadel and
commodious harbour on the Mediterranean, fcarce a
mile diftant from Penon de Velez, a Spanilh fort.
W. long. 5. lat. 34. 45.
ACRE, or Acra, a fea-port town in Syria. It was
formerly called Ptolemais, and is a bifhop’s fee. It
was very famous in the time of the crufadoes, and un¬
derwent feveral iieges both by the Chriftians and Sa¬
racens. It is fituated at the north angle of a bay,.
which extends in a femicircle of three leagues, as far
as the point of Carmel.
During the crufades, the poffeffion of this town,
was long difputed by the Chriftians and Saracens. In
1192 it was taken from the latter by Richard I. of
England and Philip of France, who gave it to the
knigfits of St John of Jerufalem, who kept poffeffion
of it 100 years, when it was retaken by the Saracens,
and almoft entirely deftroyed. This event is rendered
memorable by an adl of fingular refolution with which
it was accompanied. A number of beautiful young
nuns, terrified at the profpedl of being expofed to the
brutal lull of the infidels, determined to avoid the vio¬
lation of their chaftity, by rendering themfelves ob-
jecls of averfion. With this view they cut off their
nofes and mangled their faces. The Saracens, infla¬
med with refentment at a fpe&acle which prevented.
the gratification of their appetites, immediately put
them all to the fword. After the expulfion of the
crufaders, it remained almoft deferted; but in our time
has again revived by the induftry of Daher; and the
works eredled by Djezzar, within the laft ten years,
have rendered it one of the principal towns upon the
coaft. The mofq’ue of this Pacha is boafted as a ma-
fterpiece of eaftern tafte. The bazar, or covered mar¬
ket, is not inferior even to thofe of Aleppo ; and its
public fountam furpaffes in elegance thofe of Damafcus,
though the water is of a very indifferent quality. The
Pacha has derived the more honour from thefe works,
as he was himfelf both the engineer and architect:
he formed the plans, drew the defigns, and fuperin-
tended the execution.
The port of Acre is one of the bell fituated on the
coaft, as it is flieltered from the north and north-weft
winds by the town itfelf; but it is greatly choaked up
fince the time of Fakr-el-din. Djezzar has contented
himfelf with making a landing-place for boats. The
fortifications, though more frequently repaired than
any other in all Syria, are of.no importance: there
are only a few wretched low towers, near the port,.
on which cannon , are mounted ; and thefe rufty iron ,
pieces are fo bad, that fome of them burft every time
they are fired. Its defence on the land fide is merely
a garden-wall, without any ditch.
Corn and cotton form the bafis of the commerce of
Acre, which is becoming more flourifhing every day,.
Of late, the Pacha, by an abufe common throughout
all the Turkifh empire, has monopolized all the trade
in his own hands ; no cotton can ,be fold but to him,..
and from him every purchafe muft be made. In vain •
have the European merchants claimed the privileges
granted!
?
A C R [ 94 ] A C R
Acre, granted them by the Sultan ; Djezzar replied, that he
1 was the Sultan in his country, and continued his mo¬
nopoly. Thefe merchants in general are French, and
have fix houfes at Acre, with a conful: an Imperial
agent too is lately fettled there; alfo a refident for
Huflia.
That part of the bay of Acre in which fhips an¬
chor with the greateft fecurity lies to the north of
Mount Carmel, below the village of Haifa (commonly
called Caiffa). The bottom is good holding ground,
and does not chafe the cables ; but the harbour is open
to the north-weft wind, which blows violently along
all this coaft. Mount Carmel, -which commands it to
the fouth, is a flattened cone, and very rocky; it is
about 2000 feet high. We ftill find among the
brambles wild vines and olive trees, which prove that
induftry has formerly been employed even in this un¬
grateful foil: on the fummit is a chapel dedicated to
the prophet Elias, which affords an extenfive profpedl
over the fea and land. It is 20 miles S. of Tyre, and
37 N. of Jerufalem. E. long.-39. 25. lat. 32. 40.
Acre, in the Mogul’s dominions, the fame with
lack, and fignifies the fum of 100,000 rupees; the ru¬
pee is of the value of . the French crown of three livres,
or 30 fols of Holland ; an 100 lacks of rupees make
a couron in Indoftan, or 10,000,000 rupees: the pound
Sterling is about eight rupees; according to wdrich
proportion, a lack of rupees amounts to 12,5 00 pounds
Sterling.
Acre, the univerfal meafure of land in Britain.
The word (formed from the Saxon acher, or the Ger¬
man aker, a field), did not originally fignify a deter¬
mined quantity of land, but any open ground, efpe-
cially a wide champaign ; and in this antique fenfe it
feems to be preferved in the names of places, as Caftle-
acre, Weft-acre, &c. An acre in England contains
four fquare roods, a rood 40 perches or poles of 16 J
feet each by ftatute. Yet this meafure does not pre¬
vail in all parts of England, as the length of the pole
varies in different counties, and is called cujlomary mea¬
fure, the difference running from the 16~ feet to 28.
The acre is alfo divided into 10 fquare. chains, of 22
yards each, that is, 4840 fquare yards. An acre in
Scotland contains four fquare roods; one fquare rood
is 40 fquare falls; one fquare fall, 36 fquare ells; one
fquare ell, nine fquare feet and 73 fquare inches ; one
fquare foot, 144 fquare inches. The Scots acre is alfo
divided into 10 fquare chains; the meafuring chain
fhould be 24 ells in length, divided into 100 links,
each link 8 inches; and fo one fquare chain will
■contain 10,000 fquare links. The Englifli ftatute-acre
is about three roods and fix falls ftandard meafure of
Scotland.
The French acre, arpent, contains Englifli acre,
or 54,450 fquare Englifli feet, whereof the Englifli
acre contains only 43,560.—The Stralburg acre is a-
bout half an Englifh acre.—The Welfli acre contains
commonly two Englifli ones.—The Irifli acre is equal
to one acre two roods and 19 perches TVr, Englifli.
Dr Grewr attempts to afeertain the number of acres in
England, which, according to him, amounts to 46
millions and 80,oca. The United Provinces are faid
to contain 4,382,000 acres: The province of Holland
but one million of acres. The territory of the United
-States of America, according to calculations lately
made by order of Congrefs, contains 589 millions ofAcre-Flghe 1 3
acres, exclufive of water, which is computed at 71
millions more. A™d°- ;l
AcRE-Fight, an old fort of duel fought by Englifli ' y—1 1
and Scottiftt combatants, between the frontiers of their
kingdoms, with fword and lance : it was alfo called
camp-fight, and the combatants champions, from the
open field being the ftage of trial.
AcRF.-Ta::, a tax laid on land at fo much per acre.
In fome places this is alfo called acre-Jhot. Impofitions
on lands in the great level are to be raifed by a pro¬
portionable acre-tax, 20 Car. II. cap. 8.—An acre-tax
of 2s. 6d. per acre, for draining Hadenham-level, 13
Geo. I. cap. 18. f!L
ACRIBEIA, a term purely Greek, literally deno¬
ting an exquifite or delicate accuracy ; fometimes ufed
in our language, for want of a word of equal fignifica- J
tion.
ACRID, a name for any thing that is of a fharp or
pungent tafte. See Materia Medica.
ACRIDOPHAGI, in the ancient geography, an
Ethiopian people, reprefented as inhabiting near the
deferts, and to have fed on locufts. This latter cir-
cumftance their name imports ; the word being com¬
pounded of the Greek lecu.fi, and W" to eat. We
have the follow'ing account of them by Diodorus Si¬
culus*. Their ftature was lower than that of other * Lib. Hi. I
men; they were meagre, and extremely black. In the & xxxix. ' |
fpring, high w'eft wands drove from the defart to their AlfoStrabo,
quarter locufts of an extraordinary fize, and remarkable1:1)' XV1‘
for the fqualid colour of their wings. So great w»as
the number of thefe infefts, that they were the only
fuftenance of the barbarians, who took them in the fol¬
low'ing manner: At the diftance of fome ftadia from
their habitations there was a wade and deep valley.
They filled this valley with wood and wild herbs, with
which their country abounded. When the cloud of
•locufts appeared, which were driven on by the wind,
they fet fire to the fuel wdrich they had collefted. The
fmoke w'hich arofe from this immenfe fire was fo thick,
that the locufts, in croffing the valley, were ftifled by
it, and fell in heaps on the ground. The paffage of
the locufts being thus intercepted for many days, they
made a large provifion of thofe infefts. As their coun¬
try produced great-quantities of fait, they faked them,
to render them more palatable, and to make them keep
till the next feafon. This peculiar fupply was their
foie food: they had neither herds nor flocks. They
were unacquainted with fifhing; for they lived at a dif¬
tance from the fea. They were very adive, and ran
with great fwiftnefs. But their life w'as not of long
duration; it exceeded not forty years. The clofe of
their life was extremely miferable ; for in their old age,
winged lice of different, but all of ugly forms, bred in
their bodies. This malady, which began in the breaft
and belly, foon fpread through the wdiole frame. The
patient at firft felt an itching; and the agreeable fen-
fation produced by his fcratching of himfelf, preceded
a moft deplorable calamity. For when thofe lice,
which had bred in his body, forced then- way out,
they caufed effufions of corrupt blood, wuth excrucia¬
ting pains in the fldn. The unhappy man, wuth la¬
mentable cries, was induftrious himfelf to make paf-
' fages for them with his nails. In ftiort, thefe lice ifi-
fued forth fucceffively from the wounds made by the
hands
A C R L 95 ] A C R
Acrido- hands of the patient, as from- a veflel full of holes, and
, Phag'- , in fuch numbers that it was impoffible to exterminate
v them.—Whether this extraordinary and dreadful dif-
temper was occafioned by the food of the inhabitants
of this country, or by a peftilential quality of their
climate, it is difficult to determine. Indeed, as to the
credibility of the whole account, we mull leave the
reader to judge.
But though the circumftances of thefe people ffiould
be deemed fabulous, yet may the acridophagia be true.
It is well known, that to this day the inhabitants of
Ethiopia, Arabia, &£. frequently ufe locufts as food.
The reader will not be difpleafed if we lay before him
the refult of Dr Haffelquift’s inquiries as to this parti¬
cular, who travelled in Syria and Egypt fo late as the
year 1752. This ingenious gentleman, who travelled
with a view to improve natural hiitory, informs us,
that he alked Franks, and many other people who had
lived long in thefe countries, whether they had ever
heard that the inhabitants of Arabia, Ethiopia, &c.
ufed locufts as food. They anfwered that they had.
He likewife afked the fame queftion of Armenians,
Cophtes, and Syrians, who lived in Arabia, and had
travelled in Syria and near the Red Sea ; fome of whom
faid they heard of fuch a practice, and others that they
had often feen the people eat thefe in feds. He at laft
obtained complete fatisfadion on this head from a
learned fheck at Cairo, who had lived fix years in Mec¬
ca. This gentleman told him, in prefence of M. le
Grand the principal French interpreter at Cairo, and
others, that a famine frequently rages at Mecca when
there is a fcarcity of corn in Egypt, which obliges the
inhabitants to live upon coarfer food than, ordinary :
That when corn is fcarce, the Arabians grind the lo-
cufts in hahd-mills, or ftone-mortars, and bake them
into cakes, and ufe thefe cakes in place of bread :
That he has frequently feen locufts ufed by the Ara¬
bians, even when there was no fcarcity of corn ; but
then they boil them, ftew them with butter, and make
them into a kind of fricaflee ; which he fayss is not dif-
agreeably tafted, for he had fometimes tatted thefe lo-
cuft-fricaflees out of curiofity.
* Voyage t» A later traveller, Dr Sparrman, informs us *,
He Cape, “ That locufts fometimes afford a high treat to
vol.i. p. 36..the more unpoliftled and remote hordes of the Hot¬
tentots ; when, as fometimes happens, after an inter¬
val of 8, 10, 15, or 20 years, they make their appear¬
ance in incredible numbers. At thefe times they come
from the north, migrating to the fouthward, and do
not fuffer themfelves to be impeded by any obftacles,
but fly boldly on, and are drowned in the fea whenever
they come to it. The females of this race of infedts,
which are moft apt to migrate, and are chiefly eaten,
are faid not to be able to fly ; partly by reafon of the
fhortnefs of their wings, and partly on account of
their being heavy and diftended with eggs t and fhort-
ly after they have laid thefe in the fand, they are faid
to die. It is particularly of thefe that the Hottentots
make a brown coffee-coloured foup, which, at the fame
time, acquires from the eggs a fat and greafy appear¬
ance. The Hottentots are highly rejoiced at the ar¬
rival of thefe locufts, though they are fure to deftroy
every bit of verdure on the ground : but the Hotten¬
tots make themfelves ample amends for this lofs, by
falling foul on the animals themfelves, eating them in
fuch quantities as in the fpace of a few days to get Acrlfiuj
vifibly fatter and in better condition than before.” . jl .
The abbe Poiret, alfo, in his Memoir on the Infedls. cro^:lt!Ca
of Barbary and Numidia, informs us, “ That the
Moors make locufts a part of their food ; that they
go to hunt them; fry them in oil and butter ; and fell
them publicly at Tunis, at Bonne,” &c.
From thefe accounts, we may fee the folly of that
difpute among divines about the nature of St John’s
food in the wildernefs : fome maintaining the original
word to fignify the fruits of certain trees; others, a
kind of birds, &c.: but thofe who adhered to the li¬
teral meaning of the text were at leaft the moft ortho*
dox, although their arguments were perhaps not fo
ftrong as they might have been, had they had an op¬
portunity of quoting fuch authors as the above.
ACRISIUS, king of Argos (fab. hift.), being told
by the oracle that he fhould be killed by his grandchild,
fhut up his only daughter Danae in a brazen tower:
but Jupiter coming down in a golden fliower, begot
Perfeus upon her: after Perfeus had flain the Gbrgons,
he carried Medufa’s head to Argos; which Acrifius
feeing, was turned into a ftatue.
ACRITAS (anc. geog.), a'promontory of Meffe-
nia, running into the fea, and forming the beginning
of the bay of Meffene. Now called Capo di Gallo,
between Methone to the weft, and Corbne to the eaft,
where the Sinus Coronaeus begins.
ACROAMATIC, or Acroatic, in general, de¬
notes a thing fublime, profound, or abftrufe.
ACROAMATICI, a denomination given the dift
ciples or followers of Ariftotle, &c. who were admit¬
ted into the fecrets of the inner or acroamatic philc-
fophy.
ACROATIC. Ariftotle’s le&ures to his difciple*
were: of two kinds, exoteric and acroatic. The acroa¬
tic were thofe to which only his own difciples and in¬
timate friends were admitted ; whereas the exoteric
were public, and open to all. But there are other dif¬
ferences. The acroatic were fet apart for the higher
and more abftrufe fubjefts; the exoteric were employ¬
ed in rhetorical and civil fpeculations. Again, the
acroatics were more fubtile and exadt, evidence and de-
monftration being here aimed at ;■ the exoterics chiefly
aimed at the probable and plaufible. The former wrere
the fubjeft of the mornings exercifes in the Lyceum,
the latter of the evenings. Add, that the exoterics
were publifhed : whereas the acroatics were kept fecret;
being either entirely concealed ; or, if they were pub¬
lifhed, it was in fuch obfcure terms, that few' but his
owm difciples could be the wafer for them. Hence,
when Alexander complained of. his preceptor for pub-
lifhing his acroatics, and thus revealing what fhould
have been referved to his difciples, Ariftotle anfwered,
that they were made public and not public; for that
none who had not heard them explained by the author
viva voce, wTould underftand them.
ACROATHOUM, or Acrothoum1 (anc. geog.}>
a town fituated on the top of mount Athos, where the
inhabitants, according to Mela, were longer lived by
half than in any other country: called by the modern
Greeks, °g°c; by the Italians, La Cima di Monte
Santo.
ACROBATICA, or Acrobaticum, from
high, and /Wsc, or / go; an ancient engine,
whereby.
ACT t 96 ] . A C ,T
Aeroce- whereby people were raifed aloft, that they might fee this plain ; and hence its name: To the north it had a AcronoUtf!!
raunia more conveniently about them. The acrobatics among wall, built by the Pelafgi, and therefore called Pelaf- 11 ®
AcrJj oljs the Greeks amounted to the fame with what they call gic; and to the foutha wall, by Cymon the fon of Mil- ^m°'
t, 1S'iJcanforum among the Latins. Authors are divided tiades, out of the Perfian fpoils, many ages after the
as to the office of this engine. Turnebus and Barba- building of the north wall. It had nine gates, and
rus take it to have been-of the military kind, raifed was therefore called Enneapylon ; yet but one principal
by befxegers, high enough to overlook the walls, and gate or entrance, the afeent to which was by a flight
difeover the ftate of things on the other fide. Baldus of ileps of white marble, built by Pericles with great
rather fuppofes it a kind of moveable fcaffold, or cradle, magnificence, (Plutarch).
contrived for raifing painters, plalterers, and other ACROPOLITA (George), one of the writers in
workmen, to the tops of houfes, trees, &c. Some the Byzantine hiftory, was born at Conftantinople, in
fufpeft that it might have been ufed for both purpofes ^ the year 1220, and brought up at the court of the em-
vvhich is the opinion of Vitruvius and Aquinas. peror John Ducas at Nice. He was employed in the
ACROCERAUNI A, or Montes Ceraunii (anc. moil important affairs of the empire ; being fent am-
geog.), mountains running out into the fea (fo called baffador to Lariffa, to eftabliffi a peace with Michael
from their being often thunderftruck), feparating the of Epirus; and was conftituted judge to try Michael
Ionian fea from the Adriatic ; where Illyria ends and Comnenus, fufpttted of engaging in a confpiracy,
•Epirus begins ; now called Monti della Chimera. Theodorus Lafcaris, the fon of John, whom he had
ACROCHERISMUS, among the Greeks, a fort taught logic, appointed him governor of all the weftern
of gymnaftic exercife, in which the two combatants provinces in his empire. In 1255, he was taken pri-
. contended with their hands and fingers only, without foner in a war with Michael Angelus: but gaining his
clofing or engaging the other parts of the body. liberty in 1260, by means of the emperor Palaeologus,
ACROCOR1NTHUS (anc. geog.), a high and he was fent by him ambaffador to Conftantine prince of
ifteep hill, hanging over the city of Corinth, which was Bulgaria ; and was employed in feveral other negocia-
,taken within the walls, as an acropolis, or citadel. On tions. He wrote, A Continuation of the Greek Hi-
its top flood a temple of Venus ; and lower down iffued flory, from the taking of Conftantinople by the Latins
the fountain Pyrene. till it was recovered by Michael Paksologus in 1261,
ACROMION, in anatomy, the upper part of the which makes part of the Byzantine hiftory; A Trea-
fcapula or fhoulder-blade. See Anatomy. tife concerning Faith, Virtue, and the Soul; An Ex-
ACROMONOGRAMMAYICUM, in poetry, a pofition of the Sermons of St Gregory Nazianzen and
kind of poem, wherein every fubfequent verfe begins other pieces. Gregory Cyprian, patriarch of Coi>
with the letter wherewith the immediately preceding ftantinople, in his encomium upon him, prefixed to
one terminated. Acrapolita’s hiftory, is perhaps fomewhat extravagant
AC RON, a celebrated phyfician of Agrigentum, in his praife, when he fays he was equal to Ariftotle
who firft thought of lighting large fires, and purify- in philofophy, and to Plato in the knowledge of divine
ing the air with perfumes, to put a flop to the pefti- things and Attic eloquence.
lence that ravaged Athens, and which was attended ACROSPIRE, a vulgar term for what botanifts call
with fuccefs. He lived about 473 years before the the plume. See the article Plants.
Chriftian aera. ACROSPIRED, in malt-making, is the grain’s
Acron, a territory on the gold-coaft of Guinea, in fliooting both at the root and blade end.
Africa, bordering on the Fantynean country. The ACROSTIC, in poetry, a kind of poetical compo-
Dutch have a fort here called Fort Patience ; and un- fition, difpofed in fuch a manner, that the initial letters
der it is a village, inhabited only by fifhermen. The of the verfes form the name of fame perfon, kingdom,
other inhabitants are addicted to hufbandry, and fell place, motto, &c. The word is compounded of the
their corn to other countries. There is plenty of game, Greek «■*/)©-, extremity, and cVx(&'-> verfe. The acroftic
which is very commodious for the Dutch factory. The is confidered by the critics as a fpecies of falfe wit, and
people are very ignorant, and go naked like the reft of is therefore very little regarded by the moderns,
the negroes. This-is called Little Acron ; for Great ACROSTICUM, Rustyback, Wall-rue, or
Acron is farther inland, and is a kind of a republic. Fork-fern, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia
ACRONICAL, Achronycal, or Achronical, filices. The fructifications are accumulated on the
in aftronomy, is a term applied to the rifing of a ftar, whole inferior furface of the frond, fo that they every-
when the fun is fet in the evening; but has been pro- where cover it. There are upwards of 30 fpecies;
mifeuoufly ufed to exprefs a ftar’s rifing at funfet, or but only three of them (according to others, two)
fetting at fun-rife. are natives of Britain, viz. the feptentrionale, or horn-
ACRONIUS lacus, (Mela); a fmalllake formed ed fern, which grows on walls or clifts of rocks; the
by the Rhine, foon, after its rife out of the Alps, and ilvenfe, or hairy fern, growing in clifts of rocks; and
after palling the greater lake at Conftance, called Ve~ the thelypteris, or marfh-fern, in turfy bogs.
tietus, and now the Bodengee, or lake of Conftance. ACROSTOLIUM, in ancient naval architeClure,
ACROPOLIS (anc. geog.), the citadel, and cne the extreme part of the ornament ufed on the prows of
of the divifions of Athens; called Pslis, becaufe con- their ffiips, which was fometimes in the lhape of a
ftituting the firft and original city; and the Upper Po- buckler, helmet, animal, &c.; but more frequently cir-
lis, to diftinguilh it from the Lower, which was after- cular, or fpiral. It was ufual to tear them from the
wards built round it in a large open plain, the Aero- prows of vanquilhed veflels, and fix them to the con-
polis Handing on a rock or eminence in the heart of querors, as a fignal of victory.
N° 3.
ACRO-
ACROTELEUTIC, among ecclcfiafllc writers, an
t.1.c appellation given to any tiling added to the end of a
I A. pfalm ; as the Gloria Patri, or Doxology.
v ’ ' ACROTERIA, in architecture, fmall pedellals,
ufually without bafes, anciently placed at the middle
or two extremes of pediments or frontifpieces, ferving
to fupport the llatues, &c. It alfo fignifies the figures
placed as ornaments on the tops of churches, and the
iharp pinnacles that Hand in ranges about flat buildings
with rails and ballufters.
Among ancient phyficians, it fignified the larger ex¬
tremities of the body, as the head, hands, and feet.
It has alfo been ufed for the tips of the fingers, and
fometimes for the eminences or proceffes of bones.
ACROTHYMION, from extreme, and fVoc,
thyme. A fort of wart deferibed by Celfus as hard,
rough, with a narrow bafis and broad top; the top is
of the colour of thyme, it eafily fplits and bleeds.
'This tumour is alfo called thymus.
ACT, in general, denotes the exertion of power;
and differs from power, as the effeCt from the caufe.
Act, in logic, is particularly underftood of an ope¬
ration of the human mind. Thus to difeern and ex¬
amine, are a£ts of the undei handing; to judge and af¬
firm, are a<fts of the will. There are voluntary and
fpontaneous afts ; the former are produced by the o-
peration of the foul, the latter without its privity or
participation.
Act, in the univerfities, fignifies a thefis maintained
in public by a candidate for a degree, or to ftiow the
capacity and proficiency of a ftudent. The candidates
for a degree of bachelor and mafter of arts are to hold
philofophical ACts ; and thofe for bachelor of divinity,
theological Adis, &c. At Oxford, the time when ma¬
ilers or dodtors complete their degrees is alfo called the
eft} which is held with great folemhity. At Cam¬
bridge, they call it the commencement.
Act of Faith, Auto da Fe, in the Romilh church,
is a folemn day held by the inquifition, for the punifh-
ment of heretics, and the abfolution of the innocent ac-
• See/«jKz-cufed*. They ufually contrive the Auto to fall on fome
Jaitm. great feftival, that the execution may pafs with the
more awe and regard"; at leafl it is always on a Sunday.
The Auto da Fe may be called the laft adt of the
inquifitorial. tragedy ; it is a kind of goal-delivery, ap¬
pointed as oft as a competent number of prifoners in
the inquifition are convidted of herefy, either by their
own voluntary, ■ or extorted confefiion, or on the evi¬
dence of certain witneffes. The procefs is thus: in the
morning they are brought into a great hall, where
they have certain habits put on, which they are to wear
in the proceffion. The proceffion is led up by domi-
nican friars; after which come the penitents, fome with
fan-benitoes, and fome without, according to the na¬
ture of their crimes; being all in black coats without
fleeves, and bare-footed, with a wax candle in their
hands. Thefe are followed by the penitents who have
narrowly efcaped being burnt, who over their black
coats have flames painted with their points turned down¬
wards, Feugo revdto. Next come the negative, and
relapfed, who are to be burnt, having flames on their
habits pointing upwards. After thefe come fuch as pro-
fefs dodlrines contrary to the faith of Rome, who, be-
fides flames pointing upwards, have their pidlure paint¬
ed on their breafts, with dogs, ferpents, and devils, all
Vol. I. Parti.
open-mouthed, about it. Each p/ifoner Is attended
with a familiar of the inquifition;,-and thofe to be burnt
have alfo a Jefuit on each hand, who are continually
preaching to them to abjure. After the prifoners, comes
a troop of familiars on horfeback ; and after them the
inquifitors, and other officers of the court, on mules ;
laft of all, the inquifitor-general on a white horfe, led
by two men with black hats and green hat-bands. A
fcaffold is eredted in the Terriero de Paso, big enough
for two or three thoufand people; at one end of which
are the prifoners, at the other the inquifitors. After
a fermon made up of encomiums of the inquifition, and
invectives againft heretics, a prieft afeends a defle near
the middle of the fcaffold, and having taken the abjura¬
tion of the penitents, recites the final fentence of thofe
who are to be put to death ; and delivers them to the
fecular arm, earneftly befeeching at the fame time the
fecular power not to touch their blood, or put their
lives in danger. The prifoners being thus in the hands
of the civil magiftrate, are prefently loaded with chains,
and carried firft to the fecular goal, and from thence in
an hour or two brought before the civil judge; who,
after alking in what religion they intend to die, pro¬
nounces fentence, on fuch as declare they die in the
communion of the church of Rome, that they fhall be
firft ftrangled, and then burnt to allies; on fuch as die
in any other faith, that they be burnt alive. Both are
immediately carried to the Ribera, the place of execu¬
tion ; where there are as many ftakes fet up as. there are
prifoners to be burnt, with a quantity of dry furz a-
bout them. The ftakes of the profeffed,. that is, fuch
as perfift in their herefy, are about four yards high, ha¬
ving a fmall board towards the top for the prifoner to
be feated on. The negative and relapfed being firft
ftrangled and burnt, the profeffed mount their ftakes
by a ladder ; and the Jefuits, after feveral repeated ex¬
hortations to be reconciled to the church, part with
them, telling them they leave them to the devil, who
is Handing at their elbow to receive their fouls, and
carry them writh him into the flames of hell. On this
a great fhout is raifed; and the cry is, Let the dogs
beards be made; which is done by thrufting flaming
furzes faftened to long poles againft their faces, till
their faces are burnt to a coal, which is accompanied
with the loudeft acclamations of joy. At laft, fire is fet
to the furz at the bottom of the ftake, over which the
profeffed are chained fo high, that the top of the flame
feldom reaches higher than the feat they fit on; fo that
they rather feem roafted than burnt. There cannot be
a more lamentable fpedlacle; the fufferers continually
cry out, while they are able, Mifericordia per amor de
Dios, “ Pity for the love of God!” yet it is beheld by all
fexes, and ages, with tranfports of joy and fatisfadhion.
Act, in dramatic poetry, fignifies a certain divi-
fion, or part, of a play, defigned to give fome refpite
both to the adlors and fpedlators. The Romans were
the firft who divided their theatrical pieces into adls ;
for no fuch divifions appear in the works of the firft
dramatic poets. Their pieces indeed confifted of feve¬
ral parts or divifions, which they called protajis, epi-
tajis, cataftafis, and cataftrophe; but thefe divifions were
not marked by any real interruptions on the theatre.
Nor does Ariftotle mention any thing of adls in his Art
of Poetry. But, in the time of Horace, all regular
and finilhed pieces were divided into five adls.
N
Neuve
ACT [
- Keuvt minor, neu fit quinto produftior attu.
Fabula, qua pofci vult iff fpettata reponi.
j The firit a£fc, according to fome critics* befides in¬
troducing upon the ildge the principal characters of the
play, ought to propofe the argument or fubject of the
piece ; the fecond, to exhibit this to the audience, by
carrying the fable into execution; the third, to raife ob-
ftacks and difficulties: the fourth, to remove thefe, or
raife new ones in the attempt; and the fifth, to con¬
clude the piece, by introducing fome accident that may
unravel the whole affair. This divifion, however, is
not effentially neceffary ; but may be varied according
to the humour of the author, or the nature of the fub-
jedl. See Poetry, Part II. Sedt. i.
sfcr of Grace. See Grace.
Act, among lawyers, is an inflrument in writing for
declaring or juftifying the truth of any thing. In which
fenfe, records, decrees, fentences, reports, certificates,
&c. are called ads.
Acts, alfo denote the deliberations and refolutions
of an affembly, fenate, or convention ; as adls of parlia¬
ment, &c. Likewife matters of fact tranfmitted to
pofterity in certain authentic books and memoirs.
98 ] ACT
&c. Under Marcus Antoninus, this was carried fur¬
ther : perfons were obliged to notify the births of their ,
children, with their names and furnames, the day, con-
ful, and whether legitimate or fpurious, to the prsefedts
of the JErarium Saturni, to be entered in the public
adts; though before this time the births of perfons of
quality appear thus to have been regiltered.
Acta Senatus, among the Romans, were minutes
of what paffed and was debated in the fenate-houfe..
Thefe were alfo called Commentarii, and by a Greek
name viro/nwftula. They had their origin in the con-
fulffiip of Julius Caefar, who ordered them both to be
kept and publiffied. The keeping them was continued
under Auguftus, but the publication. was abrogated.
Afterwards all writings, relating to the decrees or fen¬
tences of the judges, or what paffed and was done be¬
fore them, or by their authority,, in; any. caufe, were
alfo called by the name Adas In . which fenfe we read
of civil adls, criminal adls, intervenient acts ; ada ci-
vilia, criminaha, intervcnieniia, &c.
Public Acts. . The knowledge, of public adls forms
part of a peculiar feience, called the Diplomatic,
of great importance to an hiftorian, ftatefman, chro-
Acta Confjiorii, the edidls or declarations of the nologer, and even critic,: The prefe.rvation of them
council of Hate of the emperors. Thefe edidls were
generally expreffed in fuch terms as thefe : “ The au-
guft emperors, Dioclejian and Maximian, m council de-
was the firft occaiion of eredling libraries. The ftyle
of adls is generally barbarous Latin. Authors are di¬
vided as to, the rides of judging of their genuinenefs.
dared. That the children of Decurions ffiould not be. and even whether there be any certain rides at all. F.
expofed to wild beafts in the amphitheatre/’
The fenate and foldiers often fwore, either through
abjedt flattery or by compulfion, upon the edids of the
Germon will have, the greater part of the adls of formei-
ages to be, fpurious, Fontanini afferts, that the num¬
ber of forged adls now extant is very fmall. It is cer-
emperor, as we do upon the bible. And the name of tain there were fevere puniffiments inflidled on the for-
Apidius Merula was erafed by Nero out of the regifter gers and falfifiers of adls.—The chief of the Englifh
of fenators,.becaufe he refufed tq fwear upon the edidls adls, or public records, are publiilied by .Rymer, under
of the emperor Augufti
Acta Diurna, was a fort of Roman gazette, con¬
taining an authorized narrative of the tranfadlions wor¬
thy of notice which happened at Rome. Petroniushas
the title of Fader a, and continued by Saunderfon; an
extradl whereof has been given in'French by Rapin, and
tranflated into Englifh under the title of Ada Regia*
Great commendations have been given this work: alfo
given us a fpecimen of the ada diurna in his account fome exceptions made to it; as that there are many fpu-
of Trimalchis; and as it may not perhaps be unenter¬
taining to fee how exadlly a Roman newfpaper runs in
the ftyle of an Englifh one, the following is an article
or two out.of it:.-
rious adls, as well as errors, in it; fome have even char¬
ged it with falfifications.—The public adls of France
fell into the hands of the Englifh after the battle of
Poitiers, and are commonly faid to have been carried
Oft the 26th of July, 30 boys and 40 girls were by them out of the country. But the tradition is not
1 born at Trimalchi’s eftate at Cuma.
“ At the fame time a Have was put to death for ut¬
tering difrefpedlful words againft his lord.
“ The fame day a fire broke out in Pompey’s gardens,
which began in the night, in the fteward’s apartment.”
fupported by any fufficient teftimony.
Acts of the ApoJUes, one of the facred books of the
New Teftament, containing the hiftory of the infant-
church, during the fpace of 29 or 30 years from the
afcenfion of our Lord to the year of Chrift 63,— It was.
Acta Populi, among the Romans, were journals or written by St Luke ; and addreffed to Theophilus, the
regifters of the daily occurrences; as affemblies, trialsj
executions, buildings, births, marriages, deaths, &c.
perfon to whom the evangelift had before dedicated his
gofpel. We here find the accompiifhment of feveral of
of illuftrious perfons, and the like. Thefe were other- the promifes made by our Saviour; his afcenfion; the.
wife called Ada Publica, and Ada Diurna, or fimply
Ada. The Ada differed from Annals, in that only
the greater and more important matters were in the
latter, and thofe of lefs note were, in the former. Their
defeent of the Holy Ghoft;. the firft preaching of the a-
poftles, and the miracles whereby their doClrines were,
confirmed ; an admirable pidlure of the manners of the
primitive Chriftians; and, in fliort, every thing that
origin is attributed to Julius Caefar, who firft ordered paffed in the church till the difperfion of the apoftlesj
the keeping and making public the adls of the people.
Some trace them higher, to Servius Tullius ; who, to
who feparated themfelves in order to propagate the
gofpel throughout the world. From the period of that
difeover the number of perfons born, dead,, and alive, feparation, St Luke quits the hiftory of the other apo-,
ordered that the next of kin, upon a birth, fliould put
a certain piece of money into the treafury of Juno Lu-
eina; upon a death, into that of Venus Libitina: the
like was alfo to be done upon affuming the toga virilis.
ftles, who were then at too great a diftance from him,.,
and confines himfelf more particularly to that of St
Paul, who had chofen him for the companion of his.
labours. He folk . s that apoftle in all his millions*
and,
ACT [ 99 1 ACT
AOls. and even to Rome itfelf; for it appears that the Afts
—' were publifhed in the fecond year of St Paul’s relidence
in that city, or the 36th year of the Chriftian sera, and
in the 9th or 10th year of Nero’s reign. The Ryle of
this work, which was originally compofed in Greek, is
much purer than that of the other canonical writers ;
and it is obfervable, that St Luke, who was much better
acquainted with the Greek than with the Hebrew lan¬
guage, always, in his quotations from the Old Tefta-
ment, makes ufe of the Septuagint verfion. The coun¬
cil of Laodicea places the Afts of the Apoftles among
the canonical books, and all the churches have acknow¬
ledged it as fuch without any controverfy.
There were feveral Spurious Acts of the Apo¬
stles ; particularly, I. sifts, fuppofed to be written
*SzzAbJias. by Abdias*, the pretended bifhop of Babylon, who
gave out that he was ordained bifhop by the apoftles
themfelves when they were upon their journey into
Perfta. II. The sifts of St Peter: this book came o-
riginally from the fchool of the Ebionites. III. The
sifts of St Paul, which is entirely loft. Eufebius, who
had feen it, pronounces it of no authority. IV. The
sifts of St yohn the Evangelijl; a book made ufe of by
the Encratites, Manichaeans, and Prifcillianifts. V. The
sifts of St Andrew; received by the Manichaeans, En¬
cratites, and Apotaftics. VI. The Afts of St Thomas
the Apqftle; received particularly by the Manichaeans.
VII. The Afts of St Philip. This book the Gnoftics
made ufe of. VIII. The Afts of St Matthias. Some
have imagined that the Jews for a long time had con¬
cealed the original afts of the life and death of St Mat¬
thias written in Hebrew ; and that a monk of the ab¬
bey of St Matthias at Treves, having got them out of
their hands, procured them to. be tranflated into Latin,
and publiflied them ; but the critics will not allow them
to be authentic.
Acts of Pilate; a relation fent by Pilate to the em-
* peror Tiberius, concerning Jefus Chrift, his death, re-
furreftion, afcenfion, and the crimes of which he was
f Eufcbii convifted before him f. It was a cuftom among the
Htft: Ecclef. Romans, that the proconfuls and governors of provin-
and ixC j3"* ces ^lou^ draw up afts, or memoirs, of what happened
in the courfe of their government, and fend them to the
emperor and fenate. The genuine afts of Pilate were
fent by him to Tiberius, who reported them to the fe¬
nate ; but they were rejefted by that affembly, becaufe
not immediately addreffed to them: as is teftified by
Tertullian, in his Apol. cap. 5. and 20, 21. The
heretics forged afts in imitation of them : in the reign
of the emperor Maximin, the Gentiles, to throw' an
odium on the Chriftian name, fpread about fpurious
Afts of Pilate ; which the emperor, by a folemn edift,
ordered to be fent into ail the provinces of the empire,
and enjoined the fchool-mafters to teach and explain
them to their fcholars, and make them learn them by
heart. Thefe afts, both the genuine and the fpurious,
are loft. There is indeed extant, in the Pfeudo-Hege-
fippus, a letter from Pilate to the emperor Claudius,
j Cave Hi/l. concerning Jefus Chrift J ; but it difcovers itfelf at
Literar. firft fight not to be authentic.
See. Apofol. Act of Parliament is a pofitive law, confifting of
two parts, the words of the aft, and its true fenfe and
meaning; which being joined, make the law. The
words of afts of parliament ftiould be taken in a lawful
fenfe. Cafes of the fame nature are within the inten¬
tion, though without the letter, of the aft ; aind fome aA*,
afts extend by equity to things not mentioned therein. ,
See Parliament. v •
ACTJE, were meadows of remarkable verdure and
luxuriancy near the fea-fhore, where the Romans ufed
to indulge themfelves to a great degree in foftnefs and
delicacy of living. The word is ufed in this fenfe by
Cicero and Virgil; but Voffius thinks it can only be
ufed in fpeaking of Sicily, as thefe two authors did.
ACTfEA, Aconitum Racemosum, Herb Cris-
topher, or Bane-berries ; a genus of the monogy-
nia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants.
The charafters are : The calyx is a perianthium con¬
fifting of four roundifh, obtufe, concave leaves, which
fall oiT. The corrolla confifts of four petals, larger than
the calyx, pointed at both ends, and falling off. The
Jlamina confift of numerous capillary filaments; the an-
therse are roundifh, ereft, and didymous. The piftil-
lum has an ovate germen ; no ftylus; the ftigma thick-
ifh and obliquely depreffed. The pericarpiutn is an o-
val fmooth one-furrow’d one-cell’d berry. The feeds
are very numerous, femiorbicular, and incumbent in a
double order.—This genus is affociated with the MuU
tifiliquee, the 26th natural order. There are four
Species and properties. 1. The fpicata, or common
herb-chriftopher, is a native in feveral parts of Britain.
It grows to the height of about two feet and an half;
the foot-ftalks of the leaves arife from the root; thefe
divide into three fmaller foot-ftalks, each pf which are
again divided into three,and thefe have each three lobes;
fo that each leaf is compofed of 2 7 lobes or fmaller leaves.
The flowers grow in ramous fpikes, and are of a pure
white: they are borne upon a flender, jointed, and fur¬
rowed ftem; appear in May; and are fucceeded by black,
fhining, pulpy berries, about the fize of peas, which
ripen in the autumn. This plant is a powerful repel¬
lent, and the root has been ufed internally in fome ner¬
vous cafes, but mull be adminiftered with caution. The
berries are highly poifonous. It is faid toads refort to
this plant, on account of its fetid fmell. Sheep and
goats eat it; cows, horfes, and fwine, refufe it. 2. The
alba, or American herb-chriftopher, is a native of North
America. The leaves of this fpecies are fomewhat like
the former, but not fo deeply indented in the edges.
The flowers grow in a more compaft fpike, and the
berries are very white and tranfparent when ripe ; the «
roots are compofed of thick knobs. This fpecies has
been ufed as an emetic, and fometimes called ipecaco-
anha. 3. The racemofa, or American black or wild
fnakeroot, is likewife a native of North America. It
has large compound leaves, rifing immediately from the
root, and branched after the fame manner as the firft,
which grow more than twp feet high. The flower-
ftem rifes to the height of four or five feet; and carries
a long fpike of white flowers reflexed at the top. Thefe
appear in June or the beginning of July, but the feeds
do not come to maturity in Britain. The root of this
plant is greatly ufed by phyficians in North America,
in many diforders; and is fuppofed to be an antidote a-
gainft poifon, or the biting of a rattle-fnake. 4. The
cimicifuga, is a native of Siberia ; the leaves referable
thofe of the feathered columbine ; the ftalks rife little
more than a foot high, fupporting particles of white
flowers, which appear in May. This fpecies is rare in
Britain.
N z
Culture.
A C T r 100 1 AC T
Culture, The firft fpecies hath a perennial root,
but the ftalks annually decay. It may be propagated
either by feeds, or parting the roots, which Ihould be
tranfplanted in autumn. The feeds fhould be fown foon
after they are ripe, or they will lie a whole year in the
ground before they vegetate. They fhould be fown in
a fhady border; and as all the plants do not come up at
the fame time, the border fhould not be difturbed till
the following autumn, when they fhould be tranfplanted
into a fhady border, where they may be allowed to re¬
main and flower.— The fecond fpecies may be propaga¬
ted in . the fame manner ; only the plants fhould be al¬
lowed three feet every way, on account of their wide-
fpreading leaves. This fpecies delights in a light moiil
foil, and a fhady fituation.—The third is ufually pro¬
pagated by feeds fent annually from North America :
it thrives in the fame kind of foil as the former ; and is
very hardy, requiring no other culture than the com¬
mon flowering-fhrubs. The plants fhould not be often
removed, for that will prevent their flowering ftrong.—
The fourth requires a moift loamy foil, and fhady fitua¬
tion. It may be propagated in the fame manner as the
others.
ACTjEON, in fabulous hiftory, the fon of Ariftceus
and Autonoe; a great hunter. He was turned by Di¬
ana into a flag, for looking on her while bathing; and
died by his own dogs.
ACTANIA, an ifland, according to Pliny, in the
North fea. It lies to the weft of Holftein and Dit-
merfch, not far from the mouth of the Eyder and Elbe,
and is now called Heyligland.
ACTE. See Sambucus.
ACTIAN Games, in Roman antiquity, were folemn
games inftituted by Auguftus, in memory of his vic¬
tory over Marc Anthony at Aftium, held every fifth
year, and celebrated in honour of Apollo, fince called
Aftius Hence Attian Years, an aera commencing from
the battle of A&ium, called \\\<tJEra of Augujlus.
Virgil infinuates them to have been inftituted by iE-
neas; from that paflage'iEn. III. v. 280.
Afliaque Iliads eelebramus littora ludis.
iEv. iii. 250.
But this he only does by way of compliment to Auguf¬
tus ; attributing that to the hero from whom he de-
fcended, which was done by the emperor himfelf: as
is obferved by Servius.
ACTINIA, in zoology, a genus belonging to the
order of vermes mollufca. The body is oblong and
fmooth, attaching itfelf firmly by its bafis to rocks or
other folid fubftances, having a dilatable apex hooked
within. The mouth is furnifhed with crooked teeth,
the roftrum cylindrical and radiated. There are five
fpecies, fome of which make a beautiful appearance,
and are. called Animal Flowers, Sea Anemonies, and
Urtica Marina. See Animal /Yoatw.
Progreflive motion in thefe creatures is fo flow, that
it is difficult to perceive any, as they fcarce advance the
length of one inch in an hour. It would feem they do
not all produce, when handled, the painful fenfation
which Trad acquired them the name of fea~nettles.—
They are viviparous, feed on fhell fifh, open their mouth
more or lefs according to the fize of the prey they have
to deal with, and then rejeft the fhell through the fame
aperture. When the mouth is open, all the tentacula
of the aftinia may be feen, refembling if> that fituation
a full-blown flower, which has given it the denomina¬
tion of the flower fijh.
ACTIO, in Roman antiquities, an a&ion at law in
a court of juftice. The formalities ufed by the Ro¬
mans, in judicial aftions, were thefe : If the difference
failed to be made up by friends, the injured pei-fon pro¬
ceeded in jus reum vocare, to fummon the offending
party to the court, who was obliged to go, or give bond
for his appearance.
The offending party might be fummoned into court
viva voce, by the plaintiff himfelf meeting the defen¬
dant, declaring his intention to him, and commanding
him to go before the magiftrate and make his defence.
If he would not go willingly, he might drag and force
him along, unlefs he gave fecurity for his appearance
on fome appointed day. If he failed to appear on the
day agreed on, then the plaintiff, whenfoever he met
him, might take him along with him by force, calling
any by-ftanders to bear witnefs, by afking them vifne
antejlari; the by-ftanders upon this turned their ear to¬
wards him in token of their confent: To this Horace
alludes in his Sat. againft the impertinent, Lib. i. Sat.
9. See this further explained under the article An-
testari.
Both parties being met before the pnetor, or other
fupreme magiftrate prefiding in the court, the plaintiff
propofed the aftion to the defendant; in which he de-
figned to profecute him. This they termed edere ac¬
tionem; and was commonly performed by writing it in
a tablet, and offering it to the defendant, that he might
fee whether he had better Hand the fuit or com¬
pound.
In the next place came the pqflulatio affiants, or the
plaintiff’s petition to the praetor, for leave to profecute
the defendant in fuch an adtion. The petition was
granted by writing at the bottom of it affionem do, or
refufed by writing in the fame manner affionem non
do.
The petition being granted, the plaintiff vadabatur
reum, i. e. obliged him to give fureties for his appear¬
ance on fuch a day in the court; and this was all that
was done in public, before the day fixed upon for the
trial.
In the mean time, the difference was often made up,
either tranfaffione, by letting the caufe fall as dubious;
or paffiane, by compofition for damages amongft
friends.
On the day appointed for hearing, the praetor or¬
dered the feveral bills to be read, and the parties fum¬
moned by an accenfus, or beadle. See Accensi.
Upon the non-appearance of either party, the de¬
faulter loft his caufe;—if they both appeared, they
were faid feJletiffe; and then the plaintiff proceeded
litem five affionem intendere, i. e. to prefer his fuit,
which was done in a fet form of words, varying accor¬
ding to the difference of the actions. After this the
plaintiff defired judgment of the praetor, that is, to be
allowed a judex or arbiter, or elfe the recuperatores or
centumviri. Thefe he requefted for the hearing and
deciding the bufinefs ; but none of them could be de¬
fired but by the confent of both parties.
The praetor having affigned them their judges, de¬
fined and determined the number of witneffes to be ad¬
mitted, to hinder the protrading of the fuit; and
then the parties proceeded to give their caution, that
the
;
i
ACT [ ior ]' ACT
the judgment, whatever it was, flicmld ftand and be per- which before had always been referred to feparate laws} Aft
*l formed on both iides. The judges took a folemn oath and to reduce the laws of motion, and thofe of equili-
to be impartial; and the parties took the juramentum brium, to one and the fame principle.
calumnice. Then the trial began with the affiftance of • Action, in ethics, denotes the external figns or ex-
witneffes, writings, &c, which was called difceptatio preffions of the fentiments of a moral agent. See
caufa. Active Power, infra.
Action, in poetry, the fame with fubjedt or fable.
Critics generally diftinguifh two kinds, the principal and
ACTION, in a general fenfe, implies nearly the
fame thing with Act.—Grammarians, however, ob-
ferve fome diftinttion between aition and att ; the for- the incidental. The principal aftion is what is gene-
mer being generally reftri&ed to the common or ordi- rally called the fable; and the incidental an epifode.
nary tranfactions, whereas the latter is ufed to exprefs ~
thofe which are remarkable. Thus, we fay it is a good
action to comfort the unhappy ; it is a generous act to
deprive ourfelves of what is neceflary, for their fake.
The wife man propofes to himfelf an honeft end in all ing. See Oratory, Part IV.
his aftions; a prince ought to mark every day of his life Action, in a theatrical fenfe.
with fome a cl of greatnefs. The abbe Girard makes a
further diftin&ion between the words aftion and att.
The former, according to him, has more relation to the
See Poetry, Part II.
Action, in oratory, is the outward deportment of
the orator, or the accommodation of his countenance,
voice, and gefture, to the fubjeft of which he is treat-
See Declamation,
Art. IV.
Action for the Pulpit. See Declamation, Art. I.
Action, in painting and fculpture, is the attitude
power that afts than the latter; whereas the latter has or pofition of the feveral parts of the face, body, and
more relation to the effeft produced than the former :
and hence the one is properly the attribute of the other.
limbs of fuch figures as are reprefented, and whereby
they feem to be really actuated by paffions. Thus we
Thus we may properly fay, “ Be fure to preferve a fay, the aftion of fuch a figure finely exprefies the paf-
prefence of mind in all your aftions; and take care that fions with which it is agitated': we alfo ufe the fame
they be all afts of equity.’’
Action, in mechanics, implies either the effort which
a body or power makes againil another body or power,,
or the effeft itfelf of that effort.
expreffion with regard to animals.
Action, in phyfiology, is applied to the funftions
of the body, whether vital, animal, or natural.
The vital funftions, or aftions, are thofe which are
As it is neceffary in works of this kind to have a par- abfolutely neceffary to life, and without which there ii
ticular regard to the common language of mechanics
and philofophers, we have given this double definition:
but the proper fignification of the term is the motion
no life, as the aftion of the heart, lungs, and arteries.
On the aftion and reaftion of the folids and fluids on
each other, depend the vital funftions. The pulfe and
which a body really produces, or tends to produce, in refpiration are the external figns of life. Vital difeafes
another; that is, fuch is the motion it would have pro¬
duced, had nothing hindered its effeft.
All power is nothing more than a body aftually in
motion, or which tends to move itfelf; that is, a body
which would move itfelf if nothing oppofed it. The
aftion therefore of a body is rendered evident to us by
its motion only ; and confequently we muft not fix any
other idea to the word aftion, than that of aftual mo¬
tion, or a fimple tendency to motion. The famous que-
ftion relating to vis viva, and vis mortua, owes, in all
probability, its exiftence to an inadequate idea of the
are all thofe which hinder the influx of the venous blood
into the cavities of the heart, and the expulfion of the
arterial blood from the fame.—The natural funftions
are thofe which are inftrumental in repairing the feveral
Ioffes which the body fuflains; for life is deftruftive of
itfelf, its very offices occafioning a perpetual wafte.
The manducation of food, the deglutition and digeftion
thereof, alfo the feparation and dillribution of the chyle
and excrementitious parts, &c. are under the head of
natural funftions, as by thefe our aliment is converted
into our nature. They are neceffary to the continuanc
word aftion ; for had Leibnitz and his followers obfer- of our bodies.—The animal funftions are thofe which
ved, that the only precife and diftinft idea we can give we perform at .will, as mufcular motion, and all the vo¬
te the word force or aftion, reduces it to its effeft, that luntary aftions of the body : they are thofe which con-
is, to the motion it aftually produces or tends to pro- ftitute the fenfes of touch, tafte, fmell, fight, hearing ;
duce, they would never have made that curious diflinc- perception, reafoning, imagination, memory, judg-
tion. ment, affeftions of the mind. - Without any, or all
Quantity of Action, a name given by M. de Mau- of them, a man may live, but not fo comfortably as
pertuis, in the Memoirs of the Parifian Academy of with them.
Sciences for 1744, and thofe of Berlin for 1746, to the Action, in commerce, is a term ufed abroad for a
produft of the mafs of a body by the fpace. which it certain part or (hare of a public company’s capital
runs through, and by its celerity. He lays it down as flock.. Thus, if a company has 400,000 livres capital
a general law, “ that, in the changes made in the ftate ftock, this may be divided into 400 aftions, each con-
“ of a body, the quantity of aftion neceflary to pro- .filling of 1000 livres. Hence a man is faid to have two,
“ duce fuch change, is the leall polfible.” This prin- four, &c. aftions, according as he has the property of
ciple he applies to the invelligation of the laws of re- two, four, &e. 1000 livres capital ftbck. The tranf-
fraftion, of equilibrium, &c. and even to the ways of ferring of aftions abroad is performed much in the fame
afting employed by the Supreme Being. In this man- manner as Hocks are with us. See Stocks.
ner M. de Maupertuis attempts to conneft the meta- Action, in law, is a demand made before a judge
phyfics of final caufes with the fundamental truths of for obtaining what we are legally intitled to demand,
mechanics, to fhow the dependence of the collifion of and is more commonly known by the name of law-Juit
both elaftic and hard bodies upon one and the fame law, or procefs. See Suit,
a, ACTIONARY,
- p. !
ACT [ 102 ] ACT
A&ionary ACTIONARY.or Action 1ST,a proprietor of ftock
II in a trading company.
. A”on- , ACTIONS, among merchants, fometimes fignify
" moveable effedts ; and we fay the merchant’s creditors
have fcized on all his adtions, when we mean that they
have taken polTeffion of all his adfive debts.
ACTIVE, denotes fomething that communicates
adlion or motion to another ; in which acceptation it
Hands oppofed to pafiive.
Active, in grammar, is applied to fuch words as
cxprefs adtion ; and is therefore oppofed to paffive. The
adtive performs the action, as the paffive receives it.
Thus we fay, a verb affive, a conjugation adive, &c.
or an attive participle.
Active Verbs, are fuch as do not only fignify doing,
or adting ; but have alfo nouns following them, to be
the fubjedt of the adtion or impreffion : thus, Te lovf,
to teach, are verbs attive ; becaufe we can fay, To love
a thing, to teach a man. Neuter verbs alfo denote an
adtion, but are diftinguiffied from adtive verbs, in that
they cannot have a noun following them: fuch are,
To Jleep, to go, dsV.—Some grammarians, however,
make three kinds of adtive verbs : the tranfitive, where
the adtion palfes into a fubjedt different from the agent;
reflefted, where the adtion returns upon the agent;
and reciprocal, where the adtion turns mutually upon
the two agents who produced it.
Active Power, in metaphyfics/'the power of exe¬
cuting any work or labour; in contradillindtion to
* Dr Reid fpeculative powers *, or the powers of feeing, hearing,
on tie Ac- remembering, judging, reafoning, &c.
tive Powers The exertion of adtive power we call aftion ; and
if as every adtion produces fome change, fo every change
* muff be caufed by fome effedt, or by the ceffation of
fome exertion of power. That which produces a
change by the exertion of its power, we call the caufe
of that change ; and the change produced, the effett
of that caufe. See Metaphysics.
Active Principles, in chemiftry, fuch as are fuppofed
to adt without any affiftance from others ; as mercury,
fulphur, &c.’
ACTIVITY, in general, denotes the power of adt¬
ing, or the adtive faculty. See Active.
Sphere of Activity,, the whole fpace in which the
virtue, power, -or influence, of any objedt, is exerted.
ACTIUM (anc. geog.), a town fituated on the
coaft of Acarnania, in itfelf inconfiderable, but famous
for a temple of Apollo, a fafe harbour, and an adjoin¬
ing promontory of the fame name, in the mouth of
the Sinus Ambracius, over againfl Nicopolis, on the
other .fide of the bay : it afterwards became more fa¬
mous on account of Auguftus’s vidtory over Antony
and Cleopatra-; and for quinquennial games inftituted
there, .called Aftia or Ludi Attiaci. Hence the epi¬
thet Adi us, given to Apollo (Virgil). Afiiaca sera,
a computation of time from the battle of Adtium.
The promontory is now called Capo di Figalo.
ACTIUS, in mythology, a furname of Apollo, from
Adtium, where lie was vvorfliipped.
ACTON, a town near London, where is a well that
affords a purging water, which is noted for the pun¬
gency of its fait. This water is whitifh, to the tafte it
is fweetifli, with a mixture of the fame bitter which is
in the Epfom water. The fait of this water is not quite
fo foft as that of Epfom ; and is more calcareous than
2
it, being more of the nature of the fait of lime : for a Adfor.
quantity of the Adton water being boiled high, on be- u‘-‘—1
ing mixed with a folution of fublimate in pure water,
threw down a yellow fediment. The fait of the Adton
water is more nitrous than that of Epfom ; it ftrikes a
deep red, or purple, with the tindture of logwood in
brandy, as is ufual with nitrous fitlts; it does not pre¬
cipitate filver out of the fpirit of nitre, as common fait
does : li- lb of this water yields 48 grains of fait.
ACTOR, in general, fignifies a perfon who adts or
performs fomething.
Actor, among Civilians, the prodtor or advocate
in civil courts or caufes : as, Ador ecclefus has been
fometimes ufed for the advocate of the church ; ador
dominicus fqr the lord’s attorney ; ador villa, the ftew-
ard or head bailiff of a village. ►
Actor, in the drama, is a perfon who reprefents
fome part or charadter upon the theatre. The drama
confifted originally of nothing more than a fimple cho¬
rus, who fung hymns in honour of Bacchus ; fo that
the primitive adtors were only fingers and muficians.
Thefpis was the firft that, in order to eafe this un¬
formed chorus, introduced a declaimer, who repeated
fome heroic or comic adventure. Affchylus, finding a
fingle perfon tirefome, attempted to introduce a fe-
cond, and changed the ancient recitals into dialogues.
He alfo dreffed his adtors in a more majeftic manner,
and introduced the cothurnus or bulkin. Sophocles
added a third, in order to reprefent the various incidents
in a more natural manner; and here the Greeks flopped,
at leaft we do not find in any of their tragedies above
three perfons in the fame feene. Perhaps they looked
upon it as a rule of the dramatic poem, never to admit
more than three fpeakers at a time on the ftage ; a rule
which Horace has expreffed in the following verfe :
Nec quart a loqui perfona labor et.
This, however, did not prevent their increafing the
number of adtors in comedy. Before the opening of a
play, they named their adlors in full theatre, together
with the parts they were to perform. The ancient ac
tors were malked, and obliged to raife their voice ex¬
tremely, in order to make themfelves heard by the in¬
numerable crowd of people who filled the amphitheatres:
they were accompanied with a player on the flute, who
played a prelude, gave them the tone, and played while
they declaimed. Horace fpeaks of a kind of feconda-
ry adtors, in his time, whole bufinefs was to imitate the
firft ; and leffen themfelves, to become better foils to
their principals.
The moderns have introduced an infinite number oi
adtors upon the ftage. This heightens the trouble and
diftrefs that ffiould reign there, and makes a diverfity,
in which the fpedtator is fure to be interefted.
Adtors were highly honoured at Athens. At Rome
they were defpifed, and not only denied all rank among
the citizens, but even when any citizen appeared upon
the ftage he was expelled his tribe and deprived of the
right of fuffrage by cenfors. Cicero, indeed, efteems
the talents of Rofcius: but he values his virtues ftili
more ; virtues which diftingui/hed him fo remarkably
above all others of his profeffion, that they feemed to
have excluded him from the theatre. The French have,
in this refpedt, adopted the ideas of the Romans ; and
the Englifti thofe of the Greeks.
Actor, the name of feveral perfons in fabulous hi-
ftory.
ACT [ 103 } A C U
AAoram ftory. pne Attor among the Aurunci is defcribed by ACTUARIU.S, a celebrated Greek phyfician, of Aduarb*
Aduari* Virgil as an hero of the firft rank. JEn. xii. the 13th century, and the firft Greek author who has Ac[|na
> v '' ACTORUM tabulae, in antiquity, were tables in- treated of mild purgatives, fuch as caffia, manna, fena, 1 ,; ' >
ftituted by Servius Tullius, in which the births of chil- 8cc. His works were printed in one volume folio, by’
dren were regiftered. They were kept in the treafury Henry Stephens, in 1567.
of Saturnus. Actuarius, or Actarius, a notary or officer ap-
ACTRESS, in a general fenfe, a female who afts pointed to write the.a&s or proceedings of a court, or
or performs fomething. the like. In the Eallern Empire, the aftuarii were
Actress, in the drama, a female performer. Wo- properly officers who kept the military accounts, re¬
men aftors were unknown to the ancients, among ceived the corn from the fufceptores or ftore-keepers,
whom men always perfonjied the female charafter ; and delivered it to the foldiers.
and hence one reafon for the ufe of malks among ACTUATE, to bring into aft, or put a thing
them. * in aftion. Thus an agent is faid, by the fchoolmen,
Aftrefles are faid not to have been introduced on the to aftuate a power, when it produces an aft in a fub--
Engliffi ftage till after the reftoration of king Charles jeft. And thus the mind may be faid to aftuate the:
II. who has been charged with contributing to the body.
corruption of our manners by importing this ufage ACTUS, in ancient architefture, a meafure in length
from abroad. But this can be but partly true: the equal to 120 Roman feet. In ancient agriculture, the
queen of James I. afted a part in- a paftoral ; and word fignified the length of one furrow,, or the diftance
Prynn, in his Hiftriomaftix, fpeaks of women aftors a plough goes before it turns.
in his time as whores ; which was one occafi'on of the Actus Minimus, was a quantity of land 120 feet in.
fevere profecution brought againft him for that book. length, and four in breadth.
There are fome very agreeable and beautiful talents, Actus Major, or Actus Quadrat us, a piece of
of which the poffeffion commands a certain fort of ad- ground in a fquare form, whofe lide was equal to 120
miration ; but of which the exercife for the fake of feet, equal to half the jugerum.
gain is confidered, whether from reafon or prejudice, Actus Interticenalis, a fpace of ground four feet in .
as a for.t of public proftitution. The pecuniary recom- breadth, left between the lands as a path or way.
pence, therefore, of thofe who exercife them in this. ACUANITES, in eccleiiaftical hiftory, the fame
manner, mull be fufficient, not only to pay for the with thofe called more frequently Manichf.es. They,
time, labour, and expence of acquiring the talents, took the name from Acua,. a difciple of Thomas one
but for the difcredit which attends the employment of of the twelve apoftleso
them as the means of fubiiftence. The exorbitant re- ACULEATE,or Aculf.ati, a term applied to anyv
wards of players, opera-fingers, opera-dancers, &c. are plant or animal armed with prickles,
founded upon thofe two principles; the rarity and ACULEI, the prickles of animals or of plants,
beauty of the talents, and the difcredit of employing ACULER, in the manege, is ufed for the motion:
them in this manner. It feems abfurd at firfl; fight of a horfe, when, in working upon volts, he does not
that we fliould defpife their perfons, and yet reward go far enough forward at every time or motion, fo that:
their talents with the moft profufe liberality. While his fhoulders embrace or take in too little ground, and
we do the one, however, we mull of neceffity do the his croupe comes too near the centre of the volt,
other. Should the public opinion or prejudice ever al- Horfes are naturally inclined to this fault in making :
ter with regard to fuch occupations,, their pecuniary demi-volts.
recompence would quickly diminifh. More people ACUMINA, in antiquity, a kind of military omen,,
would apply to them, and the competition would quick- moft generally fuppofed to have been taken from the
ly reduce the price of their labour. Such talents, points or edges of darts, fwords, or other weapons,
though far from being common, are by no means fo ACUNA (Chriftopher de), a Spanish Jefuit, born->
rare as is imagined. Many people poffefs them in great at Burgos. He was admitted into the fociety in 1612,.
perfeftion, who difdain to make this ufe of them; being then but 15 years of age. After having devoted
and many more are capable of acquiring them, if any fome years to ftudy, he went to America, where he af-
thing could be made honourably by them. fifted in making converts in Chili and Peru. In 1640,
ACTUAL, fomething that is real and effeftive, or he returned to Spain, and gave the king an account,
that exifts truly and abfolutely. Thus philofophers ufe how far he had fucceeded in the commiifion he had re-
the terms «<?««/heat, aftual cold, &c. in oppofition ceived to make difcoveries on the river of the Amazons;.
to virtual or potential. Hence, among phyficians, a and the vear following he publiiked a defcription of
red-hot iron, or fire, is called an aftualcmtzry ; in di- this river, at Madrid. Acuna was fent to Rome, as
ftinftion from cauteries, or cauftics, that have the procurator of his ptovince. He returned to Spain
power of producing the fame effeft upon the animal with the title of Qualificator of the Inquifition ; but.
rfolids as aftual fire, and are called potential caute- foon after embarked again for the Weft Indies, and
ries. Boiling water is aftually hot; brandy, pro- was at Lima in 1675, when father Southwell publifhed
ducing heat in the body, is potentially hot, though of at Rome the Bibliotheque of the Jefuit writers. Acu-
itfelf cold. ^ na’s work is intitled, Nuevo defcubrimento del gran rio
Actual Sin, that which is committed by the perfon de las Amazonas ; i. e. u A new difcovery of the great
himfelf; in oppofition to original fin, or that which he river of the Amazons.” He was ten months together,
contrafted from being a child of Adam. upon this river, having had inftruftions to inquire into
ACTUARIAL naves, a kind of fhips among the every thing with the greateft exaftnefs, that his majefty-
Romans, chiefly defigned for fwift failing. might thereby be enabled to render the navigation/
AD [ *04 1 ADA
more eafy and commodious. He went aboard a fhip
at Quito with Peter Texiera, who had already been fo
far up the river, and was therefore thought a proper
perfon to accompany him in this expedition. They
embarked in February 1639, but did not arrive at Pa¬
ra till the December following. It is thought that
the revolutions of Portugal, by which the Spaniards
loft all Brafil, and the colony of Para at the mouth of
the river of the Amazons, were the caufe that the re¬
lation of this Jefuit was fuppreffed; for as it could not
be of any advantage to the Spaniards, they were afraid
it might prove of great fervice to the Portuguefe.
The copies of this work became extremely fcarce, fo
that the publifhers of the French tranflation at Paris
afferted, that there was not one copy of the original
extant, excepting one in the poffeffion of the tranfla-
tor, and, perhaps, that in the Vatican library. M. de
Gomberville was the author of this tranflation : it was
publilhed after his death, with a long differtation. An
account of the original may be feen in the Paris Jour¬
nal, in that of Leipfic, and in Chevereau’s Hiftory of
the World.
ACUPUNCTURE, the name of a furgical opera¬
tion among the Chkiefe and Japanefe, which is per¬
formed by pricking the part affedted with a filver needle.
They employ this operation in headachs, lethargies,
convulfions, colics, &c. (
ACUS, in ichthyology, the trivial name of a fpe-
cies of fyngnathus. See Syngnathus.
ACUSIO colonia, now Ancone, according to
Holftenius, between Orange and Valence, near Mon-
telimart, on the banks of the Rhone.
ACUTE, an epithet applied to fuch things as ter¬
minate in a lharp point or edge. And in this fenfe it
ftands oppofed to obtufe.
Acvte Angle, in geometry, is that which is lefs
than a right angle, or which does not fubtend 90 de¬
grees.
Acutf.-angled Triangle, is a triangle whofe three
apgles are all acute.
Acum-angled Cone is, according to the ancients, a
right cone, whofe axis makes an acute angle with its
fide.
Acute, in mufic, is applied to a found or tone that
is iharp or high, in comparifon of fome other tone.
In this fenfe, acute ftands oppofed to grave.
Acute Accent. See Accent.
Acute Difeafes, fuch as come fuddenly to a crifis.
This term is ufed for all difeafes which do not fall un¬
der the head of chronic difeafes.
ACUTIATOR, in writers of the barbarous ages,
denotes a perfon that whets or grinds cutting inftru-
ments ; called alfo in ancient gloffaries, acutor, axovurt*,
fatniarius, coharius, &c. In the ancient armies there
were acutiatores, a kind of fmiths, retained for whet¬
ting or keeping the arms fiiarp.
AD, a Latin prepofition, originally fignifying to,
and frequently ufed in compolition both with and with¬
out the d, to exprefs the relation of one thing to ano¬
ther.
An Bejlia-r, in antiquity, is the punifhment of cri¬
minals condemned to be thrown to wild beafts. .
An Hominem, in logic, a kind of argument drawn
from the principles or prejudices of thofe with whom
we arrnie.
N»g3.
Ad Ludot, in antiquity, a fentence upon criminals A4
among the Romans, whereby they were condemned to ,H
entertain the people by fighting either with wild beafts, . ^
or with one another, and thus executing juftice upon
themfelves.
An Metalla, in antiquity, the punifhment of fuch
criminals as were condemned to the mines, among the
Romans ; and therefore called Metallici,
Ad Valorem, a term chiefly ufed in fpeaking of the
duties or cuftoms paid for certain goods : The duties
on fome articles are paid by the number, weight, mea-
fure, tale, &c.; and others are paid ad valorem, that is,
according to their value.
ADAGE, a proverb, or fhort fentence, containing
fome wife bbfervation or popular faying. Erafmus has
made a very large and valuable collection of the Greek
and Roman adages ; and Mr Ray has done the fame
with regard to the Englifh. We have alfo Kelly’s
collection of Scots Proverbs.
ADAGIO, in mufic. Adverbially, itfignifies foft-
ly, leifurely ; and is ufed to denote the floweft of all
times. Ufed fubftantively, it fignifies a flow move¬
ment. Sometimes this word is repeated, as adagio^
adagio, to denote a ftill greater retardation in the time
of the mufic.
ADALIDES, in the Spanifh policy, are officers
of juftice, for matters touching the military Forces.
In the laws of king Alphonfus, the adalides are fpo-
ken of as officers appointed to guide and direCt the
marching of the forces in time of war. Lopez repre-
fents them as a fort of judges, who take cognifance of
the differences arifing upon excurfions, the diftribution
of plunder, &c.
ADAM, the firft of the human race, was formed
by the Almighty on the fixth day of the creation. His
body was made of the duft of the earth ; after which,
God animated or gave it life, and Adam then became
a rational creature.—His heavenly Parent did not leave .
his offspring in a deftitute ftate to fliift for himfelf; but
planted a garden, in which he caufed to grow not on¬
ly every tree that was proper for producing food, but
■ likewife fuch as were agreeable to the eye, or merely
ornamental. In this garden were affembled all the
brute creation ; and, by their Maker, caufed to pafs
before Adam, who gave all of them names, which were
judged proper by the Deity himfelf.—In this review,
Adam found none for a companion to himfelf. This
folitary ftate was feen by the Deity to be attended with
fome degree of unhappinefs; and therefore he threw
Adam into a deep fieep, in which condition he took a
rib from his fide, and healing up the wound formed a
woman of the rib he had taken out. On Adam’s a-
waking, the woman was brought to him ; and he im¬
mediately knew her to be one of his own fpecies, call¬
ed her his bone and his flefli, giving her the name of
woman becaufe Ihe was taken out of man.
The firft pair being thus created, God gave them
authority over the inferior creation, commanding them
to fubdue the earth, alfo to increafe and multiply and
fill it. They were informed of the proper food for the
beafts and for them ; the grafs, or green herbs, being
appointed for beafts; and fruits, or feeds, for man. -
Their proper employment alfo was affigned them j
namely, to drefi the garden, and to keep it.
Though Adam was thus highly favoured and inftruc-
te4
3
ADA
Mam. ted by his Maker, .there was a fingle tree, which grew
in the middle of the garden, of the fruit of which they
were not allowed to eat; being told, that they Ihould
furely die in the day they’ eat of it. This tree was
named, the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil.
This prohibition, however, they foon broke through.
The woman having entered into converfation with the
Serpent, was by him perfuaded, that by eating of the
tree Ihe Ihould becoipe as wife as God himfelf; and ac¬
cordingly, being invited by the beauty of the fruit, and
its defirable property of imparting wifdom, Ihe plucked
and eat ; giving her hulband of it at the fame time,
who did likewife eat.
Before this tranfgreffion of the divine command, A-
dam and his wife had no occalion for clothes, neither
had they any fenfe of lhame ; but imrrtediately on eat¬
ing the forbidden fruit, they were aflramed of being
naked, and made aprons of fig-leaves for themfelves.
On hearing the voice of God in the garden, they were
terrified, and hid themfelves: but being queftioned by
the Deity, they confeffed what they had done, and re¬
ceived fentence accordingly ; the man being condemn¬
ed to labour ; the woman to fubjeftion to her huf-
band, and to pain in child-bearing. They were now
driven out of the garden, and their accefs to it pre¬
vented by a terrible apparition. They had clothes
given them by the Deity made of the flcins of beafts.
In this ftate Adaxn had feveral children; the names
of only three of whom we are acquainted with* viz.
Cain, Abel, and Seth. He died at the age of 930 years.
Thefe are all the particulars concerning Adam’s life,
that we have on divine authority : but a vaft multitude
of others are added by the Jews, Mahometans, and Pa-
pifts; all of which mull be at bell conjectural; moll of
them, indeed, appear downright falfehoods or abfurdities.
The curiofity of our readers, it is prefumed, will be fuffi-
ciently gratified by the few which are here fubjoined.
According to the Talmudills, when Adam wras crea¬
ted, his body was of immenfe magnitude. When he
finned, his llature was reduced to an hundred ells, ac¬
cording to fome 5 to nine hundred cubits, according
to others ; who think this was done at the requell of
the angels, who were afraid of fo gigantic a creature.
In the illand of Ceylon is a mountain, called the Peak
or mountain of Adam, from its being, according to the
tradition of the country, the refidence of our ftrll pa¬
rent. Plere the print of his footlleps, above two palms
in length, are Hill pointed out.
Many reveries have been formed concerning the
perfonal beauty of Adam. That he was a handfome
well-lhaped man is probable ; but fdme writers, not
content with this, affirm, that God, intending to create
man, clothed Himfelf with a perfe&ly beautiful human
body, making this his model ia the formation of the
body of Adam.
Nor has the imagination been Icfs indulged con¬
cerning the formation of the human fpecies male and
female.—It would be endlefs to recount all the whim-
fires that have been v/rote on this fubject ; but as Mad.
Bourignon has made a confiderable figure in the religi-
gious, or ratherfnperfitious world, we cannot help in-
ferting fome of her opinions concerning the firfl man,
which are peculiarly marvellous. According to the
revelations of this lady, Adam before his fall poflefled
m himfelf the principles of both fexes, and ;the vir
, Vol. L Part I.
ADA
tue or power of producing his like, without the con* Adam,
current affiltance of woman. The divifion into two '
fexes, Ihe imagined*, was a confequence of man’s fin ; *Prefaceto
and now, Ihe obferves, mankind are become fo manya. book in-
j/tonjlers in nature, being much lefs perfedl in this re~ ucM
fpeft than plants or trees, who are capable of producing#
their like alone, and without pain or mifery. She even terre, Amft.
imagined, that; being in an ecllafy, {he fawthe figure I^79<
of Adam before he fell, with the manner how, by him¬
felf, he was capable of procreating other men. “ God,”
fays Ihe, “ reprefented to my mind the beauty of the
firll world, and the manner how he had drawn it from
the chaos: every thing was bright, tranfparent, and
darted forth light and ineffable glory. The body of
Adam was purer and more tranfparent than cryltal, and
vaftly fleet; through this body were feen veffels and
rivulets of light, which penetrated from the inward to
the outward parts, through all his pores. In fome
veffels ran fluids of all kinds and colours, vallly bright,
and quite diaphanous. The moll ravifliing harmony
arofe from every motion; and nothing refifted, or could
annoy, him. His ftature was taller than the prefent
race of men; his hair was fliort, curled, and of a colour
inclining to black; his upper lip covered with fliort
hair: and inftead of the beftial parts which modelly
will not allow us to name, he was falhioned as our bo¬
dies will be in the life eternal, which I know not whe¬
ther I dare reveal. In that region his nofe was form¬
ed after the manner of a face, which diffufed the moll
delicious fragrancy and perfumes; whence alfo men were
to iffue, all whofe principles were inherent in him; there
being in his belly a veffel, where little eggs were form¬
ed; and a fecond veffel filled with a fluid, which impreg¬
nated thole eggs : and when man heated himfelf in
the love of God, the defire he had that other creatures
Ihould exilt befides himfelf, to praife and love God,
caufed the fluid abovementioned {by means of the fire
of the love of God) to drop on one or more of thefe
eggs, with inexpreffible delight; which being thus im¬
pregnated, iffued, fome time after, out of man, by this
canalf, in the Ihape of an egg, whence a perfedl man + ’•f-t7le
was hatched by infenfible degrees. Woman was form-
ed by taking out of A dam’s fides the veffels that con- aWe de-*
tained the eggs; which Ihe Hill poffeffes, as is difcover-fcribed.
ed by anatomifts.”
Many others have believed, that Adam at his firll
creation was both male and female: others, that he had
two bodies joining together at the Ihouklers, and their
faces looking oppofite ways like thofe of Janus. Hence,
fay thefe, when God created Eve, he had no more to
do than to feparate the two bodies from one another J. t See
Of all others, however, the opinion of Paracelfus feems -Androgynes.
the moll ridiculous ||. Ncgabat primes parentes ante lap- || Paracelfue
funi habuijfepartes generation's hominis necejfarias; ere aPud Vofli'
debat pojlea accejfiffe, ut Jlrumam gutturi, tmi de philo-
Extravagant things are afferted concerning Adam’s pf 7'^.’ C’ ^
knowledge. It i.s very probable that he was inllrudled*
by the Deity how to accomplilh the work appointed
him, viz. to drefs the garden, and keep it from being
deltroyed by the brute creatures; and it is alfo proba¬
ble that he had likewife every piece of knowledge com¬
municated to him that w'as either ncceffary or pleafing:
but that he was acquainted with geometry, mathema¬
tics, rhetoric, poetry, painting, -fculpture, ifc. is too
ridiculousto .be credited by any fober perfon. Some
O rabbles.
t i°5 1
ADA r 106 1 ADA
A lain, rabbies, indeed, have contented themfelves with equal-
^ ' v ' ling Adam’s knowledge to that of Moles and Solomon;
while others, again, have maintained that he excelled
the angels themfelves. Several Chriftians feem, to be
little behind fhefe Jews in the degree of knowledge they
afcribed to Adam ; ‘nothing being hid from him, ac¬
cording to them, except contingent events relating to
futurity. One writer indeed (Pinedo) excepts politics;
but a Carthufian friar, having exhaufted, in favour of
ArilloUe, every image and comparifon he could think
of, at laft afferted that Ariilotle’s knowledge was as ex-
tenfxve as that of Adam.—In confequence of this fur-
priiing knowledge with which Adam was endued, he is
fuppofed to have been a conhderable author. The Jews
pretend that he wrote a book on the creation, and an¬
other on the Deity. Some rabbies afcribe the 92d pfalm
to Adam ; and in fome manufcripts the Chaldee title of
this pfalm exprefsly declares that this is the long of
praife which the firft man repeated for the fabbath-day.
Various conjectures have been formed concerning the
place where man was fir ft created, and where the gar¬
den of Eden was fituated ; but none of thefe have any
folid foundation. The Jews tell us, that Eden was fe-
parated from the reft of the world by the ocean ; and
that Adam, being baniftied therefrom, walked acrofs
the fea, which he found every way fordable, by reafon
■* This is of his enormous ftature The Arabians imagined pa-
juft the pic- racj;fc. to have been in the air; and that our firft parents
OrionorPo-were thrown down from it on their tranfgreffion, as
lypheniui, of Vulcan is faid to have been thrown down headlong from
the poe's. heaven by Jupiter.
MatuLm. Strange ftories are told concerning Adam’s children.
x 4‘ Thathe had none in the ftate of innocence, is certain
from fcripture; but that his marriage with Eve was not
confummated till after the fall, cannot be proved from
thence. Some imagine, that, for many years after the
fall, Adam denied himfelf the connubial joys by way
of penance; others, that he cohabited with ano-
>ther woman, whofe name was Lilith. The Ma¬
hometans tell us, that our firft parents having been
thrown headlong from the celeftial paradife, Adam fell
upon the ifle of Serendib, or Ceylon, in the Eaft-In-
dies; and Eve on lodda, a port of the Red Sea, not
far from Mecca. After a feparation of upwards of
200 years, they met in Ceylon, where they multiplied:
. according to fome Eve had twenty, according to others
only eight, deliveries; bringing forth at each time
twins, a male and a female, who afterwards married.
The Rabbins imagine that Eve brought forth Cain
and Abel at a birth; that Adam wept for Abel an
hundred years in the valley of tears near Hebron, du¬
ring which time he did not cohabit with his wife ; and
that this feparation would probably have continued
longer, had it not been forbid by the angel Gabriel.
The inhabitants of Ceylon affirm, that the fait lake on
the mountain of Colembo confifts wholly of the tears
which Eve for one hundred years together filed becaufe
of Abel’s death.
Some of the Arabians tell us, that Adam was bu¬
ried near Mecca on Mount Abukobeis; others, that
Noah, having laid his body in the ark, caufed it to
be carried after the deluge to Jerufalem by Melchife-
dek the fon of Shem : of this opinion are the eaftern
Chriftians ; but the Perfians affirm that he was interred
ip. the ilk of Sereadib, where his corps was guarded by
lions at the time the giants warred upon one another.— Adam
St Jerom imagined that Adam was buried at Hebron ;
others, on Mount Calvary. Some are of opinion that ,
he died on the very fpot where Jerufalem was after¬
wards built; and was buried on the place where Chrift
fuffered, that fo his bones might be fprinkled with the
Saviour’s blood ! ! !
Ada»j (Melchior) lived in the 17th century. He
was born in the territory of Grotkaw in Silefia, and
educated in the college of Brieg, where the dukes of
that name, to the utmoft of their power, encouraged
learning and the reformed religion as profeffed by Cal¬
vin. Here he became a firm Proteftant; and was ena¬
bled to purfue his ftudies by the liberality of a perfon
of quality, who had left feveral exhibitions for young
Undents. He was appointed reftor of a college at
Heidelberg, where he publilhed his firft volume of il-
luftrious men in the year 1615. This volume, which,
confifted of philofophers, poets, writers on polite lite¬
rature, and hiftorians, &c. was followed by three others;
that which treated of divines was printed in 1619;
that of the lawyers came next; and, finally, that of the
phyficians : the two laft were publilhed in 1620. All
the learned men, whofe lives are-contained in thefe four
volumes, lived in the 16th, or beginning of the 17th
century, and are either Germans or Flemings ; but he
publilhed in 1618 the lives of twenty divines of other
countries in a feparate volume. All his divines are Pro-
teftants. The Lutherans were not pleafed with him,
for they thought him partial; nor will they allow his
work to be a proper ftandard whereby to judge of the
learning of Germany. He wrote other works befidea
his lives, and died in 1622.
Adam's Apple, a name given to a fpecies of Citrus.
Adam’s Needle. See Yucca.
Adam’s Peak, a high mountain of the Eaft Indies, w
in the illand of Ceylon, on the top of which, they be¬
lieve the firft man was created. See Adam.
Adam, or ADOM,a town in the Perasa, or on the o- ‘
ther fide the Jordan, over-againft Jericho, where the
Jordan began to be dried up on the paffage of the>
Ifraelites ; (Jolhua.)
ADAMA, or Admah, one of the towns that were
involved in the deftru&ion of Sodom ; (Mofes.)
ADAMANT, a name fometimes given to the dia¬
mond. (See Diamond.) It is likewife applied<to the
fcorias of gold, the magnet, &c.
ADAMIC earth, a name given to common red
clay, alluding to that fpecies of earth of which the firft
man is fuppofed to have been made.
ADAMI pomum, in anatomy, a protuberance in
the fore-part of the throat, formed by the os hyoides.
It is thought to be fo called upon a ftrange conceit,
that a piece of the forbidden apple, which Adam eat,
ftuck by the way, and occafioned it,
ADAMITES, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, the name of
a fedt of ancient heretics, fuppofed to have been a
branch of the Bafilidians and Carpocratians.
Epiphanius tells us, that they were called Adamites
from their pretending to be re-eftablifhed in the ftate of
innocence, and to be fuch as Adam was at the moment
of his creation, whence they ought to imitate him in
his nakednefs. They detetted marriage; maintaining,
that the conjugal union would never have taken place
upon earth had fin been unknown.
This
ADA [ 107 ] ADA
Adatmi* This obfcure and ridiculous fed did not at firft laft
Ad am fon ^on<3 > but it was revived, with additional abfurdities, in
., . ^. the twelfth century, by one Tandamus, fince known by
the name of Tanchslin, who propagated his errors at
Antwerp, in the reign of the emperor Henry V. He
maintained, that there ought to be no diftindion be¬
tween priefts and laymen, and that fomication and adul¬
tery were meritorious adions. Tanchelin had a great
number of followers, and was conftantly attended by
3000 of thefe profligates in arms. His fed did not,
however, continue long after his death: but another ap¬
peared under the name of Turlupins, in Savoy and Dau-
phiny, where they committed the moft brutal adions
in open day.
About the beginning of the fifteenth century, one
Picard, a native of Flanders, fpread thefe errors in
Germany and Bohemia, particularly in the army of
the famous Zifca, notwithftanding the fevere difcipline
he maintained. Picard pretended that he was fent into
the world as a new Adam, to re-eftabliih the law of
nature ; and which, according to him, confifted in ex-
pofing every part of the body, and having all the wo¬
men in common. This fed found alfo fome partizans
in Polland, Holland, and England : they aflembled in
the night; and it is aflerted, that one of the funda¬
mental maxims of their fociety was contained in the
following verfe:
Jura, perjura, fecretum prodere noli.
ADAMUS, the philofopher’s ftone is fo called by
alchemifts ; they fay it is an animal, and that it has
carried its invifible Eve in its body, fince the moment
they were united by' the Creator.
ADAMSHIDE, a diltrid of the circle of Raften-
burg, belonging to the king of Pruffia, which, with
Dombrofken, was bought, in 1737, for 42,000 dollars.
ADAMSON (Patrick), a Scottifli prelate, archbi-
fhop of St Andrews. He was born in the year 1543
in the town of Perth, where he received the rudiments
of his education; and afterwards ftudied Philofophy,
and took his degree of mafter of arts at the univerfity
of St Andrews. In the year 1566, he fet out for
Paris, as tutor to a young gentleman. In the month of
June of the fame year, Mary queen of Scots being
delivered of a fon, afterwards James VI. of Scotland
and Firft of England, Mr Adamfon wrote a Latin poem
on the occafion. This proof of his loyalty involved
him in fome difficulties, having been confined in France
for fix months; nor would he have eafily got off, had
not Queen Mary, and fome of the principal nobility,
interefled themfelves in his behalf. As foon as he re¬
covered his liberty, he retired with his pupil to Bour-
ges. He was in this city during the maffacre at Paris;
and the fame perfecuting fpirit prevailing among
the catholics at Bourges as at the metropolis, he lived
concealed for feven months in a public houfe, the ma¬
fter of which, upwards of 70 years of age, was thrown
from the top thereof, and had his brains daflied out,
for his charity to heretics. Whilll Mr Adamfon lay
thus in his fepulchre, as he called it, he wrote his La¬
tin poetical verfion of the Book of Job, and his Tra¬
gedy of Herod in the fame language. In the year
1573, he returned to Scotland; and, having entered
into holy orders, became minifter of Paifley. In the year
1575, he was appointed one of the commiffioners, by
the general affembly, to fettle the jurifdidtion and po-
3
licy of the church ; and the following year he was na- Adana,
med, with Mr David Lindfay, to report their proceed- -v—**
ings to the earl of Mdrtoun, then regent. About this
time the earl made him one of his chaplains ; and, on
the death of bifliop Douglas, promoted him to the
archiepifcopal fee of St Andrew’s, a dignity which
brought upon him great trouble and unealinefs: for now
the clamour of the Prefbyterian party rofe very high a-
gainft him, and many inconfiftent abfurd ftories were
propagated concerning him. Soon after his promo¬
tion, he publiflied his catechifm in Latin verfe, a
work highly approved even by his enemies; but, ne-
verthelefs, they ftill continued to perfecute him with
great violence. In 1578, he fubmitted himfelf to
the general affembly, which procured him peace but
for a very little time ; for, the year following, they
brought frefli accufations againll him. In the year
1582, being attacked with a grievous difeafe, in which
the phyficians could give him no relief, he happened to
take a fimple medicine from an old woman, which did
him fervice. The woman, whofe name was Alifon
Pearfon, was thereupon charged with witchcraft, and
committed to prifon, but efcaped out of her confinement;
however, about four years afterwards, five was again
found and burnt for a witch. In 1583, king James
came to St Andrew’s; and the archbifliop, being much
recovered, preached before him, and difputed with Mr
Andrew Melvil, in prefence of his Majefty, with great
reputation, which drew upon him frefli calumny and
perfecution. The king, however, was fo well pleafed
with him, that he fent him embaffador to Queen Eli-
fabeth, at whofe court he refided for fome years. His
conduct, during his embaffy, has been varioufly report¬
ed by different authors. Two things he principally
laboured, viz. the recommenditig the king his mafter
to the nobility and gentry of England, and the pro¬
curing fome fupport for the epifcopal party in Scotland.
By his eloquent preaching, he drew after him fuch
crowds of people, and raifed in their minds fuch a high
idea of the young king his mafter, that queen Elizabeth
forbad him to enter the pulpit during his flay in her
dominions. In 1584, he was recalled, and fat in the
parliament held in Auguft at Edinburgh. The Prefby-
terian party was ftill very violent againft the archbi¬
fliop. A provincial fynod was held at St Andrew’s
in April 1586: the archbifhop was here accufed and
excommunicated: he appealed to the king and the
ftates, but this availed him little ; for the mob being
excited againft him, he durft fcarce appear in public.
At the next general affembly, a paper being pro¬
duced, containing the archbifliop’s fubmiflion, he was
abfolved from the excommunication. In 1588, frefli
accufations were brought againft him. The year fol¬
lowing, he publiflied the Lamentations of the pro¬
phet Jeremiah in Latin verfe ; which he dedicated to
the king, complaining of his hard ufage. In the lat¬
ter end of the fame year, he publiflied a tranflation of
the Apocalypfe, in Latin verfe ; and a copy of Latin
verfes, addreffed alfo to his Majefty, when he was in
great diftrefs. The king, however, was fo far from
giving him affiftance, that he granted the revenue of
his fee to the duke of Lennox ; fo that the remaining
part of this prelate’s lift: was very wretched, he having
hardly fubfiftence for his family. He died in 1591.
ADANA, a town of Afia, in Natolia, and in the
O 2 province
ADA [ i°8 ] ADA
A'kiifnnia. province of Carmania. It is feated on tlie river Cho-
qUen_; on the banks of which ftands a ftrong little caftle
built on a rock. It has a great number of beautiful
fountains brought from the river by means of water¬
works. Over the river there is a llately bridge of fif¬
teen arches, which leads to the water-works. The cli¬
mate is very pleafant and healthy, and fhe winter mild
and ferehe : butjdie fummer is fo hot as to oblige the
principal inhabitants to retire into the neighbouring
mountains, where they fpend fix months among ftiady
trees and grottoes, in a moft delicious manner. The
adjacent country is rich and fertile, and produces me¬
lons, cucumbers, pomegranates, pulfe, and herbs of
all forts, all the year round ; befides corn, wine, and
fruits in their proper feafon. It is 30 miles eaft of
Tarfus, on the road to Aleppo. E. long. 35. 42. N.
lat. 38. 10.
ADANSONIA, Ethiopian Sour-gourd, Mon-
kies-bread, or African Calabash-tree, a genus
of the monodelphia order, belonging to the polyandria
clafs of plants ; the characters of which are : The cafyx
is a perianthium one-leav’d, half five-cleft, cup-form,
(the divifions revolute), deciduous: The corolla con-
fifts of five petals, roundilh, nerved, revolute, growing
reciprocally with the claws and ftamina : The Jlamina
have numerous filaments, coalefced beneath into a tube,
and crowning it, expanding horizontally ; the anthene
kidney-form, incumbent: The piflillum has an egged
germ ; the ftylus very long, tubular, varionfly intorted;
the ftigmata numerous (10) prifmatic, villous, ray-ex¬
panded : The pericarpium is an. oval capfule, woody,
not gaping, 10-celled, with farinaceous pulp, the par¬
titions membranous: The feeds are numerous, kidney-
fhaped, rather bony, and involved in a friable pulp.
There is at prefent but one known fpecies belonging
to this genus, the Baobab, which is perhaps the lar-
geft production of the whole vegetable kingdom. It
is a native of Africa.
The trunk is not above 12 or 15 feet high, but from
65 to 78 feet round. The loweft branches extend al-
moft horizontally; and as they are about 60 feet in
length, their own weight bends their extremities to the
ground, and thus^form an hemifpherical mafs of ver¬
dure of about 120 or 130 feet diameter. The roots
extend as far as the branches: that in the middle forms
a pivot, which penetrates a great way into the earth ;
the reft fpread near the furface. The flowers are in
proportion to the fize of the tree : and are followed by
an oblong fruit, pointed at both ends, about 10 inches
long, five or fix broad, and covered with a kind of
greenifh down, under which is a ligneous rind, hard
and almoft black, marked with rays which divide it
lengthwife into fides. The fruit hangs to the tree by
a pedicle two feet long and an inch diameter. It con¬
tains a whitifh fpongy juicy fubftance ; with feeds of a
brown colour, and ftiaped like a kidney-bean. The
bark of this tree is nearly an inch thick, of an afli-
coloured grey, greafy to the touch, bright, and very
fmootk : the outfide is covered with a kind of varnifh;
and the infide is green, fpeckled with red. The wood
is white, and veryfoft; the firft flioots of the year are
green and downy.
The leaves of the young plants are entire, of an ob¬
long form, about four or five inches long, and almoft
three broad, towards the top, having feveral veins run¬
ning from the middle rib; they are of a lucid green Adan
colour. As the plants advance in height, the leaves '
alter, and are divided into three parts, and afterwards
into five lobes, which fpread out in the fhape of an
hand. The tree ftieds its leaves in November, and new
ones begin to appear in June. It flowers in July, and
the fruit ripens in OCtober and November. It is very
common in Senegal, and the Cape de Verd iflands;
and is found 100 leagues up the country at Gulatn, and
upon the fea-coaft as far as Siefra-leona.
The age of this tree is perhaps no lefs remarkable
than its enormous fize. Mr Adanfon relates, that in a
botanical excurfion to the Magdalene Iflands, in the
neighbourhood of Goree, he difeovered fome calabafh-
trees, from five to fix feet diameter, on the bark of
which were engraved or cut to a confiderable depth
a number of European names. Two of thefe names,
which he was at the trouble to repair, were dated one
the I4th, the other the \fh century. The letters
were about fix inches long, but in breadth they occu¬
pied a very fmall part only of the circumference of the
trunk: from whence he concluded they had not been
cut when thefe trees were young. Thefe inferiptions,
however, he thinks fufficient to determine pretty nearly
the age which thefe calabalh-trees may attain; for even
fuppofing that thofe in queftion were cut in their early
years, and that trees grew to the diameter of fix feet
in two centuries, as the engraved letters evince, how
many centuries muft be requifite to give them a dia¬
meter of 25 feet, which perhaps is not the laft term
of their growth! The inferibed trees mentioned by this
ingenious Frenchman had been feen in 1555, almoft
two centuries before, by Thevet, who mentions them
in the relation of his voyage to Terra Antarctica or
Auftralis. Adanfon faw them in 1749.
The virtues and ufes of this tree and its fruit are
various. The negroes of Senegal dry the bark and
leaves in the ftiaded air; and then reduce them to
powder, which is of a pretty good green colour.
This powder they preferve in' bags of linen or cot¬
ton, and call it Hilo. They ufe it every day, putting
two or three pinches of it into a mefs, whatever it
happens to be, as we do pepper and fait: but their
view is, not to give a relfth to their food, but to'pre¬
ferve a perpetual and plentiful perfpiration, and to at¬
temper the too great heat of the blood ; purpofes
which it certainly anfwers, as feveral Europeans have
proved by repeated experiments, preferving themfelves
from the epidemic fever, which, in that country, de-
ftroys Europeans like the plague, and generally rages
during' the months of September and Oftober, when,
the rains having fuddenly ceafed, the fun-exhales the
water left by them upon the ground, and fills the air
with a noxious vapour. M. Adanfon, in that critical
feafon, made a light ptifan of the leaves of the baobab,
which he had gathered in the Auguft of the preceding
year, and had dried in the fliade ; and drank conftantly
about a pint of it every morning, either before dr af¬
ter breakfaft, and the fame quantity of it every even¬
ing after the heat of the fun began to abate; he alfo
fometimes took the fame quantity in the middle of the
day, but this was only when he felt fome fymptoms of
an approaching fever. By this precaution he prefer-
ved himfelf, during the five years he refided at Senegal,
from the. diarrhoea and fever, which are fo fatal there,
and
ADA [ i
Adanfonia and which are, however, the only dangerous difeafes
A jj^ of, the place; and other officers fuffered very feverely,
i ' / only one excepted, upon whom M. Adanfon prevailed
to ufe this remedy, which for its limplicity was defpi-
fed by the reft. This ptifan alone alfo prevents that
heat of urine which is common in thefe parts, from the
month of July to November, provided the perfon ab-
ftains from wine.
The fruit is not lefs ufeful than the leaves and the
bark. The pulp that envelopes the feeds has an agree¬
able acid tafte, and is eaten for pleafure: it is alfo
dried and powdered, and thus ufed medicinally in pefti-
lential fevers, the dyfentery, and bloody flux; the dofe
is a drachm, puffed through a line lieve, taken either in
common water, or in an infulion of the plantain. This
powder is brought into Europe under the name of terra
Jig:Hat,2 lemnta. The woody bark of the fruit, and
the fruit itfelf when fpciled, helps to fupply the ne¬
groes with an excellent foap, which they make by
drawing a ley from the afties, and boiling it with palm-
oil that begins to be rancid.
The trunks of fuch of thefe trees as are decayed, the
negroes hollow out into burying places for their poets,
muficians, buffoons: perfons of thefe charatfers they
efteem greatly while they live, fuppofing them to de¬
rive their fuperior talents from forcery or a commerce
with demons; but they regard their bodies with a kind
of horror when dead, and will riot give them burial in
the ufual manner, neither fuffering them to be put into
the ground, nor thrown into the fea or any river, be-
caufe they imagine that the water would not then nou-
rifli the fifh, nor the earth produce its. fruits. The bo-
. dies fnut up in thefe trunks become perfectly dry with¬
out rotting, and form a kind of mummies without the
help of embalment.
The baobab is very diftinft from the calabafti-tree of
America, with which it has been confounded by father
Labat. See Crescentia.
Culture. This tree is propagated from feeds, which
are brought from the countries where they grow na¬
turally. Being natives only of hot climates, the plants
will not thrive in the open air in Britain, even in fum-
mer. The feeds are therefore to be fawn in pots, and
plunged into a hot-bed, where the plants will appear
in about fix weeks, and in a ftiort time after be fit to
tranfplant. They muft then be planted each in. a fe-
parate pot, in light fandy earth, and plunged into a
hot-bed, ftiading them until they have taken root: af¬
ter which they fhould have frefh air admitted every day
in warai weather : but muft be fparingly watered, as
being apt to rot. They grow quickly for two or three
years, but afterwards make little progrefs ; the lower
part of the ftem then begins to fwell, and put out la¬
teral branches, inclining to a horizontal poiition, and
covered with a light grey bark. Some of this kind
of plants were raifed from feeds obtained from Grand
Cairo by Dr William Sherard, in 1724, and were
grown to the height of 18 feet; but were all deftroyed
by the fevere froft in 1740; after which they were un¬
known in Britain till the return of Mr Adanfon to Pa¬
ris in 1754.
ADAPTERS, or Adopters. See Chemistry,
{index.)
ADAR, the name of a Hebrew month, anfwering
tp the end of February and beginning of March, the
2
09 ] ADD
12th of their facred, and 6th of their civil year. On Adarce
the 7th day of it, the Jews keep a feaft for the death of .
Mofes; on the x 3th, they have the feaft of Efther; and 1 ‘‘ 10111
on the 14th, they celebrate the feaft of Purim, for their
deliverance from Haman’s confpiracy.—As the lunar
year, which the Jews followed in their calculations, is
Ihorter than the folar by about 11 days, which at the
end of three years make a month, they then intercalate
a 13th month, which they call Feadar,, or the Jecond
Adar.
ADARCE, a kind of concreted falls found on reeds
and other vegetables, and applied by the ancients as a
remedy in feveral cutaneous difeafes.
ADARCON, in Jewifh antiquity, a gold coin men¬
tioned in feripture, worth about 15 s. ilerling.
ADARME, in commerce, a fmall weight in Spain,
which is alfo ufed at Buenos-Aires, and in all Spaniffi
America. It is the xb11’ part of an ounce, which at
Paris is called the demi-gros. But the Spaniflr ounce is
feven per cent, lighter than that of Paris. Stephens
renders it in Engliih by a 'dram.
ADATAIS, Adatsi, or Adatys, in commerce,
a muflin or cotton-cloth, very fine and clear, of which
the piece is ten French ells long, and three quarters
broad. It comes from the Eaft-Indies ; and the fineft
is made at Bengal.
ADCORDABILIS denarii, in old lawbooks,
fignify money paid by the vaffal to his lord, upon the
felling or exchanging of a feud.
ADCRESCENTES, among the Romans, denoted
a kind of foldiery, entered in the army, but not yet put
on duty; from thefe the Handing forces were recruited^
See Accensi.
ADDA, in geography, a river of Switzerland and
Italy, which rifes in mount Braulio, in the country of
the Grifons, and, palling through the Valteline, tra-
verfes the lake Como and the Milanefe, and falls into
the Po, near Cremona.
ADDEPHAGIA, in< medicine, a term ufed by.
Tome phyficians, for gluttony, or a voracious appetite.
ADDER, in zoology, a name for the Viper. See.
Coluber.
Adder-BoHs, ox Adder-flies. See Libelulla.
Sea-Adder, the Englilh name of a fpecies of Syn-
gnathus.
Water-Adder, a name given to the Coluber Na-
trix.
AaDER-Jiung, is ufed in refpecl of cattle, when ftung
with any kind of venomous reptiles, as adders, fcor-
pions, &c. or bit by a 'hedgediog or flirew.—For the
cure of fuch bite%s, fome ufe an ointment made of dra¬
gon’s blood, with a little barley-meal, and the whites of
eggs.
AoDER-Wort, or Snahnuood. See Polygonum.
ADDEXTRATORES, in the court of Rome, the
pope’s mitre-bearers, fo called, according to Ducange,
beeaufe they walk at the Pope’s right-hand when he
rides to vifit the churches.
ADDICE; or Adze, a kind of crooked ax ufed by
fnip-wrights, carpenters, coopers, &c.
ADDICTI, in antiquity, aJtind of Haves, among
the Romans, adjudged to ferve fome creditor whom
they could not otherwife fatisfy, and whole Haves they
became till they could pay or work out the debt.
ADDICTION, among the Romans, was'the ma?
king
ADD [no] ADD
Addidio, king over goods to another, either by fale, or by legal
t~Addifon. f€ntence ; the goods fo delivered were called bona ad-
v"'™" ‘ did a. ' Debtors were fometimes delivefed over in the
fame manner; and thence called fervi addidi.
ADDTCTIO in diem, among the Romans, the ad¬
judging a thing to a perfon.for a certain price, unlefs
by fuch a day the owner, or fome other, give more
for it.
ADDISON (Lancelot), fon of Lancelot Addifon
a clergyman, was born at Mouldifmeaburne, in the pa¬
rish of Crofby Ravenfworth in Weftmoreland, in the
year 1632. He was educated at Queen’s College, Ox¬
ford ; and at the Reftoration of king CharlesII. accept¬
ed of the chaplain fliip of the garrifon of Dunkirk :
but that fortrefs being delivered up to the French in
1662, he returned to England, and was foon after
made chaplain to the garrifon of Tangier; where he
continued feven years, and was greatly efteemed. In
1670, he returned to England, and was made chaplain
in ordinary to the king; but his chaplainfhip of Tangier
being taken from him on account of his abfence, he
found himfelf ftraitened in his circumftances, when he
feafonably obtained the reftory of Milfton in Wiltfhire,
worth about 120I. per annum. He afterwards became
a prebendaiy of Sarum ; took his degree of doftor of
divinity at Oxford; and in 1683 was made dean of
Litchfield, and the next year archdeacon of Coventry.
His life was exemplary ; his converfation pleafing, and
greatly inflruftive ; and his behaviour as a gentleman,
a clergyman, and a neighbour, did honour to the place
of his refidence. He wrote, X. A Short Narrative of
the Revolutions of the Kingdoms of Fez and Morocco :
2. The prefent Hiftory of the Jews: 3. A Difcourfe
on Catechifing: 4. A Modeft Plea for the Clergy :
5. An Introdu&ion to the Sacrament: 6. The firft
State of Mahometifm : and feveral other pieces. This
worthy divine died on the 20th of April 1703 and
left threeTons: Jofeph, the fubjedl of the next article;
Gulfton, who died while governor of Fort St George ;
Lancelot, mafter of arts, and fellow of Magdalen Col¬
lege in Oxford ; and one daughter, firft married to Dr
■Sartre prebendary of Weftminfter, and afterwards to
Daniel Combes, Efq.
Addison (Jofeph), fon of dean Addifon the fub-
jett of the laft article. He was born at Milfton, near
Ambrelbury, in Wiltihire, on the IIth of May 1672 ;
and not being thought likely to live, was baptized the
fame day. He received the firft rudiments of his edu¬
cation at the place of his nativity, under the reverend
Mr Nailh ; but was foon removed to Salisbury, under
the care of Mr Taylor ; and from thence to the char-
ter-houfe, where he commenced his acquaintance with
Sir Richard Steele. About fifteen, he was entered at
Queen’s College, Oxford, where he applied very clofe-
ly to the ftudy of claffical learning, in which he made
a furprifing proficiency.
In the year 1687, Dr Lancafter, dean of Magda¬
len College, having, by chance, feen a Latin poem
of Mr Addifon’s, was fo pleafed with it, that he im¬
mediately got him elefted into that houfe, where he
took up his degrees of bachelor and mafter of arts. His
Latin pieces in the courfe of a few years, were exceeding¬
ly admired in both univerfities; norwere theylefs efteem¬
ed abroad, particularly by the celebrated Boileau, who is
reported to have faid, that he would not have written
againft Pcrrault, had he before feen fuch excellent pieces
by a modern hand. He publifiied nothing in Englilh
before the twenty-fecond year of his age ; when there
appeared a fiiort copy of verfes written by him, and ad-
dreffed to Mr Dryden, which procured him great re-
- putation from the beft judges. This was foon follow¬
ed by a tranflation of the Fourth Georgic of Virgil,
(omitting the ftory of Ariftaeus), much commended by
Mr Dryden. He wrote alfo the Effay on the Geor¬
gies, prefixed to Mr Dryden’s tranflation. There are
feveral other pieces written by him about this time ;
amongft the reft, one dated the 3d of April 1694,
addrefled to H. S. that is. Dr Sacheverel, who be¬
came afterwards fo famous, and with whom Mr Addi¬
fon lived once in the greateft friendfliip ; but their in¬
timacy was fome time after broken offby their difagree-
ment in political principles. In the year 1695, he
wrote a poem to king William on one of his cam¬
paigns, addrefled to Sir John Somers lord keeper of
the great feal. This gentleman received it with great
pleafure, took the author into the number of his friends,
and beftowed on him many marks of his favour.
Mr Addifon had been clofely prefled, while at the uni-
verfity, to enter into holy orders ; and had once refolved
upon it: but his great modefty, his natural diffidence,
and an uncommonly delicate fenfe of the importance of
the facred function, made him afterwards alter his re-
folution ; and having exprefled an inclination to travel,
he was encouraged thereto by his patron above-men¬
tioned, who by his intereft procured him from the
crown a penfion of L. 300 per annum to fupport him
in his travels. He accordingly made a tour to Italy
in the year 1699 ; and, in 1701, he wrote a poetical
epiftle from Italy to the earl of Halifax, which has
been univerfally efteemed as a moft excellent perform¬
ance. It was tranflated into Italian verfe by the abbot
Antonio Maria Salvini, Greek profeflbr at Florence.
In the year 1705, he publiflied an account of his tra¬
vels, dedicated to lord Somers; which, though at firft
but indifferently received, yet in a little time met with
its deferred applaufe.
In the year 1702, he was about to return to Eng¬
land, when he received advice of his being appointed
to attend prince Eugene, who then commanded for the
emperor in Italy : but the death of king William hap¬
pening foon after, put an end to this affair as well as his
penfion ; and he remained for a confiderable time un¬
employed. But an unexpected incident at once raifed
him, and gave him an opportunity of exerting his fine
talents to advantage : for in the year 1704, the lord
treafurer Godolphin happened to complain to lord Ha¬
lifax, that the duke of Marlborough’s victory at Blen¬
heim had not been celebrated in verfe in the manner it
deferved ; and intimated, that he would take it kindly,
if his lordfliip, who was the known patron of the poets,
would name a gentleman capable of doing juftice to fo
elevated a fubjeCt. Lord Halifax replied, fomewhat
haftily, that he did know fuch a perfon, but would
not mention him ; adding, that long had he feen, with
indignation, men of no merit maintained in luxury at
'the public expence, whilft thofe of real worth and mo¬
defty were fuffered to languiih in obfeurity. The
treafurer anfwered very coolly, that he was forry there
ftiould be occafion for fuch an obfervation, but that he
would do his endeavour to wipe off fuch reproaches for
the
ADD
the future ; and he engaged his hononr, that whoever
his lordfhip named, as a perfon capable of celebrating
this vi&ory, fhould meet with a hiitable recompence.
JLord Halifax thereupon named Mr Addifon ; inlifting,
hows eer, that the treafurer himfelf ftiould fend to him;
wb-'ch he promifed. Accordingly he prevailed on Mr
Bby’i: (afterwards lord Carlton) then chancellor of
the exchequer, to make the propcfal to Mr Addifon ;
which he did in fo polite a manner, that our author
readily undertook the talk. The lord-treafurer had a
light of the piece, when it was carried no farther than
the celebrated fimile of the angel; and was lb pleafed
with it, that he immediately appointed Mr Addifon a
commiffioner of appeals, vacant by the promotion of
Mr Locke, chofen one of the lords commiftioners for
trade. The Campaign is addrefled to the duke pf
Marlborough ; it gives a Ihort view of the military
tranfactions in 1704, and contains a noble defcription
of the two great aftions at Schellemberg and Blen¬
heim. In 1705, he attended lord Halifax to Hano¬
ver; and* the enfuing year was appointed under-fecre-
tary to Sir Charles Hedges fecretary of Hate ; in which
office he acquitted himfelf fo well, that the earl of Sun¬
derland, who fucceeded Sir Charles in December, con¬
tinued Mr Addifon in his employment.
A tafte for operas beginning at this time to prevail
in England, and many perfons having folicited Mr Ad¬
difon to write one, he complied with their requeft, and
compofed his Rofamond. This, however, whether
from the defeft of the mufic, or from the prejudices
in favour of the Italian tafte, did not fucceed upon the
ftage ; but the poetry of it has, and always will be,
juftly admiredv About this time, Sir Richard Steele
compofed his comedy of the Tender Hulband, to which
Mr Addifon wrote a prologue. Sir Richard furprifed
him with a dedication of this play, and acquainted the
public, that he was indebted to him for fome of the
moll excellent ftrokes in the performance. The mar¬
quis of Wharton, being appointed lord lieutenant of
Ireland in 1.709, took Mr Addifon with him as his.
fecretary. Her majefty alfo made him keeper of the
records of Ireland, and, as a farther mark of her fa¬
vour, confiderably augmented the falary annexed to
that place. Whilft he was in this kingdom, the Tat-
ler was lirft publiihed ; and he difcovered his friend
Sir Richard Steele to*be the author, by an obfervation
on Virgil, which he had communicated to him. He
afterwards aflifted confiderably in carrying on this pa¬
per, which the author acknowledges. The Tatler be¬
ing laid down, the Spectator was fet on foot, and Mr
Addifon furnifhed great part of the moft admired pa¬
pers. The Spectator made its firft appearance in March
171 (, and was brought to a conclufion in September
1712;
His celebrated Cato appeared in 1715. He form¬
ed the defign of a tragedy upon this fubjedt when he
was very young, and wrote it when on his travels:
he retouched it in England, without any intention of
bringing it on the ftage ; but his friends being per-
fuaded it would ferve the caufe of liberty,' he was pre¬
vailed on by their folicitationsj and it was accordingly
exhibited on the theatre, with a prologue by Mr Pope,
and an epilogue by Dr Garth. It was received with
the moft uncommon applaufe, having run thirty-five
pights without interruption. The Whigs applauded
ADD
every line in which- liberty was mentioned, as a fatire
on the Tories ; and the Tories echoed every clap, to
ftiow that the fatire was unfelt. When it was printed,
notice was given- that the Queen would be pleafed if it
was dedicated to her; “ but as he had defigned that
compliment elfewhere, he found himfelf obliged,” fays-
Tickell, “ by his duty on the one hand, and his ho¬
nour on the other, to fend it into the world without
any dedication.” It was no lefs efteemed abrpad, ha¬
ving been tranfiated into French, Italian, and German;
and it was acted at Leghorn, and feveral other places,
with vaft applaufe. The Jefuits of St Omers made a
Latin verfion of it, and the ftudents adted it with great
magnificence.
About this time, another paper called the Guardian
was publifhed by Steele, to which Addifon was a prin¬
cipal contributor. It was a continuation of the Spec¬
tator, and was diftinguiftied by the fame elegance and
the fame variety; but, in confequence of Steele’s pro-
penfity to politics, was abruptly difeontinued in order
to write the Engliftiman.
The papers of Addifon are marked in the Spectator.
by one of the letters in the name of Clio, and in the
Guardian by a Hand. Many of thefe papers were
written with powers truly comic, with nice diferimi-
nation of charadlers, and accurate obfervation of na¬
tural or accidental deviations from propriety : but it
was not fuppofed that he had tried a comedy on the
ftage, till Steele, after his death, declared him the au¬
thor of “ The Drummer.” This, however, he did
not know* to be true by any cogent teftimony: for
when Addifon put the play into his, hands, he only,
told him it was the work of a gentleman in the com¬
pany ; and when it was received, as is eonfeffed, with*
cold' difapprobation, he was probably lefs willing to
claim it. Tickell omitted it in his eolleftion ; but the
teftimony of Steele, and the total filence cf any other
claimant*, has-determined the public to affign it to Ad¬
difon, and it is now printed with his other poetry.
Steele carried “ The Drummer” to the playhoufe, and
afterwards to the prefs, and fold the copy for 50 gui¬
neas; To Steele’s opinion may be added the proof
fupplied by the play itfelf, of which the charafters are
fuch as Addifon would have delineated, and the ten¬
dency fuch as Addifon would have promoted.
It is faid that Mr Addifon intended to have compo¬
fed an Engiifti dictionary upon the plan of the Italian
(Della Crufea) ; but, upon the death of the queen,
being appointed fecretary to the lords juft ices, he had
not leifure to carry on fuch a work. When the earl of
Sunderland was appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland,
Mr Addifon was again made fecretary for the affairs
of that kingdom ; and, upon the earl’s being removed
from the lieutenancy, he was chofen one of the lords
of trade.
Not long afterwards an attempt was made to revive
the Spectator, at a time indeed by no means favour¬
able to literature, when the fneceffitm of a new family
to the throne filled the nation with anxiety, difeord,
and confufion ; and either the turbulence of the times
or the fatiety of the readers put a ftop to the publica¬
tion, after an experiment of 80 numbers, which were
afterwards collected into, an eighth volume, perhaps
more valuable than any of thofe that went before it :
Addifon produced more than a fourth part.
[ in I
ADD [ it
Addiron. In 1715, he began the Freeholder, a political pa
 r ' per, which was much admired, and proved of great
ufe at that juncture. He published alfo, about this
time, verfes to Sir Godfrey Kneller upon the king’s
pifture, and fome to the princefs of Wales with the
tragedy of Cato.
Before the arrival of king George he was made fe-
cretary to the regency, and was required by his office
to fend notice to Hanover that the queen was dead,
and that the throne was vacant. To do this would
not have been difficult to any man but Addifon, who
was fo overwhelmed with the greatnefs of the event,
and fo di drafted by choice of expreffion, that the lords,
who could not wait for the niceties of criticifm, called
Mr Southwell, a clerk in the houfe, and ordered him
to difpatch the meffage. Southwell readily told what
was neceflary, in the common dyle of bufinefs, and
valued himfelf upon having done what was too hard for
Addifon.
In 1716, he married the countefs dowager of War-
*wick, whom he had folicited by a very long and anxi¬
ous courtffiip. He is faid to have fird known her by
becoming tutor to her fon. The marriage, if uncon-
tradifted report can be credited, made no addition to
his happinefs; it neither found them nor made them
equal. She always remembered her own rank, and
thought herfelf in titled to treat with very little cere¬
mony the tutor of her fon. It is certain that Addifon
has left behind him no encouragement for ambitious
love. The year after, 1717, he rofe to his highed
elevation, being made fecretary of date ; but is repre-
fented as having proved unequal to the duties of his
place. In the houfe of commons he could not fpeak,
and therefore was ufelefs to the defence of the govern¬
ment. In the office he could not idue an order with¬
out lofing his time in qued of fine expreffions. At
lad, finding by experience his own inability for public
bufinefs, he was forced to folicit his difmiffion, with a
penfion of 15001. a-year. Such was the account of
thofe who were inclined to detraft from his abilities;
but by others his relinquifliment was attributed to de¬
clining health, and the neceffity of recefs and quiet.
In his retirement, he applied himfelf to a religious
•* Evidences work *, which he had begun long before ; part of
of the Xian fcarce finifhed, has been printed in his works.
£ ’S1011, He intended alfo to have given an Englilh paraphrafe
of fome of David’s pfalms. But his ailments increafed,
and cut ffiort his defigns. • He had for fome time been
opprefied by an adhmatic diforder, which was now ag¬
gravated by a drppfy, and he prepared to die conform¬
ably to his precepts and profeffions. He fent, as Pope
relates, a meffage by the earl of Warwick to, Mr Gay,
defiring to fee him : Gay, who had not viiited him for
fome time before, obeyed the fummous, and found
himfelf received with great kindnefs. The purpofe for
which the interview had been folicited was then difco-
vered: Addifon told him, that he had injured him ;
but that, if he recovered, he would recompenfe him.
What the injury was he did not explain, nor did Gay
ever know ; but fuppofed that fome preferment defign-
ed for him had by Addifon’s intervention been with¬
held.—Another death-bed interview, of a more folemn
nature, is recorded: Lord Warwick was a young man of
very irregular lifej and perhaps of loofe opinions. Addi-
ibn, for whom he did not want relpeft, had very diligent-
N0 3.
2 ] ADD
ly endeavoured to reclaim him ; but his arguments and
expoftulations had no effeft : One experiment, how¬
ever, remained to be tried. When he found his life
near its end, he direfted the young lord to be called :
and when he defined, with great tendernefs, to hear his
laft injunftions, told him, “ I have rent for you that
“ you may fee how a Chriltian can die.” What ef¬
feft this awful feene had on the earl’s behaviour is not
known : he died himfelf in a ffiort time. Having gi¬
ven direftions to Mr Tickell for the publication of his
works, and dedicated them on his death-bed to his
friend MrCraggs, he died June 17. 1719, at Holland-
houfe, leaving no child but a daughter who is ftill
living.
Addifon’s courfe of life before his marriage has been
detailed by Pope. Pie had in the houfe with him
Budgell, and perhaps Philips, His chief companions
were Steele, Budgell, Philips, Carey, Davenant, and
Colonel Brett. With one or other of thefe he always
breakfafted. He ftudied all morning 5 then dined at
a tavern, and went afterwards to Button’s. From the
coffeehoufe he went again to the tavern, where he often
fat late, and drank too much wine.
Dr Johnfon, in delineating the charafter of Addi¬
fon, obferves with Tickell, that he employed wit on
the fide of virtue and religion. He not only made the
proper ufe of wit himfelf, but taught it to others;
and from his time it has been generally fubfervient to
the caufe of reafon and truth. He has diffipated the
prejudice that had long connefted gaiety with vice,
and eafinefs of manners with laxity of principles. He
has rcltored virtue to its dignity, and taught innocence
not to be alhamed. This is an elevation of literary
charafter, “ above all Greek, above all Roman fame.”
No greater felicity can genius attain than that of ha¬
ving purified intelleftual pleafure, feparated mirth from
indecency, and wit from licentioufnefs; of having
taught a fucceffion of writers to bring elegance and
gaiety to the aid of goodnefs ; and, to ufe expreffions
yet more awful, of having “ turned many to righte-
“ oufnefs.” As a deferiber of life and manners, he
mull be allowed to ftand perhaps the firft of the firll
rank. His humour, which, as Steele-obferves, is pe¬
culiar to himfelf, is fo happily diffufed as to give the
grace of novelty to domellic feenes and daily occur¬
rences. He never “ outfteps the modelly of nature,”
nor raifes merriment or wonder by the violation of
truth. His figures neither divert by diftortion, nor
amaze by aggravation. He copies life with fo much
fidelity, that he can be hardly faid to invent; yet his
exhibitions have an air fo much original, that it is dif¬
ficult to fuppofe them not merely the produft of ima¬
gination. As a teacher of wifdom he may be confi¬
dently followed. Plis religion has nothing in it enthu-
fialtic or fuperllitious ; he appears neither weakly cre¬
dulous nor wantonly fceptical; his morality is neither
dangeroufly lax nor imprafticably rigid. All the en¬
chantment of fancy and all the cogency of argument
are employed to recommend to the reader his real in-
tereft, the care of pleafing the Author of his being.
Truth is fhown fometimes as the phantom of a vifion,
fometimes appears half-veiled in an allegory ; fometimes
attrafts regard in the robes of fancy, and fometimes
fteps forth in the confidence of reafon. She wears a
thoufand drefles, and in all is pleafing.
Add! Ton.
ADD [ US ] ADD
The Do&or, however, has related the following a-
necdote, which every admirer of Addifon, every man
of feeling, muft be reluctant to believe. “ Steele (fays
the Doctor), whofe imprudence of generofity, or va¬
nity of profufion, kept him always incurably neceffi-
tous, upon fome preffing exigence, in an evil hour,
borrowed an hundred pounds of his friend, probably
without much purpofe of repayment; but Addifon,
who feems to have had other notions of a hundred
pounds, grew impatient of delay, and reclaimed his
loan by an execution. Steele felt, with great fenfibi-
lity, the obduracy of his creditor ; but with emotions
of forrow rather than of anger.” It is much to be
wifhed, fays Dr Kippis, that Dr Johnfcn had produ¬
ced his authority for this narration. It is very pofiible,
that it may be only a ftory the Doctor had fomewhere
heard in converfation, and which is entirely ground-
lefs: “ and this I am the rather inclined to believe,
as I have been allured, by one of the moft refpeftable
characters in the kingdom, that the fail hath no foun¬
dation in truth.” Mr Potter, in a late publication,
hath informed us, that he is told by the beft authority,
that the ftory is an abfolute falfehood.
Mr Tyers, in “ An hiftorical Eflay on Mr Addi¬
fon,” printed, but not publilhed, has mentioned fome
fails concerning him, with which we were not before
acquainted. Thefe are, That he was laid out for dead
as foon as he was born : that, when he addrefled his
rerfes on the Englilh poets to Henry Sacheverell, he
courted that gentleman’s filter : that, whenever Ja¬
cob Tonfon came to him for the Spectator, Bayle’s
French Hiftorical and Critical Dictionary lay always
open before him : that, upon his return to England,
after his travels, he difcharged fome old debts he had
contracted at Oxford, with the generofity of good
intereft : that he was put into plentiful circumftances
by the death of a brother in the Eaft Indies : that,
having received encouragement from a married lady,
of whom he had been formerly enamoured, he had the
integrity to refill the temptation : that he refufed a
gratification of a three hundred pounds bank-note,
and afterwards of a diamond-ring of the fame value,
from a Major Dunbar, whom he had endeavoured to
ferve in Ireland by his intereft with lord Sunderland :
and that his daughter by lady Warwick is ftill alive
and unmarried, refiding at Bilton near Rugby, and
pofleffing an income of more than twelve hundred a-year.
The following letter, which probably relates to the
cafe of Major Dunbar, reflects great honour on Mr
Addifon’s integrity. “ June 26. 1715. Sir, I find
there is a very ftrong oppofition formed againft you ;
but I lhall wait on my lord lieutenant this morning,
and lay your cafe before him as advantageoully as I
can, if he is not engaged in other company. I am
afraid what you fay of his grace does not portend you
any good. And now, Sir, believe me, when I allure
you I never did, nor ever will, on any pretence what-
foever, take more than the Hated and cuftomary fees
of my office. I might keep the contrary practice
concealed from the world, were I capable of it, but
I could not from myfelf; and I hope I lhall always
fear the reproaches of my own heart more than
thofe of all mankind. In the mean time, if I can
ferve a gentleman of merit, and fuch a character as
you bear in the world, the fatisfaCtion I meet with on
Vol.I. Parti.
fuch an occafion is always a fufficient, and the only re- Additamsrt
ward to, Sir, your moft obedient, humble fervant, Jt.
J. Addison.”—The anecdote which follows was told A“dltlons
by the late Dr Birch. Addifon and Mr Temple Stan- . ° ^aCC‘ ■
yan were very intimate. In the familiar converfations
which palTed between them, they were accuftomed
freely to difpute each other’s opinions. Upon fome
occafion, Mr Addifon lent Stanyan five hundred pounds.
After this, Mr Stanyan behaved with a timid referve,
deference, and refpeCt; not converfing with the fame
freedom as formerly, or canvaffing his friend’s fenti-
ments. This gave great uneafinefs to Mr Addifon.
One day they happened to fall upon a fubjeCt, on which
Mr Stanyan had always been ufed ftrenuoully to oppofe
his opinion. But, even upon this occafion, he gave
way to what his friend advanced, without interpofing
his own view of the matter. This hurt Mr Addifon
fo much, that he faid to Mr Stanyan, “ Either con¬
tradict me, or pay me the money.”
In Tickell’s edition of Mr Addifon’s works there
are feveral pieces hitherto unmentioned, viz. The Dif-
fertation on Medals ; which, though not publilhed till
after his death, yet he had collected the materials, and
began to put them in order, at Vienna, in 1702. A
pamphlet, intitled, The prefent State of the War,
and the Neceffity of an Augmentation, confidered.
The late Trial and Conviction of Count Tariff. The
Whig Examiner came out on the 14th of September
1716: there were five of thefe papers attributed to
Mr Addifon, and they are the fevereft pieces he ever
wrote. He is faid alfo to have been the author of a
performance intitled Dijfertatio de inftgnioribus Roma-
norum Poetis, and of a Difcourfe on Ancient and Mo¬
dern Learning.
ADDITAMENT, fomething added to another.
Thus phyficians call the ingredients added to a medi¬
cine already compounded, additaments.
ADDITION, is the joining together or uniting
two or more things, or augmenting a thing by the ac-
ceffion of others thereto.
Addition, in Arithmetic, Algebra, &c. See
thefe articles.
Addition, in mufic, a dot marked on the right fide
of a note, fignifying that it is to be founded or length¬
ened half as much more as it would have been without
fuch mark.
_ Addition, in law, is that name or title which is
given to a man over and above his proper name and
furname, to Ihow of what eftate, degree, or myftery
he is ; and of what town, village, or country.
Additions of EJbate, or Quality, are, Yeoman, Gentle¬
man, Efquire, and fuch like.
Additions of Degree, are thofe we call names of
dignity; as Knight, Lord, Earl, Marquis, and Duke.
Additions of Myftery, are fuch as forivener, painter,
mafon, and the like.
Additions of Place, are, of Thorp, of Dale, of
Woodftock.—Where a man hath houfehold in two
places, he ftiall be faid to dwell in both ; fo that his
addition in either may fuffice. Knave was anciently a
regular addition. By ftat. 1. Hen. V. cap. 5. it was
ordained, that in fuch fuits or aCtions where procefs of
outlawry lies, fuch addition fliould be made to the
name of the defendant, to ftiow his eftate, myftery,
and place where he dwells ; and that the writs not ha-
P ving
A D E [ n
1 ving fuch additions fhall abate if the defendant take
exception thereto ; but not by the office of the court.
j The reafon of this ordinance was, that one man might
not be troubled by the outlawry of another; but by
reafon of the certain addition, every perfon might bear
his own burden.
Additions, in diddling, a name given to fuch
things as are added to the waffi, or liquor, while in a
date of fermentation, in order to improve the vinofity
of the fpirit, procure a larger quantity of it, or give
it a particular flavour. All things, of whatever kind,
thus added in the time of fermentation, are called by
thofe of the bufinefs who fpeak moft intelligently addi¬
tions ; but many confound them with things of a very
different nature, under the name of ferjnents. See
Distilling.
Additions, in heraldry, Tome things added to a coat
©f arms, as marks of honour; and therefore direftly
©ppofite to abatements. Amdng additions we reckon
Bordure, Quarter, Canton, Gyp„on, Pile, &c.
See thcfe articles.
ADDRESS, in a general fenfe, is ufed for ikill
and good management, and of late has been adopted
from the French. It is ufed alfo in commerce, as fy-
nonymous with dire ft ion to a perfon or place. The
word is formed of the French verb adrejfer, To direct,
any thing to a perfon.
ADDUCENT muscles, or Adductors, in ana>-
tomy, thofe muffles which pull one part of the body
towards another. See Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles.
ADEB, in commerce, the name of- a large Egyp¬
tian weight, uffd principally for rice, and confifting of
210 okes, each of three rotolos,.a weight of about two
drams lefs than the Englifh pound. But thia is no cer¬
tain weight; for at. Rofttto the adeb is only 150 okes.
ADEL,, a kingdom'on the eaftern eoaft of Africa,
which reaches as far as the ftraits of Babelmandel,
which unite the Red Sea to the fea of Arabia. This
country produces corn, and feeds a great number of
cattle. The inhabitants carry on a trade in gold, fil-
ver, ivory, oil, frankincenfe, a fort of pepper, and other
merchandifes of Arabia and the Indies. The king was
formerly a vaffal to the grand negus of Abyffinia : but
being Mahometans, and the Abyffmians a fort of Chri-
ftians,, they could not agree ; and in 1535 came to an
open rupture, when the Adelines threw off the yoke,
feeking proteftion from the Grand Signior. The prin¬
cipal places are, Adda, feated in the centre of the
country, and is the town where the king refides : Zeila,
near the Arabian Sea, is a rich town, and has a good
trade : Barbora, near the fea-coaft, is an ancient trading
town. It rains very feldom in this country.
ADELIA, a genus of the monadelphia order, be¬
longing to the dicecia elafs of plants ; the charafters
of which are : The mask calyx is a perianthium one¬
leaved, three-parted ; the florets fublanced and con¬
cave : No corolla : The famina confi'ft of many capil¬
lary filaments the length of the calyx, conjoined at
the bafe in a cylinder ; the antherae are iroundifli. The
female calyx is a five-leaved perianthium ; the leaflets
fublanced, concave, perfiftent: No corolla : The pi ft il¬
ium has a roundilh germen ; the ftyli are three, Ihort,
and divaricated ; the ftigmata lacerated : The perian¬
thium is a three-grained, roundifli, three-celled capfule :
The feeds are folitary and roundilh. In the natural
4 ] A D E
method, this genus belongs to the 38th order, Tricocca?.
Of this genus there are three fpecies; the bernardta,
the ricinella, and acidoton, for which we have no pro¬
per names in Englifli. They are natives of Jamaica,
and are akin to the ricinus or croton, and may be pro¬
pagated in hot-beds from feeds procured from Jamaica..
ADELME, or Aldhelm, fon to Kenred, nephew
to Ina king of the Weft-Saxons; after having been
educated abroad, was abbot of Malmfbury 30 years.
He was the firft EngHfliman who wrote in Latin, the
firft who brought poetry into England,. and the firit
bifliop of Sherburn. Fie lived in.great eileem till his
death, which happened in 709.. He was canonized,
and many miracles wrere told of him. He is mention¬
ed with great honour by Camden and Bayle, and his.
life was written by William of Malmibury.
ADELPHIANI, in church-hiftory, a left of an¬
cient heretics, who faffed always on Sundays.
ADELSCALC, in ancient cuftoms, denotes a fer-
vant of the king. The word is alfo written adclfcalchcy
and adelfcalcm. It is compounded of the German am!,
or edcl, “ noble,” and fcalc, “ fervant.” Among the
Bavarians, adelfcatcs appear to have been the fame with
royal thanes among the Saxons, and thofe called mini-
fri regis in ancient charters. -
ADEMPTION, in the civil law, implies the re¬
vocation of a grant, donation, or the like.
ADEN, formerly a rich and confiderable town of
Arabia the Happy. It is feated by the fea-fide, a
little eaftward of the ftraits of Babelmandel.
ADENANTHERA, bastard flower-fence, a
genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the de-
candria clafs of plants. In the natural method, it
belongs to the 33J order, Lomentacea. The cha¬
rafters are : The calyx is a perianthium confifting
of one very fmall five-toothed leaf. The corolla- corr-
fifts of five bell-lhaped lanceolate feffile petals, convex
within and concave under. The famina have ten ereft
Tubulated filaments fhorter than the corolla ; the anthe-
ne are roundifli, incumbent, bearing a globular gland on
the exterior top. The pif ilium has a long gibbous ger¬
men ; the ftylus fubulated the length of the ftamina;
the ftigma Ample. The pericarpiu?n is a long com-
preffed membranous legumen. The feeds are very nu¬
merous, roundifli, and remote.
Only one. fpecies of this plant is known in Britain 1
but there is a variety, with ftarlet feeds ; which, how¬
ever, is rare, and grows very flow^y. It is a native of
India, and riffs to a confiderable height. It is as large
as the tamarind tree ; fpreads itsbranches wide on every
fide, and makes a fine ftiade; for which reafon, it is
frequently planted by the inhabitants in their gardens
or near their habitations. The leaves of this tree are
doubly winged, the flowers of a* yellow, colour, and
difpofed in a Jong bunch. Theft are fucceeded by long
twiffed membranaceous pods, inclofing feveral hard
compreffed feeds, of a beautiful ftavlet, or fhining black,,
colour. This plant muff be railed in a hot-bed, and
kept during winter in a ftove.
ADENBURG, or Aldenburg, a town of Weft,-
phalia, and in the duchy of Burg, fubjeft* to the Elec¬
tor Palatine. It is 12 miles N. E. of Cologne, and
17 W. of Bonn ; E. long. 7. 25. lat. 51.2.
ADENOGRAPHY, that part of anatomy which
treats of the glandular parts. See Anatomy. .
APE-
A D H [ I
Aflenoides ADENOIDES, glandulous, or of a glandular form;
II an epithet applied to the prostate.
.Ai)-h '-tola-, ADENOLOGY, the fame with Adenography.
"v ADENOS, a kind of cotton, otherwife called ma¬
rine cotton. It comes from Aleppo by the way of Mar-
feilles, where it pays 20 per cent. duty.
ADEONA, in mythology, the name of a goddefs in¬
voked by the Romans when they fet out upon a journey.
ADEPHAGIA, in mythology, the goddefs of glut¬
tony, to whom the Sicilians paid religious worlhip.
ADEPS, in anatomy, the fat found in the abdo¬
men. It alfo fignifies animal fat of any kind.
ADEPTS, a term among alchemifts for thofe who
pretended to have found the panacea or philofophers-
ftone.
ADERBIJAN, a province of Perfia, bounded on
the N. by Armenia Proper, on the S. by Irac-Agemi,
on the E. by Ghilan, and on the W. by Curdiftan.
The principal town is Tauris; from 42. to 48. long,
from 36. to 39. lat.
ADERNO, a fmall place in the Val di Demona in
the kingdom of Sicily: E. long. 15. 25. lat. 28. 5.
The ancient Adranum.
ADES, or Hades, denotes the invifible Hate. In
the heathen mythology, it comprehends all thofe re¬
gions that lie beyond the river Styx, viz. Erebus, Tar¬
tarus, and Elyfium. See Hell.
ADESSENARIANS, Adessenarii, in church-
hiftory, a feet of Chrillians who hold the real prefence
'of Chrift’s body in the eucharift, though not by way
of tranfubftantiation. They differ confiderably as to
this prefence ; feme holding that the body of Chrift is
in the bread; others that it is about the bread; and
others that it is under the bread.
ADFILIATION, a Gothic cuftom, whereby the
children of a former marriage are put upon the fame
footing with thofe of the fecond. This is alfo called
unto prolium, and dill retained in fome parts of Ger¬
many.
AD FINES (Antonine), a town of Swifferland,
fuppofed to be the modern Pfin, in the north of the
diftrifl of Turgow, on the rivulet Thur, not far from
the borders of Suabia, about half-way between Con*
ffance and Frauenfield. So called, becaufe when Ce-
cinna, general of the emperor Vkellius, with the auxi¬
liary Rhetians, defeated the Helvetii, the former ex¬
tended their borders thus far, their territory ending
here 5 and, in time of the Romans, it was the lad
town in this quarter, and of fome repute.
ADHA, a fedival which the Mahometans celebrate
on the 1 oth day of the month Dhoulkegiat, which is
the 12th and lad of their year. This month being par¬
ticularly dedined for the ceremonies which the pilgrims
obferve at Mecca, it takes its name from thence, for
the word fignifies the month of Pilgrimage On that
day they facrifice with great folemnity, at Mecca, and
no wdiere elfe, a (beep, which is called by the fame
name as the fedival itfelf. The Turks commonly call
this fedival the Great Beiram, to didinguidi it from
the leffer, which ends their fad, and which the Chri-
dians of the Levant call the Eafter of the Turks. The
Mahometans celebrate this fedival, out of the city of
Mecca, in a neighbouring valley ; and fometimes they
facrifice there a camel. See Bairam.
ADHATODA, in botany. See Ji/stjcia.
15 1 ADI
Action of ADHERENCE, in Scots law; an ac- A<*Ion
tion competent to a hufband or wife, to compel either a e^encc
party to adhere, in cafe of defertion. Adjazzo,
ADHESION, in a general fenfe, implies the dick- v—^ <
ing or adhering of bodies together.
Adhesion, in philofophy. See Cohesion.
Adhesion, in anatomy, a term for one partdicking
to another, which in a natural date are feparate. For
thexmod part, if any of thofe parts in the thorax or
belly lie in contaft, and indame, they grow together.
The lungs very frequently adhere to the pleura.
ADHIL, in adronomy, a dar of the fixth magni¬
tude, upon the garment of Andromeda, under the lad
dar in her foot.
ADHOA, in ancient cudoms, denotes what we
otherwife call relief. In which fenfe we fometimes alfo
find the word written adoha, adhoamenlum, and adhoga*
mentum.
ADIANTHUM, maiden-hair ; a genus of the
order of filices, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of
plants. The fructifications are collected in oval fpots
under the refiedted tops of the fronds.
Species. Of this genus botanical writers enumerate
fifteen fpecies ; the mod remarkable are the following^'
i. The capillus veneris, or true maiden-hair, is a na-
tive of the fouthern parts of France, from whence it
is brought to Britain ; though it is likewife faid to
grow plentifully in Cornwall, and the Trichomanes has
been almod univerfally fubdituted for it. 2. The pe-
datum, or American maiden-hair, is a native of Ca¬
nada ; and grows in fuch quantities, that the French
fend it from thence in package for other goods, and the
apothecaries of Paris ufe it for maiden-hair in the com-
pofitions wherein that is ordered. 3. The trapezi-
forme, or black American maylen-hair, is a native of
Jamaica; and has filming black dalks, and leaves of
an odd fiiape, which make an agreeable variety among
other plants, fo is fometimes cultivated in gardens.
Culture. The fird fpecies grows naturally out of
the joints of walls, and fiffures of rocks. It ought,
therefore to be planted in pots filled with gravel and
lime-rubbifh ; wrhere it will thrive much better than in
good earth. It mud alfo be flickered under a frame
during the winter.—-The fecond is to be treated in
the fame manner ; but the third will not thrive in Bri¬
tain, unlefs kept in a dove during the winter.
Properties. The true maiden-hair has been greatly
celebrated in diforders of the bread proceeding from a
thinnefs and acrimony of the juices ; and likewife for
opening obdruftions of the vifeera, and promoting the
expectoration of tough phlegm. But modern practice
pays little regard to it; the afplenium trichomanes, or
Englifli maiden-hair, fupplying its place. See Asple-
nium,
ADIAPHORISTS, in church-hidory, a name im¬
porting lukewarmnefs, given, in the 16th century, to
the moderate Lutherans, who embraced the opinions
of Melanfthon, whofe difpofition was vadly more paci¬
fic than that of Luther.
ADIAPHOROUS, Adiaphorus, a name given
by Mr Boyle to a kind of fpirit diddled from tartar
and fome other vegetable bodies ; and which is neither
acid, vinous, nor urinous; but in many refpe&s diffe¬
rent from any other fort of fpirit.
ADJAZZO, Adra z zo, or A jACc 10, in geography,
P 2 a
A D J [ 116 ] A D J
Adjective a handfome town and caftle of Corfica in the Mediter-
H ranean, with a bilhop’s fee, and a good harbour. It
tion. P0PU^0U3, and fertile in wine. It is 27 miles S. W.
y—; of Corte. E. long. 41. 54 lat. 38. £.
ADJECTIVE, in grammar, a kind of noun joined
with a fubftantive, either expreffed or implied, to fliow
its qualities or accidents. See Grammar.
ADIGE, a river in Italy, which taking its rife
fouth of the lake Glace among the Alps, runs fouth by
Trent, then call by Verona in the territory of Venice,
and falls into the gulph of Venice, north of the mouth
©f the Po.
ADJOURNMENT, the putting off a court, or
other meeting, till another day. There is a difference
between the adjournment and the prorogation of the
parliament; the former not only being for a fhorter
time, but alfo done by the houfe itfelf; whereas the
latter is an aft of royal authority.
ADIPOSE, a term ufed by anatomifls for any cell,
membrane, See. that is remarkable for its fatnefs.
ADIRBEITSAN, in geography, a province of
Perfia, in Afia, a.hd part of the ancient Media. It is
bounded on the N. by the province of Shirvan, on the
S- by Irac-Agemi and Curdiftan, on the E. by Gilan
and the Cafpian fea, and on the W. by Turcomania.
ADIT, in a general fenfe, the paffage to, or entrance
©f, any thing.
jIdit of a Mine, the hole, or aperture, whereby it
is entered and dug, and by which the water and ores
are carried away. The term amounts to the fame with
funiculus or drift, and is diflinguifhed from air-Jhaft.
The adit is ufually made on the fide of a hill, towards
the bottom thereof, about four, five, or fix feet high,
and eight wide, in form of an arch ; fometimes cut in
the rock, and fometimes fupported with timber, fo con-
dufted as that the foie or bottom of the adit may an-
fwer to the bottom of the fliaft, only fomewhat lower,
that the water may have a fufficient current to pafs
away without the ufe of the pump. Damps and the
impurity of the air are the great impediments againft
driving adits above 20 or 30 fathoms, by reafon of the
necefiity, in this cafe, of letting down air-fhafts from
the day to meet the adit, which are often very expen-
five, both on account of the great depth of mines, and
the hardnefs of the mineral ftrata to be cut through.
The beft remedy againft this is that praftifed in the
coal-mines near Liege, where they work their adits
without air-lhafts: the manner of which is deferibed
by Sir Robert Moray. Vid. Phil. Tranf. N° 5.
Adit of a Mine is fometimes ufed for the air-lhaft
itfelf, being a hole driven perpendicularly from the fur-
face of the earth into fame part of a mine, to give en¬
trance to the air. To draw off the ftanding water in
winter, in deep mines, they drive up an adit, or air-
firaft, upon which the air difengages itfelf from the
water, when it begins to run with fuch violence as pro¬
duces a noife equal to the burfting of a cannon, dallies
every thing in the way againft the fides of the mine,
and loofens the very rocks at a diftance. Ibid. N° 26.
ADJUDICATION, implies the aft of adjudging,
©r determining, a caufe in favour of fome perfon.
Adjudication, in Scots law, the name of that ac¬
tion by which a creditor attaches the heritable eftate
of his debtor, or his debtor’s heir, in order to appro¬
priate it to himfelf, either in payment or fecurity of his
debt; or that aftion by which the holder of an heri AJjunJt
table right, labouring under any defeft in point of form, . fl .
may fupply that defeft. _ _
ADJUNCT, among philofophers,fignifies fomething
added to another, without being any neceffary part of
it. Thus water abforbed by cloth or a fponge, is an
adjunft, but no neceffary part of either of thefe fub-
ftances.
Adjunct, in metaphyfics, fome quality belonging
to either the body or mind, whether natural or acqui¬
red. Thus thinking is an adjunft of the mind, and
growth an adjunft of the body.
Adjunct, in mufic, a word which is employed to
denominate the conneftion or relation between the prin¬
cipal mode and the modes of its two-fifths, which, from
the intervals that conftitute the relation between them
and it, are called its adjuncts.
Adjunct is alfo ufed to fignify a colleague, or fome
perfon affociated with another as an affiftant.
Adjunct Gods, or Adjuncts of the Gods, among
the Romans, were a kind of inferior deities, added as
affiftants to the principal ones, to eafe them in their func¬
tions. Thus, to Mars was adjoined Bellona and Ne-
mefis; to Neptune, Salacia ; to Vulcan, the Cabiri}
to the Good Genius, the Lares; to the Evil, the Le-
mures, &c.
Adjuncts, in rhetoric and grammar, fignify certain
words or things added to others, to amplify or augment
the force of the difeourfe.
Adjuncts, orAnjoiNTS, in the royal academy of
fciences at Paris, denote a clafs of members, attached
to the purfuit of particular fciences. The clafs of Ad¬
juncts was created in 1716, in lieu of the Eleves: they
are twelve in number ; two for geometry, two for me¬
chanics, two for aftronomy, two for anatomy, two for
chemiftry, and two for botany. The Eleves not ta¬
ken into this eftablifhment were admitted on the foot
of fupernumerary Adjuncts.
ADJUTANT, in the military art, is an officer
whofe bufinefs it is to affift the major. Each battalion
of foot and regiment of horfe has an adjutant, who re¬
ceives the orders every night from the brigade-major;
which, after carrying them to the colonel, he delivers
out to the ferjeants. When detachments are to be
made, he gives the number to be furnifhed by each
company or troop, and affigns the hour and place of
rendezvous. He alfo places the guards; receives, and
diftributes the ammunition to the companies, &c.; and,
by the major’s orders, regulates the prices of bread,
beer, and other provifions. The word is fometimes
ufed by the French for an aid-du-camp.
AojuTANTS-general, among the jefuits, a feleft
number of fathers, who refided with the general of the
order, each of whom had a province or country affigned
him, asEngland, Holland, &c.andtheir bufinefs was to
inform the father-general of ftate-occurrences in fuch
countries. To this end they had their correfpon-
dents delegated, emiffaries, vifitors, regents, provin¬
cials, &c.
ADJUTORIUM, a term ufed by phyficians for
any medicine in a prefeription but the capital one.
ADLE-eggs, fuch as have not received an impreg¬
nation from the femen of the cock.
ADLEGATION, in the public law of the German
empire, a right claimed by the ftates of the empire of
adjoin*-
ADM [ i
Adlocutlen adjoining plenipotentiaries, in public treaties and nego-
II. . ciations, to thofe of the emperor, for the tranfafting of
Station" matters relate to the empire in general. In
t t, “ ' which fenfe adlegation differs from legation, which is
the right of fending ambaffadors on a perfon’s own ac¬
count.—Several princes and ftates of the empire enjoy
the right of legation, who have not that of adlegation,
and vice verfa. The bifhops, for inftance, have the
right of adlegation in the treaties which concern the
common intereft, but no right of legation for their own
private affairs. The like had the duke of Mantua.—
The emperor allows the princes of Germany the privi¬
lege of legation, but difputes that of adlegation. They
challenge it as belonging to them jure regni, which
they enjoy in common with the emperor himfelf.
ADLOCUTION, Adlocutio, in antiquity, is
chiefly underftood of fpeeches made by Roman gene¬
rals to their armies, to encourage them before a battle.
We frequently find thefe adlocutions expreffed on me¬
dals by the abbreviature Adlocut. Coh.—The ge¬
neral is fometimes reprefented as feated on a tribunal,
often on a bank or mount of turf, with the cohorts
ranged orderly round him, in vianipuli and turmce.
The ufual formula in adlocutions was, Fortis ejfel ae
fidut.
ADMANUENSES, in ancient law books, denote
perfons who fwore by laying their hands on the book.
-—In which fenfe, admanuenfes amount to the fame
with laymen; and Hand oppofed to clerks, who were
forbid to fwear on the book, their word being to be re¬
puted as their oath ; whence they were alfo denomi¬
nated/i.? digni.
ADMEASUREMENT, Admensuratio, in law,
a writ which lies for the bringing thofe to reafon, or
mediocrity, who ufurp more of any thing than their
fhare. This writ lies in two cafes ; termed,
s1dmf.asurf.ment of Donver, Admenfuratio dotis,
where the widow of the deceafed holds more from the
heir, or his guardian, on account of her dower, than, of
right belongs to her. And,
Admeasurement of Pafture, Admenfuratio pafturee;
this lies between thofe who have common of paftures
appendant to their freehold, or common by vicinage,
in cafe any of them furcharge the common with more
cattle than they ought.
ADMINICLE, a term ufed chiefly in old law¬
books, to imply an aid, help, affiftance, or fupport.
The word is Latin, adminiculum; and derived from ad¬
minicular, to prop or fupport.
Adminicle, in Scots law, fignifies any writing or
deed referred to by a party, in an adfion of law, for
proving his allegations.
ADMINICULATOR, an ancient officer of the
church, whofe bufinefs it was to attend to and defend
the caufe of the widows, orphans, and others deftitute
of help.
ADMINISTRATION, in general, the govern¬
ment, direftion, or management of affairs, and parti¬
cularly the exercife of diftributive juftice ; among ec-
clefiaftics, it is often ufed to exprefs the giving or dif-
penfing the facraments, &c.
Administration, is alfo the name given by the
Spaniards in Peru to the ftaple magazine, or warehoufe,
eftabliflied at Callao, a fmall town on the S. Sea, which
is the port of Lima, the capital of that part of South
.America, and particularly of Peru. The foreign /hips,
17 ] ADM
which have leave to trade along that coall, are obliged Admini-
to unload here, paying 13 per cent, of the price they ^ratof
fell for, if the cargo be entire, and even 16 per cent. Admiral,
if other-wife; befides which, they pay 3 per 1000,
duty, for confulfliip and fome other fmall royal rights
and claims.
ADMINISTRATOR, in law, he to whom the or¬
dinary commits the adminiftration of the goods of a
perfon deceafod, in default of an executor. — An action
lies for, or againft an adminiftrator, as for, or againlt
an executor; and he fiiall be accountable to the value.
of the goods of the deceafed, and no farther:—unlefs?
there be wafte, or other abufe chargeable on him. If
the adminiftrator die, his executors are not adminiftra-
tors; but the court is to grant a new adminiftration,
— If a ftranger, who is neither adminiftrator nor exe¬
cutor, take the goods of the deceafed, and adminifter,
he fhall be charged, and fued as an executor, not as an
adminiftrator. The origin of adminiftrators is derived
from the civil law. Their eftabliftiment in England is
owing to a ftatute made in the 31ft year of Edw. III.-
Till "then, no office of this kind was known befide that
of executor: in cafe of a want of which, the ordinary
had the difpofal of goods of perfons inteftate, &c.
Administrator, in Scots law, a perfon legally im-
powered to aft for another whom the law prefumes in¬
capable of afting for himfelf. Thus tutors or curatora
are fometimes ftyled adminiflraiors in lanu to pupils,
minors, or fatuous perfons. But more generally the
term is ufed to imply that power which is conferred
by the law upon a father over the perfons and eftates
of his children during their minority. See Law, N°clxi.
Administrator, is fometimes ufed for the prefi-
dent of a province; for a perfon appointed to receive,
manage, and diftribute, the revenues of an hofpital or
religious houfe ; for a prince who enjoys the revenues
of a fecularized bilhopric; and for the regent of a king¬
dom during a minority of the prince, or a vacancy of
the throne.
ADMIRABILIS sal, the fame with Glauber’s
fait. See Chemistry, n° 124.
ADMIRAL, a great officer or magiftrate, who has
the government of a navy, and the hearing of all ma¬
ritime caufes.
Authors are divided with regard to the origin and
denomination of this important officer, whom we find
eftabliflied in moft kingdoms that border on the fea.
But the moft; probable opinion is that of Sir Henry
Spelman, who thinks, that both the name and dignity
were derived from the Saracens, and, by reafon of the
holy wars, brought amongft us; for admiral, in the
Arabian language, fignifies a prince, or chief ruler,
and was the ordinary title of the governors of cities,
provinces, &c. and therefore they called the com¬
mander of the navy by that name, as a name of dignity
and honour. And indeed there are no inftances of
admirals in this part of Europe before the year 1284,
when Philip of France, who had attended St Lewis in
the wars againft the Saracens, created an admiral. Du
Cange affures us, that the Sicilians were the firft, and
the Genoefe the next, who gave the denomination of
Admiral to the commanders of their naval armaments;
and that they took it from the Saracen or Arabic E-
mir, a general name for every commanding officer. As
for the exaft time when the word was introduced among
us, it is uncertain ; fome think if was in the reign of"
Edward Si.
ADM t i:
Admiral. Edward I. Sir Henry Spelman is of opinion that it
’ ^ was firft ufed in the reign of Henry III. becaufe nei¬
ther the laws of Oleron made in 1266, nor Bracton,
who wrote about that time, make any mention of it;
and that the term admiral was not ufed in a charter in
the eighth of Henry III. wherein he granted this of¬
fice to Richard de Lacey, by thefe words Mat itimom
Anglia; but in the 56th year of the fame reign, not only
the hifiorians, but the charters themfelves, very fre¬
quently ufe the word admiral.
Anciently there were generally three or four admi¬
rals appointed in the Englifh feas, all of them holding
the office durante bene placito; and each of them having
particular limits under their charge and government;
as admirals of the fleet of {hips, from the mouth of the
Thames northward, fouthward, or weftward. Befides
thefe, there were admirals of the Cinque Ports, as in the
reign of Edward III. When one William Latimer was
llyled admiralis quinque portuum; and we fometimes
iind that one perfon has been admiral of the fleets to
the fouthward, northward, and weftward : but the title
of a lmiralis Anglia was not frequent till the reign of
Henry IV. when the king’s brother had that title gi¬
ven him, which in all commiffions afterwards was grant¬
ed to the fucceeding admirals. It may be obferved,
that there was a title above that of admiral of England,
which was, locum~tenens regis fupsr mare, the king’s lieu¬
tenant-general of the fea ; this title we find mentioned
in the reign of Richard II.—Before the ufe of the
word admiral was known, the title of cuftos.maris was
made ufe of.
Lord High Admiral of England, in fome ancient re¬
cords called capitanus maritimarum, an officer of great
antiquity and truft, as appears by the laws of Oleron,
fo denominated from the place they were made at by
Richard I. The firft title of Adtniral of England, ex-
prefsly conferred upon a fubjeft, was given by patent
of Richardll. to Richard Fitz-Allen, junr. earl of Arun¬
del and Surrey; for thofe who before enjoyed this of¬
fice were Amply termed admirals, though their jurif-
diction feems as large, efpecially in the reign of Edward
III. when the court of admiralty was firft erected.
This great officer has the management of all mari¬
time affairs, and the government of the royal navy, with
power of decifion in all maritime cafes both civil and
criminal.: he judges of all things done upon or beyond
the fea, in any part of the world ; upon the fea-coafts,
in all ports and havens, and upon all rivers below the
firft bridge from the fea. By him, vice-admirals, rear-
admirals, and all fea-captains, are commiffioned j all de¬
puties for particular coafts, and coroners to view dead
bodies found on the fea-coafts, or at fea: he alfo ap¬
points the judges for his court of admiralty, and may
imprifon, releafe, &c. All ports and havens are infra
corpus ccmitatus, and the admiral hath no jurifdittion
of any thing done in them. Between high and low wa¬
ter-mark, the common-law and the high-admiral have
.jurifdidtion by turns, one upon the water, and the other
.upon the land.
The lord-admiral has power, not only over the fea-
men ferving in his (hips of war, but over all other fea-
men, to arreft them for the fervice of the ftate ; and,
If any of them run away, without leave of the admiral,
he hath power to make a record thereof, and certi¬
fy the fame to the ftveriffs, mayors, bailiffs, &c. who
fhall caufe them to be apprehended and imprifoned.
8 ] ADM
To the lord high-admiral belong all penalties and Admiral,
amercements of all tranfgreffions at fea, on the fea-fnore, Admiralty.
in ports and havens, and all rivers below the firft bridge W
from the fea; the goods of pirates and felons condemn¬
ed or enflaved', fea-wrecks, goods floating on the fea,
or caft on the fhore (not granted to lords of manors
adjoining to the fea), and a fhare of lawful prizes; alfo
all great fifties, commonly called royal fijbes, except
whales and fturgeons: to which add, afalary of 7000/*
a-year.
In fhort, this is fo great -en office, in point of truft,
honour, and profit, that it has been ufually given to
princes of the blood, or the moft eminent perfons among
the nobility. We have had no high admiral for fome
years; the office being put in commiffion, or under the
adminiftration of the lords commifiloners of the admi¬
ralty, who by ftatute have the fame power and autho¬
rity as the lord high admiral.
Lord High Admiral of Scotland, one of the great of¬
ficers of the crown, and fupreme judge in all maritime
cafes within that part of Britain. See Law, Part III.
N° clvii. 15.
Admiral, alfo implies the commander in chief of
any fingle fleet or fquadron ; or, in general, any flag-
officer whatever. The commander of a fleet carries his
flag at the main-top-maft head.
Vice Admiral, is the commander of the fecond fqua¬
dron, and carries his flag at the fore-top-maft head.
Rear Admiral, is the commander of the. third fqua¬
dron, and carries his flag at the mizen-top-mafthead.
Vice Admiral, is alfo an officer appointed by the
lords commiffioners of the admiralty. There are feveral
of thefe officers eftabliftied in different parts of Great
Britain, with judges and martinis under them, for ex¬
ecuting jurifdiction within their refpeftive limits. Their
decrees, however, are not final, an appeal lying to the
court of admiralty in London.
Admiral is alfo an appellation given to the moft
confiderable fiiip of a fleet of merchant-men, or of the
veflels employed in the cqd-fiftiery of Newfoundland.
This laft has the privilege of choofing what place he
pleafes on the fhore to dry his fifh; gives proper orders,
and appoints the fifliing-places to thofe who come after
him; and as long as the fiftiing-feafon continues, he
carries a flag on his maiii-maft.
Admiral, in zoology, the Englifh name of a fpe-
cies of the voluta, a fliell-lifh belonging to the order of
vermes teftacea. See Voluta.
ADMIRALTY properly fignifies the office of lord
high-admiral, whether difcharged by one fingle per¬
fon, or by joint commiffioners called lords of the admi¬
ralty. a
Court of Admiralty, is a fovereign court, held by
the lord high-admiral, or lords of the admiralty, where
cognizance is taken in all maritime affairs, whether ci¬
vil or criminal.—All crimes committed on the high-
feas, or on great rivers below the firft bridge next the
fea, are cognizable in this court only, and bJfcre which
they muff be tried by judge and jury. But in civil ca¬
fes the mode is different, the decifions being all made
according to the civil law/ From the fentences of the
admiralty-judge an appeal always lay, in ordinary
courfe, to the king in chancery, as may be colledted
from ffatute 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19. which diredfs the
appeal from the archbiftiop’s courts to be determined by
perfons named in the king’s commiffion, “ like as in
“ cafe
A D N [ i
Admiralty « c?.fe of appeal from the admiral-court.” But this is
Adnata ai^0 exprefsly declared by ftatute 8 Eliz. c. 5. which
■ , enafts, that upon an appeal made to the chancery, the
fentence definitive of the delegates appointed by com-
miffion lhall be final.
Appeals from the vice-admiralty courts in Ameri-
■ ca, and our other plantations and fettlements, may be
brought before the courts of admiralty in England, as
being a branch of the admiral’s jurifdiftion, tho’ they
may alfo be.brought before the king in council. But
in cafe of prize veffela, taken in time of war, in any
part of the world, and condemned in any courts of ad¬
miralty or vice-admiralty as lawful prize, the appeal lies
to certain commiffioners of appeals confiding chiefly of
the privy council, and not to judges delegates. And
this by virtue of divers treaties with foreign nations,
by which particular courts are eftablifhed in all the
maritime countries of Europe for the decifion of this
queftion, Whether lawful prize or not ?_ for this being
a quellion between fubjetts of different dates, it
belongs entirely to the law of nations, and not to
the municipal laws of either country, to deter¬
mine it.
Court of Admiralty in Scotland. See Law, Part
III. N’ clvii. 15.
Admiralty Iflands, lie in about 2° 18' S. Lat. and
146 44'E. Long. There are between 20 and 30
illands faid to be fcattered about here, one of which
alone would make a large kingdom. Captain Carteret,
who fird difcovered them, was prevented touching at
them, although their appearance was very inviting, on.
account of the condition of his fhip, and of his being
entirely unprovided with the articles of barter which
fuit an Indian trade. He defcribes them as clothed
with a beautiful verdure of woods, lofty and luxuriant,
interfperfed with fpots that have been cleared for plan¬
tations, groves of cocoa nut-trees, and houfes of the na¬
tives, who feem to be very numerous. Thelargedof thefe
iflands is 18 leagues long in the direftion of ead and
wed. The difcoverer thinks it highly probable that
thefe iflands produce feveral valuable articles of trade,
particularly fpices, as they lie in the fame, climate and
latitude as the Moluccas.
ADMONITION, in ecclefiadical affairs, a part of
difcipline much ufed in the ancient church. It was the
fird act, or dep, towards the puuifhment or expulfion
of delinquents. In cafe of private offences, it was per¬
formed according to the evangelical rule, privately:
in cafe of public offence, openly,, before the church.
If. either of thofe fufficed for the recovery of the fallen
perfon, all further proceedings in the way of cenfui-e
ceafed: if they did not, recourfe was had to excom¬
munication.
Admonitio Fuflium, among the Romans, a military
punifliment, not unlike our whipping, only it was per¬
formed with vine-branches.
ADMORTIZATION, in the feudal cudoms, the
reduction ox the property of lands or tenements to
mortmain. See Mortmain.
ADNATA, in anatomy, one of the coats of the
eye, which is alfo called conjunfiiva and albuginea.
Adnata, is alfo ufed for any hair, wool, or the like,
which grows upon animals or vegetables.
Adnata, or Aclnafcentia, among gardeners, denote
thofe off-fets, which, by a new germination under the
earth, proceed from1 the lily, narciffus, hyacinth, and.
19 ] A D N
other flowers, and afterwards grow to true roots. The Adnoun
French call them cayeux, “ ftalks.” Adon’ai
ADNOUN, is ufed by fome grammarians to ex-
prefs what we more ufually call an Adjeftive. The
wrord is formed by way of analogy to adverb ; in re¬
gard adjeftives have much the fame office and relation
to nouns that adverbs have to verbs. Biihop Wilkins-
ufes the word adname in another fenfe,, viz. for what-
we otherwife call a prepofition.
ADOLESCENCE, the {late of growing youth
or that period of a perfon’s age commencing from
his infancy, and terminating at his full llature or man¬
hood. The word is formed of the Latin adolefcere..
to grow.—The Hate of adolefcence lafts fo long as
the fibres continue to grow, either in magnitude or
firmnefs. The fibres being arrived at the degree of
firmnefs and tenfion fufficient to fuftain the parts, no-
longer yield or give way to the efforts of the nutri¬
tious matter to extend them ; fo that their farther ac¬
cretion is flopped, from the very law of their nutrition.
Adolefcence is commonly computed to be between 15
and 25, or even 30 years of age; though in different
conftitutions its terms are very different.—The Ro¬
mans ufually reckoned it from 12 to 25 in boys; and
to 21 in girls, &c. And yet, among their writers, jli¬
ven is and adolefcens are frequently ufed indifferently
for any perfon under 45 years.
ADOLLAM, or Odollam (anc. geog.), a town,
in the tribe of Judah, to the eafl of Eleutheropolis.
David is faid to have hid himfelf in a cave near this,
town, (Bible.)
ADON, a populous village in the province of Stuhl-
Weiffemberg, belonging to Hungary. It lies in a
fruitful country, towards the river Danube. Long. 19.
20. Lat. 47. 30.
ADONAI, one of the names of the Supreme Being
in the feriptures. The proper meaning of the word is
my lords, in the plural number ; as Adoni is my lord, in ■
the fingular. The Jews, who either out of refpefl, or
fuperflition, do not pronounce the name of febovahy.
read Adonai in the room of it, as often as they meet-
with Jehovah in, the Hebrew text. But the ancient
Jews were not fo fcrupulous ; nor is there any law which
forbids them to pronounce the name of God. Calmet.
ADONIA, in antiquity,, folemn fealls in honour
of Venus, and in memory of her beloved Adonis. The
Adonia were obferved with great folemnity by moft
nations; Greeks,Phcenicians, Lycians,.Syrians, Egyp¬
tians, &c. From Syria, they are fuppofed to have l'ch.viii,x4v
paffed into India. The prophet Ezekiel* is underffood
to fpeak .of them.. They were ilill obferved at Alexan¬
dria in the time of St Cyril; and at Antioch in that
of Julian the apoftate, who happened to enter that city
during the folemnity, which was taken for an ill omen.-
The Adonia lafted two days : on the firlt of which cer¬
tain images of Venus and Adonis were carried, with all
the pomp and ceremonies, pradlifed at funerals ; the wo¬
men wept, tore. their hairv.beat their breafts, &c. imi¬
tating the cries and lamentations of Venus-for the death,
of her paramour. This kunentation they called
The Syrians were not contented with weeping, but gave
themfelves difcipline, fhaved their heads, &c. Among^
the Egyptians, the queen herfelf ufed to carry the image
of A donis in proceffion. St Cyril mentions an extraordi¬
nary ceremony practifed by the Alexandrians: A letter->
was written to thewomenofBybulus,to inform them that
Adonis,,
A D N [ 120 ] ADO
Adonides, Adonis was found again: this letter was thrown into the
, Adorns. (it Was pretended) did not fail punctually to
v~" convey it to Bybulus in feven days; upon the receipt of
which, the Byblian women ceafed their mourning, fung
his praifes, and made rejoicings as if he were raifed to
life again : Or rather, according to Meurfius, the two
offices of mourning and rejoicing made two diftinft
.feafts, which were held at different times of the year,
the one fix months after the other ; Adonis being fup-
pofed to pafs half the year with Proferpine, and half
v/ith Venus.—The Egyptian Adonia are faid to have
been held in memory of the death of Ofiris ; by others,
of his ficknefs and recovery. Bifhop Patrick dates their
origin from the daughter of the firft-born under Mofes.
ADONIDES, in botany, a name given to botanifts
who deferibed or made catalogues of plants cultivated
in any particular place.
ADONIS, fon to Cinyras king of Cyprus, the dar¬
ling of the goddefs Venus : being killed by a wild boar
in the Idalian woods, he was turned into a flower of a
blood-colour, fuppofed to be the Anemone. Venus
was inconfolable; and no grief was ever more celebrated
than this, molt nations having perpetuated the memory
f.SeeMonia of it by a train of anniverfary ceremonies*. Among
Shakefpeare’s poems, is a long one on the fubjeCt of
Venus’s affeCtion for Adonis.
The text of the vulgate in Ezekiel, viii. 14. fays,
that this prophet faw women fitting in the temple, and
weeping for Adonis : but according to the reading of
the Hebrew text, they are faid to weep for Tammuz,
or the hidden one. Among the Egyptians, Adonis
was adored under the name of Ofiris the hufband of
Ills. But he was fometimes called by the name of
Ammuz, or Tammuz, the concealed, to denote pro¬
bably his death or burial. The Hebrews, in derifion,
call him fometimes the dead, Pfal. cvi. 28. and Lev.
xix. 28. becaufe they wept for him, and reprefented
him as one dead in his coffin ; and at other times, they
call him the image of jealoufy, Ezek. viii. 3. 5. be¬
caufe he was the objeCt of the god Mars’s jealoufy.
The Syrians, Phoenicians, and Cyprians called him A-
donis, and F. Calmet is of opinion, that the Ammo¬
nites and Moabites gave him the name of Baal-peor.
See Baal-peor.
Adonis, Adonius, (anc. geog.); a river of Phoe¬
nicia, rifing in mount Lebanon, and falling into
the fea, after a north-well courfe, at Bybulus; fa¬
mous in fable, as a beautiful fhepherd youth, Virgil;
fon of Cynaras, king of the Cyprians, loved by Venus,
llain by a boar, and turned into a river. Theocritus la¬
ments him dead in an idyllion, or rather ode, as did the
women yearly, when in flood-time, the river rolled
down a red earth, which tinged its waters, deemed to
be his wound bleeding afrelh In the Phoenician lan¬
guage Adan fignifies a willow, and Adon lord, with
the fame radical letters. Hence i-raior A<5Wf, Salignus,
and Kvjif, or Kipij AJaur, for Kvgiic- Adonidis horti,
are gardens beautifully arranged, but more adapted
for pleafure than profit.
Adonis, Birds-eye, or Pheafants-eye; a genus of
the polyandria order, belonging, to the polygynia
clafs of plants. It is affociated with the Multiftli-
quae, or 26th Nat. Order.—The characters are: The
calyx is a perianthium, confifting of five obtufe concave
leaves, fomewhat coloured, and deciduous. The corolla
N° 3.
has from five to fifteen oblong petals obtufe and glof- Adomfts
fy. The Jlamina confift of very numerous, fhort, fub- A(j0pt;0n>
ulated filaments ; the anthene are oblong and infleCled. ■ , *
The pijlillum has numerous germina colluded in a
head; noftyli; the ftigmata acute and reflected. There
is no pericarpium; the receptacle is oblong and fpiked.
The feeds are numerous, irregular, angular, gibbous at
the bafe, reflected at the top, fomewhat prominent,
and awnlefs.
Species. The moll remarkable fpecies are the follow¬
ing : 1. The annua, or common adonis, is a native of
Kent, where it is found in great plenty in the fields fown
with wheat. Its flowers are of a beautiful fcarlet colour,
and appear in the beginning of June; the feeds ripen¬
ing in Auguft and September. Great quantities of
thefe flowers are fold in London, under the name of
Red Morocco. 2. The asftivalis, or annual adonis, with
yellow flowers, grows much taller than the firft, has its
leaves thinner fetr and of a lighter colour. 3. The
vernalis, or perennial adonis, grows naturally on the
mountains of Bohemia, Pruffia, and other parts of
Germany. It flowers the latter end of March, or be¬
ginning of April; the llalks rife about a foot and a
half high ; and when the roots are large, and have flood
unremoved for fome years, they will put out a great
number of flalks from each root; on the top of each of
thefe grows one large yellow flower. 4. The apennina,
is a native of Siberia and the Appenines.
Culture. The firft two fpecies, being annual, muft
be propagated from feeds, which ought to be fown in
autumn, foon after they are ripe, or they will be in
danger of not growing up that year. They thrive beft
in a light foil. The third and fourth fpecies are like-
wife to be propagated from feeds, which muft be fown
in autumn, or they feldom fucceed. When the plants
come up, they muft be carefully kept clear from weeds;
and in very dry weather their growth will be promoted
by being now and then watered. They fhould remain
in the place where they are fown till the fecond year;
and be tranfplanted thence in autumn, to the place
where they are to remain.
ADONISTS, a feCl or party, among Divines and
Critics, who maintain, that the Hebrew points ordina¬
rily annexed to the confonants of the word Jehovah, are
not the natural points belonging to that word, nor ex-
prefs the true pronunciation of it; but are the vowel-
points, belonging to the words Adonai and Elohim, ap¬
plied to the confonants of the ineffable name Jehovah ;
to warn the readers, that inftead of the word Jehovah,
which the Jews were forbid to pronounce, and the true
pronunciation of which had been long unknown to
them, they are always to read Adonai. They are op-
pofed to JehoviJis: of whom the principal are Drufius,
Capellus, Buxtorf, Alting, and Reland, who has pu-
blifhed a colleftion of their writings on this fubjeft.
ADOPTIANI, in church-hiftory, a fe£l of ancient
heretics, followers of Felix of Urgel, and Elipand of
Toledo, who, towards the end of the eighth century,
advanced the notion, that Jefus Chrift, in his human na¬
ture, is the fon of God, not by nature, but by adoption.
ADOPTION, an aft by which any one takes ano¬
ther into his family, owns him for his fon, and appoints
him for his heir.
The cuftom of adoption was very common among
the ancient Greeks and Romans; yet it was not prac-
1 tifed.
A D O [12
sA<3opt'on. tifed, but for certain caufes expreffed in tbe laws, and
" with certain formalities ufual in fuch cafes. It was a
fort of imitation of nature, intended for the comfort
of thofe who had no children : wherefore he that was
to adopt was to have no children of his own, and to be
paft the age of getting any ; nor were eunuchs allow¬
ed to adopt, as being under an actual impotency of
begetting children ; neither was it lawful for a young
man to adopt an elder, becaufe that it would have been
contrary to the order of nature ; nay, it was even re¬
quired that the perfon who adopted fliould be eighteen
years older than his adopted fon, that there might at
lealt appear a probability of his being the natural fa¬
ther.
Among the Greeks it was called viothc, filiation. It
was allowed to fuch as had no iffue of their own ; ex¬
cepting thofe who were not xup/o< skutuv, their own ma-
Jlers, e. g. Haves, women, madmen, infants, or perfons
under twenty years of age; who being incapable of
making wills, or managing their own eftates, were not
allowed to adopt heirs to them. Foreigners being in¬
capable of inheriting at Athens, if any fuch were a-
dopted, it was neceffary lirft to make them free of the
city. The ceremony of adoption being over, the a-
dopted had his name inrolled in the tribe and ward of
his new father; for which entry a peculiar time was
allotted, viz. the feftival bapytiMa. To prevent rafli and
inconfiderate adoptions, the Lacedsemonians had a law,
that adoptions fhould be tranfa&ed, or at lead confirm¬
ed, in the prefence of their kings. The children adopt¬
ed were invefted with all the privileges, and obliged to
perform all the duties, of natural children ; and being
thus provided for in another family, ceafed to have any
•tlaim of inheritance, or kindred, in the family which
they had left, unlefs they firft renounced their adop¬
tion ; which, by the laws of Solon, they were not al¬
lowed to do, unlefs they had firft begotten children, to
bear the name of the perfon who had adopted them :
thus providing againft the ruin of families, which would
otherwife have been extinguilhed by the defertion of
thofe who had been adopted to preferve them. If the
children adopted happened to die without children, the
inheritance could not be alienated from the family into
which they had been adopted, but returned to the re¬
lations of the adopter. It fhould feem, that by the
Athenian law, a perfon, after having adopted another,
was not allowed to marry without permiffion from the
magiftrate: in effeft, there are inftances of perfons,
who being ill ufed by their adoptive children, petition¬
ed for fuch leave. However this be, it is certain fome
men married after they had adopted fons: in which
cafe, if they begat legitimate children, their eftates
were equally lhared between the begotten and adopted.
The Romans had two forms of adoption ; one be¬
fore the pretor ; the other at an affembly of the people,
in the times of the commonwealth, and afterwards by
a refeript of the emperor. In the former, the natural
father addreffed himfelf to the pretor, declaring that
he emancipated his fon, refigned all his authority over
him, and confented he fhould be tranflated into the fa¬
mily of the adopter. The latter was praclifed, where
the party to be adopted was already free j and this was
called adrogation. The perfon adopted changed all
his names ; affuming the prename, name, and furname,
of the perfon who adopted him.
Vot.I. Parti. "
i ] ADO
Befides the formalities preferibed by the Roman law, Adoption.,
various other methods have taken place ; which have ' y ^
given denominations to different fpecies of adoption,
among the Gothic nations, in different ages. As,
Adoption by arms, was when a prince made a pre-
fent of arms to a perfon, in confideratian of his merit
and valour. Thus it was that the king of the Heruli was
adopted by Theodoric 5 Athalaric by the emperor Ju-
ftinian ; and Cofroes, nephew of the king of Perfia, by
the emperor Juftin.—The obligation here laid on the
adoptive fon was, to proteft and defend the father
from injuries, affronts, See. And hence, according to
Selden, the ceremony of dubbing knights took its ori¬
gin as well as name.
Adoption by baptifin, is that fpiritual affinity which
is contracted by god-fathers and god-children in the ce¬
remony of baptifm. This kind of adoption was intro¬
duced into the Greek church, and came afterwards in-
to*ufe among the ancient Franks, as appears by the
Capitulars of Charlemagne.
In reality, the god-father was fo far confidered as
adoptive father, that his god-children were fuppqfed.
to be intitled to a ftiare in the inheritance of his
eftate.
Adoption by hairy, was performed by cutting off the
hair of a perfon, and giving it to the adoptive father.
It was thus that pope John VIII. adopted Bofon king
of Arles ; which, perhaps, is the only inftance in hi-
ftory, of adoption, in the order of the ecclefiaftics; a
law that profeffes to imitate nature, not daring to give
children to thofe in whom it would be thought a crime
to beget any.
Adoption by matrimony, is the taking the children
of a wife or hulband, by a former marriage, into the
condition of proper or natural children 5 and admitting
them to inherit on the fame footing with thofe of the
prefent marriage. This is a pradtice peculiar to the
Germans ; among whom, it is more particularly known
by the name of einkindfchafl; among, their writers in
Latin, by that of unio prolium, or union ofijfues. But
the more accurate writers obferve, that this is no adop¬
tion. See Adfiliation.
Adoption by tejlament, that performed by appointing
a perfon heir by will, on condition of his affuming the
name, arms. See. of the adopter. Of which kind we
meet with feveral inftances in the Roman hiftory.
Among the Turks, the ceremony .of adoption is per¬
formed by obliging the perfon adopted to pafs through
the ftiirt of the adopter. Hence, among that people,
to adopt, is expreffed by the phrafe, to draw another
through my Jhirt. It is faid, that fomething like this
haa alfo been obferved among the Hebrews; where the
prophet Elijah adopted Elifna for his fon and fucceffor,
and communicated to him the gift of prophecy, by let¬
ting fall his cloak or mantle on him. But adoption,
properly fo called, does not appear to have been prac-
tifed among the ancient Jews: Mohs Jays nothing of
it in his laws ; and Jacob’s adoption of his two grand-
fons, Ephraim and Manaffeh, is not fo properly an
adoption, as a kind of fubftitution, whereby thofe two
fons of Jofeph were allotted an equal portion in Ifrael
with his own fons.
Adoption is alfo ufed, in theology, for a federal a<ft
of God’s free grace ; whereby thofe who are regene¬
rated by faith, are admitted into his houfehold, and
intitled
ADO
Adoption intitled to a ftiare in the inheritance of the kingdom of
Adorition. heayen* . r . ,r rj . r f
* Adoption is fometimes alio ulea, in ipeaking ot the
ancient clergy,, who had a cuftom of taking a maid or
widow into their houfes, under the denomination of an
adoptive, or fpirltualfijier or niece.
Adoption is alfo ufed in fpeaking of the admiffion of
perfons into certain hofpitals, particularly that of Lyons;
the adminiftrators whereof have all the power and rights
of parents over the children admitted.
Adoption is alfo ufed for the reception of a new aca¬
demy into the body of an old one.—Thus
The French academy of Marfeilles was adopted by
that of Paris ; on which account, we find a volume of
fpeeches extant, made by feveral members of the aca¬
demy of Marfeilles, deputed to return thanks to that of
Paris for the honour.
In a fimilar fenfe, adoption is alfo applied by the
Greeks, to the admitting a monk, or brother, into a mo-
naftic community ; fometimes calledfpiritual adoption.
ADOPTIVE, denotes a perfon or thing adopted
by another.
Adoptive children, among the Romans, were on the
fame footing with natural ones ; and accordingly were
either to be inftituted heirs, or exprefsly difinherited,
other wife the teftament was null. The emperor Adrian
preferred adoptive children to natural ones; becaufe we
choofe the former, but are obliged to take the latter
at random.
M. Menage has publifhed a book of eloges, or verfes
addreffed to him ; which he calls Liber Adoptivus, an
adoptive book ; and adds it to his other works.—He-
infius, and Furftemburg of Munfter,, have likewife pu¬
blifhed adoptive books.
In ecclefiaftical writers we find adoptive women, or
fillers, {adoptivce fsmina, or forores,) ufed for thofe
handmaids of the ancient clergy, otherwife called fub-
introduftae.
Adoptive ar-ms are thofe which a perfon enjoys by the
gift or conceffion of another, and to which he was not
otherwife.intitled. They ftand contradiftinguifhed from
arms of alliance.
We fometimes meet with adoptive hair, by way of
oppofition to natural hair ; and adoptive gods, by way
of contradiflinftion to domdlic ones. The Romans,
notwithftanding the number of their domeflic, had
their adoptive gods, taken chiefly from the Egyptians:
rfuch were Ifis, Ofiris, Anubis, Apis, Harpocrates,.and
Ganopua.
ADORATION, the aft of rendering divine ho-
v nours; or of addreffing a being, as fuppofing it a
god. The word is compounded of ad, “ to and os,
oris,“ mouth;” and literally fignifies, to apply the hand
to the mouth ; Manutn ad os admovere, q. d. “ to kifs
the hand ;” this being, in the eaftern countries, one of
the great marks of refpeft and. fubmiffion.—The Ro¬
mans praftifed adoration at facrifices, and other fo-,
lemnities ; in pafling by temples, altars, groves, &c.,;
at the fight of ftatues, images, or the like, whether
of ftone or wood, wherein any thing of divinity was
fuppofed to refide. Ufually there were images of the
gods placed at the gates of cities, for thofe who went in
or out, to pay their refpefts to.—The ceremony of
adoration among the ancient Romans was thus : The
devotee having his. head covered, applied his right hand
ADO
to his lips, the fore-finger refling on his thumb, which Ador
was ereft, and thus bowing his head, turned himfelf'
round from left to right. The kifs thus given was
called ofculum lahratum; for ordinarily they were afraid
to touch the images of their gods themfelves with their
profane lips. Sometimes, however, they would kifs
their feet, or even knees, it being held an incivility to
touch their mouths ; fo that the affair palled at fome
diflance. Saturn, however, and Hercules, were adored
with the head bare; whence the worfhip of the lafl
was called inftitutum peregrinum, and ritus Gracani-
cus, as departing from the cuflomary Roman method,
which was to facrifice and adore with the face veiled,
and the cloths drawn up to the ears, to prevent any
interruption in the ceremony by the fight of unlucky
objefts.—The Jewifh manner of adoration was by
proflration, bowing, and kneeling.—The Chriftians
adopted the Grecian rather than the Roman method,,
and adored always uncovered. The ordinary pofcure
of the ancient Chriflians was kneeling, but on Sundavs-
flanding : and they had a peculiar regard to the Fait,,
to which point they ordinarily, dire ft ed their prayers.
Adoration is more particularly ufed for the aft o£
praying, or preferring our requefls or thankfgivings to
Almighty God.
Adoration is alfo ufed for certain extraordinary
civil honours or refpefts which refemble thofe paid to
•he Deity, yet are given to men.
The Perfian manner of Adoration, introduced by
Cyrus, was by bending the knee, and falling on the
face at the prince’s feet, finking the earth with the,
forehead, and killing the ground. This ceremony,
which the Greeks called ^foa-xuvsi#, Conon refufed to
perform to Aftaxerxes, and Califlhenes to Alexander
the Great, as reputing it impious and unlawful.
The Adoration performed to the Roman and Grecian-
emperors confifled in bowing or kneeling at the prince’s
feet,, laying hold of his purple rob®, and prefently with¬
drawing the hand and clapping it to the lips. Some
attribute the origin of this praftice to Conflantius. It
was only perfons of fome rank or dignity that were in-
titled to the honour. Bare kneeling before the empe¬
ror to deliver a petition, was alfo called adoration.
The praftice of adoration may be faid to be Hill fub-
fifling in England, in the ceremony of killing the king’s
or queen’s hand, and in ferving them at table, both be¬
ing performed kneeling.
Adoration is more particularly ufed for killing one’s
• hand in prefence of another, as a token of reverence.—
The Jews adored by killing their hands and bowin'*
down their heads ; whence, in their language, kijfmg is
properly ufed for adoration.
, A doration is alfo ufed among Roman writers fop
a high fpecies of applaufe given to perfons, who had
fpoken or performed well in public. (See Acclama¬
tion.) We meet with adoration paid to orators, ac¬
tors, muficians, &c. The method of exprefling it was,
by riling, putting both hands.to their mouth, and then
returning them towards the perfon intended to be ho¬
noured.
Adoration.is alfo ufed, in.the court of Rome, for
the ceremony of killing the pope’s feet The intro-
duftion of adoration among the Romans is afcribed to
the low flattery of Vitellius, who, upon the return of C.
Csfar from Syria, would not approach him. otherwife
than
[ 122 ]
ADO [ 123 ] ADR
Adoration than with his head covered, turning himfelf round, and
Adoxa t^en on kis face. Heliogabulus reftored the
. ^ ' . practice, and Alexander Severus again prohibited it.
Dioclefian redemanded it; and it was, in fome meafure,
continued under the fucceeding princes, even after the
eftabliftiment of Chriftianity, as Conftantine, Conftan-
tius, &c. ’ It is particularly faid of Dioclefian, that he
had gems faftened to his Ihoes, that divine honours
might be more willingly paid him, by killing his feet.
The like ufage was afterwards adopted by the popes,
and is obferved to this day. Thefe prelates, finding a
vehement difpofition in the people to fall down before
them and kifs their feet, procured crucifixes to be fa¬
ftened on their flippers ; by which ftratagem, the ado¬
ration intended for the pope’s perfon is fuppofed to be
transferred to Chrift. Divers afts of this adoration we
find offered even by princes to the pope.
Adoration is alfo ufed for a method of elefting a
pope. The election of popes is performed two ways ;
by adoration, and by fcrutiny. In eleftion by adora¬
tion, the cardinals rulh haftily, as if agitated by fome
fpirit, to the adoration of fome one among them, to
proclaim him pope. When the ele&ion is carried by
fcrutiny, they do not adore the new pope till he is pla¬
ced on the altar.
Barbarous Adoration is a term ufed, in the laws of
king Canute, for that performed after the manner of the
heathens who adored idols. The Romilh church is
charged with the adoration of faints, martyrs, images,
crucifixes, relics, the virgin, and the hoft; all which by
Proteftants are generally aggravated into idolatry, on
a fuppofition, that the honour thus paid to them is ab-
folute and fupreme, called by way of diftinftion Latria,
which is due only to God. Roman-catholics, on the
contrary, explain them, as only a relative or fubordi-
nate worlhip, tailed Dulia and Hyperdulia, which ter¬
minates ultimately in God alone. But may not the
fame be faid of the idol-worfliip of the heathens ?
The Phoenicians adored the winds, on account of the
terrible effects produced by them ; the fame was adopt¬
ed by moft of the other nations, Perfians, Greeks,
Romans, &c’. The Perfians chiefly paid their adora¬
tions to the fun and fire ; fome fay alfo to rivers, the
wind, &c. The motive of adoring the fun was the
benefits they received from that glorious luminary,
which of all creatures has doubtiefs the belt preten-
fions to fuch homage.
ADOREA, in Roman antiquity, a wmrd ufed in
different fenfes ; fometimes for all manner of grain,
fometimes for a kind of cakes made of fine flour, and
offered in facrifice ; and finally for a dole or diftribu-
tion of corn, as a reward for fome'fervice ; whence by
metonymy it is put for praife or rewards in general.
ADOSCULATION, a t<?rm ufed by Dr Grew,
to imply a kind of impregnation, without intromiflion ;
and in this manner he fuppofes the impregnation of
plants is effected by the falling of the farina foecundans
on the piftil.
ADOSEE, in heraldry, fignifies two figures or
bearings being placed back to back.
ADOUR, the name of a river of France, which rifes
in the mountains of BigoiTe, and running N. by Tarbes
through Gafcony, afterwards turns E. and, palling by
Dax, falls into the bay of Bifcay, below Bayonne.
ADOXA, Tuberous Moschatel, Hollow-
root, or Inglorious ; a genus of the tetragynia or-Pondus
der, belonging to the oftandria clafs of plants. In
the natural method it belongs to the 13th order, or Adranum.
Succulents.—The characters of tlifs genus are : The e——v—^
calyx is a perianthium beneath, divided into two feg-
ments, flat, perfiftent. The corolla is compofed of one
flat petal, divided into four ovate acute fegments long¬
er than the calyx. The Jlamina confift of eight fubu-
lated filaments the length of the calyx ; with roundilh
anthers;. The pijlillum has a germen beneath the re¬
ceptacle of the corolla ; four Ample, ereft, perfiftent
ftyli, the length of the ftamina; and Ample ftigmata.
The pericarpiuni is a globular four-celled berry between -
the calyx and corolla. The feeds are folitary and com-
preffed. »
There is but one fpecies, which is a native of tire
woods in Britain, and feveral parts of Europe : it is a
very low plant, feldom rifing more than four or five
inches high; the leaves refemble thofe of bulbous fu¬
mitory ; the flower-ftalk arifes immediately from the
root, on the top of which grow four or five fmal!
flowers of an herbaceous white colour, which appear in
the beginning of April, and the berries ripen in May ;
foon after which, the leaves decay. The herb may be
procured by tranfplanting the roots any time after the
leaves decay, till winter. They muft be planted in the
lhade, under fhrubs ; for they will not thrive if expofed
to the fun. The leaves and flowers fmell like muff ,
from whence it has by fome been called mujk-cro'wfoot.
AD pondus omnium, among phyficians, an abbre¬
viation in their preferiptions, fignifying that the laft
mentioned ingredient is to weigh as much as all the
reft together.
Ad Spued Damnum, in the Englifti law, a writ di¬
rected to the fheriff, commanding him to inquire into
the damage which may befal from granting certain pri¬
vileges to a place, as a fair, a market, or the like.
ADRACHNE, in botany, a fpecies of the ftraw-
berry-tree. See Arbutus.
ADRAMMELECH, one of the gods of the inha¬
bitants of Sepharvaim, who were fettled in the country
of Samaria, in the room of thofe Ifraelites who were
carried beyond the Euphrates. The Sepharvaites made
their children pafs through the fire, in honour of this
idol and another called Anamelech. It is fuppofed,
that Adrammelech meant the fun, and Anamelech the
moon : the firft fignifies the magnificent king; the fe-
cond the gentle king.
ADRAMYTTIUM (ane. geog.), now Andrami-
ti; a town of Myfia Major, at the foot of mount Ida,
an Athenian colony, with a harbour and dock near
the Gaicus. Adra?nyttenus the epithet; as, Adramyt-
tenus Sinus, a part of the Egean Sea, on the coaft of
Myfia ; Adramyttenus Convenus, fefiions or affizes. The
eighth in order of the nine Oonventus Juridici of the
province of Afia.
ADRANA, a river of Germany, (Polybius); now
the Eder, rifing on the borders of the county of Naf-
fau, to the north-eaft of, and not far from Dillenburg,
running through the landgraviate of Heft’e, the county
of Waldeck, by Fritzlar, and then again through the
landgraviate, and, together with the Fulda, falling inxo
the Wefer, to the fouth of, and not far from Caffel.
ADRANUM, or Hadranum, (anc. geog.), now
Adorno; a town of Sicily, built by the elder Dionyfius,
Q_3 at
ADR [ 124. ] AD R
Ad aftea at the foot of mount v£tna, (Diodorus Siculus), four
, .11 hundred years before Chrift. So called from the temple
. ri^num; 0f Adranus, or Hadranus, a god much worfhipped by
the Sicilians; with a river of the fame name, ( Stepha-
nus,) now Fiume d' Aderno. The inhabitants, Had-
ranitani, and Adranita.
ADRASTEA, in antiquity, an epithet given to the
goddefs Nemefis, or Revenge. It was taken from king
Adraftus, who firft erefted a temple to that deity.
Adrastia Girtamina, in antiquity, a kind of Py¬
thian games, inftituted by Adraftus king of Argos, in
the year of the world 2700, in honour of Apollo, at
Sicyon. Thefe are to be diftinguilhed from the Py¬
thian games celebrated at Delphi.
ADRASTUS, king of Argos, Ion of Talaus and
Lylianiffa, daughter of Polybius king of Sicyon, ac¬
quired great honour in the famous war of Thebes, in fup-
port of Polynices his fon-in-law, who had been exclu¬
ded the fovere'ignty of Thebes by Eteocles his brother,
notwithftanding their reciprocal agreement. Adraftus,
followed by Polynices and Tydeus his other fon-in-law,
by Capaneus and Hippomedon his fillers fons, by- Am-
phiaraus his brother-in-law, and by Parthenopseus,
marched againft the city of Thebes; and this is the
expedition of the Seven Worthies, which the poets
have fo often fung. They all loft their lives in this
war, except Adraftus, who was faved by his horfe
called Arion. This war was revived ten years after by
the fons of thofe deceafcd warriors, which was called
(he war of the Epigones, and ended with the taking
of Thebes. None of them loft their lives except iE-
gialeus fon of Adraftus ; which afflitted him fe much
(hat he died of grief in Megara, as he was leading back
his viftorious army.
ADRAZZO, or Ajaccio. The fame with An-
JAZZO.
ADRIA, or II a dr 1 a (anc. geog.), the name of two
towns in Italy. One in the country of the Veneti, on
the river Tartarus, between the Padus and the Athe-
fis, called Atria by Pliny and Ptolemy, but Adrias by
Strabo. Another on the river Vomanus, in the ter¬
ritory of the Piceni, (to which Antonine’s Itinerary
from Rome is direfted), the country of the anceftors
of the emperor Adrian. From which of thefe the Ad¬
riatic fea is denominated, is matter of doubt. A
third opinion is, that it is fo called from Adrias
the fon of Joan', of Italian origin; (Euftathius in
Dionyfrim.)
ADRIANUM (or Adriaticum) mare (anc.
geog.), now the gulf of Venice, a large bay in the Me¬
diterranean, between Dalmatia, Sclavonia, Greece, and
Italy. It is called by the Greeks, A<h'«' k«ato<; and
Adria by the Romans, (as Arbiter Adr'ia Not us, Hor.)
Cicero calls it Hadrianum Mare; Virgil has Hadria-
ticas Undas. It is commonly called 1 d/ iaticum,
without an afpiration ; but whether it ought to have
one, is a difpute: if the appellation is from Hadria,
the town of the Piceni, it inuft be written Hadriaticum,
becaufe the emperor’s name, who thence derives his o-
rigin, is on coins and ftones Hadrianus; but if from Adrian,
the town in the territory of Venice, as the more an- 'r~~
cient, and of which that of the Piceni is a colony, this
will juftify the common appellation Adriatkum.
ADRIAN, or Hadrian, (Publius iElius), the
Roman emperor. He was born at Rome the 24th of
January, in the 76th year of Chrift. His father left him
an orphan, at ten years of age,, under the guardian-
ftiip of Trajan, and Ccelius Tatianus a Roman knight.
He began to ferve very early in the armies, having been
tribune of a legion before the death of Domitian. He
was the. perfon chofen by the army of Lower Moefia,
to carry the news of Nerva’s death to Trajan, fuccef-
for to the empire. He accompanied Trajan in moftof
his expeditions, and particularly diftinguilhed himfelf
in the fecond war againft die Daei; and having before
been quaeftor, as well as tribune of the people, he was
now fucceflively praetor, governor of Pannonia, and
eonful. After the fiege of Atra in Arabia was raifed,
Trajan, who had already given him the government of
Syria, left him the command of the army: and at
length, when he found death approaching, it is faid he
adopted him. Adrian, who was then in Antiochia,
as foon as he received the news thereof, and of Tra¬
jan’s death, declared himfelf emperor, on the 11th of
Auguft, 117. No fooner had he arrived at the im¬
perial dignity, than he made peace with the Perfians,
to whom he yielded up great part of the conquefts of
his predeceffors; and from generofity, or policy, he
remitted the debts of the Roman people, which, ac¬
cording to the calculation of thofe who have reduced
them to modern money, amounted to 22,500,000 gol¬
den crowns; and he burnt all the bonds and obliga¬
tions relating to thofe debts, that the people might be
under no apprehenfion of being called to an account
for them afterwards. There are medals in commemo¬
ration of this fa<ft, in which he is reprefented holding
a flambeau in his hand, to fet lire to all thofe bonds
which he had made void. He went to vifit all the pro¬
vinces ; and did not return to Rome till the year 118,
when the fenate decreed him a triumph, and honoured
him with the title of Father of his country; but he
refufed both, and defired that Trajan’s image might
triumph. No prince travelled more than Adrian ;
there being hardly one province in the empire which
he did not vifit. In 120 heriwent into Gaul; from
thence he went over to Britain, in order to fubdue
the Caledonians, who were making continual inroads
into the provinces. Upon his arrival they retired to¬
wards the north : he advanced however as far as York,
where he was diverted from his intended conquell by
the defeription fome old foldiers he found there, who
had ferved under Agricola, gave him of the country.
In hopes, therefore, of keeping them quiet by enlar¬
ging their bounds, he delivered up to the Caledonians
all the lands lying between the two Friths and the
Tyne ; and at the fame time, to fecure the Roman pro¬
vince from their future incurfions, built the famous
wall which ftill bears his name (a). Having thus fet¬
tled
(a) This work, though called by the Roman hiftorians murus, which fignifies a wall of ftone, was only
compofed of earth covered with green turf. It was carried on from the Solway Frith, a little weft of the
village of Burgh on the Sands, in as dire A a line as polBble, to the river Tyne on the call, at the place where
the
A D R [ 125 ] ADR
- Adrian, tied matters in Britain, he returned to Rome, where
1 he was honoured with the title of Reftorer of Britain,
as appears by fome medals. He foon after went into
Spain, to Mauritania, and at length into the Eaft,
where he quieted the commotions raifed by the Par-
thiaris. After having vifited all the provinces of Afia,.
he returned to Athens in 125, where he palfed the
winter, and was initiated in the myfteries of Eleufi-
nian Ceres. He went.from thence to Sicily, chiefly to
view mount ./Etna, contemplate its phenomena, and
enjoy the beautiful and extenfive profpedl afforded from
its top. He returned to Rome the beginning of the
year 129; and, according to fome, he went again, the
fame year, to Africa; and, after his return from
thence, to the Eaft. He was in Egypt in the year
132, revilxted Syria the year following, returned to
Athens in 134, and to Rome in 135. The perfecu-
tion againft the Chriftians was very violent under his
reign ; but it was at length fufpended, in confequence
of the remonftrances of Quadrat bifhop of Athens,
and Ariftides, two Chriflian philofophers, who pre-
fented the emperor w’«th fome books in favour of the
Chriftian religion. He conquered the Jews; and, by
way of infult, erefted a temple to Jupiter on Calvary,
and placed a ftatue of Adonis in the manger of Beth¬
lehem ; he caufed alfo the images of fwine to be en¬
graven on the gates of Jerufalem. At latt he was feiz-
ed with a dropfy, which vexed him to fuch a degree,
that he became almoft raving mad. A great number
of phyficians were fent for, and to the multitude of
them he afcribed his death. He died at Baias in the
63J year of his age, having reigned 21 years. The
Latin verfes (b) he addreffed to his fold have been
much critieifed and varioufly interpreted. There are
fome fragments of his Latin poems extant, and there
are Greek verfes of his in the Anthology. He alfo
wrote the hiftory of his own life : to which, however,
he did not chufe to put his name ; but that of Phlegon,
2UeAdri0ne ^s'freed-men» a very learned perfon, was pre-
am!>n ri~ fiX£d to it *. He. had great wit, and an extenfive me¬
mory. He underllood the fciences perfectly well; but Adrian,.
was very jealous of others who excelled in them. He ' c—“J
was alio cruel, envious, and lafcivious. Antoninus his
fucceffor obtained his apotheofis; and prevented the re-
fciflion of his acts, which the fenate once intended.
ADRIAN IV. (Pope), the only Engliihman who
ever had the honour of fitting in the papal chair. His
name was Nicholas Brekefpere; and he was born at
Langley, near St Alban’s, in Hertfordlhire. His
father having left his family, and taken the habit of
the monaitery of St Alban’s, Nicholas was obliged to
fubmit to the lowefl: offices in that houfe for daily fup-
port. After fome time, he defired to take the habit in
that monaftery, but was rejected by the abbot Richard.
Upon this he refolved to try his fortune in another coun¬
try, and accordingly went to Paris ; where, though in
very poor circumftances, he applied himfelf to his
ftudies with great affiduity, and made a wonderful pro¬
ficiency. But having ftill a llrong inclination to a re¬
ligious life, he left Paris, and removed to Provence,
where lie became a regular, clerk in the monaftery of
St Rufus. He was not immediately allowed to take
the habit; but paffed fome time, by way of trial, in re¬
commending himfelf to the monks by a ftrift attention
to all their commands. This behaviour, together with ■
the beauty of his perfon, and prudent converfation,
rendered him fo acceptable to thofe religious, that af¬
ter fome time they intreated him to take the habit of
the canonical order. Here he diftinguilhed himfelf fo
much by his learning and ftrift obfervauce of the mo-
naftic difcipline, that, upon the death of the abbot, he
was chofen fuperior of that houfe ; and we are told
that ke rebuilt that convent. Pope- Eugenius III.
being apprifed of the great merit of Nicholas, and
thinking he might be ferviceable to the church in a
higher ftation, created him cardinal-bifnop of Alba
in 1-146. In 1148, his Holinefs fent, him legate to
Denmark and Norway; where, by his fervent preach¬
ing and diligent inftruCtions, he converted thofe bar¬
barous nations to the Chriftian faith; and erected Up-
fal-
the town of Newcaftle now Hands; fo that it muft have been above 60 Englifh, and near 70 Roman miles in
length. It confifted of four parts: 1. The principal agger, mound of earth, or rampart, on the brink of the
ditch. 2. The ditch on the north fide of the rampart. 3. Another rampart on the fouth fide of the principal
one, about five paces diftant from it. 4. A large rampart on the north fide of the ditch.—This laft. was pro¬
bably the military way to the line of forts on this work : it was fo to thofe formerly built by Agricola ; and if
iti did not ferve the fame purpofe in this, there mull have been no military way attending it.—The fouth ram¬
part might ferve for an inner defence in cafe the enemy fhould beat them from, any part of the principal ram¬
part, or it might be defigned to protect the foldiers from any fudden attack of the provincial Britons.—For
many ages, this work hath been in fo ruinous a condition, that it is impoffible to difcover its original dimen-
fions with certainty. From: their appearance, it feems probable, that the principal rampart was at ieaft 10 or
12 feet high, and the fouth one not much lefs ; but the north one was confiderably lower. From the dimen-
fions of the ditch taken as it paffes through a lime-ftone quarry near Harlow hill, it appears to have been 9 feet
deep, and \ 1 wide at the top, but fomewhat narrower at the bottom. The north rampart was about 20 feet ,
diftant from the ditch.
(b) The verfes are thefe :
Animula vagula, blandula,
Hofpes, comefque corporis,.
Quae nunc abibis in loca
Pallidula, rigida, nudula,
Nec, ut foies, dabis jocos l
Thus tranflated by Mr Pope: .
AhL fleeting fpirit! wand’ring fire,
That long haft warm’d my tender ’oreaft,
Muft thou no more this frame infpire ?
No more a plealing cheerful gueft ? •
Whither, ah whither art ihou flying ? -
To what dark undifcover’d fliore ? ■
Thou feem’ft all trembling, fhiv’i ing, dying.
And wit and humour are no more!
ADR [ 126 ] ADR
A tin an.- fal into an archiepifcopal fee. When he returned to
1 Rome, he was received by the pope and cardinals with
great marks of honour: and Pope Anaftafius, who
fucceeded Eugenius, happening to die at this time,
Nicholas was unanimoufly chofen to the holy fee, in
November 1154, and he took the name of Adrian.
When the news of his promotion reached England,
King Henry II. fent Robert abbot of St Alban’s, and
three biihops, to Rome, to congratulate him on his
ele&ion ; upon which occafion Adrian granted very
confiderable privileges to the ntonaftery of St Alban’s,
particularly an exemption from all epifcopal jurifdic-
tion, excepting to the fee of Rome. Adrian, in the
beginning of his pontificate, boldly withftood the at¬
tempts of the Roman people tjo recover their ancient
liberty under the confuls, and obliged thofe magiftrates
to abdicate their authority, and leave the government
of the city to the pope. In 1155, he drove the he¬
retic Arnaud of Breffe, and his followers, out of
Rome. The fame year he excommunicated William
king of Sicily, who ravaged the territories of the church,
and abfolved that prince’s fubjefts from their allegiance.
About the fame time, Frederic king of the Romans,
having entered Italy with a powerful army, Adrian
met him near Sutrium, and concluded a peace with
him. At this interview, Frederic confented to hold
the pope’s ftirrup whilft he mounted on horfeback.
After which, his holinefs conducted that prince to
Rome, and in St Peter’s church placed the imperial
crown on his head, to the great mortification of the
Roman people, who affembled in a tumultuous man¬
ner, and killed feveral of the Imperialifts. The next
year a reconciliation was brought about between the
pope and the Sicilian king, that prince taking an oath
to do nothing farther to the prejudice of the church,
and Adrian granting him the title of king of the two Si¬
cilies. He built and fortified feveral cattles, and left the
papal dominions in a more flourilhing condition than he
found them. But notwithftanding all his fuccefs, he was
extremely fenfible of the difquietudes attending fo high
a ftation ; and declared to his countryman John of Sa-
lilbury, that all the former hardlhips of his life were
mere amufemeut to the misfortunes of the popedom :
that he looked upon St Peter’s chair to be the moft
uneafy feat in the world; and that his crown feemed to
* Baronius be clapped burning on his head*. He died Septem-
Annal.tom ker K jn t^c fourth year and tenth month of his
Ei.an.1ij4. pontificate . anq was buried in St Peter’s church, near
the tomb of his predecefibr Eugenius. There are ex¬
tant feveral letters, and fome homilies, written by Pope
Adrian.
ADRIAN, cardinal-prieft, of the title ofStChry-
fogonus, was a native of Cornetto in Tufcany. Inno¬
cent VIII. fent him nuncio into Scotland and into
France ; and after he had been clerk and treafurer of
the apoftolic chamber, pope Alexander VI. whofe fe-
cretary he had been, honoured him with the cardinal’s
hat. His life was a continued fcene of odd alterations.
Fie narrowly efcaped death the day Alexander VI. poi-
foned himfelf by miftake. Afterward he drew upon
liimfdf the hatred of Julius II. fo that he was obliged
to go and hide himfelf in the mountains of Trent. Ha¬
ving been recalled by Leo X. he was fo'ungrateful, that
he engaged in a confpiracy againft him. The pope par¬
doned his fault; but the cardinal, not caring to trutt to
this, made his efcape, and it could never be known Adrian a 1
exactly what was become of him. He was one of the ,11 '
firft that effectually reformed the Latin ftyle. He ftu- Adna"0Ple;|; J
died Cicero with great fuccefs, and made many excel- y
lent obfervations on the propriety of the Latin tongue.
The treatife he compofed De fermone Latino, is a proof
of this. He had begun a Latin tranflation of the Old
Teftament. He wrote De vera philofopkia : This trea¬
tife was printed at Cologn 1548.
ADRIAN VI. (Pope), was born at Utrecht in
1459. His father was not able to maintain him at
fchool, but Jie got a place at Louvain, in a college
in which a certain number of fcholars wrere maintained
gratis. It is reported that he ufed to read in the
night-time by the light of the lamps in the churches
or ftreets. He made a confiderable progrefs in all the
feienetr ; led an exemplary life ; and there never was
a man lefs intriguing and forward than he was. He
took his degree of dodfor of divinity at Louvain ; w-as
foon after made canon of St Peter’s, and profeffor ,of
divinity at Utrecht, and then dean of St Peters and
vice-chancellor of the univerfity. • He was obliged to
leave an academical life, to be tutor to the archduke
Charles. This young prince made no great progrefs
under him': however, never wras a tutor more confi-
derably rewarded ; for it was by Charles V.’s credit he
was railed to the papal throne. Leo X. had given him
the cardinal’s hat in 1517. After this pope’s death,
feveral cabals in the conclave ended in the eleftion of
Adrian, with which the people of Rome were very
much difpleafed. He would not change his name,
and in every thing he Ihow'ed a great diflike for all of-
tentation and fenlual pleafures, though ftich an averfion
had been long ago out of date. He was very partial
to Charles V. and did not enjoy much tranquillity un.-
der the triple crown. He lamented much the wicked
morals of the clergy, and wiihed to eftabliih a refor¬
mation of manners among them. He died Sept. 14.
1523*
ADRIANI (Joanni Battifta), wras born of a patri¬
cian family at Florence, in 1511. He wrote a Hiftory
of his own Times in Italian ; which is a continuation
of Guicciardini, beginning at the year 1536; to which"
Thuanus acknowledges himfelf greatly indebted: be-
fide which, he compofed fix funeral orations, on the em¬
peror Charles V. and other noble perfonages; and is
thought to have been the author of a long letter on an¬
cient painters and fculptors, prefixed to the third vo¬
lume of Vafari. He died at Florence in 1579.
ADRIANISTS, in ecclefiattical hiffory, a feft of
heretics divided into two branches ; the firft were dif-
ciples of Simon Magus, and flonriftied about the year
34. Theodoret is the only perfon who has preferved
their name and memory; but he gives us no account
of their origin. Probably this feft, and the fix others
which fprung from the Simoniqns, took their name
from the particular difciples of Simon. The fecond
■were the followers of Adrian Hamftead, the anabaptift;
and held fome particular errors Concerning Chrift.
ADRIANOPLE, a city of Turky in Europe, in
the province of Romania, and the fee of an archbilhop
under the patriarch of Conftantinople. It is about fe-
ven or eight miles in circumference, including the old
city and fome garden?. The houfes are low, moftly
built of mud and clay, and feme of brick: and the
1 ftreets
A D V [ 127 ] A D V
Adrogation ftreets are exceeding dirty. The walls and towers are
Advanced *n 3 £reat meafure fallen to decay. However, there is
. V^’lC a beautiful bazar, or market, half a mile long, called
Ali Baffa. It is a vaft arched building, with fix gates,
and 365 well-furnifhed (hops, kept by Turks, Arme¬
nians, and Jews, wjio pay five crowns a-month for
each (hop. The number of inhabitants of all nations
and' religions may be about too,boo : but it i§ dear
living here, becaufe the provifions are brought from
diftant places. The air is wholefome, and the coun¬
try very pleafant in the fummer-time, on account of
the river and ftreams that run near and about the city;
the chief of which is the Mariza. Thefe promote
and preferve the verdure of the gardens, meadows, and
fields, for a confiderable part of the year. In the win¬
ter there is plenty of game. Near the principal ba¬
zar there is another, about a mile in length, covered
with boards, with holes on each fide to let in the light.
It is full of good Ihops, which contain all kinds of
commodities. Sultan Selim’s mofque Hands on the.
fide of a hill, in the midft of the city ; and hence this
magnificent ftrufture may be feen on all fides. Every
thing made of gold and filver, jewels, piftols, fcime-
tars, &c. are fold in another part of the city, called
by travellers the bizejlein, though it differs little from
a bazar. This contains about 200 fhops, and is co¬
vered like the former: but the covering is fupported
by two rows of large pillars. The grand vifier’s pa¬
lace is nothing more than a convenient houfe, after the
Turkilh manner of building. The emperor’s feraglio
is a regular ftructure, in a plain near the river Tungia.
It is two miles in compafs, and has feven gates, be-
fides thofe of the gardens, which are feveral miles in
circumference. The city is governed by a mullah cadi,
who has an abfolute authority both in-civil and crimi¬
nal matters. In the time of the plague, or war, the
grand fignior fometimes refides here. The Turks took
this city from the Greeks in 1362, and made it the
capital of the empire,, till Mahomet II. took Conftan-
tinople in 1453. E. Long. 26. 27. Lat. 41. 41.
ABROGATION, in Roman antiquities, a fpecies
of adoption, whereby a perfoq who was capable of
choofing for himfelf was admitted by another into the
relation of a fon. The word is compounded of ad, “ to,”
and rogarc, “to alkon account ©f a queltion put in the
ceremony of it, Whether the adopter would take fuch
a perfon for his fon ? and another to the adoptive,
Whether he confented to become fuch a perfon’s fon ?
ADSIDELLA, in antiquity, the table at which the
fiamens fat during the facrifices.
ADSTRICTION, among phyficians, a term ufed
to denote the rigidity of any part.
ADUACA, or Atuaca, anciently a large and
famous city of the Tungri; now a fmall and inconfi-
derable village, called Tongeren,, in the bifnopric of
Liege, to the north-weft of the city of Liege, in the ter¬
ritory of Hafpengow, on the rivulet Jecker, that foon
after falls into the Maefe. E.Long. 5. 5 2. Lat. 50. 54.
ADVANCE, in the mercantile ftyle, denotes mo¬
ney paid before goods are delivered, work done, or bu-
finefs performed.
ADVANCED, in a general fenfe, denotes fome-
thing polled or fituated before another. Thus,
//b^anced Ditch, in fortification, .is that which fur-
rounds the glacis, er efplanade of a place. .
Advaiicet* Guard, or Vanguard, in the art of war, Advanced
the firft line or divifion of an army, ranged or march- , 11
ing in order of battle; or, it is that part which is nextA g^re’
the enemy, and marches firft towards them. < - '
Advanced Guard, is more particularly ufed for a
fmall party of horfe ftationed before the main-guard-
ADVANCE R, among fportfmen, one of the Harts
or branches of a buck’s attire, between the back antler
and the palm.
ADUAR, in the Arabian and Moorilh cuftoms, a
kind of ambulatory village, confifting of tents, which
thefe people remove from one place to another, as fuits
their conveniency.
ADVENT, in the calendar, properly fignifies the
approach of the feaft of the nativity. It includes four
fundays, which begin on St Andrew’s day, or on the
funday before or after it. During advent, and to the
end of the odlaves of epiphany, the folemnizing of
marriage is forbid without a fpecial licence. It is ap¬
pointed to employ the thoughts of Chriftians on the
firft advent or coming of Chrift in the flelh, and his
fecond advent or coming to judge the world. The pri¬
mitive Chriftians practifed great aufterity during this
feafon.
ADventrem inspiciendum, inlaw, a.writ by which
a woman is to be fearched whether {he be with child,
by a former hulband, on her with-holding of lands1
from the next, failing iffue of her own body.
ADVENTURE, in a general fenfe, fome extraor¬
dinary or accidental event. It alfo denotes a hazardous,
or difficult undertaking.
Bill of Adeentore, among merchants, a writing,
figned by a merchant, teftifying the goods mentioned
in it to be (hipped on board a certain veffel belonging
to another perfon, who is to run all hazards; the mer¬
chant only obliging himfelf to account to him for the
produce.
Ani'ENTURE-Bay, in Van Diemen’s land. There is a
beautiful fandy beach, about two miles long, at, the
bottom of Adventure Bay, formed to all. appearance,
by the particles which the fea waffies from a fine white
fand-ftone. This beach is very well, adapted for haul¬
ing a feine. Behind it is a plain, with a brackiih
lake, out of which we caught, by angling, fome bream
and trout. The parts adjoining the. bay are moftly
hilly, and are an entire foreft of tall trees, rendered
almoft impaffable by brakes of fern, Ihrubs, &c. The
foil on the flat land, and on the lower part of the
hills, is fandy, or confiits of a yellow!fh earth, and
in fome parts of a reddiffi clay; but further up' the
hills, it is of a grey tough call. This country, upon
the whole,, bears.many.marks of being very dry, and
the heat appears to be great. No mineral bodies, nor
Hones of any other kind than the white fand-ftone,
were obferved by us; nor could we find any vegetables
that afforded fubfiftence for man. The foreft-trees
are all of one kind, and generally quite ftraight: they
bear clufters of fmall white flowers. The principal;
plants obferved, are wood-forrel, milk-wort, cudweed,
bell-flower, gladiolus, famphire, and feveral kinds of
fern :. the only quadruped, a .fpecies of opoffum, about
twice the fize of a large rat. The kangooroo, found
further northward in New Holland, may alfo be fup-
pofed to inhabit here, as fome of the inhabitants had
pieces of the Ikin of that animal.
Tire.
■o
Adventurer
Adverfa-
A D V [ Ji8 ] A D TJ
The principal forts of birds in the woods are brown
hawks or eagles, crows, large pigeons, yellowifh pa¬
roquets, and a fpecies which we called motacilla cyti¬
nea, from the beautiful azure colour of its head and
neck. On the fhore were feveral gulls, black oylter-
catchers, or fea-pies, and plovers of a {tone-colour.
The inhabitants feemed mild and cheerful, with lit¬
tle of that wild appearance that favages in general
have. They are almolt totally devoid of perfonal ac¬
tivity or genius, and are nearly upon a par wnth the
wretched natives of Terra del Fuego. They difplay,
however, fome contrivance in their method of cutting
their arms and bodies in lines of different direftions,
raifed above the furface of the {kin. Their indiffer¬
ence for prefents, their general inattention, and want
of curiofity, were very remarkable, and teftified no
acutenefs of underftanding. Their complexion is a
dull black, which they fometimes heighten by fmut-
iing their bodies, as was fuppofed, from their leaving
a mark behind on any clean fubftance. Their hair is
perfectly woolly, and is clotted with greafe and red
Ochre, like that of the Hottentots. Their nofes are
broad and full, and the lower part of the face projects
confiderably. 'Their eyes are of a moderate lize, and
though they are not very quick or piercing, they give
the countenance a frank, cheerful, and pleafing caft.
Their teeth are not. very white, nor well fet, and their
mouths are too wide : they wear their beards long, and
Clotted with paint. They are, upon the whole, well
proportioned, though their belly is rather protuberant.
Their favourite attitude is to {land with one fide for¬
ward, and one hand grafping, acrofs the back, the
oppofite arm, which, on this occafion, hangs down by
the fide that proje&s.
ADVENTURER, in a general fenfe, denotes one
who hazards fomething.
Adventurers, is particularly ufed for an ancient
company of merchants and traders, erected for the dif-
covery of lands, territories, trades, &c. unknown. The
fociety of adventurers had its rife in Burgundy, and
its frit eftablifhment from John Duke of Brabant in
I248, being known by the name of The brotherhood
of St Thomas a Bechet. It was afterwards t ran dated
into England, and fucceffively confirmed by Edward
III. and IV. Richard III. Henry IV. V. VI. and
VII. who gave it the appellation of Merchant Adven¬
turers.
ADVERB, in grammar, a particle joined to a verb,
adje£tive, or participle, to explain their manner of ac¬
ting or fullering; or to mark fome circumftance or
quality fignified by them.. The word is formed from
the prepoiltion ad, “ to,’’ and verbum, “ a verb and
dgnifies literally a word joined to a verb, to fhow how,
when, or where, one is, does, or differs; as, the boy
paints neatly, writes ill; the houfe Hands there. See.
See Grammar.
ADVERSARIA, among the ancients, a book of
accounts, not unlike our journals nr day-books. It is
more particularly ufed for a kind of common-place-
book. • See COMMON-PLACE-BOOK.
ADVERSATIVE, in grammar, a word exprefling
fome, difference between what goes before and what
follows it. Thus, in the phrafe, he is an honefl man,
hit a great enthufiaft, the word but is an adverfative
conjundlion.
N° 4. -3
ADVERSATOR, in antiquity, a fervant who at- Advcrfator
tended the rich in returning from fupper, to give them ^
notice of any obftacles in the way, at which they might tlon!"4"
be apt to Humble. . ^ ’ <
ADVERTISEMENT, in a general fenfe, denotes
•any information given to perfons iaterefled in an affair;
and is more particularly ufed for a brief account of an
affair inferted in the public papers, for the information
of all concerned.
ADULA (anc.geog.), a mountain inRhastia, or the
country of the Gaifons, part of the. Alps, in which are
the fountains of the Rhine ; now St Godhards.
ADULE, or Adulis, (anc. geog.) a town of E-
gypt built by fugitive flaves, diffant from its port on
the Red Sea 20 Hadia. Pliny calls the inhabitants
Adulitae. The epithet is either Adulitanus; as, Monu-
mentum Adulitanum, on the ppmpous infeription of the
Hatue of Ptolemy Euergetes, publilhed by Leo Alatius
at Rome in 1631, and to be found in Spon and Theve-
not: Or, Adulicus; as Adulicus Sinus, a part of the
Red Sea.
ADULT, an appellation given to any thing that is
arrived at maturity: Thus we fay, an adult perfon, an
adult plant, &c. Among civilians, it denotes a;youth
between 14 and 25 years of age.
ADULTERER, a man who commits adultery.
See Adultery.
ADULTERESS, a woman guilty of Adultery.
An adulterefs, by our law, undergoes no temporal pu-
nifhment whatever, except the lofs of her dower ; and
flie does not lofe even that, if her hufband is weak e-
nough to be reconciled to her, and cohabit with her
after the offence committed. 13 Ed. I. cap. 34.
But it is to be obferved, that adultereffes are fuch
either by the canon or civil law. According to the
former, a woman is an adulterefs who, either being
herfelf married, converfes Carnally with another man;
or being fingle herfelf, converfrs with a man that is
married. According to the latter, Hie is not an adul-
tereis, if Hie be not herfelf in the married Hate, though
Hie converfes with a man that is. The crime, in this
cafe, was more properly calledJluprum than adulterium.
Hence, among the Romans, the word adultera, “ a-
dulterefs,” differed from pellex, which denoted a {in¬
gle woman who cohabited with a married man: and j|
pellex differed from concubina, which fignified her who
had only intercourfe with ah unmarried man. The
former was reputed infamous, and the latter innocent.
ADULTERATION, the aft of debafing, by an
improper mixture, fomething that was pure and ge¬
nuine.
The word is Latin, formed of the verb adulterare,
“ to corrupt,” by mingling fomething foreign to any
fubffance. We have laws againff the adulteration of
coffee, tea, tobacco, fnuff, wine, beer, bread, wax,
hair-powder, &c.
Adulteration of Coin, properly imports the making,
or caffing of a wrong metal, or with too bafe or too
much alloy.
Adulterations of coins are effected divers ways; as,
by forging another ffamp or infeription; by mixing
impure metals with the gold or filver: moff properly,
by making ufe of a wrong metal, or an undue alloy,
or too great an admixture of the bafer metals with
gold or fdver. Counterfeiting the ftamp, or clipping
and
3
A D U [ 129 ] AD U
Adulfei ine, and leflening the weight, do not fo properly come under
Adultery, denomination of adulterating.—Evelyn gives rules
J"'v and methods, both of adulterating and dttefting a-
dulterated metals, &c.—Adulterating is fomewhat lefs
extenfive than debafwg, which includes diminilhing,
clipping, &c.
To adulterate or debafe the current coin, is a capi¬
tal crime in all nations.—The ancients punifhed it with
great feverity : among the Egyptians both hands were
cut off; and by the civil law, the offender was thrown
to wild beafls. The emperor Tacitus enacted, that
counterfeiting the coin fhould be capital; and under
Conflantine it was made treafon, as it is alfo among us,
The'adulterating of gems is a curious art, and the me¬
thods of detecting it no lefs ufeful. Nichols Lapid. p. 18.
ADULTERINE, in the civil law, is particularly
applied to a child iffued from an adulterous amour or
commerce. Adulterine children are more odious than
the illegitimate offspring of Angle perfons.—The Ro¬
man law' even refufes them the title of natural children;
as if nature difowned them.—Adulterine children are
not-eafily difpenfed with for admiffion to orders. Tliofe
are not deemed adulterine, who are begotten of a wo¬
man openly married, through ignorance of a former
wife being alive.—By a decree of the parliament of
Paris, adulterine children are declared not legitimated
by the fubfequent marriage of the parties, even though
a papal difpenfation be had for fuch marriage, wherein
is a claufe of legitimation.
Adulterine Marriages, in St Aliguftine’s fenfe, de¬
note fecond marriage's, contracted after a divorce.
ADULTERY, jtn unlawful commerce between one
married perfon and another, or between a married and
unmarried perfon,
Punifhments have been annexed to adultery in mod;
ages and nations, though of different degrees of fCve-
rity. In many it has been capital; in others venial, and
attended only with flight pecuniary mul£ts. Some of
the penalties are ferious, and even cruel; others of a jo-
cofe and humorous kind. Even contrary things have
■been ena&ed as punifhments for adultery. By fome
law's, the criminals are forbid marrying together, in cafe
they became fingle; by others, they are forbid to
marry any befides each other; by fome, they are inca¬
pacitated from ever committing the like crime again ;
by others, they are glutted with it till it becomes
downright naufeous.
Among the rich Greeks, adulterers were allowed to
redeem themfelves by a pecuniary fine; the woman’s
father, in fuch cafes, returned the dower he had recei¬
ved from her hufband, which fome think was refunded
by the adulterer. Another puniihment among thofe
people was, putting out the eyes of adulterers.
The Athenians had an extraordinary way of punifil¬
ing adulterers, called «?«?av5«SWif, practifed
at leaf! on the poorer fort who were not able to pay the
fines. This was an awkward fort of empalement, per¬
formed by thruffing one of the largeft radifhes up the
anus of the adulterer, or, in defect thereof, a fifli with
a large head, called mugil, “ mullet.” Alcseus is faid
to have died this w ay, though it is doubted whether
the punifhment was reputed mortal. Juvenal and Ca-
* full us fpeak of this cuftom, as received alfo among the
Romans, though not authorifed by an exprefs law, as
it was among the Greeks.
Vol. I. Part I.
There are various conje&ures concerning the anci- Adultery,
ent punifhment of Adultery among the Romans. Some
will have it to have been made capital by a law of Ro¬
mulus, and again by the twelve tables. Others, that it
was firfl made capital by Auguftus; and others, not
befoi-e the emperor Conftantine. The truth is, the pu¬
nifhment in the early days was very various, much be¬
ing left to the diferetion of the hufband and parents of
the adulterous wife, who exercifed it differently, rather
with the filence and countenance of the magiftrate than
any formal authority from him. Thus we are told, the
wife’s father was allowed to kill both parties, when
caught in the fa6t, provided he did it immediately, kill¬
ed both together, and as it w-ere with one blow'. The
fame power ordinarily was not indulged the hufband,
except the crime were committed wfith fome mean or
infamous perfon ; tho% in other cafes, if his rage car¬
ried him to put them to death, he was not punifhed as
a murderer. On many occafions, however, revenge was
not carried fo far; but mutilating, caflrating, cutting
-off the ears, nofes, See. ferved the turn. The punifh¬
ment allotted by the lex Julia, w'as not, as many have
imagined, death; but rather banifhment, or deporta¬
tion, being interdi&ed fire and water: though Oftavius
appears, in fev“ral inflances, to have gone beyond his
own law, and to have put adulterers to death. Un ¬
der Macrinus, many were burnt at a flake. Conilantine
firll by law made the crime capital. Under Conftan-
tius and Conflans, adulterers were burnt, or fewed in
lacks and thrown into the fea. Under Leo and Maf-
cian, the penalty was abated to perpetual banifhment,
or cutting off the nofe. Under Juftinian, a further mi¬
tigation w'as granted, at leafl in favour of the wife, who
was only to be fcourged, lofe her dower, and be fhut up
in a monaflery: after two years, the hufband was at li¬
berty to take her back again; if he reftlfed, fhe was fha-
ven, and made a nun for lifeBut it ftill remained death
in the hufband. The reafon alleged for this difference
is, that the woman is the weaker veffel. Matthaeus de¬
claims againfl the emprefs Theodora, who is fuppofed
to have been the caufe of this law, as Well as of otherg
procured in favour of that fex from the emperor.
Under Theodoffus, women convicted of this crime
were punifhed after a very Angular manner, viz. by a
public conflupration ; being locked up in a narrow' cell,
and forced to admit to their embraces all the men that
Would offer themfelves. To this end, the gallants were
to drefs themfelves on purpofe, having feveral little bells
faftened to their clothes, the tinkling of which gave
notice to thofe without of every-motion. This cuflont'
was again aboliflied by the fame prince.
By the Jewifh law', adultery was punifhed by death
in both parties, where they were both married, or on¬
ly the w'pman. The Jew's- had a particular method of
trying, or rather purging, an adulterefs, or a woman
fufpedled of the crime, by making her drink the bit¬
ter waters of jealoufy ; w'hich, if fhe were guilty, made
her fwell.
Among the Mingrelians, according to^Chardin, a»
dultery is punifiled with the forfeiture of a hog, which
is ufually eaten in good friendfhip between the gallant;
the adulterefs, and the cuckold. In fome parts of the
Indies, it is faid any man’s wife is permitted to pro-
flitute herfelf to him who will give an elephant for the
ufe of her; and it is reputed no fmall glory to her to
R have
A D U [ 130 ] A D U
Adultery, have been rated fo high. Adultery is faid to be fe>
' v ’ frequent at Geylon, that not a woman but praftifes it,
notwithftanding its being punifhable with death. A-
naong the Japanefe, and divers other nations, adultery
is only penal in the woman. Among the Abyffinians,
the crime of the hufband is faid to be only p uni died on
the innocent wife. In the Marian illands, on the con-
trary, the woman is not punilhable for adultery ; but
if the man go aftray he pays feverely: the wife and
her relations wafte his lands, turn him out of his houfe,
&c. Among the Chinefe, there is reafon to conclude
that adultery is not capital; for it is faid that fond pa¬
rents will make a contract for their daughters future
hufbands to allow them the indulgence of a gallant.
In Spain, they punifhed adultery in men by cutting
off that part which had been the inftrument of the
crime. In Poland, before Chriftianity was eftablifhed,
they punifhed adultery and fornication in a very parti¬
cular manner: the criminal they carried to the mar¬
ket-place, and there fattened him by the tefticles with
a nail; laying a razor within his reach, and leaving
him'under a necefiity, either of doing juftiee upon
himfelf Or of perifhing in that condition.
The Saxons formerly burnt the adulterefs, and over
her afhes erected a gibbet, whereon the adulterer was
hanged. In this kingdom, likewife, adultery, by the
ancient laws, was feverely punifhed. King Edmund
the Saxon ordered adultery to be punifhed in the fame
manner as homicide ; and Canute the Dane ordered
that a man who committed adultery fhould be banifh-
ed, and that the woman fhould have her nofe and ears
cut off. In the time of Henry I. it was punifhed with
: the lofs'of eyes and genitals.
In Britain, adultery is reckoned a fpiritual offence,
that is, cognizable by the fpiritual courts, where it is
punifhed by fine and penance. Tire common law takes
no farther notice of it, than to allow the party grie¬
ved an action and damages. This practice is often cen-
fured by foreigners, as making too light of a crime,
the bad conlequences of which, public as well as pri¬
vate, are fo great. It has been anfwered, that per¬
haps this penalty, by civil a6tion, is more wifely cal¬
culated to prevent the frequency of the offence, which
ought to be the end of all laws, than a feverer punifh-
ment. He that by a judgment of law is, according
to circamitances, ftripped of great part of his fortune,
thrown into prifon till he can pay it, or forced to fly
his country, will, no doubt, in molt cafes, own that
he pays dearly for his amufement.
As to the moral turpitude of this offence, fome have
vainly endeavoured to deny or explain it away by va¬
rious arguments, and even by an appeal to feripture.
On the part of the man who folicits the chaitity of a
married woman, it certainly includes the crime of se¬
duction, and is attended with mifehief ftill more
complicated and extenlive : It creates a new fufferer,
the injured hufband, upon whofe fimplicity and affec¬
tion is inflicted a wound the mofl; painful and incu-
frable that human nature knows. The infidelity of the
•woman is aggravated by cruelty to her children, who
-kre generally involved in their parents fhame, and al¬
ways made unhappy by their quarrel.
It has been argued, that thefe confequences ought
lefs'to be attributed to the crime than to the difeovery.
But, in the firft place, the crime could not be difeo-
vered unlefs it were committed, and the commiflion is Adultery,
never fecure from difeovery. 2-dly, If adulterous con- v""~
neftior.s were allowable whenever the parties could hope
to efcape detection, which is the conclufion to which
this argument leads, the hufband would be left no other
fecurity for his wife’s chaflity, than in her want of op¬
portunity or temptation : which would probably deter
moft men from marrying; or render marriage a ftate of
continual jealoufy and alarm to the hufband, which
would end in the flavery and confinement of the wife.
The marriage-vow is “ witneffed before God,” and
accompanied with circumflances of folemnity and re-*
ligiomwhich Approach to the nature of an oath. The
married offender, therefore, incurs a crime little fhort
of perjury, and the fedu&ion of a married woman is
little lefs than fiibornation of perjury :—and this guilt
is independent of the difeovery.
But the ufual apology for adultery is the prior tranf-
greflion of the other party ; and fo far, indeed, as the
bad effeils of adultery are anticipated by the conduct
of the hufband or wife- who offends firff, the guilt of
the fecond offender is extenuated. But this can never
amount to a juftification ; unlefs it could be fhown that
the obligation of the marriage-vow depends upon the
condition of reciprocal fidelity ; a conftruTion which
appears founded neither in expediency, nor in the tei/ns
of the vow, nor in the defign of the legiflature which
preferibed the marriage-rite. The way of confidering
the offence upon the footing of provocation and retali*
ation, is a childifh trifling with words..
“ Thou fhalt not commit adultery,” was an inter*
diet delivered by God himfelf; yet feriptuve has been
adduced as giving countenance to the Crime. As Chrift
told the woman taken in adultery, “ Neither do 1 con*,
demn thee,” we muff believe, it is faid, that he deemed
her condutd either not criminal, or at leaft not a crime
of the heinous nature we reprefent it to be.. But from
a more attentive examination of the cafe, it will be
evident that nothing can be concluded from it favour¬
able to fuch an opinion. The tranfaction is thus re¬
lated * :. ‘ Early in the morning Jefus came again in- * gt John'*
‘ to the temple, and all the people came unto him ; Gofyel,
‘ and he fat down and taught them ; and the Scribes ck '
‘ and Pharifees brought unto him a woman taken in
‘ adultery; and when they had fet her in the midft,
‘ they fay unto him, Mailer, this woman was taken
‘ in adultery, in the very aft ; now Mofes in the law
‘ commanded that fuch fhould be Honed, but what
‘ fayefl thou ? This they faid tempting him, that they
‘ might have to aceufe him : but Jefus Hooped down,
‘ and with his finger wrote on the ground, as though
‘ he heard them not. So when they continued a living
‘ him, he lift up himfelf, and faid unto them, He that
‘ is without fin amongfi you, let him firfi cafi a
‘ Hone at her; and again, he Hooped down and wrote
• on the ground : and they which heard it, being con-
‘ vifted by their own confcience, went out one by one,
‘ beginning at the eldell, even unto the lall; and J-r-
‘ fus was left alone, and the woman Handing in the
‘ midH. - When Jefus hud lift up himfelf, and faw none
‘ but the woman, he faid unto her. Woman, where
‘ are thofe thine aceufers ? .Hath no man condemned
‘ thee ? She faid uiito him. No man. Lord : and he
‘ faid unto her, Neither do I condemn thee; go and fin
1 no more.
‘ This
Paley’s
Moral and
Politic, il
Pbilofophy,
p. 258. 3d
edit. 4tO.
* De Serm
Dom. in
Mont. lib. i
tap. r6.
§ 49. ct Dt
Civ. Dei,
lib. xvi.
cap. aj.
A D U [ 1
‘ This they faid tempting him, that they might
‘ have to accufe him that is, to draw him into an
exercife of judicial authority, that they might have
to accufe him before the Roman governor of ufurping
or intermeddling with the civil government.
“ This was their defign ; and Chrift’s behaviour
throughout the whole affair proceeded from a know¬
ledge of this defign, and a determination to defeat it.
He gives them at firfi: a cold and fullen reception, well
fuited to the infidious intention with which they came :
* he flooped down, and with his finger wrote on
‘ the ground as though he heard them not.’ * When
* they continued afking him,’ when they teazed him
to fpeak, he difmiffed them with a rebuke, which the
impertinent malice of their errand, as well as the fe-
cret charafter of many of them, deferred : ‘ he that is
‘ without fin (that is, this fin) among you, let him
‘ firft call a ftone at her.’ This had its effect. Stung
with the reproof, and difappbinted of their aim, they
ftole away one by one, and left Jefus and the woman
alone. And then follows the converfation, which is
the part of the narrative moil material to our prefent
fubject. ‘ Jefus faith unto her, Woman, where are
‘ thofe thine accufers ? Hath no man condemned thee ?
4 She faid, No man, Lord. And Jefus faid unto her,
1 Neither do I condemn thee; go and fin no more.’
Now, when Chrifl afked the woman, ‘ Hath no man
‘ condemned thee ?’ he certainly fpoke, and was under-
flood by the woman to fpeak, of a legal and judicial
condemnation ; otherwife her anfwer, ‘ No man, Lord,’
was not true. In every other fenfe of condemnation,
as blame, cenfure, reproof, private judgment, and the
like, many had condemned her; all thofe, indeed,who.
•brought her to Jefiis. If then a judicial fentence was
what Chrift meant by condemning in the queflion, the
common ufe of language requires us to fuppofe that
lie meant the fame in his reply, ‘ Neither do I con-
‘ demn thee i. e. I pretend to no judicial character
or authority over thee; it is no office or bufinefs of
mine to pronounce or execute the fentence of the law.
When- Chrifl adds, ‘ Go and fin no more,’ he in effedl
tells her that fhe had finned already ; but as to the
degree or quality of the fin, or Chrifl’s opinion con¬
cerning it, nothing is declared, or can be inferred, ei¬
ther way.”
It has been controverted, whether adultery may be
lawfully committed in war, with the enemies wives ?
The anfwer is in the negative, and the authorifed prac¬
tice of civilized nations is agreeable to this. It has
alfo been a famous queflion, whether it be lawful for
a woman to commit adultery with the confent of her
hufband, and for the procuring fome great good to
him ? St Auilin apparently allows of it; at leafl, does
not condemn it *.
It has likewife been a difpute, whether it be lawful
for one of the parties married to commit adultery, with
the confent of the other, for the fake of having chil¬
dren ? Of which we have in fiances in Abraham, who,
on this account, converfed with Hagar; and likewife
among the Greeks and Romans. Pollman, a German
profeffor, has a difiertation on the hufband’s right to
alienate his wife’s body to another’s ufe.
It is much difputed, whether adultery diffolves the
bond of matrimony, and be a fufficient caufe 0/ di¬
vorce:., fo that the parties may marry again. This was
;i 1 A D V
allowed in the ancient church, and is flill continued in Adultery,
the Greek, as well as the Lutheran and Calvinifl ,A v»c<ue.^
churches. Romanifls, however, difallqw of it, and the
council of Trent even anathematized thofe who main¬
tain it; though the canon of anathematization was
mitigated in deference to the republic of Venice, in
fome of whofe dominions, as Zant, Cephalonia, &c.
the contrary ufage obtains. The ecclefiaftical courts
in England fo far agree with the papifts, that they
only grant a divorce a menfa et thoro, in cafe of adul¬
tery fo that a complete divorce, to enable the parties
to marry again, cannot be had without an a£l of par¬
liament.
Adultery is alfo ufed in ancient culloms, for the
puniffiment or fine impofed for that offence, or the
privilege of profecuting for it. In which fenfe, adul-
terium amounts to the fame with what the Saxons call
legernuita.
Adultery is fometimes ufed, in a more extenfive
fenfe, for any fpecies of impurity or crime, againll
the virtue of chaility; and in this fenfe divines under-
ilantd the feventh commandment.
Adultery is alfo ufed, efpecially in feripture, for
idolatry, or departing from the true God, to the wor-
ffiip of a falfe one.
Adultery is alfo ufed, in ecclefiaftical writers, for
a perfon’s invading or intruding into a biffiopric du¬
ring the former bifhop’s life. The reafon of the ap¬
pellation is, that a bilhop is fuppofed to contrail a
kind of fpiritual marriage with his church. The tranf-
lation of a biffiop from one fee to another was alfo re¬
puted a fpecies of adultery ; on the fuppofition of its
being a kind of fecond marriage, which, in thofe days, *
was efteemed a degree of adultery. This conclufion
was founded on that text of St Paul, Let a bijhop be
the hujhand of one rwi/e, by a forced con ft ruction of
church for wife and of bilhop for huffiand. Du-Cange:
Adultery is alfo ufed, in ancient naturalifts, for
the ail of ingrafting one plant upon another. In
which fenfe, Pliny fpeaks of the adulteries of trees,
arborum adulteria, which he reprefents as contrary
to nature, and a piece of luxury, or needlefs refine¬
ment.
ADVOCATE, among the Romans, a^perfon {kill¬
ed in their law, who undertook the defence of cauft s
at the bar. The Roman advocates anfwered to one
part of the office of a barrifter in England, viz. the
pleading part; for they never gave counfel, that being
the bufinefs of the jurifconfulti.
The Romans, in the firft ages of their ftate, held
the profeffion of an advocate in great honour ; and
the feats of their bar were crowded with fenators and
confuls ; they, whofe voices commanded the people,
thinking it an honour to be employed in defending
them. They were ftyled comites, honorati, clarifimi,
and even padroni ; as if their clients were not lefs obli¬
ged to them than freed men to their mailers. The
bar was not at that time venal. Thofe who afpired
to honours and offices took this way of gaining an in-
tereft in the people, and always pleaded . But
no fooner were luxury and corruption introduced into
the commonwealth, than the bar became a {barer in **
them. Then it was that the fenators let out their
voices for pay, and zeal and eloquence were fold to
the.higheft bidder. To put a ftop to this abufe, the
R 2 tribune
A D V [ i;
Advocates, tribune Cincius procured a law to be paffed, called from
v"'—him Lex Cincia, whereby the advocates were forbid
to take any money of their clients. It had before this '
been prohibited the advocates to take any prefents or
gratuities for their pleading. The emperor Auguftus
added a penalty to it: notwithftanding which, the ad¬
vocates played their part fo well, that the emperor
Claudius thought it an extraordinary circumftance,.
when he obliged them not to take above eight great
lefterces, which are equivalent to about 641. Sterlings
for pleading each caufe.
Advocate is ftill ufed, in countries and courts,
where the civil law obtains, for thofe who plead and,
defend the caufes of clients trufted to them.
Advocate of a City, in the German polity,, a ma-
giilrate appointed in the emperor's name to adminifter
juflice.
Advocate is more particularly ufed, in church hi-
ilory, for a perfon appointed to defend the rights and
revenues of a church or religious houfe. The word
advocatus, or advowee, is hill retained for what we ufu-
ally call the patron, or he who has the advowfon, or
right of presentation, in his own name.
Confjiorial Advocates ; officers of the confiilory at
Rome, who plead in all oppofitions to the difpofal of
benefices in that courtthey, are ten in number.
Eleftive Advocates, thofe chofen by the abbot;.
bifhop, or chapter ; a particular licence being had from
the king, or prince, for that purpofe. The eleftions
were originally made in,the prefence of the, count of,
the province.
Feudal Advocates,. Thefe were of"the military
kind, who, to make them more zealous for the inte--
feh of the church, had lands granted them in fee,,
which they held of the church,. and did homage, and
took an oath of fidelity to the bifhop or abbot. Thefe
were to lead the valTals of the church to war, not only
in private quarrels of the church, itfelf, but in military
expeditions for the king’s feryice, in which, they were
the ftandard-bearers of their churches.,
Fifcal Advocate,, fifci advocatus, in Roman anti¬
quity, an officer of, ftate under the Roman emperors,
who pleaded in all,caufes wherein the fifcus, or private
treafury, was concerned,’..
juridical. Advocates, in the middle age, were thofe
who from, attending eaufes in the court of the comes,
or count of, the province, became judges themfelves,
and held courts of their vaffals thrice a-year, under the
name of the tria placita. generalia. In confideration
of this further fervice, they had a particular allowance
of one third part of all fines, or muhhs, impofed on
defaulters, &c., be Tides a pro-portion of diet for them¬
felves and fervants.
Matricular Advocates, were the advocates of the
mother or cathedral churches.
Military Advocates, thofe appointed for the de¬
fence of the church, rather by arms and authority than
by pleading and eloquence. Thefe were introduced
in the times of confiifion, when every perfon was obli¬
ged to maintain, their own property by force ; bifhops
and abbots not being permitted to bear arms, and the
fcholaftic or gowned advocates being equally unac¬
quainted with them, recourfe rvas had to knights, no¬
blemen, foldiers, or even to princes.
Nominative Advocates, thofe appointed by a king
12] A ^ v.,
or pope. Sometimes the churches petitioned kings, Aefvc
&c. to appoint them an advocate ; at other times this' 1
was done of their own accord. By fome regulations,
no perfon was capable of being eledted advocate, un-
kfs he had an ellate in land in the fame county.
Regular Advocates, thofe duly formed and quali¬
fied for their profelfion, by a proper courfe of fludy*
the requifite oath, fubfeription, licence, &c.
Subordinate- Advocates, thofe appointed by other
fuperior ones, acting under them, and accountable to
them. There were various reafons for the creation of
thefe fubordinate advocates j as, the fuperior quality
of the principal advocate, his being detained in war,,
or being involved in other affairs ; but chiefly the too
great dillance of fome of the church-lands, and their,
lying in the dominions of foreign princes..
Supreme or Sovereign Advocates, were thofe who
had the authority in chief; but a died by-deputies or
fubordinate advocates-. Thefe were called alfo princi¬
pal, greater, and fometimes general advocates. Such
in many cafes were kings, &c. when either they
had been chofen advocates, or became fuch by be¬
ing founders or endowers of churches. Princes had
alfo another title to advocatefhip, fome of them pre¬
tending to be advocati nati of the churches withift
their dominions.,
Advocates, in the Englilh courts, are more ge¬
nerally called counfel. See Counsel.
Faculty of Advocates, in Scotland, a refpe&able
body of lawyers, who plead in all caufes before the
Courts of Seffion, Jufticiary, and Exchequer. They
are alfo intitled to plead in the houfe of peers, and o-
ther fupreme courts in England.
In the year i6(5o, the faculty founded a library
upon a very extenfive plan, fuggefted by that learned
and eminent lawyer Sir George MTCenzie of Rofe-
haugh, advocate to king Charles II. and king James-
VII. who enriched it with many valuable books. It
has been daily increafing fince that time, and now' con¬
tains not only the bed colle&ion of Lw-books in Eu¬
rope, but a very large and feledf colledfion of books on
all fobjects. Befides, this library contains a great
number of original manuforipts, and a vail variety of
Jewilh, Grecian, Roman, Scots, and Engliffi coins and
medals.
A candidate for the office of an advocate-undergoes-
three foveral trials: The firft is in Latin, upon the ci¬
vil law and Greek and Roman antiquities j the fecond,,
in Englilh, upon the municipal law of Scotland ; and,
in the third, he is- obliged to defend a Latin theiisy
which is impugned by three .members of the faculty,.
Immediately before putting on the gown, the candidate-
makes a (hort Latin fpeech to the lords, and then takes
the oaths to the government and dv fdeli.
The faculty at prefent confills of above 200 mem¬
bers. As an advocate or lawyer is efteemed the gen-
teeleft profelfion in Scotland, many gentlemen of for¬
tune take the degree of advocate, without having any
intention of pradliling at the bar. This, circumllance
greatly iiicreafes their number, gives dignity to the pro-
feffion, and enriches their library and public fund. It
is from this refpeclable body that all vacancies on the
bench are generally fupplied.
Lord Advocate, or King’s Advocate, one of the
eight great officers of ftate in Scotland, who as fuch.
fat.
A D V [ 133 3 A D V
Advocstioii fat in parliament without election. He is the princi-
Advowee. paj crown-lawyer in Scotland. His bufmefs is to a£t
‘ as a public profecutor, and to plead in all caufes that
concern the crown j but particularly in fuch as are of
a criminal nature. The office of king’s advocate is
not very ancient: It feems to have been eftabliffied
about the beginning of the 16th century. Originally
he had no power to profecute crimes without the con¬
currence of a private party; but, in the year 1597,
he was empowered to profeeute crimes at his own in-
llance. He has the privilege of pleading in court with
his hat on. This privilege was firlt granted to Sir
Thomas Hope ; who having three fons lords of feffion,
it was thought indecent that the father fhould plead
uncovered before the fons, who as judges fat covered.
Bum of ADVOCATION, in Scots law, a writing
drawn up in the form of a petition ; whereby a party,
in an adtion before an inferior court, applies to the fu-
preme court, or court of Seffion, for calling the action
from the inferior court before itfelf.
Letters Advocation, in Scots law, the decree or
warrant of the court of Seffion upon cognifance of the
fafts fet forth in the bill, drawn up in the form of a
fummons, and paffing under the fignet, difcharging the
inferior judge and all others from further procedure in
the caufe, and advocating it to itfelf.
ADVOWEE, in ancient cultoms and law books,
denotes the advocate of a church, religious houfe, or
the like. There were advowees of Cathedrals, abbeys,
monafteries, &c. Thus, Charlemagne had the title of
advowee of St Peter’s; king Hugh, of St Riquier ;
and Bolandus mentions fome letters of pope Nicholas,
by which he conftituted king Edward the Confeflbr,
and his fucceffors, advowees of the monallery at Weft-
minfter, and of all the churches in England. Thefe
advowees were the guardians, protestors, and admini-
iirators of the temporal concerns of the churches, &c.
and under their authority were paffed all contrails
which related to them. It appears alfo, from the moft
ancient charters, that the donations made to churches
were conferred on the perfons of the advowees. They
always pleaded the cauies of the churches in court,
and diilributed. juttice for them, in the places under
their jurifdiclion. They alfo commanded the forces
furniffied by their monalteiies, &c. for the war ; and
even were their champions, and fometimes maintained
duels for them.
This office is faid to have been firft introduced in the
fourth century, in the time of Stillico ; though the
Benedictines do not fix its origin before the eighth
century. By degrees, mfen of the firft. rank were
brought into it, as it was found neceffary either to de¬
fend with arms or to protect with power and authori¬
ty. In fome: monafteries they were only called con-
fervators; but thefe, without the name, had all the
functions of advowees. There were alfo fometimes
feveral fub-advowees, or fub-advocates, in each mona-
ftery, who officiated inftead of the advowees tnem-
fclves; which, however, proved the ruin of monafte¬
ries ; thofe inferior officers running into great abides.
Hence alfo, huffiands, tutors, and every perfon in
general, who took upon him the defence of another,
were denominated advowees, or advocates. Hence fe¬
veral cities had their advowees ; which were eftabliftied
long after the ecdefiaftical ones, and doubtlefs from
2,
their example. Thus we read in hiftory of the ad- Advowee,
vowees of Augfburg, of Arras, &c. Advow on.
The vidames affumed the quality of advowees and
hence it is, that feveral hiftorians of the eighth cen¬
tury confound the two functions together. Elence al¬
fo it is, that feveral fecular lords in Germany bear
mitres for their crefts, as having anciently been ad¬
vowees of the great churches.
Spelman diftinguiffies two kinds of ecclefiaftical ad¬
vowees.—The one, of caufes or proceffes, advocati
eaufarum; the other, of territory or lands, advocati
Joli. The former were nominated by the king, and
were ufually lawyers, who undertook to plead the
caufes of the monafteries. The other, which ftill fub-
fift, and are fometimes called by their primitive name,
advowees, though more ufually patrons, were heredi¬
tary ; as being the founders and endowers of churches,
&c. or their heirs.
Women were fometimes advowees, advocatijfa. And,
in effe&, the canon law mentions fome who had tin#
title, and who had the fame right of prefentation, &c.
in their churches which the advowees themfelves had.
In a Hat. 25 Edw. III. we meet with advowee para*
mount for the higheft patron ; that is, the king.
ADVOWSON, or Advowzen, in common law,
fignifies a right to prefent to a vacant benefifee. Ad-
vowfon is fo called, becaufe the right of prefenting t®
the church was firft gained by fuch as were founders,
benefactors, or maintainers of the church.
Though the nomination of fit perfons to officiate in
every diocefe was originally in the biffiop, yet they
were content to let the founders of churches have the
nomination of the perfons to the churches fo founded,
referving to themfelves a right to judge of the fitnefs
of the perfons fo nominated.
Advowfons formerly were moft of them appendant
to manors, and the patrons were parochial barons:
the lordfhip of the manor and patronage of the church
were feldom in different hands, until advowfons were
given to religious houfes. But of late times the lord-
ffiip of the manor and advowfon of the church have
been divided.
Advowfons. are prefentative,, collative, or donative :
prefent at iv^ where the patron prefents or offers his
clerk to the bifhop of the diocefe,, to he inftituted in
his church ; collative, where the benefice is given by
the biffiop, as. original patron thereof, or by means of
a right he has acquired by lapfe donative, as where
the king or other patron does, by a iingle donation in
writing, put the clerk into poffeffioa, without prefen- •
tation, iuftitution, or induftion.
Sometimes, anciently, the patron had the foie no¬
mination of the prelate, abbot, or prior ; either by in—
veftiture (7. e. delivery of a paftoral ftaff), or by direA
prefentation to the diocefan ; and if a free election was
left to the x'digious, yet a conge d'dire, or licence^ of
eleftion, was firft to be obtained of the patron, and
the perfon eleCted was confirmed by him. If the
founder’s family became extinft, the patronage of the
convent went to the lord of the manor. Unlefs the
feveral colleges in the univerfities be reftrained in the
number of advowfons they may receive, it is argued
they will in time acquire fuch a ftock as to fruftrate.
the defign of their foundation (which is the education
of youth, by creating too quick a fucceffion of fel-
ADZ [ 1.34 ] EDI
Aduft lows ; fo that there will not be in the colleges a fuffi-
Adze c*cnt number of perfons.of competent age, knowledge,
' ' i and experience, to inftruft and form the minds of the
youth.—In fome colleges the number of advowfons is
faid to be already two thirds, or more, of the number
of fellows. - It is obje&ed, on the other fide, that the
fucceffion of fellows may be too flow as well as too
quick ; whereby perfons well qualified may be detained
fa long in colleges as not to have llrength or activity
enough left for the difcharge of parochial funftions.
Colleges holding more advowfons in number than a
moiety of the fellows, are not capable of purchafing
more. Grants of advowfons by papiits are void.
9 Geo. II. c. 36. $ 5. n Geo. II. c. 17. § 5.
Advowfons are temporal inheritances and lay fees ;
they may be granted by deed or will, and are affets- in
the hands of heirs or executors. Prefentations to ad¬
vowfons for money, or other reward, are void. 31 Eliz.
cap. 6.
In Scotland, this right is called patronage. See
Patronage.
ADUST, Adustxjs, among phyficians, &c. is ap¬
plied to fuch humours as'by long heat become of a hot
and fiery nature. Such is choler fuppofed to be.
Melancholy is ufually confidered as black and aduft bile.
Blood is laid to be aduft, when, by reafon of fome
extraordinary heat, its more fubtile parts are all eva¬
porated, leaving the groffer, with all the impurities
therein, half terrified.
ADY, in natural hiftory, a name given to the palm-
tree of the ifland of St Thomas, ft is a tall tree, with
a thick, bare, upright Item, growing fingle on its root,
of a thin light timber, and full of juice. The head of
this tree fhoots into a vaft number of branches, which
being cut off, or an incifion being made therein, afford
-a great quantity of fweet juice, which fermenting fup-
plies the place of wine among the Indians. The.fruit
of this treC is called by the Portuguefe Caryoces and Ca-
tiojfe; and by the black natives, Abanya. This fruit
js of the lize and lhape of a lemon and contains a
kernel, "which is good to eat. The fruit itfelf is eat
roaited, and the raw kernels are often mixed with man-
dioc meal. Thefe kernels are fuppofed very cordial.
An oil is alfo prepared from this fruit, which anfwers
the purpofe of oil or butter. This oil is alfo ufed for
.anointing ftiff and contracted parts of the body.
ADYNAMIA, in medicine, debility, or weaknefs,
from ficknefs.
ADYNAMON, among ancient phyfieians, a kind
of weak factitious wine, prepared from muft boiled
down with water; to be given to patients to whom
genuine wine might be hurtful.
ADYTUM, in pagan antiquity, the moft retired
and facred place of their temples, into which none but
the priefts were allowed to enter. The Santtum Sanc-
■ to>ym of the temple of Solomon was of the nature of
I tl;e pagan adytum, none.,but the high prieft being ad¬
mitted into it, and he but once a-year.
ADZE, or Adbice, a cutting tool of the ax kind;
having its blade made thin and arching,' and its edge
at right angles to the handle ; chiefly ufed for taking
off thin chips of timber or boards, and for paring away
certain irregularities which the. ax cannot come at.
The adze is ufed by carpenters, bun more by coopers,
as being convenient -for cutting the hollow fides of
3
boards, &c. It is ground from a bafe on its infide to Ae
its outer edge ; fo that, when it is blunt, they cannot ^,^[1
conveniently grind it without taking its helve out of ^cua‘.
the eye.
AE, or J£, a diphthong compounded of A and E.
Authors are by no means agreed as to the ufe of the
ae in Englifti words.—Some, out of regard to etymo-
logy, infill on its being retained in all words, particu¬
larly technical ones, borrowed from the Greek and
Latin ; while others, from a confideration that it is
no proper diphthong in our language, its found be¬
ing no other than that of the fimple e, contend that it
ought to be entirely difufed ; and, in facl, the fimple 'e
has of late been adopted inftead of the Roman a, as
in the word equator, &c.
iEACEA, in Grecian antiquity, folemn feftivals
and games celebrated at iEgina, in honour of zEacus.
zEACUS, the ion of Jupiter by YEgina. When
the ille of zEgina wanriepopulated by a plague, his fa¬
ther, in compaffion to his grief, changed all the ants
upon it into men and women, who wpre called Myrmi¬
dons, from an ant. The foundation of the fa¬
ble is faid to be, that when the country had been de¬
populated by pirates, who forced the few that remain¬
ed to take Ihelter in caves, YEacus encouraged them to
come out, and by commerce and induftry recover what
they had loft. His character for juftice was fuch, that,
in a time of univerfal drought, he was nominated by
the Delphic oracle to intercede for Greece, and his
prayer was anfwered. See the article YEgina. The
Pagans alfo imagined that YEacus, on account of his
impartial juftice, was chofen by Pluto one of the three
judges of the dead : and that it was his province to
judge the Europeans.
YEBURA (anc. geog.), a town of Spain, in Eftre-
madura, on tire river Guadiana, to the weft of Me¬
rida, now called Taiavera. W. Long. 7. 15. Lat.
38. 4°. ’ . •
YECHMALOTARCHA, in Jewhh antiquity, a
title given to the principal leader or governor of the
Hebrew captives reliding in Chaldea, Affyria, and the
neighbouring countries.' This magiftrate was called
by the Jews rojeh-gaiath, i. e. the chief of the capti¬
vity : but the above term, of like import in the Greek,
is that ufed by Origen and others who wrote in the
Greek tongue.
The Jewifh writers affure us, that the achmalotarcha:
were only to be chofen out of the tribe of Judah. The
eaftern Jews had their princes of the captivity, as the
weftern Jews their patriarchs. The Jews'are ftill faid
to have an .rchmalota cha at Babylon, but without the
authority of the ancient ones. Bafnage Hill. Jews,
and Prideaux’s Connexion. .
YECULANUM (anc. geog.), a town of the Hir-
pini in Italy, at ths foot of the Appenin, to the eaft
of Abdlinum, ccntrarited Atcianum, fituate between
Beneventum and Tarentum. The inhabitants are called
JEculani by Pliny ; and ALclanenjes, in an ancient in-
feription, (Gruter). The town is now called Fncenio,
Cluverius, 43 miles eaft of Naples. E. Long. 15. 38.
Lat. 40. 15.
iEDES, in Roman antiquity, befides its more or¬
dinary fignification of a houfe, likewife fignified an in¬
ferior kind of temple, confecrated to fome deity.
YEDICULA, a term ufed to denote the-inner part
of
MSI
JEHilate, of the temple, where the altar-'and ftatue of the deity
^di!e' ftood.
1 jEDILATE, the office of aedile, fometimes called
JEdilily. See the next article.
iEDILE (tedilis), in Roman antiquity, a magillrate
whofe chief .bufinefs was. to fuperintend buildings of all
kinds, but more efpecially public ones, as temples,
aquaedufts, bridges, &c; To the ,aediles likewife be¬
longed the care of the highways, public places, weights
and meafures, &c. They alfo fixed the prices of pro-
vifions, took cognizance of debauches, punifhed lewd
women, and fuch perfons as frequented gaming houfes.
The cuftody of the plebifcita, or orders of the people,
was likewife committed to them. They had the infpec-
tion of comedies and other pieces of wit; and were ob¬
liged to exhibit magnificent games to the people, at
their own expence, whereby many of them were ruin¬
ed. To them alfo belonged the cuftody of the ple¬
bifcita, and the cenfure and examination of books.
They had the power, on certain occafions, of iffuing
edifts; and, by degrees, they procured to themfelves
a confiderable junTdidtion, the 'cognizance of various
caufes, &c. This office ruined numbers by its expen-
fivenefs ; fo that, in Auguftus’s time,, even many fe-
nators declined it on that account.
All thefe funftions which rendered the aediles fo con¬
fiderable belonged at firft to the aediles of the people,
adiles plebeii, of minores : thefe'were only two in num¬
ber, . and were firft created in the fame year as the tri¬
bunes : for the tribunes, finding themfelves oppreffed
with the multiplicity of affairs, demanded of the fe-
nate to have officers, with whom they might intruft
matters of lefs importance ; and accordingly two aediles
were created; and hence, it was that the aediles were
elected every year at the fame affembly as the tribunes.
But -thefe plebeian aediles having refufed, on a fignah
pccafion,' to treat the people with- fhows, as pleading
themfelves. unabl'e to fupprirt the expence thereof, the
patricians made an offer to do it, provided they would
admit them to the honours of the cedildte. On this
oecafion there were two new sediles 'created, of the
number of the patricians, in the year of Rome 388 ;
they were called tediles curules, or major es ; as having
a right to fit on a curule chair, enriched with .ivory,
when they gave audience ; whereas the plebeian aediles
only fat on benches.—Befides that the curule aediles
fhared all the ordinary functions with the plebeian, their
chief employ was, to procure the. celebration of the
grand Roman games, and. to exhibit comedies, 'ftiews
of gladiators, &c. to the people; aiid they were alfo
appointed judges in all cafes relating to the felling or
exchanging eftates.-
To eafe thefe four firft aediles, Caefar created a new
kind, called idiles cere ales, as being deputed chiefly to
take care of. the corn, which was called donum cereris;
for the Heathens honoured Ceres as, the goddefs who
prefided over corn, and attributed to her the, invention
of agriculture. Thefe aediles cereales were alfo taken
out of the order of patricians, in tire municipal ci¬
ties there were aediles, and with the fame authority as
at Rome.
We.alfo read of an adiles alimeotarius, expreffed in
abbreviature by JEdil. ahm. whofe bufinefs feems to
have been to provide diet for thofe who were maintain-
■ed at the public charge, though others affign him a
iE G I
different office.—In an ancient infcription we alfo meet -ffidilitinm
with cedde of the camp, adilis cajlrorum l(,
jEDILITIUM edictum, among the Romans, was ■ a‘ .
that whereby a remedy was given - a buyer, in cafe a
vicious or unfound beaft, or flave, was fold him. It was
called cediliiium, becaufe the preventing of frauds in
fales and contracts belonged efpecially to -the curule
sediles..
iEDITUUS, in Roman antiquity, an officer belong¬
ing to the temple, who had the charge of the offerings,
treafure, and facred utenfils. The female deitjes had a
woman officer of this kind called Mditua.
JEGAGROPILA, a ball compofed of a fubftance
refembling hair, generated in the ftomach of the cha¬
mois-goat. This ball is of the fame nature with thofe
found in cows, hogs, &c.
iEGiE, oriEc.EA (anc. geog.),the name of JEdef-
fa, fo called from the following adventure : Caranus,
the firft king of Macedonia, being ordered by the o-
racle to feek out a fettlement in Macedonia, under the
conduft of a flock of goats, furprifed the town of iE-
defl'a, during a thick fog and rainy weather, in follow¬
ing the goats that fled from the rain; which goata
ever after, in all his military expeditions, he caufed
to precede his ftandard ; and in memory of this ha
called jEdefla JEgaa, and his people JEgaad.e. And
hence probably, in the prophet Daniel, the he-goat ia
the fymbol of the king of Macedqn.
AEGEAN sea (anc. geog.),' now the Archipelago,
a part of the Mediterranean, feparating Europe from
Afia and Africawalking, on the one hand, Greece
and Macedonia ; on the other, Caria and Ionia. The
origin of the name is greatly difputed. Feftus advan¬
ces three opinions : one, that it is fo called from the
many iflands-therein, at a diftanee appearing like fo
many goats : ■ another, .becaufe iEgea queen of the
Amazons perilhed in it: a third opinion is, becaufe
iEgeus, the father of Thefeus, threw himfelf headlong
into it.
iEGEUS, in fabulous hiftory, was king of Athens,
and the father of Thefeus. The Athenians having
bafcly killed the fon of Minos king of Crete, for carry¬
ing away the prize from them, Minos made war upon
the'Athenians; and being victorious, impofed this fevere
condition.on zEgeus, that he ihould annually fend into
Crete feven of. the nobleft of the Athenian youths, .
chofen by lot, to be devoured by the Minotaur. On
the fourth year of this tribute, the choice fell on The¬
feus ; or, as others fay, he himfelf intreated to be fent.
The king, at his fon’s departure, gave orders, that as
the Ihip failed with black fails, it Ihould return with the
fame in cafe he perilhed ; but, if he became victorious,
he Ihould change them into white. When Thefeus re¬
turned to Crete, after killing the Minotaur, and for¬
got to change. the fails in token of his victory, ac¬
cording to the agreement v/ith his father; the latter;
who watched the return of the veffel, fuppofing by
the black fails that his fon was dead, call hiinfelf head¬
long into the fea, which afterwards obtained the name
of the Mgean Sea. The Athenians . decreed JEgeus
divine honours ; and facrificed to him as a marine deity,
the adopted fon of Neptune.
JEGIAS, among phyficians, a white fpeck on the .
pupil of the eye, which occafions a dimnefs of fight.
iEGIDA, (Pliny) ; now Capod'Iftria, the princi,-
[ >35 ]
JE G I [ ^ G I
JF.gilops pal town on the north of the territory of Iftria, fituated
„ I! in a little ifland, joined to the land by a bridge. In an
^ina' i infcription. (Gruter), it is called JEgidis Infula. E.
Long. 14. 20. Lat. 45.50. It was afterwards called
JuJlinopolis, after the emperor Juftinus.
^EGILOPS, the name of a tumor in the great angle
of the eye ; either with, or without, an inflamntation.
The word is compounded of a,|, goat, and aj,, eye?
as goats are fuppofed extremely liable to this diilem-
per.
Authors frequently ufe the words agilops, anchilops,
and fijhda lachrymalis, promifcuoufly ; but the more
accurate, after jEgineta, make a difference.—The tu¬
mor, before it becomes ulcerous, is properly called an¬
chilops; and, after it is got into the lachrymal paffages,
and has rendered the os lachrymale carious, fiftula la¬
chrymals s.
If the asgilops be accompanied with an inflamma¬
tion, it is fuppofed to take its rife from the abundance
of blood which a plethoric habit difcharges on the cor¬
ner of the eye. If it be without an inflammation, it is
fuppofed to proceed from a vifcous pituitous humour,
thrown upon this part.
The method of cure is the fame as that of the oph¬
thalmia. But before it has reached the lachrymal paf¬
fages, it is managed like other ulcers. If the aegilops
be neglected, it burlts, and degenerates into a fiftula,
which eats into the bone.
M.GW.otWildFejluc; a genusofthemonoeciaorder,
belonging to the polygamia clafs of plants, and ranking
under the 4th natural order, Gramina.—The charadlers
are : The hermaphrodite calyx is a two-valved glume, tri-
florous; the corolla a two-valved glume, the exterior
valvalet terminated by three r,rift32 or awns, the interior
awnlefs : Stamina, three capillary filaments ; ftyle, two'.
Seed, one, oblong. Male calyx and corolla, each a glume
ais in the former ; and Jiamina, the fame number.—
There are feven fpecies, natives of Italy and fome other
parts of Europe ; one of them, the incurvata, a native
of Britain, grows by the fea-fhore, and is vulgarly call¬
ed fea-hard-grafs.
yEcmoPS is alfo the trivial name of a fpecies of
QmER.cus.
.EGIMURUS (anc. geog.), an ifland.on the bay
of Carthage, about 30 miles diftant from that city,
.{Livy) ; now the Galetta: This illand being after¬
wards funk in the fea, two of its rocks remained above
water, which were called slrai, and mentioned by Vir¬
gil, becaufe the Romans and Carthaginians entered in¬
to an agreement or league to fettle their mutual boun¬
daries at tliefe rocks.
jEGJNA, in fabulous hiftory, the daughter of iE-
•fopus, king of Beotia, was beloved by Jupiter, who
debauched her in the fimilitude of a lambent flame,
arid then carried her from Epidaurus to a defart ifland
called Oenope, which afterwards obtained her own
name.
xEgina (anc. geog.), an ifland on the Saronic Bay,
or Bay of Engia, 20 miles diftant from the Piraeus,
formerly vying with .Athens for naval power, and at the
fea-fight of Salamin difputing the palm of viftory with
the Athenians. It was the country and kingdom, of
JEacus, who called it JEgina from his mother’s name,
it being before called Oenopia, (Ovid). The inhabi¬
tants were called JEginetec, and JF.ginenfes. The Greeks
■ -N° 4.
had a common temple dedicated to Jupiter in iEgina.
The vEginetas applied to commerce ; and were the firft
who coined money, called 'Ayivaio': hence JE-
gineticum res, formerly in great repute. The inhabi¬
tants were called Myrmydones, or a nation of ants,
from their great application to agriculture. See JHa-
cvs.
This ifland was furrounded by Attica, the territory
of Megara, and the Peloponnefus, each diftant about 100
ftadia, or 12 miles and a half. In circumference it was
reckoned 180 ftadia, or 22 miles and a half. It was
wafhed on the eaft and fouth by the Myrtoan aad Cre¬
tan feas.
It is now called Eyina, or Egina, the g foft and the i
Ihort. The temple above-mentioned is fituated upon
the fummit of a mountain called Panhellenius, about
an hour diftant from the Ihore. The-fEginetans affirm*
ed it was eredled by ALacus ; in whofe time Hellas
being terribly oppreffed by drought, the Delphic oracle
was confulted ; and the refporife was, That Jupiter muft
be rendered propitious by fEacus. The cities intreat-
ed him to be their mediator: He facrificed and prayed
to Jupiter Panhellenius, and procured rain.
The temple was of the Doric order, and had fix co¬
lumns in front. Twenty-one of the exterior columns
are yet Handing, with two in the front of the pronaos
and of the potticum, and five of the number which
formed the ranges of the cell. The entablature, except
the architrave, is fallen. The ftone is of a light brown-
ifh colour, much eaten in many places, and indicating
a very great age. Some of the columns have been in¬
jured by boring to their centres for the metal. In fe-
veral, the junction of the parts is fo exaft, that each
feems to confift of one piece. This ruin Mr Chandler
confiders as fcarcely to be paralleled in its claim to a
remote antiquity. The fituation on a lonely mountain,
at a diftance from the fea, has preferred it from total
demolition, amid all the changes and accidents of nu¬
merous centuries.
Near the fliore is a burrow, raifed, it is related, for
Phocus, upon the following occafion. Telamon and
Peleus, fons of JEacus, challenged their half-brother
Phocus to contend in the Pentathlum. In throwing
the ft/>ne, which ferved as a quoit, Peleus hit Phocus,
who was killed; when both of them fled. Afterwards,
Telamon fent a herald to aflert his innocence. iEacus
would not fuffer him to land, or to apologize, except
from the veffel; or, if he chofe rather, from a heap call
up in the water. Telamon, entering the private port
by night, raifed a barrow, as a token, it is likely, of a
pious regard for the deceafed. He was afterwards
condemned, as not free from guilt; and failed away a-
gain to Salami’s. The barrow in the fecond century,
when feen by Paufanias, was furrounded with a fence,
and had on it a rough ftone. The terror of fome
dreadful judgment to be inflicted from heaven had pre-
ferved it entire and unaltered to his time ; and in a
country depopulated and neglecfted, it may ftill endure
for many ages.
The foil of this ifland is, as deferibed by Strabo,
very ftony, efpecially the bottoms, but in fome places
not unfertile in grain. Befides corn, it produces olives,
grapes, and almonds ; and abounds in pigeons and
partridges. It has been related, that the jEginc-
tans annually wage war with the feathered race, care-
G I [ 137 ] -SGI
fully collecting or breaking their eggs, to prevent their iEginhard, after the Iqis of his lamented wife, is fup- -®gipan
j multiplying, and in confequence a yearly famine. They pofed to have paffed the remainder of his days in reli-
J have no hares, foxes, or wolves. The rivers in fummer gious retirement, and to have died foon after the year . - 1
are all dry. The vaiwode or governor farms the re- 840. His life of Charlemagne, his annals from 741 to
venue of the Grand Signior for 1.2 purfes, or 6ooo 889, and his letters, are all inferted in the 2d volume
piaftres. About half this fum is repaid yearly by of Duchefne’s Scriptures Francorum. But there is an
the caratch-money, or poll-tax. improved edition of this valuable hiftorian, with the
iEciNA, the capital of the above ifland. Its fite has annotations of Hermann Schmincke, in 4to, 1711.
been long forfaken. Inftead of the temples mention- ^EGIPAN, in heathen mythology, a denomination
ed by Paufanias, there are 13 lonely churches, all given to the god Pan, becaufe he was reprefented with
very mean ; and two Doric columns fupporting their the horns, legs, feet, &c. of a goat,
architrave. Thefe hand by the fea-fide toward the iEGIPHILA, Goat-friend ; a genus of the mo-
low cape ; and, it has been fuppofed, are a remnant nogynia order, belonging to the tetrandia clafs of plants;
of a temple of Venus, which was lituated by the port the characters of which are: The calyx is a fmgle-leaved
principally frequented. The theatre, which is recor- perianthium, bell-lhap’d, four-tooth’d, loofe, very fhort,
ded as worth feeing, refembled that of the Epidaurians and perfiftent: The corclla confifts of one petal; the
both in fize and workmanfhip. IP was not far from tubus cylindric, narrower and longer than the calyx ;
the private port; the ftadium, which, like that at Priene, the border divided into four fegments, flat and equal;
was conllruCfed with only one fide, being joined to it the divifions oblong : The Jlamina conliil of four emit
behind, and each ftruCture mutually fuftaining and capillary filaments ; the antherce are incumbent and
propping the other. The walls belonging to the ports fquared : The piftillum has a germen above ; a capil-
and arfenal were of excellent mafonry, and may be tra- lary, two-cleft, middle-fized ftylus ; and a fimple ftig-
ced to a confiderable extent, above, or nearly even with, ma : The pericarpium is a roundifli unilocular berry :
the water. At the entrance of the mole, on the left, The feeds are four. There is only one°lpecies, a na-
is a fmall chapel of St Nicholas ; and oppofite, a fquare tive of Martinico.
tower with fteps before it, detached, from which a -ZEGIS, in the ancient mythology, a name given
bridge'was laid acrofs, to be removed on any alarm, to the Afield or buckler of Jupiter and Pallas.
This ftruCture, which is mean, was ereCted by the Ve- The goat Amalthea, which had fuckled Jove, being
netians, while at war with the Turks in 1693. dead, that god is faid to have covered his buckler with
ALGIMETA (Paulus), a celebrated furgeon of the the Ikin thereof; whence the appellation cegis, from
ifland of zEgina, from whence he derived his name. “>?> Jhe-g:at. Jupiter, afterwards reftoring the .
According to Mr Le Clerc’s calculation, he lived in. beaft to life again, covered it with a new Ikin, andpla-
the fourth century ; but Abulpharagius the Arabian, ced it among the ftars. As to. his buckler, he made a
who is allowed to give the bell account of thofe times, prefent of it to Minerva ; whence that goddefs’s buck-
places him with more probability in the feventh. His ler is alfo called aegis.
knowledge in forgery was very great, and his works Minerva, having killed the Gorgon Medufa, nailed
are defervedly famous. Fabricius ab Aquapendente her head in the middle of the aegis, which henceforth
has thought fit to tranferibe him in a great variety of had the faculty of converting into (tone all thofe who
places. Indeed the doftrine of Paulus ^Egineta, toge- looked thereon ; as Medufa herfelf had done during
ther with that of Celfos and Albucafis, make up the her life.
whole text of this author. He is the firft writer who Others take the aegis not to have been a buckle:-, but
takes notice of the cathartic quality of rhubarb ; and, a cuirafs, or breaft-plate : and it is certain the aegis of
according to Df Milward, is the firft in all antiquity Pallas, deferibed by Virgil, /En. lib. viii. ver. 435,
who deferves the title of a man-midwife. muft have been a cuirafs ; fince that poet fays exprefs-
JEGINHARD, the celebrated fecretary and fup- ly, that Medufa’s head was on the breaft of the god-
pofed fon-in-law of Charlemagne. He is faid to have defs. But the asgis of Jupiter, mentioned a little high-
been earned through the fnow on the fhoulders of the er, ver. 354, feems to have been a buckler: the words
affedfionate and ingenious Imma, to prevent his being Cum feepe nigrantem
tracked from her apartments by the emperor her fa- iEgida concuteret dextra,
ther : a ftory which the elegant pen of Addifon has agreeing very well to a buckler; but not at all to a
copied and embellifhed from an old German chronicle, cuirafs or breaft-plate.
and inferted in the 3d volume of the Spectator.—This Servius makes the fame' diftindtion on the two paf-
bappy lover (foppofing the ftory to be true) feems to fages of Virgil: for on verfe 354, he takes the aegis
have poflefled a heart not unworthy of fo enchanting a for the buckler of Jupiter, made, as above-mentioned,
miftrefs, and to have returned her affedtion with the of the flein of the goat Amalthea; and on verfe 435'
moft faithful attachment; for there is a letter of vEgin- he deferibes the aegis as the armour which covers the
hard’s ftill extant, lamenting the death of his wife, breaft, and which in fpeaking of men is called -cui-
which is written in the tendereft ftrain of connubial af- rafs, and aegis in fpeaking of the gods. Many au-
flidtion ;—it does not, however, exprefs that this lady thors have overlooked thefe diftindlions for want of go-
was the affectionate princefs, and indeed fome late critics ing to the fources.
have proved that Imma was not the daughter of Char- iEGISTHUS, in ancient hiftory, was the fon of
lemagne.—But to return to our hiftorian : He was a Thyeftes by his own daughter Pilopeia, who, to con-
native of Germany, and educated by the munificence of ceal her ftiame, expofed him in the woods : fome fay
his imperial mafter, of which he has left the moft grate- he was taken up by a ftiepherd, and fuckled by a goat,
ful teftimony in his preface to the life of that monarch, whence he was called JEgiJlhus. He corrupted Cly-
Vol. I. Parti. S temneftra
iE G O [ 138 ] JE G O
iEgithal'us temnedra the wife of Agsmeranon ; and with her af-
jg of ota hftance flew her hufband, and reigned feven years in
mos. Mycenae. He was, together with Clytemneftra, flam
by Oreftes. Pompey ufed to call Julius Caefar JEgifthus,
on account of his having corrupted his wife Mutia,
whom he afterwards put away, though he had three
children by her.
iEGITHALLUS (anc. geog.), a promontory and
- citadel of Sicily, between Drepanum and the Em¬
porium Aegiftanum, afterwards called Acellus; cor¬
ruptly written Aegitharfos, in Ptolemy; fituatc near
mount Eryx, and now called Capo di Santo Teodoro.
JEGIUM, (anc. geog.) a town of Achaia Propria,
five miles from the place where Helice flood, and fa¬
mous for the council of the Acheans, which ufually met
there on account either of the dignity or commodious
Situation of the place. It was alfo famous for the wor-
ftiip of Oftxyvgtos Ttv(, Conventional Jupiter, and of Pa-
nackaan Ceres. The territory of Aigium was watered
by two rivers, viz. the Phoenix and Meganitas. The
epithet is JEgienfts. There is a coin in the cabinet of
the king of Pruflia, with the infeription Airi, an(j tbe
figure .of a tortoife, which is the fymbol of Pelopon-
nefus, and leaves no doubt as to the place where it was
ftruck.
iEGOBOLIUM, in antiquity, the facrifice of a
goat offered to Cybele. The aegobolium was an ex¬
piatory facrifice, which bore a near refemblance to the-
taurobolium and criobolium, and feems to have been
fometimes joined with them.
vEGOPODIUM, small wild Angelica, Gout-
wort, Goatsfoot, Herb Gerard, orAsHWEED;
a genus of the digynia order, belonging to the pentan-
dria clafs of plants; the characters of which are :
The univerfal calyx is a manifold convex umbel; the
partial one, confimilar and flat; there is no involucrum;
and the proper perianthium is fcarcely difcernible :
The univerfal corolla is uniform, the florets all fertile ;
the proper one has five inverfe-ovate, concave, equal
petals, inflefted at the top: The Jlamina confift of
five fimple filaments twice the length of the corolla ;
the anthene roundifh : The piJHHum has a germen be¬
neath ; two purple ere ft flyli the length of the corol-
let; the ftigmata are headed : No pericarpium: The
fruit is ovate, ftriated, and bipartite : The feeds are two,
ovate, on one fide convex and ffiriated, and flat on the
other. There is but one fpecies, a native of Britain
and other parts of' Europe. It is very common under
hedges and about gardens; the leaves refemble thofe
of Angelica, and it carries fmall white flowers. Its
roots run fo fall, as to- render it a very troublefome
weed.
.lEGOPRICON, a genus of the monoecia order, be¬
longing to the diandria clafs of plants ; the charafters
of which are : The calyx both of the male and female
is a tubular perianthium of one leaf divided into three
fegments : Corolla wanting in both : Theflamina con-
fifl of a Angle ereft filament longer than the calyx, with
an ovate anthera: The pijlillum has an ovate germen,
three divaricated ftyli, and fimple perfiftent ftigmata :
The pericarpium is a globular berry, three-grained with¬
in, and three-cell’d : The feeds are folitary, and angu¬
lar on one fide.—There is but one fpecies, a native of
Surinam.
.dEGOSPOTAMOS, (anc. geog.), a river in the
Thracian Cherfonefys, falling with a fouth-eaft courfe
into the Hellefpont, to the north of Sefios ; alfo a -®gofpo(
town, ftation, or road for fnips, at its mouth. Here ™os‘
the Athenians, under Conon, through the fault of his 'r“
colleague Ifocrates, received a iignal overthrow from
the Lacedemonians under Lyfander, which was follow¬
ed by the taking of Athens, and put an end to the
Peloponnefian war. The Athenian fleet having fol¬
lowed the Lacedemonians, anchored in the road, over
againft the enemy, who lay before Lampfacus. Tbe
Hellefpont is not above two thoufand paces broad in
that place. The two armies feeing themfelves fo near
each other, expefted only to reft that day, and were
in hopes of coming to a battle on the next.
But Lyfander had another defign in his view. He
commanded tbe feamen and pilots to go on board their
galleys, as if they were in reality to fight the next
morning at break of day, to hold themfelves in readi-
nefs, and to wait his orders with profound filence.
He commanded the land-army in like manner to draw
up in battle upon the coaft, and to wait the day with¬
out noife. On the morrow, as foon as the fun was ri-
fen, the Athenians began to row towards them with
their whole fleet in one line, and to bid them defiance.
Lyfander, though his ftiips were ranged in order of
battle, with their heads towards the enemy, lay ftill
without making any movement. In the evening, when
the Athenians withdrew, he did not fuffer his foldiers
to go alhore, till two or three galleys, which he had
fent out to obferve them, were returned with advice
that they had feen the enemy land. The next day
paffed in the fame manner, as did the third and fourth.
Such a conduft, which argued referve and apprehen-
fion, extremely augmented the fecurity and boldnefs
of the Athenians, and infpired them with an extreme
contempt for an army, which fear, in their fenfe, pre¬
vented from ftiowing themfelves, and' attempting any
thing.
WhHft this paffed, Alcibiades, who was near the
fleet, took horfe, and came to the Athenian generals u
to whom he reprefented, that they kept upon a very
difadvantageous coaft, where there were neither ports
nor cities in the neighbourhood ; that they were ob¬
liged to bring their provifions from Ceftos. with great
danger and difficulty ; and that they were very much
in the wrong to fuller the foldiers and mariners of
the fleet, as foon as they were aftiore, to ftraggle
and difperfe themfelves at their own pleafure, whilft
they were faced in view by the enemy’s fleet, ac-
cuftomed to execute the orders of their general with
the readieft obedience, and upon the flighteft fignal.
He offered alfo to attack the enemy by land with a
ftrong body of Thracian troops, and to force them to-
a battle. The generals, efpecially Tydeus and Me¬
nander, jealous of their command, did not content
themfelves with refufing his offers,, from the opinion,
that if the event proved unfortunate, the whole blame
would fall on them, and if favourable, that Alcibiades
alone would have the honour of it; but rejefted alfo.
with infult his wife and falutary counfeLas if a man in
difgrace loft his fenfe and abilities with the favour of
the common-wealth. Alcibiades withdrew.
The fifth day the Athenians prefented themfelves
again, and offered battle; retiring in the evening ac¬
cording to cuftom with more infulting airs than the
days before. Lyfander, as ufual, detached fome gal¬
leys to obferve them, with orders, to, return with the
utmoft:
JE G r [ 139 ] iE M 1
^gnfpoti- utmoft diligence when they faw the Athenians land-
"J.09 ed, and to put up a brazen buckler at each (hip’s head
^ggypt'lla. a? foon as they reached the middle of the channel.
c_—v Himfelf in the mean time ran through the whole line
in his galley, exhorting the pilots and officers to hold
the feamen and foldiers in readinefs to row and fight
on the firft fignal.
As foon as the bucklers were put up in the (hips
heads, and the admiral galley had given the fignal by
the found of trumpet, the whole fleet fet forward in
good order. The land-army at the fame time made all
poffible.halle to the top of the promontary to fee the
battle. The ftrait that feparates the two continents
in this place is about fifteen lladia, or three quarters
of a league in breadth ; which fpace was prefently clear¬
ed through the activity and diligence of the rowers.
Conon the Athenian general was the firft who percei¬
ved from (hore, that fleet advance in good order to at¬
tack him ; upon which he immediately cried out for
the troops to embark. In the height of forrow and
trouble, fome he called to by their names, fome he
conjured, and others he forced to go on board their
galleys; 'but all his endeavours and emotion were inef-
feftual, the foldiers being difperfed on all fides. For
they were no fooner come on (hore, than fome run
to the futlers, fome to walk in the country, fome
to deep in their tents, and others had begun to drefs
their fuppers. This proceeded from the want of vigi¬
lance and experience in their generals, who, not fuf-
pefting the lead danger, indulged themfelves in their
taking repofe, and gave their foldiers the fame li¬
berty.
The enemy had already fallen on with loud cries and
a great noife of their oars, when Conon, difengaging
himfelf with nine galleys, of which number was the fa-
cred (hip called the Paralian, flood away for Cyprus,
where he took refuge with Evagoras. The Pelopon-
nefians, falling upon the reft of the fleet, took imme¬
diately the galleys which were empty, and difabled and
deftroyed fuch as began to fill with men. The foldiers,
who ran without order or arms ,to their relief, were ei¬
ther killed in the endeavour to get on board, or flying
on fhore were cut to pieces by the enemy, who landed
in purfuit of them. Lyfander took 3000 prifoners,
with all the generals, and the whole fleet. After ha¬
ving plundered the camp, and faftened the enemy’s
galleys to the fterns of his own, he returned to Lamp-
- facus amidft the found of flutes and fongs of triumph.
It was his glory to have atchieved one of the greateft
military exploits recorded in hiftory with little or no
lofs, and to have terminated a war in the fmall fpace
of an hour, which had already lafted 27 years, and
which, perhaps, without him, had been of much longer
continuance.
jEGYPT. See Egypt.
rEGYPT IACUM, in pharmacy, the name of feve-
ral detergent ointments; which are deferibed under the
if' article Ointment.
iEGYPTILLA, in natural hiftory, the name of a
(tone deferibed by the ancients, and faid, by fome au¬
thors, to have the remarkable quality of giving water
the colour and' tafte of wine. This feems a very ima¬
ginary virtue, as are indeed too many of thofe in for¬
mer ages attributed to (tones. The deferiptions left us
©f this remarkable foffil tell us, that it was variegated
with, or cbmpbfed of, veins of black and white, or black -ffigyptu*
and blueifli, with fqmetimes a plate or vein of whitifti ^,nj!j.us
red. The authors of thefe accounts feem to have un-. '■
derftood by this name the feveral (tones of -the onyx,
fardouyx, and cam*a kind; all wdiich we have at pre-
fent common among us, but none of which polfefs any
fuch ftrange properties.
iEGYPTUS, (fab. hid.) was the fon of Beleus, and
brother of Danaus. See Belides.
JEINAT^E, in antiquity, a denomination given to
the fenators of Miletus, becaufe they held their delibe¬
rations on board a (hip, and never returned to land till
matters had been agreed on.
JELIAN (Claudius), born at Pnenefte in Italy. He
taught rhetoric at Rome, according to Perizonius, un¬
der the emperor Alexander Sevems. He was firnamed
mxiyKavv®-, Honey-mouth, on account of the fweet-
nefs of his ftyle. He was likewife honoured with the
title of Sophift, an appellation in his days given only to
men of learning and wifdom. He loved retirement,
and devoted himfelf to ftudy. He greatly admired and
ftudied Plato, Ariftotle, Ifocrates, Plutarch, Homer,
Anacreon, Archilochus, &c. and, though a Roman,
gives the preference to the writers of the Greek nation.
His two moft celebrated works are, his Various Hi¬
ftory, and Hiftory of Animals. He compofed likewdfe
a book on Providence, mentioned by Euftathiuk ; and
another on Divine Appearances, or The Declarations
of Providence. There have been feveral editions of his
Various Hiftory.
iELI PONS (anc. geog.), one of the fortrefles near
the wall or rampart, or, in the words of the Notitia,
through the line of the hither wall; built, as is thought,- ,
by Adrian*, Now Porteland, (Camden), in North- 'SteAuVu,.
umberland, between Newcaftle and Morpeth. (emperor.)
jELIUS PONS, now il Ponte 3. Angelo, a ftone-
bridge at Rome, over the Tyber, which leads to the
Bur go and Vatican from the city, along Adrian’s mole,
built by the emperor Adrian.
s/ELFRED. See Alfred.
JELURUS, in Egyptian mythology, the deity or
god of cats ; reprefented fometimes like a cat, and
fometimes like a man with a cat’s head. The Egyp¬
tians had fo fuperilitious a regard for this animal, that
the'killing it, whether by accident or defign, was pu-
niflied with death : and Diodorus relates, that, in the
time of extreme famine, they chofe rather to eat one
another than touch thefe facred animals.
A EM, Am, or A me, a liquid meafure ufed in moft
parts of Germany ; but different in different towns ;
the aem commonly contains 20 vcrtils, or 80 maffes ;
that of Heidelbergh is equal to 48 maffes ; and that of
Wirtembergh to 160 maffes. See Aam.
riSMILIUS (Paulus), the fon of Lucius Paulus,
who was killed at the battle of Cannae, was twice con-
ful. In his firft confulate he triumphed over the Li¬
gurians; and in the fecond fubdued Perfeus king of
Macedonia, and reduced that country to a Roman pro¬
vince, on which he obtained the furname of Macedoni-
cus. He returned to Rome loaded with glory', and
triumphed for three days. He died 168 years before
Chrift.
dSMiLius (Paulus), a celebrated hiftorian, born at
Verona, who obtained fuch reputation in Italy, that he
was invited into France by the cardinal of Bourbon, in
S 2 the
iE N E [ 140 ] JE N I
iEmobpii- the reign of Lewis XII. in order to write the hiftory
of the kings of France in L.atin, and was given a ca-
-ffineid Bonry in the cathedral of Paris. He was near 30
y—years in writing that hiftory, which has been greatly
admired ; and died at Paris on the 5th df May 152.9.
iEMOBOLIUM, in antiquity, the blood of a bull
or ram offered in the facrilices, called taurobolia and
criobolia ; in which fenfe the word occurs in ancient
infcriptions.
jENARIA (anc. geog.), an ifland on the bay of
Cumse, or over-againfl Cumse in Italy, (Pliny.) It is
alfo called Inarime, (Virgil); and now If chi a : fcarce
three miles diftant from the coaft, and the promontory
Mifenns to the weft ; 20 miles in compafs ; called' Pi-
thecufa by the Greeks. It is one of the Oenotrides,
and fenced round by very high rocks, fo as to be inac-
ceffible but on one fide ; it was formerly famous for its
earthenware. See Ischia.
JENEAS (fab. hift.), a famous Trojan prince, the
fon of Anchifes and Venus. At the deftrudlion of
Troy, he bore his aged father on his back, and faved
him from the Greeks ; but being too felicitous about
his fon and houfehold-gods, loft his wife Creufa in the
efcape. Landing in Africa, he was kindly received by
queen Dido : but quitting her coaft, he arrived in Italy,
where he married Lavinia the daughter of king Lati-
nus, and defeated Turnus, to whom fhe had been con-
trafted. After the death of his father-in-law, he was
made king of the Latins, over whom he reigned three
years : but joining with the Aborigines, he was flain
in a battle againft the Tufcans. Virgil has rendered
the name of this prince immortal, by making him the
hero erf his poem. See -<Eneid.
JEneas Sylvius, (Pope). See Pius II.
jENEATORES, in antiquity, the muficians in an
army, including thofe who played trumpets, horns, &c.
The word is formed from a-urns, on account of the bra¬
zen inftruments ufed by them.
./ENEID, the name of Virgil’s celebrated epic
Blair's Lee-■poem. The fubjeft of the iEneid, which is the efta-
blifhment of iEneas in Italy, is extremely happy. No¬
thing could be more interefting to the Romans than to
look back to their origin from fo famous a hero. While
the objeft was fplendid itfelf, the traditionary hiftory
of his country opened interefting fields to the poet;
and he could glance at all the future great exploits of
the Romans, in its ancient and fabulous ftate.
As to the unity of aftibn, it is perfeftly well pre-
ferved in the iEneid. The fettlement of ./Eneas, by
the order of the gods, is conftantly kept in view. The
epifodes are linked properly with the main fubjeft.
The nodus, or intrigue of the poem, is happily ma¬
naged. The wrath of Juno, who oppofes tineas, gives
rife to all his difficulties, and connefts the human with
the celeftial operations throughout the whole poem.
One great imperfeftion of the A'neid, however, is,
that there are almoft no marked charafters in it. Achates,
Cloanthes, Gy as, and other Trojan heroes who accom¬
panied ./Eneas into Italy, are infipid figures. Even
•/Eneas himfelf is without intereft. The charafter of
Dido is the beft fupported in the whole iEneid.
The principal excellency of Virgil is tendernefs. His
foul was full of fenfibility. He mull have felt him¬
felf all the affefting circumftances in the feenes he de-
feribes j and he knew how to touch the heart by a fingle
ftroke. In an epic poem this merit is the next to fub- -dmgmay.
limity. The fffcond book of the iEneid is one of the , ;
greateft mafter-pieces that ever was executed. The
death of old Priam, and the family-pieces of ./Eneas,
Anchifes, and Creufa, are as tender as can be conceived.
In the fourth book, the unhappy paffion and death of
Dido are admirable. The epifodes of Pallas and Evan-
der, of Nifus and Euryalus,, of Laufus and Mezentius,
are all fuperlatively fine.
In his battles, Virgil is far inferior to Homer. But
in the important epifode, the defeent into hell, he has
outdone Homer by many degrees. There is nothing in
antiquity to equal the fixth book of the ./Eneid.
^ENGINA, one of the Hands of the Archipelago.
It lies in the bay of Engia, and the town of that name
contains about 800 houfes and a caftle ; and near it are
the ruins of a magnificent ftrufture, which was probab¬
ly a temple. 1
-ENIGMA, denotes any dark faying, wherein fome
well-known thing is concealed under obfeure language.
The word is Greek, Aiviyua, formed of umlTf<r&ai, ob¬
feure innuere, to hint a thing darkly, and of a‘’,or> an
obfeure fpeech or difeourfe. The popular name is riddle;
from the Belgic raeden, or the Saxon araetban, to in¬
terpret. Fa. Bouhours, in the memoirs of Trevoux*
defines an aenigma, A difeourfe, or painting, including
fome hidden meaning, which is propofed to be guefled.
•P/riw/e/f ./Enigmas, are reprefentations of the works
of nature, or art, concealed under human figures, drawn
from hiftory, or fable.
Si Verbal ./Enigma, is a witty, artful, and abftrufe
defeription of any thing.—In a general fenfe, every
dark faying, every difficult queftion, every parable,
may pafs for an a-nigma. Hence obfeure laws are
called JEnigmata Juris. The alchemifts are great
dealers in the aenigmatic language, their proceffes for
the philofophers ftone being generally wrapped up in
riddles : e. g. Fac ex mare et femina circulum, inde
quadrangulum, bine tria/igulum, fae circulum, et habebis
lapidern philofophorum.—F. Meneftrier has attempted to
reduce the compofition and refolution of aenigmas to a ,
kind of art, with fixed rules and principles, w'hich he
calls the philofophy of enigmatic images.
The Subject of an ./Enigma, or the thing to be
concealed and made a myftery of, he juftly obferves,
ought not to be jfuch in itfelf; but, on the contrary,
common, obvious, and eafy to be conceived. It is to
be taken, either from nature, as the heavens, or ftars ;
or from art, as painting, the compafs, a mirror, or
the like.
The Form of /Enigmas confifts in the words, which,
whether they be in profe or verfe, contain eitherLome
defeription, a queftion, or a profopopaeia. The laft
kind are the moft pleafing, inafmuch as they give life
and aftion to things which other wife have them not.
To make an aenigma, therefore, two things are to be
pitched on, which bear fome refemblance to each other;
as the fun and a monarch; or a ft) ip and a houfe:
and on this refemblance is to be raifed a fuperttrufture
of contrarieties to amufe and perplex. It is eafier
to find great fubjefts for aenigmas in figures than in
words, inafmuch as painting attrafts the eyes and ex¬
cites the attention to difeover the fenfe. The fubjefts
of enigmas in painting, are to be taken either from
hiftory or fable : the compofition here is a kind of me-
tamorphofis.
JE N I [ 141 ] iE N I
Enigma, tamorphofis, wherein, e. g. human figures are chan-
u“—''v'™' 1 ged into trees, and rivers into metals. It is effential
to asnfgmas, that the hiftory or fable, under which
they are prefented, be known to every body j other-
wife it will be two cenigmas in (lead of one; the firft
of the hiftory or fable, the fecond of the fenfe in which
it is to be taken. Another effential role of the aenigma
is, that it only admit of one fenfe. Every senigma which
is fufceptive of different interpretations, all equally na¬
tural, is fo far imperfeft. What gives a kind of erudi¬
tion to an asnigma, is the invention of figures in fitua-
tions, geftures, colours, &c. authorifed by paffages of
the poets, the cuftoms of artifts in ftatues, baffo relievos,
infcriptions, and medals.—In foreign colleges,
The Explication of Enigmas makes a confiderable
exercife; and that one of the moft difficult and amu-
fing, where wit and penetration have the largeft field.
—By explaining an aenigma, is meant the finding a
motto correfponding to the attion and perfons repre-
fented in a pifture, taken either from hiftory or my¬
thology. The great art of this exercife confifts in-the
choice of a motto, which either by itfelf, or the cir-
cumftances of time, place, perfon who fpeaks, or thofe
before whom he is fpeaking, may divert the fpeftators,
and furnifti occafion for ftrokes of wit; alfo in ftiowing
to advantage the conformities between the figure and
thing figured, giving ingenious turns to the reafons
employed to fupport what is advanced, and in artfully-
introducing pieces of poetry to illuftrate the fubjedf and.
awaken the attention of the audience.
As to the folution of senigmas, it may be obfer-
ved, that thofe expreffed by figures are more difficult
to explain than thofe confifting of words, by reafon
images may fignify more things than words can ; ,fo
that to fix them to a particular fenfe,. we muft apply
every fituation, fymbol, &c. and without omitting a
circumftance. — As there are few perfons in hiftory, or
mythology, but have fome particular character of vice
or virtue, we are, before all things, to attend to this
cbaratt^r, in order to divine what the figure of a per¬
fon reprefented in a painting fignifies, and to .find what,
agreement this may have with the fubjedf whereof we
would explain ita Thus, if Proteus be reprefented in
a picture, it maybe taken to denote inconftancy, and
applied either to a phyfical. or moral fubjtcft, whofe
charafter is to be changeable; e. g. an almanack, which'
expreffes the weather, the feafons, heat, cold, ftorms,
and the like. The colours of figures may alfo help to
unriddle what they mean : •white, for inftance, is a
mark of innocence, red of modefty, green of hope.
Hack of forrow, &c. When figures are accompani¬
ed with fymbols, they are lefs precarious ; thefe being,
as it were, the foul of. enigmas, and the key that
opens the myftery of them. Of all the kinds of fym¬
bols which may be met with in thofe wdio have treated
profeffedly on the fubjecf, the only truly senigmatical
are thofe of Pythagoras, which, under dark proverbs,
hold forth leffons of morality ; as when he fays, State-
ram ne tranflias, to fignify, Do no injuftice.
But it muft be added, that, we meet with fome senig-
mas in hiftory, complicated to a degree, which much
tranfcends all rules, and has given great perplexity
to the interpreters of them. Such is that celebrated
> ancient one, JEha La-lia Crifpis, about which many of
the learned have puzzled their heads. There are two
exemplars of it: one found 140 years ago, on a mar> iEniguia.
ble near Bolognia : the other in an ancient MS. writ- '
ten in Gothic letters, at Milan. It is controverted be¬
tween the two cities, which is to be reputed the more
authentic.
The Bononian JEnigma.
D. M.
JElia Lxlia Cr if piss,
Nec vir, nec mulier,
Nec andr 'ogyna ;
Nec puella, nec juvenist
Nec anus;
Nec cajla, nec meretrix,.
Kec pudica ;
Sed omnia;
Sublata
Neque fame, neque ferro,
Neque venem;
Sed omnibus: ^
Nec coelo, nec terris,
Nec aquis,
Sed ubique jacet.
Lucius Agatho Prifcius,
Nec maritus, nec amator,
Nec necejfarius;
Neque meerens, neque gaudens,
Neque fens ; .
Hanc,
Nec molem, nec pyramidein,
Nec fepulchrum,
Sed omnia,,
Scit et nefeit, cut pofuerit.
That is to fay, To the gods manes, JElia L celt a Crifpis,
neither man, nor •woman, nor hermaphrodite ; neither girl,
nor young <woman, nor old; neither chafe, nor a whore;
but all thefe: killed neitherby hunger, nor feel, nor poi-
fon; but by all thefe: refs neither in heaven, nor on
earth,,nor in the niiaters; but every where. Lucius A-
gatho Prifcius, neither her hufband, nor lover, nor friend;
neither for rowful, nor joyful, nor weeping, certain, or
uticertain, to whom he rears this monument, neither e-
retts her a temple, nor a pyramid, nor a tomb, but
all ihefe. In the MS. at Milan, inftead of D. M. vve
find A. M. P. P, D. and at the end the following ad- •
dition :
Hoc ef fepulchrum intus cadaver non hahens.
Hoc efi cadaver fepulchrum extra non hdbens,
Sed cadaver idem ef et fepulchrum.
We find near 50 feveral folutions of this senigma-
advanced by learned men. Marius Michael Ange¬
las maintains JElia Lcelia Crifpis to fignify rain-wa-.
ter falling into the fea. Ri. Vitus firft explained it of
Niobe turned to a ftone, afterwards of the rational,
foul, and afterwards of the Platonic idea; Jo. Turrius,
of the materia prima; Fr. Schottus, of an eunuch;
Nic. Bernardus, of the philo,fophers-ftone, in which he
is followed by Borrichius ; Zach. Pontinus, of three
human bodies in the fame fituation, and buried by three
different men at the fame time ; Nefmondius, of a
law-fuit ; Jo. Gaf. Gerartius, of love ; Zu. Boxhor-,
nius, of a fhad-ow; P. Terronus, of mufic ; Fort Li-
cetus, of generation, fricndfliip, and privation : M. O.v
Montalbanus, of hemp ; Car. Cash Malvafia, of an a-
bortive girl promifed in marriagePet. Mengulus,. of
the rule of chaftity, preferibed by the founder of the
militarv-
MOL [ 142 ] O N
JEnigmato- military religion of St Mary ; M. de Ciconia, of pope
Sra,j,Ilir Joan ; Heumannus, of Lot’s wife ; and laftly, J. C. S.
JEolipile. 311 anonymous writer in the Leipfic Adis, of the Chri-
i——v   ftian church.
tENIGMATOGRAPHY, or ^Inigmathology,
the art of refolving or making aenigmas.
WINONA (anc.geog.), a city of Liburnia, called by
Pliny Civitas Prafirti, the reafon of which is unknown ;
• alfo Enema, and is now called Nona; on the Adriatic, by
which it is for the greater part furrounded; over-againll
the ifland Giffa, from which it is dillant four miles to
the weft. E. Long. 160, Lat. 28°.
YENUS (anc^geog.), now the Inn, a river of Ger¬
many, which, riling in the country of the Grifons,
out of the Alps, in the diltridt called Gottes-haus-punt,
runs through the Grifons, the county of Tyrol, the
duchy of Bavaria, and through PafTau into the Da¬
nube,
_Lnus, JEnos, ot'JEnum (anc. geog.), a town of
Thrace, fituate on the eaft-moft mouth of the Hebrus,
which has two mouths; and faid to be built by the Cu-
means. It was a free town, in which ftood the tomb
of Polydofus, (Pliny) ; JEnius is the epithet. Here the
brother of Cato Uticenfis died, and was honoured with
a monument of marble in the forum of the Enii, (Plu¬
tarch) ; called JEnei, (Stephanus) ; Livy fays that the
town was otherwife called Abfynthus. Now Em.
ENITHOLOGIUS, in poetry, a verfe of two
dadtyls Snd three trochaei; as, Prxlia. dira ,placent
tract juventx.
yEOLLE INSULE, now Ifde di Lipari, (anc.
geog.), feven iflands, fituated between Sicily and Italy,
fo called from Eolus, who reigned there about the
time of the Trojan war. The Greeks call them Hc-
phtejiiades; and the Romans Vulcanite, from their
fiery eruptions. They are alio called Liparteorum In-
fulce, from ther principal illand Lipara. Dionfius Pe-
riegetes calls them nxu7it<, hecaufe circumnavigable.
EOL1C, in a general fenfe, denotes fomething be¬
longing to Eolis
EOLIC, or Eolian, in grammar, denotes, one of
the five dialects of the Greek tongue. It was firft ufed
in Bceotia j whence it paffed into Eolia, and was
that which Sappho and Alcaeus wrote in. The Eolic
dialect generally throws out the afpirate or fharp fpirit,
and agrees in fo many things with the Doric dialed!,
that the two are ufuafty confounded together.
The JEoiic digama is a name given to the letter F,
which the Eolians ufed to prefix to words beginning
-with vowels, as for j alfo to infert between
vowels, as for 0>:.
jEolic Verfe, in profody, a verfe confifting of an i-
ambus, or fpondee; then of two anapefts, feparated
by .a long fyllable; and, laftly, of another fyliable.
.'Such as, 0 jhlliferi condiior orbis. This is otherwife
called eulogic verfe; and, from the chief poets who ufed
it, Archilochian and Pindaric.
EOLIPILE, in hydraulics, is a hollow ball of me¬
tal, generally ufed in courfes of experimental philofo-
phy, ih order to demonftrate the poffibility of convert¬
ing water into an elaftic fteam or vapour by heat. The
inftrument, therefore, confifts of a flender neck, or
pipe, having a narrow orifice inferted into the ball by
means of a Ihouldered fcrew. This pipe being taken
out, the ball is filled almoft full of water, and the pipe
2
being again fcrewed in, the ball is placed on a pan or
kindled charcoal, where it is well heated, and there
iffues from the orifice a vapour, with prodigious vio¬
lence and great noife, which continues till all the in¬
cluded water is difcharged. The ftronger the fire is,
the more elaftic and violent will be the fteam ; but care
muft be taken that the fmall orifice of the pipe be not,
by any accident, flopped up; becaufe the inftrument
would in that cafe infallibly burft in pieces, with fuch
violence as may greatly endanger the lives of the per-
fons near it. Another way of introducing the water
is to heat the ball red-hot when empty, which will drive
out almoft all the air; and then by fuddenly immerg-
ing it in water, the preflure of the atmofphere will force
in the fluid, till it is nearly full. Des Cartes and o-
thers have ufed this inftrument to account for the na¬
tural caufe and generation of the wind : arid hence it
was called JEolopila: q. d. pila JEoli, the ball of Eolus
or of the god of the winds.
EOLIS, or Eolia (anc. geog.), a country of
the Hither Afia, fettled by colonies of Eolian Greeks.
Taken at large, it comprehends all Troas, and the coaft.
of the Hellefpont to the Propontis, becaufe in thofe
parts there were feveral Eoliaa colonies: more ftrictly,
it is fituated between Troas to the north, and Ionia to
the fouth. The people are called Mclss, or JEolii.
EOLIUM -MARE (anc. geog.), a part of the
Egean fea, waflring Eolis; called alfo Myftum, from
Myfia. Now called, Golfo di Smyrna.
EOLUS, in heathen mythology, the god of the
winds, was faid to be the fon of Jupiter by Acafta, or
Sigefia, the daughter of Hippotus; or, according to
others, the fon of Hippotus by Meneclea, daughter of
Hyllus king of Lipara. He dwelt in the ifland
Strongyle, now called Strombolo, one of the feven
iflands called JEolian from their being under the do¬
minion of Eolus. Others fay, that his refidence was
at Regium, in Italy; and others again place him in
the ifland Lipara. He is reprefented as having autho¬
rity over the winds, which he held enchained in a vaft
cavern, to prevent their continuing the devaftations
they had been guilty of before they were put under his
direction. Mythologifts explain the original of thefe
fables, by faying, that he was a wife and good prince ;
and, being ikilled in ailronomy, was able, by the flux
and reflux of the tides, and the nature of the volcano
in the ifland Strongyle, to foretel ftorms and tempefts.
Harp of JEolvs, or the.Eoliaa lyre. See Acou¬
stics, n' 10.
EON, a Greek word, properly fignifying the age
or duration of any thing.
Eon, among the followers of Plato, was ufed to
fignify any virtue, attribute, or perfedlion : hence
they reprefented the deity as an afiemblage of all pof-
fible sons; and called him pleroma, a Greek term
fignifying fullnefs. The Valentinians, who, in the firft
ages of the church, blended the conceits of the Jewifh
cabalifts, the Platonifts, and the Chaldean philofophers,
v/ith the fimplicity of the Chriftian dodrine, invented
a kind of Theogony, or Genealogy of Gods (not un¬
like that of Hefiod), whom they called by feveral glo¬
rious names, and all by the general appellation of
Eons: among which they reckoned L**,Life; Ao/if,
Word; Movofunc, Only-begotten; Fullnefs; and
many other divine powers and emanations, amounting
in
-ffioiij
./Eon.
jE R A [ 143 ] A £ R
' JEora fn number to thirty: which they fancied to be fuc-
U ceffively derived from one another; and all from one
, felf-originated deity, named Bythus, i. e. profound
or unfathomable; whom they called likewife, The mojl
high and ineffable-Father. See Valentinians.
iEORA, among ancient writers on medicine, is ufed
for geftation ; which fort of exercife was often preferib-
ed by the phyficians of thofe days. Other exercifes
confuted principally in the motion of the body; but
in the <eora the limbs were at reft, while the body was
carried about and moved from place to place, in fuch
a manner as the phyfician preferibed. It had there¬
fore the advantages of exercife, without the fatigue of
it.—This exercife was promoted feveral ways: fome-
times the patient was laid in a fort of hammoc, fup-
ported by ropes, and moved backward and forward j
fometimes his bed run nimbly on its feet. And beiid'e
thefe, the feveral ways of travelling were accounted
fpecies of the xora, whether in the litter, in a boat or
flip, or on even ground in a chariot.—Afelepiades was
the flrft who brought geftation into practice, which
was ufed as a means to recover ftrength after a fe¬
ver, &c.
iEQUANA juga, (anc. geog.); mountains of
* Picenum, in the kingdom of Naples, now called Mon¬
tagna di Sorrento, denominated from the town TEqua,
which being deftroyed, was replaced by Vieus, now
Vico di Sorrento; called alfo JEquana, SiL Italicus.
fEQUIMELIUM, in antiquity, a place in Rome,
where Hood the houfe of Spurius Melius, who, by lar-
gefies corrupting the people, affedfed the fupreme
power : refuling to appear before the dictator Cincin-
natus, he was (lain by Servilius Ahala, mafter of the
horfe; his houfe was razed to the ground; and the
fpot on which it flood was called Area Equimelii.
(Livy);
jERA, in chronology, a fixed point of time from
whence any number of years is begun to be counted.
It is fometimes alfo written, in ancient authors Era.
The origin of the term is contefted, though it is ge¬
nerally allowed to have had its rife in Spain. Sepul¬
veda fuppofes it formed from A. ER. A. the notae or
abbreviatures of the words, annus erat Augufi,, occa-
fioned by the ‘Spaniards beginning their computation
from the time their country came under the do-minion
of Auguftus, or that of receiving the Roman calendar.
This opinion, however ingenious, is rejected by Sca-
liger, not only on account that in the ancient abbre¬
viatures A never flood for annus, unlefs when preceded
by V lor vixit; and that it feems improbable they
fhould put ER for erat, and the letter A, without any
diferimination, both for annus and Augufus. Voffius
nevcrthelefs favours the conjecture, and judges it at
leaft as probable, as ‘either that of Ifidore, who de¬
rives <zra from as, the “ tribute-money,” wherewith
Auguftus taxed the world : or that of Scaliger himfclf,
who deduces it likewife from as, though in a different
manner. JEs, he obferves, was ufed among the an¬
cients for 2.n._article, or item in an account; and hence
it. came alfo to Hand for a fum or number itfelf.
From the plural sera, came by corruption ara, aram,
in the Angular; much as Off ia, Ofiam, the name of a
place, from Ofia, the mouths of the Tyber.
The difference between the terms ara and epoch is,
that the teras are certain points fixed by fome people,
or nation ; and the epochs are points fixed by chrono- iSrarium
logifts and hiftorians. The idea of an sera compre- Ae[!jaj
hends alfc a certain fucceffion of years proceeding from t ^ 1 i
a fixed point of time, and the epoch is that point it¬
felf. Thus the Chriftian sera began at the epoch of
the birth of Jefus Chrift. See Chronology, where
the different JEras, &c. are enumerated and explained.
jERARIUM, the treafury or place where the pub¬
lic money was depofited amongft the Romans.
JErarwm Sanclius contained the monies arifing from
the twentieth part of all legacies : this was kept for the
extreme needfities of the ftate.
JEKARiuM~Privatum was the emperor’s privy purfe,
or the place where the money arifing from his private
patrimony was depofited.
JErarium Vicefimarum, the place where the money
arifing from the taxes levied from foreign countries was
laid up, fo called becaufe it moft commonly confifted
of a twentieth part of the produce.
JErarivm Ilitkyee, or 'Junonis Lucina, was where
the monies were depofited which parents paid for the
birth of each child.
There are feveral other treafuries mentioned in hif-
tory, as the ararium Jmcntutis, Veneris, &c. The
temple of Saturn was the public treafury of Rome,,
either becaufe Saturn firft taught the Italians to coin
money, or, which is moft likely, becaufe this temple
was the ftrongeft and moll fecure, and therefore the
fitteft place for that purpofe.
JErai-ium differs from fffeus, as the firft contained
the public money, the fecond that of the prince. The
two are, however, fometimes indiferiminately ufed for
each other.
iERARIUS, a name given by the Romans to a
degraded citizen, who had been ftruck off the lift of
his century. Such perfons were fo called becaufe they
were liable to all the taxes (ara),- without enjoying
any of its privileges.
The ararii were incapable of making a will, of in~-
heriting, of voting in affemblies, of enjoying any poll
of honour or profit; in effeft, were only fubjedl to the
burdens,. without the benefits of. fociety; yet they re¬
tained their freedom, and were not reduced to the con- -
dition of Haves. To be made an terarius was a pu-
nifhment inflifled for fome offence, and reputed one
degree more fevere than to be expelled a tribe, tribu
mover i.
JErarius was alfo an officer inftituted by Alexander
Severus, for the diftribution of the money given in lar-
geffes to the foldiery, or people.
-ZSrarius was alfo ufed for a perfoa employed in.
coining or working brafs.
Thefe are fometimes called ararii fufjres: at others
times, ararius is diftinguilhed from fufor; the former
anfwering to what we now call copper-fmiths, the lat¬
ter to founders.
jErarius was likewife applied to a foldier who re--
ccives-.pay.
AERIA, or Eeria (anc. geog.), the ancient name
of Egypt: the fcholiaft on Apollonius Rhodius, fays,
that not only Theffaly, but Egypt, was called ’He?*'* by-,
the Greeks, which Eufebius alfo confirms : and hence
Apollinarius, in his tranftation of the 114th Pfalm».
ufes it for Egypt. Hefychius applies this name to
Ethiopia. .
AERIAL.
A E R
[ 144 1
A E R
AERIAL, in a general fenfe, denotes fomething
partaking ,pf the nature of air; thus, aerial fubftance,
aerial particles, &c.
Aerial Perfpeclive. See Perspective and Paint¬
ing.
AERIANS, in church-hiftory, a branch of Arians,
who, to the doftrines of that feel, added fome pecu¬
liar dogmas of their own; as, that there is no diffe¬
rence between bifhops and priefts; a doctrine main-,
tained by many modern divines, particularly of the
prefbyterian and reformed churches. The fe£f received
rius, are no mention of bifhops : on the contrary, Tl- Flos iErre,
mothy evidently received his ordination from the pref- Aeiygra*
byters or priefts.—Epiphanius zealoufly maintains the ■ 1 ■
fuperiority of bifliops againft the Aerians. The word
prejbytery, ufed by the apoftle, he obferves, includes
both bifhops and priefts; the whole fenate or affembly
of the ecclefiaftics of the place.
Flos aERIS, among dchemifts, fmall feales procu¬
red from copper melted by a ftrong heat; it is fome-
times ufed for terugo or verdigrife.
AEROGRAPHY, from air, and y^a, I de-
its denomination from Aerius an Armenian prieft of fenbe; a defeription of the air, or atmofphere, its limits,
the fourth century. He founded his do&rine chiefly dimenfions, properties, &c.—-This amounts to much
upon fome paffages in St Paul; and, among others, the fame with aerology, unlefs we fuppofe the latter to
upon that in f Tim. iv. 14. where the apoftle exhorts enter into the rational, and the former to confine it-
him riot to neglerit the gift he had received by the laying felf to a defeription of the more obvious affections
■on of the hands of the Prejbytery. Here, obferves Ae- thereof. See Atmosphere.
AERO
rl 'HE doCtrine or fcience of Air, its nature and dif-
ferent fpecies, with their ingredients, properties,
phenomena, and ufes.
Air, in a general fenfe, is that invifible fluid every¬
where furrounding this globe ; on which depends not
only animal but vegetable life; and which feems, in
fhort, to be one of the great agents employed by na¬
ture in carrying on her operations throughout the
world.
Though the attention of philofophers has in all ages
been engaged in fome meafure by inquiries concerning
the nature of the atmofphere, yet till within thefe laft
30 years, little more than the mere mechanical aftion
of this fluid was difeovered, with the e.xiftence of fome
anomalous and permanently elaftic vapours, whofe pro¬
perties and relation to the air we breathe were almoft
entirely unknown. Within the above-mentioned pe¬
riod, however, the difeoveries concerning the confti-
tuent parts of the atmofphere itfelf, as well as the na¬
ture of the different permanently elaftic fluids which go
under the general name of air, have been fo numerous
and rapid, that they have at once raifed this fubjeCt to
the dignity of a Science, and now form a very confider-
able, as well as important, part of the modern fyftem of
natural philofophy.
TTti'ity of Thofe difeoveries, indeed, have not been more in-
the fu' jeft. terefting to philofophers, than ufeful to fcience and be¬
neficial to fociety. Many perplexing proceffes in che-
miftry have been explained in confequence of them,
feveral have been facilitated, and a number of new
and ufeful ones have been introduced. The phe¬
nomena attending metallic calcinations and reduc¬
tions have been greatly elucidated. The knowledge
of the ufe of the air in refpiration ; the method of af-
certaining its purity and fitnefs for that funftion ; the
inveftigation of dephlogifticated air; the method of
impregnating water with fixed air ; are all calculated
to anfwer purpofes of the higheft utility. The medi¬
cinal properties of fixed air have been in a great mea¬
fure afeertained, and its antifeptic qualities in other re-
fpects promife to be of Confiderable advantage. The
method of afeertaining the purity of the air of a place,
and the manner of ventilating an apartment, are of
No 4.
LOGY,
great ufe for thofe concerned in public buildings. In
ihort, there is perhaps no ftation in life where fome
knowledge of this fubjeft may not be of ufe.
Sect. I. Of the general Conftitution, Mechanical
Properties, and Operations of the Air.
$1. The general Conftitution of the Air we breathe.— x
For many ages this fluid was fuppofed to be jimple4n?,ent °"
and homogeneous ; its common operations to depend ^"nhisrThe
on its heat, cold, moifture, or drynefs ; and any efferits a;r. ^
which could not be explained by thefe (fuch as the
appearance of peftilential difeafes); were reckoned to be
entirely fupernatural, and the immediate effects of Di¬
vine power. But, however Ample and homogeneous
this fluid may have been thought in former times, it is
fo far from poffefling the fimplicity of an element, that
it is the receptacle of all kinds of effluvia produced from
terreftrial fubftances either naturally or artificially.
Hence, whatever may be the nature of the aerial fluid
when abfolutely pure, that which we breathe, and com¬
monly goes under the name of air, muft be confidered %
as an exceedingly heterogeneous mixture, various at va- Common
rious times, and which it is by no means poffible to a- air a veiT
nalife with accuracy.
Though, in this view, air feems to be a kind of fink 3
or common fewer, where all the poifonous effluvia ari- In what
ling from putrid and corrupted matters are depolited ; manner it
yet it has a wonderful facility of purifying itfelf, and|^lfiesU'
one way or other of depofiting thofe vapours contained
in it; fo that it never becomes noxious except in par¬
ticular places, and for a Ihort time ; the general mafs
remaining upon all occafions pretty much the fame.
The way in which this purification is effefted is dif¬
ferent, according to the nature of the vapour with which 4
the air is loaded. That which moft univerfally pre-Vaft quan-
vails is water ; and from experiments it appears, that'irieS!:f.wa~
•the quantity of aqueous vapour contained in the at-fIm^ilbharl
mofphere is immenfe. Dr Halley, from an experi-gCd into it
ment on the evaporation from a fluid furface heated to by evapora¬
tive fame degree with that given by our meridian fun, A0”*
has calculated, that the evaporation from the Mediter¬
ranean fea alone is fufficient to yield all the water of
3 the
Sea. r. AERO
Of At the rivers which run in to it. Dr Watfon, in his Che-
»n general. mjcai Effays, has given an account of fome experiments
y made with a view to determine the quantity of the wa¬
ter raifed from the earth itfelf in time of drought.
He informs us, that, when there had been no rain for
above a month, and the grafs was become quite brown
and parched, the evaporation from an acre was not lefs
than 1600 gallons in 24 hours. Making afterwards
two experiments, when the ground had been wetted by
a thunder-ftiower the day before, the one gave 1973*
the other 1905, gallons in (2 hours. From this the
air is every moment purified by the afcent of the va¬
pour, which flying off into the clouds, thus leaves room
for the exhalation of frelh quantities; fo that as the
vapour is confiderably lighter than the common atmo-
fphere, and of confequence afcends with great velocity,
the air during all this time is faid to be dry, notwith-
ftanding the vail quantity of aqueous fluid that pafles
c through it.
Different Nor is it only from the aqueous vapour that the air
km<Js of. Ta‘ is purified at this time. Much of that vapour arifing
contami-lC ^rom decayed and putrid animal and vegetable fub-
r.ate it. fiances, and which by fome modern philofophers is
called phlogifton, attaches itfelf to the aqueous vapour,
and afcends along with it. Another part is abforb-
ed by vegetables ; for the phlogiftic vapour, as is
ihown under Agriculture, n°5. is probably the food
of plants. The phlogiftic vapours which afcend along
with the water, probably continue there and defcend
along with the rain ; whence the fertilizing qualities
of rain-water above thofe of any other. Thus we may
fee why a dry air, whether cold or hot, muft always
be wholefome; but as the atmofphere cannot always
receive vapours, it is obvious, that when great rains
come on, efpecially if attended with heat, the lower
regions of the air muft be overloaded with vapours both
of the aqueous and phlogiftic kind, and of confequence
be very unwholefome.
But befides the aqueous and phlogiftic vapours, both
of which are fpecifically lighter than common air,
there are others, which, being fpecifically heavier,
cannot be carried off in this manner. Hence thefe
grofs vapours contaminate certain places of the atmo-
iphere, rendering them not only unhealthy, but abfo-
lutely poifonous. Of thefe are, 1. Sulphureous, acid,
and metalline exhalations. Thefe are produced prin¬
cipally by volcanoes ; and as they defcend, in confe¬
quence of their fpecific gravity, they fuffocate and
fpread deftruftion all around them, poifoning not only
animals, but vegetables alfo. 2. The vapours arifing
from houfes where lead and other metals are fmelted,
have the fame pernicious qualities ; infomuch that the
men who breathe them, the cattle who eat the grafs,
and the fillies who inhabit the waters on which they
fall, are poifoned by them if taken into the body in a
certain proportion. 3. Of the fame kind are the #?<?-
fetes, or emanations of fixed air, which fometimes pro¬
ceed from old lavas, or perhaps from fome other places
even of the furface. From all thefe the air feems not
capable of purifying itfelf, otherwife than either by
difperfing them by winds, or by letting them fubfide
by their fuperior gravity, till they are abforbed either
by the earth or water, according as it is their nature
to unite with one or other of thefe elements. 4. Of
this kind alfo feem to be the vapours which are called
Vol.I. Parti.
L O G Y. 145
properly pejlilential. The contagion of the plague it- . Of Air
felf feems to be of an heavy fluggifti nature, incapable m general.^
of arifing in the air, but attaching itfelf to the walls ~y "
of houfes, bed-cloaths, and wearing apparel. Hence
fcarce any conllitution of the atmofphere can difpel
thefe noxious effluvia ; nor does it feem probable that
peftilential diftempers ever ceafe until the contagion
has operated fo long, and been fo frequently commu¬
nicated from one to another, that, like a ferment much
expofed to the atmofphere, it becomes vapid, commu¬
nicates a milder infedtion, and at laft lofes its ftrength
altogether. $
§ 2. Mechanical Properties of the Air.—In common Specific
with water, the air we breathe poffeffes gravity, and gravity of
confequently will perform every thing in that way whichthe 311 *
water can do, making allowance for the great diffe¬
rence between the fpecific gravity of water and of air.
This difference indeed is exceedingly great, and has
been varioufly calculated. Ricciolus eftimates the gra¬
vity of air to be to that of water as 1 to 1000; Mer-
fennus, as 1 to 1 joo, or 1 to 1356; Lana, as 1 to 640;
and Galileo, only as 1 to 400. Mr Boyle, by more ac¬
curate experiments, makes the air at London to be to
water as 1 to 938 ; and thinks, that, all things con-
fidered, the proportion of 1 to 1000 may be taken as
a medium. But by three experiments made fince that
time before the Royal Society, the fpecific gravity of
the air was determined to be to that of water as 1 to
840, 852, and 860. By a very accurate experiment,
Mr Haukfbee fixed the proportion as I to 885. But
as all thefe experiments were made when the barome¬
ter was at 294- inches, Dr Jurin fuppofes, that, at a
medium between heat and cold, when the barometer
is 30 inches high, the proportion between the two
fluids may be taken as 1 to 800 ; and this agrees with
the obfervations of the Hon. Mr Cavendifh, made,
when the barometer was at 294- inches, and the ther¬
mometer at 50. ^
By means of its gravity, the air preffes with great Effeib of
force upon all bodies, according to the extent of their the gravity
furface. M. Pafcal has computed the quantity of this air.
preffure to be no lefs than 2232 pounds upon every
fquare foot of furface, or upwards of 15 pounds on
every fquare inch. According to fome experiments
made by M. Ampntons and de la Hire, a column of
air on the furface of the earth, and 36 fathoms high,
is equal in weight to three lines depth of mercury.
From the barometer, however, wre know that the
whole preffure of the atmofphere is very different ;
fometimes being equal only to a column of 28 inches,
and varying from thence to 31 inches. The udiole
quantity of preffure muft thus be immenfe, and has
been computed equal to a globe of lead 60 miles in dia¬
meter.
By means of its gravity, the atmofphere accomplifties
many ufeful purpofes in nature. It prevents the ar¬
terial veffels of animals and the fap-veffels of plants
from being too much diftended by the expanfive power
(whatever it is), which has a perpetual tendency to
fwell them out. Thus we fee, that, in the operation
of cupping, where the preffure of the air is taken off
from a particular part, the expanfive force inftantly
afts, and fwells out the veffels to a great degree. Hence
alfo, when animals are put into an air-pump, their
whole bodies fwell.
By
T
34(5 AERO
Of Air By its gravity, the air promotes the union of fluid
m general., b0(jjes> which would inllantly ceafe in vacuo. Thus
g oils and falts, which remain united in air, feparate as
Elaftkity of foon as that fluid is extrafted. Hence alfo, when hot
the air.. water is put under an exhaufted receiver, it boils violent¬
ly ; becaufe the preflure of the air being now taken off,
the particles of fleam, which exifted invifibly among
the water, and which the gravity of the atmofphere
prevented from flying off fo foon, are now hurried up
with great velocity, by means of the excefilve compa¬
rative gravity of the aqueous fluid.
On the gravity of the air depend the afeent of wa¬
ter in pumps, fyphons, &c. and likewife all the pheno- «
nomena of the barometer.
. Befldes its gravity, which the air has in common
with water and other fluids, there is another which it
has only in common with fleam or vapour. This is
called its elajiicity; by which, like a fpring, it allows
itfelf to be compreffed into a fmaller bulk, and then re¬
turns again to its original flze upon removing thepref-
fure.
The elafticity of the air was firfl afeertained by fome
experiments of lord Bacon, who, upon this principle,
conftrufted the firft thermometer, which he called his
vitruin calendare. Of this power we have numerous
proofs. Thus, a blown bladder being fqueezed in the
hand, we find the included air fenfibly refift ; fo that,
upon ceafing to comprefs, the cavities or impreffions
made in its furface are readily expanded again and fill¬
ed up.
The flrufture and office of the y&V-PuMP depend
on this elaftic property. Every particle of air always
exerts a nifus or endeavour to expand, and thus ftrives
againft an equal endeavour of the ambient particles ;
whofe refiftance happening by any means to be weak¬
ened, it immediately diffufes itfelf into an immenfe ex.
tent. Hence it is that thin glafs bubbles, or bladders
filled with air, and exactly clofed, being included in the
exhaufted receiver of an air-pump, burft by the force
of the air they contain; and a bladder almoft quite
flaccid, fwells in the receiver and appears full. The
fame effeft alfo takes place, though in a fmaller degree,
on carrying the flaccid bladder to the top of an high
^ mountain.
Whether It has been queftioned among philofbphers, whether
this proper- this elaftic power of the air is capable of being deftroy-
duninijhed e<^ or diminifhed. Mr Boyle made feveral experiments
' with a view to difeover how long air would retain its
fpring after having affumed the greateft degree of ex-
panfion his air-pump would give it; but he was never
able to obferve any fenfible diminution. Defaguliers
found, that air, after having been inclofed for half a
year in a wind-gun, had loft none of its elafticity; and
Roberval, after preferving it in the fame manner for
16 years, obferved, that its expanfive projectile force
was the fame as if it had been recently condenfed..
Neverthelefs, Mr Hauklbee concludes, from a later ex¬
periment, that the fpring of the air may be difturbed
by a violent preffure, in fuch a manner as to require
fome time to return to its natural tone. Dr Hales in¬
ferred, from a number of experiments, that the elafti¬
city of the air is capable of being impaired and dimi-
niftied by a variety of caufes.
The weight or preffure of the air has no dependence
on its dafticity ; but would be the fame whether it had
3;..
LOGY. Sed. I.
fuch a property or not. The air, however, being e- Of Air
laftic, is neceffarily affetted by the preffure, which re- *n £tnera^
duces it into fuch a fpace, that the elafticity, which re- ' v' *
ads againft the compreffing weight, is equal to that
weight. In effed, the law of this elafticity is, that it
increafes as the denfity of the air increafes ; and the
denfity increafes as the force increafes by which it is
preffed. Now there muft neceffarily be a balance be¬
tween the adion and re-adion; i. e. the gravity of the
air which tends to comprefs it, and the elafticity by
which it endeavours to expand, muft be equal. Hence
the elafticity increafing, or diminifliing univerfally, aa
the denfity increafes or diminiflies, it is no matter whe¬
ther the air be compreffed and retained in fuch a fpace
by the weight of the atmofphere, or by any other
means ; it muft endeavour in either cafe to expand
with the fame force. And hence,, if air near the earth
be pent up in a veffel, and all communication with the
external fluid cut off, the preffure of the inclofed air
will be equal to the weight of the atmofphere at the
time the quantity was confined. Accordingly, we find
mercury fuftained to the fame height,, by the elaftic
force of air inclofed in a glafs veffel, as by the whole
atmofpherical preffure. On the fame principle air may
be artificially condenfed; and hence the ftrudure of
the Air-G««. ict
The utmoft limits to which air, of the denfity which Utmoft li¬
lt poffeffes at the furface of the earth, is capable of be- nuts of its
mg compreffed, have not been afeertained. Mr Boyle
made it i 3 times more denfe ; Dr Halley fays that he ‘ anj-lon>
has feen it compreffed fo as to be 60 times denfer than
in its natural ftate, which is farther confirmed by M.
Papin and M. Huygens. Dr Hales, by means of a
prefs, condenfed it 38 times ; and by forcing water in
an iron ball or globe, into 1551 times lefs fpace than
it naturally occupies. However, Dr Halley has af-
ferted, in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, Abr. vol. ii.
p. 17. that from the experiments made at London, and
by the academy del Cimento at Florence, it might be
fafely concluded, that no force whatever is able to re¬
duce air into 800 times lefs fpace than that which it
naturally poffeffes on the furface of our earth. In an-
fwer to this, M. Amontons, in the Memoirs of the
French Academy, maintains, that there is no fixing
any bounds to its condenfation; that greater and great¬
er weights will ftill reduce it into lefs and lefs compafs;
that it is only elaftic in virtue of the fire which it con¬
tains ; and that as it is imppffible ever to drive all the
fire out of it, it is impoffible ever to make the utmoft
condenfation.
The dilatation of the air, by virtue of its elaftic force,
is found to be very furprifing ; and yet Dr Wallis fug-
gefts, that we are far from knowing the utmoft of
which it is capable. In feveral experiments made by
Mr Boyle, it dilated firft into nine times its former
fpace ; then ihto 31 times ; then into 60 ; then into 15a.
Afterwards it was brought to dilate into 8000 times-
its fpace, then into 10,000,. and even at laft into 13,679 ,
times its fpace ; and this altogether by its owm expan¬
five force, without the help of fire. On this depend
the ftru&ure and ufe of the Manometer.
Hence it appears, that the air we breathe near the
furface of the earth is compreffed by its own weight
into at leaft the 13,679th part of the fpace it would
poffefs in vacuo. But'if the fame air be copdenfed by
att,
Sed. I.
Of Air
In general.
Expanfion
«f the air
by heat.
12
General ef
feifcs of the
air’s elafti-
city.
AERO
art, the fpace it will take up when moft dilated, to
that it pofiefles when condenfed, will be, according to
the fame author’s experiments, as 550,000 to 1.
M. Amontons, and others, we have already ob-
ferved, attribute the rarefa&ion of the air wholly to
the lire contained in it; and therefore, by irtcreafing
the degree of heat, the degree of rarefadtion may be
carried Hill farther than its fpontaneous dilatation. Air
is expanded one-third of its bulk by boiling water.
Dr Hales found, that the air in a retort, when the
bottom of the veffel was juft beginning to be red-hot,
was expanded through twice its former fpace ; and in a
white, or almoft melting heat, it occupied thrice its
former fpace ; but Mr Robins found it was expanded
by the heat of iron, juft beginning to be white, to four
times its former bulk. On this principle depend the
ftrufture and office of the Thermometer..
M. Amontons firft difcovered that air will expand
in proportion to its denfity with the fame degree of
heat. On this foundation the ingenious author has a
difcourfe, to prove “ that the fpring and weight of
the air, with a moderate degree of warmth, may en¬
able it to produce even earthquakes, and other of the
moft vehement commotions of nature.” See the ar¬
ticle EARTHqUAKE.
. The elaftic power of the air, then, is the fecond great
fource of the effefts of this important fluid. Thus it infi-
nuates into the pores of bodies; and, by poffeffing this
prodigious faculty of expanding, which is fo eafily ex¬
cited, it muft neceflarily put the particles of bodies
into which it infmuates itfelf into perpetual ofcillations.
Indeed, the degree of heat, and the air’s gravity and
denlxty, and confequently its elafticity and expanfion,
never remaining the fame for the leaft fpace of time,
there muft be an inceffant vibration or dilatation and
contrattion in all bodies.
We obferve this reciprocation in feveral inftances,
particularly in plants, the air-veffels of which do the
office of lungs ; for the contained air alternately ex¬
panding and contrafting, according to the increafe or
diminution of the heat, alternately prefles the veffels
and eafes them again, thus keeping up a perpetual
motion in their juices.
Hence we find, that no vegetation or germination
will proceed in vacuo. Indeed, beans have been ob-
ferved to grow a little tumid therein ; and this has led
fome to attribute that to vegetation which was really
owing to no other caufe than the dilatation of the air
within them. The air is very inftrumental in the pro-
duftion and growth of vegetables, not only by invigo¬
rating their feveral juices while in an elaftic aftive ftate,
but alfo by greatly contributing in a fixed ftate to the
union and firm connexion of their feveral conftituent
parts.
From the fame caufe it is, that the air contained in
bubbles of ice, by its continual action burfts the ice.
Thus a’fo, entire columns of marble fometimes cleave
in the winter time, from the increafed elafticity of fome
little bubble of air contained in them. From the fame
principle arife all putrefaiition and fermentation ; nei¬
ther of which will proceed, even in the beft difpofed
fubjefts, in vacuo.
Since we find fuch great quantities of elaftic air ge¬
nerated in the folution of animal and vegetable fub-
ftances, a good deal muft conftantly arife from .the dif-
LOGY. 147
folution of thefe aliments in the ftomach and bowels, _ Of Air
which is much promoted by it; and, in reality, all in generaI-
natural corruption and alteration feem to depend on v ''
air.
$ 3. Effetts of the different Ingredients of Air.—
This fluid a£ts not only by its common properties of
gravity and elafticity, but produces numerous other ef-
fedts arifing from the peculiar ingredients of which it
confifts. 13
Thus, 1. It not only diffolves and attenuates bodies Solvent
by its preflure and attrition, but as a chaos containing ^
all kinds of menftrua, and confequently poffeffing pow- metais-
ers for diflblving all bodies. It is known that iron
and copper readily diflblve and become rufty in air, un-
lefs well defended with oil. Boerhaave aflures us, that
he has feen pillars of iron fo reduced by air, that they
might be crumbled to dull between the fingers; and
as for copper, it is converted by the air into a fubftance
much like the verdigrife produced by vinegar.
Mr Boyle relates, that in the fouthern Englifh co¬
lonies the great guns ruft fo faft, that after lying in
the air for a few years, large cakes of crocus martis
may be feparated from them. Acofta adds, that in
Peru the air difiblves lead, and confiderably increafcs
its weight. Yet gold is generally efteemed indiflbluble
by air, being never found to contraft ruft, though ex-
pofed to it ever fo long. In the laboratories of che-
mifts, however, where aqua regia is prepared, the air
becoming impregnated with a quantity of the vapour
of this menftruum, gold contrails a ruft like other
bodies. T4
Stones alfo undergo the changes incident to metals. On Hones.
Thus Purbeck ftone, of which Salilbury cathedral con¬
fifts, is obferved gradually to become fofter, and to
moulder away in the air; and Mr Boyle gives the fame
account of Blackington ftone. He adds, that air may
have a confiderable operation on vitriol, even when a
ftrong fire could ail no farther upbn it. And he has
found, that the fumes of a corrofive liquor work more
fuddenly and manifeftly on a certain metal when fuf-
tained in the air, than the menftruum itfelf did, which
emitted fumes on thofe parts of the metal which it co¬
vered ; referring to the effeils of the effluvia of vine¬
gar on copper.
The diffblving power of air is increafed by heat, and
by other caufes. It combines with water; and by ac-
cefs of cold, depofites part of the matter which was
kept diflblved in it by a greater degree of heat. Hence
the water, by being depofited and condenfed upon any
cold body, fuch as glafs, &c. in windows, forms fogs,
and becomes vifible. Ty
In the various operations of chemiftry, air is a very Various
neceffary and important agent; the refidt of particular chemical
proceffes depending on its prefence or abfence, on its e,ffe*s
being open or inclofed. Thus, the parts of animals air'
and vegetables can only be calcined in open air ; in
clofe veflels they never become any other than black
coals. And thefe operations are affecled by the changes
to which the air is liable. Many inftances might be
adduced to this purpofe. Let it fuffice to obferve,
that it is very difficult to procure oil of fiilphur, per
campanam, in a clear dry atmofphere ; but in a thick
moift air it may be obtained with greater eafe, and in
larger quantities. So, pure weR-fermented wine, if it
be carried to a place where the air is repleniftied with
T 2 the
148 AERO
Of Aii* the fumes of new wine then fermenting, will begin to
in general. ferment afreftu
v The changes in the air arife from various caufes,
and are obfervable, not only in its mechanical proper¬
ties, fuch as gravity, denfity, &c. but in the ingredients
that compofe it. Thus, at Fafhlun in Sweden, noted
for copper-mines, the mineral exhalations affe& the air
in fuch a manner as to difcolour the fiber coin in purfes;
and the fame effluvia change the colour of brafs. In
Carniola, Campania, &c. where are mines of fulphur,
the air fometimes becomes very unwholefome, which
occafions frequent epidemic difeafes, &c.
The effluvia of animals alfo have their effeft in vary¬
ing the air; as is evident in contagious difeafes, plagues,
murrains, and other mortalities, which are fpread by
an infefted air.
For the vivifying principle of air, feethearticle Blood.
Sect. II. Hijlorkal Account of the principal Dif-
coveries concerning the Compofition of Atmofphe-
rical Air and other Aerial Fluids-
While the preceding difcoveries were making con¬
cerning the mechanical and other properties of the air,
little notice feems to have been taken of the elementa¬
ry parts of the air itfelf, or the different kinds of fluid
which go under that name. It was known, indeed,
that air was feparable from terreftrial bodies by means
of fire, fermentation, &c. but this was commonly rec-
16 koned to be the fame with what we breathe. Van
Van Hel- Helmont, a difciple of Paracelfus, was the firft who
fwTdifco undertook to make inquiries concerning this fpecies of
verer ofdFf- air- He gave it the name of gasfykejlre, from the
ferent kinds.Dutch word ghoafl, fignifying fpirit; and obferves, that
ah. fome bodies refolve themfelves almoft entirely into it.
“ Not (fays he) that it had been aftuaHy contained
in that form in the bodies from which it was feparated;
but it was contained under a concrete form, as if fixed,
or coagulated.” According to this author, the gas
fylveftre is the fame with what is feparated from all
fubftances by fermentation ; from vegetables by the
aftion of fire ; from gun-powder when it explodes;
and from charcoal when burning. On this occafion he
afferts, that 62 pounds of charcoal contain 61 pounds
of gas and only one pound of earth. To the efflu¬
vium of gas he alfo attributes the fatal effetts of the
grotto del Cani in Italy, and the fuffocation of work¬
men in mines. Fie afferts,- that it is to the corruption
of the aliment, and the gas difeharged from it, that
we are to attribute wind, and the difeharges of it from
the bowels. Upon the fame principles he accounts for
the fwelihig of dead bodies which have remained for a
time under water, and for the tumours which arife on
fome parts of the body in certain difeafes. He alfo
determines,, that this gas is different from the air we
breathe; that it has a greater affinity with water:
and he imagined it might confift of water reduced to
vapours, or a very fubtile acid combined with volatile
27 alkali.
Difcoveries Mr Boyle repeated all Van Helmont’s experiments
by Mr to more advantage than he himfelf had performed them;
Seylp, but feems not to have proceeded further in his difco¬
veries than Van Helmont did: only he found fome
bodies, fuch as fulphur, amber, camphor, See. dimi-
aiili the volume of air in which they burn.
L O G Y. Sedt. II,
Dr Hales firft attempted to determine the quantity Of Air
of air produced from different bodies ; for which pur- in general,
pofe he made experiments on almoft every known fub- v '*
ftance in nature, examining them by diftillation, fer- I
mentation, combuftion, combinations, &c. He alfo jp863 j
firft fufpefted, that the briflenefs and fparkling of the Snfpicion of ■ i
waters, called acidulous, were owing to the air theyair m mine- ;j|
contained. But notwithftanding all his difcoveries con- ra' waters* |
cerning the quantity of elaftic fluid obtained from dif¬
ferent bodies, he did not imagine there was any effen-
tial difference between this fluid and the air we breathe} il
only that the former was loaded with noxious vapours,
foreign to its nature. His fufpicion concerning this
impregnation was confirmed by M. Vend, profeffor of Confirmed ^
chemiftry at Montpelier, in a memoir read before the! y Mr Vo- ]
Royal Academy of Sciences in 1750. This gentle-,lel*
man was able to difengage the air from the Seltzer
waters, and to meafure its quantity ; which he con-
ftantly found to amount to about one-fifth of its bulk.
The water thus deprived of its air became flat, and
ceafed to fparkle ; the only difference then betwixt it
and common water was, that the former contained a
fmall quantity of fea-falt. Upon thefe principles he
attempted to recompofe Seltzer water, by diffolving in
a pint of common water two drachms of foffile alkali,
and then adding an equal quantity of marine acid.
The quantity of fea-falt produced by the union of
thefe two, he knew would prove equal to that contain¬
ed in a pint of Seltzer water; and the effervefcence
produced by the action of the acid and alkali upon
each other, he imagined, would produce air fufficient
for the impregnation of the water. In this he was
not deceived; the water thus produced was not only
analogous to Seltzer, but much more ftrongly impreg¬
nated with air.
Dr Black firft difeovered, that chalk, and the other D;fCOV(.r;f3.
earths reducible to quicklime by calcination, confift ofbyDrBlack,
an alkaline earth, by itfelf foluble in water, but which, &c.
combined with a large quantity of fixed air, becomes
infoluble; lofing the properties of quicklime, and af-
fuming the natural appearance we obferve thofe earths
to have when not reduced into lime. The fame thing
he difeovered in magnefia alba, and in alkalis both
fixed and volatile. On the fixed air contained in thefe
bodies, he found not only their property of effervef-
cing with acids to depend, but likewife their milunefs ;
both the alkalis and calcareous earth being highly
cauftic when deprived of their fixed air. He alfo found,
that this fluid, which he called fxed air, had different
degrees of affinity with different fubftances; that it
was ftronger with calcareous earth than with fixed al¬
kali ; with fixed alkali, than magnefia; and with mag¬
nefia, than volatile alkali.. He alfo fufpedted, that the
fixed air of alkaline falts unites itfelf with the precipi¬
tates of metal's, when thrown down from acids; and
that the increafe of weight obfervable in thefe precipi¬
tates was owing to this caufe. But he was of opinion,
that the fluid which he called fxed air was very diffe¬
rent from, the common air we breathe ; and therefore
adopted the name of air, merely as one already efta-
bliffied, whatever impropriety there might be in the
term.
It was not long before the difeovery of this fpecies
of air fuggefted new theories in phyfiology and natural
philofophy. Mr Haller had inferred, from Dr Hales’s
experiments,.
Sea. IT. AERO
. Air experiments, that air is the real cement of bodies 5
in general. wh;c}1} fixJng hfelf in the folids and fluids, unites them
^ * to each other, and ferves as a bond by which they are
kept from diffolution. In 1764, Dr Macbride of
Dublin publilhed a number of experiments in fupport
of this doftrine. From his work it appears, that fixed
air is feparated, not only from all fubftances in fermen-
tion, but alfo from all animal fubftances as they begin
to putrefy; and that this air is capable of uniting it-
felf to all calcareous earths, as well as alkalis both fixed
and volatile, and reftoring to them the property of ef-
fervefcing with acids when they have by any means
been deprived of it. But though thefe opinions have
fince been found erroneous, the concluixons drawn by
him from his numerous, experiments ftill hold good,
viz. that fixed air is an elaftic fluid, very different from
the common air we breathe : that it is poffeffed of a
ftrong antifeptic quality, and may be introduced with
fafety into the inteftinal canal, and other parts of the
animal ceconomy, where common air would have fatal
24 effefts ; but is mortal if breathed into the lungs, &c.
Quantity of Fn 1766 and 1767, Mr Cavendifh communicated
fixed air fome new experiments to the Royal Society at Lon-
■^"Ikali 'e ^on’ wherein he determines the quantity of air con-
falts deter- ta^ne(i *n ^xed alkali, when fully faturated with it, to
mined by be five-twelfths of its weight, and feven-twelfths in vo-
Mr Caven- latile alkali: that water is capable of abforbing more
difh. than its own bulk of this air; that it has then an agree¬
able, fpirituous, and acidulous tafte ; and that it has the
property of diffolving calcareous earths and magnefia,
as well as alpioft all the metals, efpecially iron and zinc :
that the vapour of burning charcoal occafions a remark¬
able diminution of common air, at the fame time that
a confiderable quantity of fixed air is produced in the
operation. He alfo found, that folution of copper in
fpirit of fait, inftead of producing inflammable air,
like that of iron or zinc, afforded a fpecies of air
which loft its elafticity as foon as it came into contact
a3 with water.
Conteft The difcoveries of Dr Black concerning fixed air
concerning had not been long publilhed, when they were violently
offixecUii-6 attac^efi by fome foreign chemifts, while his caufe was
' as eagerly efpoufed by others. The principal oppo¬
nents were Mr Meyer apothecary at Ofnabruck, Mr
Crcfns phyfician to his Ruffian Majefty, and Mr de
Smeth at Utrecht. Their arguments, however, were
effectually anfwered at the time by Mr Jacquin, bota¬
nical profeffor at Vienna ; and the numerous difcove¬
ries made fince that time have given fuch additional
confirmation to his dodtrine, that it is now univerfally
adopted by chemifts both in Britain and other coun-
Z4 tries. It was referved, however, for Dr Priejlley to
Comped- make the great difeovery concerning the nature of our
tion of the atmofphere ; and to inform the world, that it is com-
Hftovered6 P°^e<^ two > the one abfolutely noxious, and
incapable of fupporting animal life for a moment ; the
other extremely falutary, and capable of preferring
animals alive and healthy for a much longer time than
the pureft air we can meet with. This may be confi-
dered as the ultimate period of our hiftory : for fince
that time the difcoveries of philofophers ftill living, in
many different countries, have been fo rapid, that it. is
difficult to afeertain the dates of them by any authentic
documents; efpecially as, by reafon of fuch numerous
experiments, the fame things have not unfrequently
LOGY. 149
been difeovered by different perfons unknown to each Dephlogif-
other. We Ihall therefore proceed to give an account t»cate u..
of the different kinds of aerial fluids, beginning with
thofe which are known, or fuppofed, to conftitute a
part of our atmofphere.
Sect. III. Gf Dephlogijlicated Air.
§ X. Difeovery ard Methods of procuring this Kind
of Air.—Dephlogifticated air was firft obtained by Dr
Prieftley on the ift of Auguft 1774. The circumftan !
ces which led him to the difeovery, were his having
always procured inflammable air from fpirit of fait, by
adding to it fpirit of wine, oil of olives, oil of turpen¬
tine, charcoal, phofphorus, bees wax, and even fulphur.
Hence he fufpe&ed, that the common air wre breathe ,ir
might be compofed of fome kind of acid united with whence
phlogifton. On this fuppofition he extracted air from firft extrac-
mercurius calcinatus per fe, by expofing it to the focus te^‘
of a burning-glafs 12 inches in diameter ; and, having
repeated the experiment with red precipitate and mini¬
um, he found, that though a quantity of fixed air was
always produced, yet after that was feparated, the re¬
mainder fupported flame much more vigoroufly than
common air; for a candle burned in it with a flame
very much enlarged, and with a crackling noife, at
the fame time that it appeared fully as much diminiih-
ed by the tell of nitrous air.. Whence he concluded,
that it was refpirable; and, on making the experiment,
found that it actually was fo, for a moufe lived a full
half hour in a quantity of this fluid; which, had it been
common air, would only have kept it alive half that
time. Nor did the animal feem to be otherwife injured
than by the cold; as it prefently revived on bringing
it near the fire, and the remainder of the air ftill ap¬
peared better than that of the atmofphere, when the
tell of nitrous air was applied to it. ^
This pure kind of air being difeovered, the Do&or whynamed
next proceeded to name it dephlogificated, from hisdephls-gifti-
opinion that common air, in the aft of burning, ab-
forbed phlogifton ; of confequence, he fuppofed, that
which abforbed the moll, or which moft vigoroufly and
for the greateft length of time fupported flame, was
fuppofed to contain the fmalleft quantity of this fub-
ftance. In the courfe of his inquiries why this kind
of air comes to be fo much dephlogifticated, he fell upon
a method of extracting it from a great variety of fub¬
ftances ; viz. by moiftening them with fpirit of nitre, and produced
then diftilling them, with a ftrong heat. Thus he ob-fromagrea^
tained it from flowers of zinc, chalk, quicklime, flacked variety of
lime, tobacco-pipe clay, flint, Mufcovy talcs, and even fu^^ancC5,
glafs. He then found, that by Amply diffolving any
metal in the nitrous acid, and then diftilling the folu¬
tion, he could obtain very pure air: and Mr Warltire
found even the trouble of diftillation unneceffary; no¬
thing more being requifite than to moiften red lead
with the fpirit of nitre, and then pour upon it the oil
of vitriol, which inftantly difengap-ed the dephlogifti¬
cated air without applying any more heat than what
was generated by the mixture. 2g
While difcoveries of thiskind engaged Dr Prieftley in This kind
England,. Mr Scheele was employed in a fimilar man- of ™ dif-
ner in Sweden; and had actually obtained the fame ^ov"e<^ 3®*s
kind of air, without knowing any thing of what Dx slheeL
Prieftley had done. The latter had the merit of the
prior
150 AERO
Deplilogif- prior difcovery: but Mr Scheele’s method was more
t cated Air. confifting only in the diftillation of nitre with
a ftrong heat; by which means it is now found that
dephlogifticated air may be obtained in very confider-
able quantity, and in as great purity, as by the ■ more
expenfive procefles. The pure air from nitre had in¬
deed partly been obtained, by Dr Hales long before
this time; fince he informs us, that half a cubic inch
of nitre yielded 90 cubic inches of air, which was un¬
doubtedly the fluid we fpeak of; but as he negledied
to profecute the difcoveiy, nothing farther was known
29 at that time.
May be As the nitrous acid was univerfally concerned in the
produced firlt procefles for obtaining this kind of air, it was for
wnhoutni-w t;me generally believed to be a peculiar pro-
. rous aci perty 0f that acid alone to produce it; but the in¬
defatigable genius of Dr Prieftley foon found, that it
might not only be procured where no nitrous acid was
employed, but where the fubftances were treated with
vitriolic acid. It was indeed evident, from the very
firft experiment, that nitrous acid was not eflentially
neceflary ; fmee pure air was procured from precipitate
per fe, in the preparation of which no nitrous acid is
employed. The Abbe Fontana found, that 192 grains
of this fubftance yielded 26^ cubic inches of dephlogi-
flicated air, at the fame time that the weight of it was
reduced to 178^- grains, which is nearly the weight of
that quantity of air. It had formerly been obferved,
that the weight of mercury is augmented during its
converfion into precipitate per fe, as that of lead is by
its converfion into minium. The experiments juft now
mentioned, therefore, fhow, that during this procefs
the air is decompounded; the pure dephlogifticated
part of it being abforbed by the metal, and appearing
again on the application of heat; and the fame appears
to be the cafe with red lead, from the experiment of
Mr Warltire already mentioned. With regard to this
laft fubftance, however, a very great Angularity is ob¬
ferved ; viz. that when newly prepared it yields none
at all, and even for fome time after the produce is
much fmaller than when it has been long kept. The
reafon of this feems to be, that the minium ftill con¬
tains a confiderable quantity of phlogifton, which flies
off into the atmofphere by long keeping, a larger quan¬
tity of the dephlogifticated part of the atmofphere be¬
ing imbibed at the fame time. The mode of applying
t heat has alfo a very confiderable effect on the quantity
and Obferv al'r Pro^uce^- Thus, Dr Prieftley remarks *, that
lii. 37. li from equal quantities of red lead, without any mix-
30 ture of fpirit of nitre, and ufing the fame apparatus for
Produced diftilling it, he obtained, by means of heat applied
in greated fuddenly, more air than when flowly applied, in the
byTquick proportion of ten to fix. The proportion of fixed air
and violent was the fame in both cafes, and the remainder equally
heat. dephlogifticated.”
Method of ^ *ieat alone, the Doftor found, that fedative fait,
extracting manganefe> lapis calaminaris, and the mineral called
it from va-A/uV ponderofus, 'wolfram, or tungften, would yield de-
rious fub- phlogifticated air ; the firft indeed in very fmall quan-
.fiances. thy, and fometimes even of a quality very little fupe-
•rior to common air. In thefe experiments, he made
v ufe of fmall-bellied retorts of green glafs, which can
ftand the fire beft, containing about an ounce of water,
and having narrow necks 18 or 20 inches long. The
fubftance to be examined was put into a retort of this
LOGY. Setf.Iir,
kind, and then expofed to a red heat, either in fand or Depblogif-
over a naked fire, while the neck of the yeffel was treated. Air,
plunged in water or mercury. ' ^
Having diffolved fix pennyweights of very clean iron
in oil of vitriol, and then diftilled the folution to dry-
nefs in a long-necked retort, he received the common
air a little phlogifticated, fome fixed air, much vitrio¬
lic acid air, and laftly 18 ounce meafures of dephlo¬
gifticated air. The iron that remained undiffolved
w eighed 23 grains, fo that the air was yielded by five
pennyweights one grain of iron. The ochre weighed
feven pennyweights thirteen grains: fo that, fays he,
there probably remained a quantity of oil of vitriol in
it; and confequenlly, had the heat been greater, more
air would have been obtained.
In his experiments with the nitrous acid, as it had
conftantly been found, that by pouring on more nitrous
acid on the refiduum, and repeating the operation,
more dephlogifticated air might be obtained, the Doc¬
tor determined to try whether the fame would not hold
good with vitriolic acid alfo. For this purpofe, he
added more oil of vitriol to the refiduum of the laft-
mentioned experiment. When in a red heat with a glafs
retort, it yielded a quantity of vitriolic acid air, no
fixed air, but about 24 ounce meafures of dephlogifti¬
cated air; when, the retort being melted, a good deal
of the air was neceffarily loft ; but, on refuming the
procefs in a gun-barrel, he procured as much air as
had been got before.—Purfuing thefe experiments, he
obtained with common cruft of iron and oil of vitriol,
dephlogifticated air at the firft diftillation, and a great
deal more from the refiduum, by pouring frefti oil of
vitriol upon it. The fame product he obtained from
blue vitriol, folution of copper in the vitriolic acid,
and from a folution of mercury in that acid. On this
fubftance he remarks, that “ either by means of oil of
vitriol or fpirit of nitre, it yields a great quantity of
dephlogifticated air : but with this difference, that in
the procefs with fpirit of nitre, almoft the whole of
the mercury is revived (not more than a twentieth
part being loft, if the procefs be conducted with care);
but in that with vitriolic acid, almoft the whole is loft.”
From the later experiments of Mr Lavoifier, however,
it appears that the Doftor’s procefs had not been con¬
ducted with fufficient care ; as from two ounces of the
dry fait formed by a combination of vitriolic acid with
mercury, the former obtained 6 drachms 12 grains of
running mercury, befides 3 drachms 58 grains of mer¬
curial fublimate of two different colours. Dephlogi¬
fticated air was like wife obtained from pure calx of
tin, or putty, mixed with oil of vitriol; but none in
any trial with the marine acid, excepting when it was
mixed with minium; in which cafe the air obtained was
probably that which the minium would have yielded
without any addition.
The refult of all thefe, and innumerable other experi¬
ments made by philofophers in different countries, was,
that dephlogifticated air may be obtained from a vaft
variety of mineral and metallic fubftances by means of
the vitriolic and nitrous acids. It now remained onljtHow
to difeover in what manner this fluid, fo effentially ne- phlogifti-
ceffary to the fupport of animal life, is naturally pro- cated air is
duced in quantities fufficient for the great cxpence of natu.ra^y
it throughout the whole world, by the breathing of a- uce
nimals, the fupport of fires, &c. This difeovery, irf-
deed.
Sea, III. AERO
Dephlogif- deed, had been made before even the exiftence of de-
ticated'Air. phlogifticated air itfelf was known. Dr Prieftley, af-
y ter having tried various methods of purifying contami¬
nated air unfuccefsfully, found at Jaft, that fome kinds
of vegetables anfwered this purpofe. very effe&ually ;
for which difcoveryhe received the thanks of the Royal
Society. Among the vegetables employed on this oc-
cafiori, he found mint anfwer the purpofe very effectu-
* Evper. ally. “ When air,” fays he*, “ has been freflily and
and Obferv. ftrongly tainted with putrefaflion, fo as to fmell
vol.i.p. i. through the water, fprigsof mint have prefently died
c ,4' upon being put into it, their leaves turning black ; but
if they do not die prefently, they thrive on a moft fur-
prifing manner. In no other circumllances have I feen
vegetation fo vigorous as in this kind of air, which is
immediately fatal to animal life. Though thefe plants
have been crowded in jars filled with this kind of air,
every leaf has been full of life; freflr Ihoots have
branched out in various directions, and grown much
3, fafter than other fimilar plants growing in the fame ex-
Noxious air pofure in common air.”—Having in confequence of
improved this obfervation rendered a quantity of air thoroughly
by vegeta- noxious, by mice breathing and dying in it, he divided
ting mint. ^ jnto two rece;vers inverted in water, introducing a
fprig of mint into one of them, and keeping the other
receiver unaltered. About eight or nine days after, he
found that the air of the receiver into which he had
introduced the fprig had become refpirable; for a moufe
lived very well in this, whereas it died the moment it
was put into the other.
Experi- From thefe' experiments the Do&or at firft conclu-
mentsfeem- ded, that in all cafes the air was meliorated by the ve-
ingly con- getation of plants : but even in his firil volume he ob-
tradiu 01 y. perveSj fome experiments of this kind did not an¬
fwer fo well towards the end of the year as they had
done in the hot feafon; and a fecond courfe feemed to
be almoft entirely contrary to the former. Having
tried the power of feveral forts of vegetables upon air
infe&ed by refpiration or by the burning of candles,
he found that it was generally rendered worfe by their
vegetation; and the longer the plants were kept in the
mfeCted air, the more they phlogifticated it; though
' in feveral cafes it was undoubtedly meliorated, efpeci-
ciaHy by the Ihoots of ftrawberries and fome other
plants, introduced into the vials containing foul air,
• and inverted in water,- which were placed near them,
whiift their roots continued in the earth in the garden.
Sometimes the infeded air was fo far mended by the
vegetation of plants, that it was in a great meafure
turned into dephlogifticated air. “ On the whole,”
* Exper. fayS J)r Prieftley, “ I ftill think it probable, that the
f"d ^)*erv-vegetation of healthy plants, growing in fituations na¬
tural to them, have a falutary effect on the air in which
they grow.—For one inftance of the melioration of air
in thefe circumftahces fhould weigh againft an hundred,
in which the air is made worfe by it, both on account
of the difadvantages under which all plants labour, in
the circumftances in which thefe experiments muft be
made, as well as the great attention and many precau¬
tions that are requifite in conducing fuch a prccefs.”
At the time that Dr Prieftley made thefe experi¬
ments, he fuppofed that the air was meliorated merely
Experi¬
ments of
Dr Ingen-
houfzon the by the abforption of phlogifton from that which had
melioration been tainted ; but the experiments of Dr Ingenhoufz,
vegetation ma(^e l779> ffowed that this was accomplilhed, not
L O G Y. 151
only by the abforption juft mentioned, but by the emif- Dephlogif-
fion of dephlogifticated air. He obferved in general, betted Air-
that plants have a power of correcting bad air, and 7
even of improving common air in a few hours, when
expofed to the light of the fun ; but, in the night-time,
or when they arc not influenced by the folar rays, they
contaminate the air. This property, however, does
not belong in an equal degree to all kinds of plants :
nor is it poffible to difeover by the external properties
of a plant, whether it be fit for this purpofe or not; as
fome w’hich have a bad fmell, and are entirely unfit for
food, fhow themfelves much fuperior to others whofe
external appearance would feem preferable. His me¬
thod of making the experiment was, to fill a vial with
air, fouled either by refpiration or combuftion ; after
which a fprig of any plant was introduced, by paffrng
it through the water in which the vial was immerfed.
The vial was then flopped ; or it was removed into a
fmall bafon full of water, and expofed to the fun, or fi-
tuated in feme other proper place as occafion required, .
Air phlogifticated by breathing, and in which a candle
could not burn, after being expofed to the fun for three
hours, with a fprig of peppermint in it, was fo far cor¬
rected, as to be again capable of fupporting flame.
The following experiment, however, made with a mu-
ftard plant, may be looked upon as decifive : A plant
of this kind was put into a glafs receiver containing
common air, and its ftem cut off even with the mouth
of the receiver. The veffel was then inverted in an
earthen pan, containing fouK water to keep the plant
alive, and the whole apparatus was fet over-night in a
room. Next morning the air was found fo much con¬
taminated, that it extinguifhed the flame of a wax ta¬
per. On expofing the apparatus to the fun for a quar¬
ter of an hour, the air was found to be fomewhat cor-
recled ; and after an hour and an half it was fo far im¬
proved, that by the teft of nitrous air it appeared con-
fiderably better than common air.
Before we proceed farther in the account of Dr In-Dephlo-
genhoufz’s experiments, it will be neceffary to relate gifacated
fome obfervations made by Dr Prieftley ; from which
it appears, that dephlogifticated air, in very confider-water'
able quantity, may, in certain circumftances, be pro¬
cured from water alone. The fubftance of thefe is,
that water, efpecially pump-water, when expofed to the
light of the fun, emits air flowly : but after fome time
a green matter appears on the bottom and fides of the
glafs ; after which it emits very pure air in great quan¬
tity, and continues to do fo for a very long time, even ;
after the green matter has Ihown fome fymptoms of de¬
cay by becoming yellow. He obferved, that the water
which naturally contained the greateft quantity of fix- .
ed air, yielded alfo the greateft quantity of that which
was dephlogifticated ; but that the quantity of the lat¬
ter much exceeded that of the fixed air contained even
in any water. The light of the fun was found to be an ,
effential requifite in the formation of this air, as very
little, and that of a much worfe quality, was produced
in the dark.
As the green matter produced in Dr Prieftley’s glaf-
fes, was by himfelf, as well as others, confidered as be-
longing to the vegetable kingdom. Dr Ingenhoufz im¬
proved upon his procefs, by putting the leaves of plants 37 r
into water, and expofing them to the fun. All plants * £e
were not equally fit for producing dephlogifticated air p^nts.0
by.
152 AERO
Dephlogif- by this method more than by the other. Some poifoaons
ticated Air, pjaijts> as the hyofcyamus, lauro-cerafus, night-ihade,
v"_"" the tobacco-plant, a triplex vulvaria, cicuta aquatica,
and fabina, were found very fit for the purpofe ; but
the pureft kind of air was extra&ed from fome aquatic
vegetables, the turpentine-trees, and efpecially from the
green matter he collefted in a ftone trough which was
kept continually filled with water from a fpring near
the high-road. The purity of this dephlogifticated air,
he fays, was equal, if not fuperior, to that procured by
the beft chemical proceffes ; as it fometimes required
eight times its own quantity of nitrous air to faturate
it. All parts of the plants were not found equally pro¬
per for the production of dephlogifticated air; the full
grown leaves yielded it in greateft quantity and puri¬
ty, efpecially from their under furface. It was alfo
procured from the green ftalks.— One hundred leaves
of Naflurtium Indicum, put into a jar holding a gallon,
•filled with ordinary pump-water, and expofed to the fun
from i o to 12 o’clock, yielded as much air as filled a
cylinderical jar four inches and an half in length, and
■one and three quarters in breadth. On removing this
•quantity of air, and expofing them again to the fun till
feven o’clock, about half as much was produced, of a
quality ftill fuperior to the former; and next morning
by eleven o’clock, they yielded as much more of an
equal quality. The roots of plants, he fays, when kept
out of ground, generally yield bad air, and at all times
contaminate common air, a few only excepted. Flowers
and fruits, in general, yield a very fmall quantity of
noxious air, and contaminate a great quantity of com¬
mon air at all times, efpecially in the night, and when
kept in the dark. Two dozen of young and fmall
French beans, kept in a quart-jar of common air for a
Jingle night, contaminated the air to fuch a degree, that
a very lively chicken died by being confined in it lefs
g than half a minute.
Conclufions The obfervations of Dr Ingenhoufz on the whole,
from Dr fays Mr Cavallo, clearly (how, “ that the vegetation
houfz’s ex P^ants 18 one t^e great means employed by nature
fieriments" t0 PurTy ^e atmofphere, fo as to counteract:, in great
meafure, the damage done by animal refpiration, com-
buftion, &c. It may only be faid, that vegetation
does not appear t@ be fufficient to remedy entirely that
damage.” The Doctor himfelf, however, fpeaks very
highly of the powers of vegetables in this refpect. He
informs us, that their office in yielding dephlogifticated
air begins a few hours after the fun has made his ap¬
pearance in the horizon, or rather after it has pafied
the meridian, and ceafes wfith the clofe of day ; except¬
ing fome plants which continue it a fhort time after fun-
fet: The quantity of dephlogifticated air, yielded by
plants in general, is greater in a clear day than when it is
fomewhat cloudy. It is alfo greater when the plants
are more expofed to the fun, than when they are fitua-
ted in fhady places. He obferves, moreover, that the
damage done by plants in the night, is more than coun¬
terbalanced by the benefit they afford in the day-time.
“ By a rough calculation, (fays he), I found the poi-
fonous air, yielded by any plant during the whole night,
could not amount to onehundredth part of the dephlogif¬
ticated air which the fame plant yielded in two hours
time in a fair day.”—It does not appear, however, that
plants yield dephlogifticated air by any kind of 'gene¬
ration of that fluid, but only by filtrating the common
N°4.
LOGY. Sea. III.
air, which all plants abforb through their pores j the Dephkg-if- ej
phlogiftic part becoming part of their fubftance, and ^cated Air;
probably being the true vegetable food, as is explain- v"
ed more at large under the article Agriculture. —
Dry plants have little or no effeft upon the air until
they are moiftened —On all thefe experiments, how¬
ever, it muft be obferved, that they have fometimes
failed in the hands of thofe whom we cannot but fup-
pofe very capable of trying them ; as Mr Scheele, Mr
Cavallo, and the Abbe Fontana. 39
After the publication of Dr Ingenhoufz’s experi-Sir benja- |
ments, it became generally believed, that the atmof- j
phere was meliorated by the common procefs of vege- riments.
tation, and that plants abforbed the phlogiftic part as
their food, difcharging the pure dephlogifticated air as
an excrement; which is juft the reverfe of what hap¬
pens to animals, who abforb the pure part in refpira¬
tion, and rejett the phlogiftic. In the Philofophical
Tranfa&ions for 1787, however, we find a number of
experiments related by Sir Benjamin Thompfon, which
feem to render this matter dubious.— One very confi-
derable objection is, that the green matter, already men¬
tioned in Dr Prieflley’s experiments, when carefully
obferved by a good microfcope, appears not to be of a 40
vegetable, but of an animal nature. The colouring Green mat-
matter of the water, fays he, is evidently of an animal ter obfer-
nature ; being nothing more than the affemblage of an ^ j’V •Dr !
infinite number of very fmall, a&ive, oval-formed ani-tobeof
malcules, without any thing refembling tremella, or an animal
that kind of green matter or water-mofs which forms nature,
upon the bottom and fides of the vefiel when this water
is fuffered to remain on it for a confiderable time, and
into which Dr Ingenhoufz fuppofes the animalcules
above mentioned to be aftually transformed.
This gentleman has alfo found, that feveral animal
fubftances, as well as vegetables, have a power of fepa-
rating dephlogifticated air from water when expofed to
the light of the fun, and that for a very great length
of time. Not.riiat the fame quantity of water will al¬
ways continue to furniih air; but the fame animal fub¬
ftance being taken out, wafhed, and again put into
frefh water, feems to yield dephlogifticated air, with¬
out any kind of limitation. 41
Raw filk pofleffes a remarkable power of this kind. Dephlo-
To determine it, Sir Benjamin introduced 30 grains
this fubftance, previoufly walked in water, into a thin c^l by raw
glafs globe 4! inches in diameter, having a cylindrical filk.
neck Iths of an inch wide, and twelve inches long, in¬
verting the globe into ajar filled with the fame kind of
water, and expofing it to the aftion of the fun in the
window. It had not been ten minutes in this fitua-
tion, when the filk became covered with an infinite
number of air-bubbles, gradually increafing in fize, till,
at the end of two hours, the filk was buoyed up, by
their means, to the top of the water. By degrees they
began to feparate themfelves, and form a collection of
air in the upper part of the globe ; which, when exa¬
mined by the teft of nitrous air, appeared to be very
pure. In three days he had collected 34- cubic inches
of air; into which a wax-taper being introduced, that
had juft before been blown out, the wick only remain¬
ing red, it inftantly took fire, and burned with a bright
and enlarged flame. The water in the globe appeared
to have loft fomething of its' tranfparency, and had
changed its colour to a very faint greenifh caft, having
1 at
Sea. III. A E R O
'Dephlogif- at the fame time acquired the fmell of raw filk.—This
iticated Air. was fever.q times repeated with freih water, retaining
v the fame filk, and always with a fimilar refult; but
with this difference, that when the fun fhone very
bright, the quantity of air produced was not only
greater, but its quality fuperior to that yielded when
the fan’s rays were feeble, or when they were frequent¬
ly intercepted by flying clouds. “ The air, however,
(fays he), was always not only much better than com¬
mon air, but even than that produced by the frefh leaves
of plants expofed in water to the fun’s rays in the ex¬
periments of Dr Ingenhoufz ; and, under the moft fa¬
vourable circumflances, it was fo good, that one mea-
fure of it required four of nitrous air to faturate it,
and the whole five meafures were reduced to 1.35.”
'ducecTiothe -^-n experiment was next made in order to determine
dark. the effeft of darknefs upon the production of air: and
in this cafe only a few inconfiderable bubbles were
formed, which remained attached to the filk ; nor was
the cafe altered by removing the globe into a German
ftove. Some fingle bubbles, indeed, had detached
themfelves from the filk and afcended to the top, but
the air was in too little quantity to be meafured or
proved.—The medium heat of the globe, when expo-
fed to the fun’s rays, was about 90° of Fahrenheit,
though fometimes it would rife as high as 96 ; but air
was frequently produced, when the heat did not exceed
43 65 and 70°.—On reverfing this experiment, in order
Effe&s of to try the effeCt of light without heat, it was found,
light with- by plunging the globe into a mixture of ice and
t out ea ■ water, which brought it to the temperature of about
50° of Fahrenheit, the produce of air was diminilhed,
44 though it ftill continued in confiderable quantity.
Of artificial The effedt of artificial light, inftead of that of the
hght* fun, was next tried. For this purpofe all the air was
removed from the globe; and its place being fupplied
with a quantity of frefh water, fo as to render it quite
full, it was again inverted in the jar, and removed into a
dark room furrounded with fix lamps and refleftors ; fix
wax candles were alfo placed at different diftances from
three to fix inches from it, and dffpofed in fuch a man¬
ner as to throw the greateft quantity of light poffible
upon the filk, taking care at the fame time that the
water ftiould npt acquire a greater heat than 90°. In
this fituation the filk began to be covered with air-
bubbles in about ten minutes; and in fix hours as much
was collected as could be proved by nitrous air, when
it was found to be very pure. A frefh-gathered,
healthy leaf of a peach tree, and' a item of the pea-
plant with three leaves upon it, furniftied air by expo-
fure to the fame light, but in fmaller quantities than by
the action of the folar rays. The air produced in the
dark, in whatever manner procured, was always in too
fmall quantity to be meafured.
In making thefe experiments, as it was found fome-
what troublefome to invert the globes in water, they were
at laft only kept in an inclined pofture on the table, as re-
prefented in PlateVIII. fig. 1. the air collecting i-tfelf in
the upper part of the belly. Having provided him-
felf with a number of globes of different lizes, he then
proceeded in his experiments in the following manner.
Various Finding that raw filk, expofed to the aCtion of light,
^ufiflancesf produced fo great a quantity of air, he was induced to
for raw {ilk tr^ w*let;fier fome other fubftances might not be found
’ out capable of doing the fame. Having therefore
Voi*. I. Part I.
LOGY. 153
provided fix globes of qi inches in diameter, and filled Dephlogif-
them with fpring water, he introduced into.each of them Seated Air.
15 grains of one of the following fubffances, viz. fheep’s v
wool, eider-down, fur of a Ruffian hare, cotton wool,
lint or the ravelings of linen yarn, and human hair.—
The refults of thefe experiments were, 1. The globe
containing the flieep’s wool began to yield air in three
days ; but feveral days of cloudy weather intervening;
he did not remove it for fome time, when only i^ths
of an inch of air was colleCted, which proved very
pure when tried with nitrous air ; but the wool, even
in the moft favourable circumftances, never afforded
more than one third of the quantity which would have
been yielded by filk. 2. The water with the eider¬
down began to furnifli air almoft immediately, and con¬
tinued to do fo in quantities little lefs than had been
furniftied by the filk, and nearly of the fame quality.
One cubic inch and three quarters of this air, furniftied
the eighth day from the beginning of the experiment,
with three meafures of nitrous air, was reduced to
1.34. 3. The fur of the hare produced more air than
the wool, but lefs than the eider-down. Two cubic
inches of air were collected in four days; which made
its appearance in a different manner from that of the
other fubftances, the air-bubbles being at confiderable
diftances from one another, and growing to an uncom¬
mon fize before they detached themfelves from the fur.
The cotton yielded a confiderable quantity of air of a
better quality than any of the former. The ravelings
of linen were very flow in furniftiing air, and produced
but a fmall quantity ; only two cubic inches being col¬
lected in the fpace of a fortnight. This fubftance ap¬
peared to be the very reverfe of the hare’s fur; for the
air, inftead of attaching and collecting itfelf about the
fubftance in large bubbles, fcarce ever made its appear¬
ance in fufficient quantity to raife it to the top of the
water. The human hair furniftied ftill lefs than the
linen, and the produce was of inferior quality, though
ftill fuperior to the common atmofphere.
In order to difeover the comparative finenefs of air
produced from vegetables and from raw filk, a fmall
quantity of air from the ftem of a pea-plant, which had
four, healthy leaves upon it, was proved with nitrous
air, and found greatly inferior to that from raw filk
and feveral of the fubftances already mentioned. An
entire plant of houfewort, of a moderate fize, furniftied
only ^ths of a cubic inch of air in feven hours, and
that greatly inferior to common air; but the leaves a-
lone afforded a much greater quantity, and of a qua¬
lity greatly fuperior. 45
Having proceeded thus far, it was next determined the
to afeertain how much air a given quantity of Water ftuantlty 0*j
would yield by expofure to the fun’s rays. For this^y ^gans6
purpofe, a globe of fine white, clear, and very thin ofthefe fub-
glafs, containing 296 inches, being filled with frefh fiances from
fpring water, and 30 grains of raw filk immerfed in it,water*
was expofed to the air for three days in the month of
May, but for the moft part cold and cloudy. During
this time only gi inches <5f air were produced; but
next day, by expofure to the fun from nine in the
morning till five in the afternoon, the weather being
very fine, 8.46 inches more were produced. The wa¬
ter had now affumed a light greenifti colour. Next
day, the produCt of air was nine cubic inches, of a
better quality; and the day following, fix inches ftill
U fuperior,
?54 AERO
Dephloanf- fuperior, though expofed only for three hours and an
ticated Air.half. but t}ie next day, it being cold and cloudy, only
' :'r 'si-ths of an inch of air were produced, and thefe ma-
nifeftly inferior to the foregoing. No more air could
afterwards be procured, excepting one quarter of a cu¬
bic inch ; fo that from 296 inches of this water, 33.96
of air were obtained.
In this experiment the air produced was every day
removed from the globe, and its place fupplied with
water: the following were made, to determine what
alteration would take place on allowing the quantity
of air produced to remain from firlt to laft. The globe
being therefore filled again, and the filk well waihed
and replaced in it, the quantity of air produced a-
mounted in four days to 30.1 cubic inchesj and would
probably have been more confiderable, had not the
globe been unable to contain it along with yhe water,
and therefore there was a neceffity for putting an end
to the experiment. The quality was fuperior to the
former.—In this experiment the water had loft its
tranfparency, and acquired a greeniih caft ; a quantity
ef yellowilh earth was precipitated to the bottom, and
attached itfelf fo ftrongly to the glafs, that it could
Sot be removed without great difficulty.
On varying the experiment, by employing unwaffied
raw filk, it was found, that 17 grains of it in 20 cubic
inches of water, produced, for the firft four days, air
of a worfe quality than the atmofphere ; but afterwards
yielded near two inches of a fuperior quality. The
quantity of this air was fuperior to that in other expe¬
riments, though its quality was fomewhat inferior.
In refle&ing on the experiments above related, it oc¬
curred to Sir Benjamin, that the cotton-like fubftance
produced by the populus nigra, a fpecies of poplar tree,
might be a proper fubftitute for the raw filk; efpeci-
ally as he recolle&ed, that on rendering it very, dry
for fome other purpofe, fome parcels of it had quitted
the plate on which they were laid, and mounted up to
the top of the room. An hundred and twenty grains
of this fubftance were therefore put into the large
globe containing 296 inches •, but after expofure to the
fun for fome hours, the air produced, in quantity a-
bout i|ths of a cubic inch, was found to be little bet¬
ter than phlogifticated air. In three days after, only
one cubic inch was formed ; and this appeared to be
completely phlogifticated. Next day, only a few in-
confiderable air-bubbles appeared; but, the day fol¬
lowing, the water fuddenly changed to a greeniffi co¬
lour, and began all at once to give good air, and in
great abundance. This day 10.42 cubic inches were
produced, and the next I4-34- The fame water con¬
tinued to furniih air for four days longer; the whole
quantity amounting to 44^ cubic inches, the quality
of which was fuperior to that of the air produced in
^ former experiments.
Of the canfe. In fpeculating on the caufe of this produftion of air,
of this pro Jt occurred to our author, that perhaps the quantity of
d.u&ion it might be in proportion to the furfaces of both. In
order to afcertain this, he viewed an hair of filk, and
another of poplar-cotton, through a good microfcope,
when the former appeared twice the diameter of the
latter. The fpecific gravity of the cotton was found
logy. Sea. nr.
to be nearly equivalent to that of water; and, by a Dephlogff-
comparative view of the two through a microfcope, Geared Am
the furfaces appeared to be as tooo to 3468. By pro- v
ceeding in this calculation, it appeared that the furface
of 30 grains of the cotton could not be lefs than 6600
fquare inches, while that of a like quantity of the filk
amounted to no more than 476. Hence it evidently
appeared, that the produce of air from the two fub-
ftances was neither in proportion to their weights nor
their furfaces. It appeared alfo, that the quality of
the air produced at firft was confiderably inferior to that
yielded fome time afterwards. In order to afcertain
the times at which air of the beft quality was produ- ^
ced, &c. the following experiments were made: 1. A At what
globe, containing 46 cubic inches, being filled with wa- times air of
ter, and 30 grains of raw filk, well waffied, and freedtlie '
from the remains of former experiments, put into k,^uajty **
yielded in a cold and cloudy day only ^th of a cubic inch P ^
of air: the two following days it yielded 3-'-cubic inches,
the quality of which was fuperior to that of the former
in the proportion of ^96 to 114 (a). 2. The globe
being filled again with water, in two other days when
the funffiine was lefs powerful, the quality was 197,
and the quantity l|th; but afterwards, when the
weather became fine, the quantity was again 3.8 in¬
ches, and quality 342. 3. The globe being again fil¬
led with water, and expofed to the- fun. for two days,,
yielded 2.2 inches of air, of a quality equal to 233.
4. A fimilar globe, with poplar-cotton which had been
ufed in former experiments, gave 2.53 inches, of a qua¬
lity 280. 5;. A fmall globe of 20 inches, with 17
grains of raw filk, gave one cubic inch of air, of the
quality 263. 6. A large globe of 296 inches, filled
with frelh water, and a fmall quantity of conferva rivu--
laris, gave 1 j! cubic inch, of the quality only of 124.
The water was changed to a brown colour. 7. On.
repeating the experiment with a fmall handful of the
conferva, 13.14 cubic inches of air were produced, of
the quality 246. The water was very faintly tinged,
towards the end of the experiment, of a greeniffi caft.
8. The globe of 46 inches, with 30 grains of raw filk
ufed in many former experiments, produced in two days
1.6 cubic inches of air, of the quality 204, 9. A
gdobe of equal capacity, with 15 grains of poplar-cot¬
ton, produced in the fame time 1.28 inches, of the
quality 260. In both thefe experiments, the water had
acquired a faint greeniffi caft ; but the colour of that
with the cotton was deepeft. On examining this wa¬
ter with a microfcope, it was found to contain a great
number of animalcules exceedingly fmall, and nearly
of an oval figure ; that with the filk contained them
likewife, but not in fuch numbers: however, our
author affures us, that in all cafes in which the
water acquired a greeniffi hue, he never failed to find
them; and thinks, that from their prefence alone,
the colour of the water in the firft inftjance univertally
ai-ofe. 4p
As Sir Benjamin was now more than ever embarrafled Experiment
with refpeft to the ffiare the filk and other bodies em- *EUIi
ployed in thefe experiments had in producing the air,s s'
he made the following experiment to determine the
matter: “ Concluding (fays he), that if filk and other
bodies.
(a) In all thefe experiments, the quality of atmofpheric air is fuppofed to be 100,
Sea. III. AERO
Dephlogif- bodies, ufed in the foregoing experiments, actually did
ticated Air. not contribute any thing, confidered as chemical fub-
y ftances, in the procefs of the production of pure air
yielded by water ; but if, on the contrary, they a fled
merely as a mechanical aid in its feparation from the
water, by affording a convenient furface for the air to
attach itfelf to ; in this cafe, any other body having a
large furface, and attracting air in water, might be
made ufe of inftead of the fdk in the experiment, and
pure air would be furnifhed, though the body Ihould
be totally incapable of "communicating any thing what¬
ever to the water.”
With a view to afcertain this, the large globe being
made perfectly clean, and filled with fpring-water, he
introduced into it a quantity of the fine thread of glafs
commonly called fpun-glafs, fuch as is ufed for making
a brufh for cleaning jewels, and an artificial feather
fold by Jew pedlars. The refult of the experiment
was, that the globe being expofed in the fun, air-
bubbles began almoft inftantly to make their appear¬
ance on the furface, and in four hours 0.77 of a cu¬
bic inch of air was procured, which, with nitrous air,
Ihowed a quality of 88 ; after which, not a fingle glo¬
bule more was produced, though the globe was expo-
fed for a whole week in fine funlhine weather. Hence
it appears, that fomething more than mere furface was
wanted to produce dephlogilticated air from water by
' means of the fun’s light.
Of tjje The following experiments were made with a view
quantity to determine the quantity and quality of air produced
and quality by means of the heat and light of the fun from water
ducedPfromal.on.e' A larffe jar of clear gIafs> containing 455 cu-
wateralone.bic inches, being walhed very clean, was filled with
frefh fpring water, inverted in a glafs bafon of the
fame, and expofed to the weather for 28 days. At the
fame time, another fimilar jar was filled with water
taken from a pond in a garden in which many aquatic
plants were growing, and expofed in the fame place,
and during the fame period. The latter began to yield
air in pretty large quantities on the third day, and
continued to do fo till the 14th; the former yielded
little or none till the 14th, when it began to emit air,
and continued to do fo till the 22d. On removing the
air produced, that from the fpring-water was 14 in¬
ches in quantity, and 138 in quality; but from the
pond water, 314 in quantity, and 252 in quality. The
colour of the waters was not changed; but both of
them had depofited a confiderable quantity of earth,
which was found adhering to the furfaces of the glafs
bafons in which the jars were inverted. As thefe ba-
fons, however, were very thick, and confequentiy had
but little tranfparency, the fediment of the water wag
in a great meafure deprived of the benefit of the fun’s
light; the experiment was therefore repeated with the
following variations In a large cylindrical jar of very fine
tranfparent glafs, to inches in diameter and 1 2 inches
high, filled with fpring-water, a conical jar, 94 inches in
diameter- at the bottom, and containing 344 .inches,
was inverted, and the. whole expofed to the fun for
21 days. Little air was furnilhed till the 7th day,
when the liquor affumed a greenifh caff, and a fine
llimy fediment of the fame colour, the green matter of
Dr Prieftley, beginning to be formed on the bottom,
air was generated in abundance, and was furnilhed in
pretty large quantities till the 18th, when it entirely
LOGY. 155
ceafed. The whole amounted to 40 cubic inches, and Dtphlogif-
the quality 213. treated Air.
Thefe are the principal experiments contained in Sir ' " jV
Benjamin Thompfon’s letter to Sir Jofcph. Banks. Dr tnsjen-
In his poftfeript he obferves, that as he neVer was Houfz’s
thoroughly fatisfied with the opinion of Dr Ingenhoufz, tho0r/ con"
that the dephlogifticated air was elaborated in the vef- te e ’
fels of the plant, he found his doubts rather confirmed
than diminifhed by the experiments above related.
“ That the frelh leaves of certain vegetables (fays he),
expofed in water to the a£tion of the fun’s rays, caufe
a certain quantity of pure air to be produced, is a fact
which has been put beyond all doubt: but it does not
appear to me by any means fo clearly proved, that this
air is ‘ elaborated in the plant by the powers of vege¬
tation,—phlogifticated or fixed air being received by
the plant as food, and the dephlogifticated air rejected
as an excrement;’ for befides that many other fub-
ftances, and in which no elaboration or circulation can
poffibly be fuppofed to take place, caufe the water in
which they are expofed to the action of the light to
yield dephlogifticated air as well as plants, and even in
much greater quantities, and of a more eminent qua¬
lity ; the circumftances of the leaves of a vegetable,
which, accuftomed to grow in air, are feparated from
its ftem and confined in water, are fo unnatural, that I
cannot conceive that they can perform the fame func¬
tions in fuch different fituations.
“ Among many fadts which have been brought in
fupport of the received opinion of the elaboration of
air in the veffels of plants, there is one upon which
great ftrefs is laid, which, I think, requires further ex¬
amination. The frefti healthy leaves of vegetables,
feparated from the plant, and expofed in water to the
action of the fun’s rays, appear, by all the experiments
which have hitherto been made, to furnifti air only for
a fhort time. After a day or two, the leaves, chan¬
ging colour, ceafe to yield air. This has been con¬
ceived to arife from the powers of vegetation being de-
ftroyed, or, in other words, the death of the plant:
and from hence it has been inferred, with fome degree of
plaufibility, not only that the leaves actually retained
their vegetative powers for fome time after they were
feparated from their ftock; but that it was in confe-
quence of the exertion of thofe powers, that the air
yielded in the experiment was produced.
“ But I have found, that though the leaves, exP0_ leaves of
fed in water to the aftion of light, actually do ceafe plants re-
to furnifti air after a certain time, yet that they regain fume their
this power after a ftrort interval, when they furnifti (or proPerty
rather caufe the water to furnifti) more and better air"after
than at firft ; which can hardly be accounted for upon feeniin<>- ro
the fuppofition that the air is elaborated in the veffels have loll it,
of the plant.”
In confirmation of this doctrine, the globe of 46
inches was filled with frelh fpring-water, and two peach-
leaves were expofed for to days to the fun. In four
days the water feemed to be entirely exhaufted; but,
jnext day, the water acquired a greenilh cplour, and
again produced air pretty plentifully, which appeared
in bubbles on the leaves; and on the 6th day, 0.34 of
a cubic inch of air was produced, of the quality 232.
Next day it yielded -i%ths of a cubic inch, of the quality
297. The threefucceeding days it yielded ij inches, the
quality 307 ; after which an end was put to the expe-
U 2 riment. —-
156 AERO
Dephlogif- jlment.—On making other trials with leaves immerfed
ticatcd Atr. water already green and prepared to yield dephlogi-
'' ftieated air, it was found that they produced air in
great quantity : but our author is of opinion, that all
the appearances may be folved, by fuppofing that the
air was produced in the mafs of water by the green
matter; and: that the leaves, filk, &c. did no more than
aflilt it in making its efcape, by affording a conveni¬
ent furface to which it could attach itfelf, in order to
colleft together and affume its elaftic form.
Thus we fee, that nature is provided with abundant
refources for the fupplying of this pure part of the at-
mofphere which is fubje£t to fach continual wafte; and
there is not the leaft doubt, that in a great number of
cafes the light of the fun produces pure air from wa-
53 ter as well as from vegetables^ It is probable, alfo,.
Pure air that even the waters of the . ocean contribute towards
water mfea* t^s fehitary purpofe; as Dr Dobfon of Liverpool
found, that fea-vvater contained air fuperior in quality
to that of the atmofphere. The purification of atmo-
fpherical air by agitating it. in water, will be confidered
in a fubfequent fetStiom.
54 As dephlogifticated air is found to fupport animal
JJbw to life, for a much longer time than common air, it has
procure been fuppofed that it might anfwer valuable purpofes
Farge^uan-10 medicine,, provided any cheap method of procuring
t'ty, it ih large quantities could'be fallen upon. With this
view, Mr Cavallo propofes to diftil it from nitre with a
ftrong heat ; but the experiments already related cer¬
tainly point out an eafier method, free from the ex¬
pence and trouble which muft neceffarily attend every
chemicar operation of this kind.
$ 2. Properties of Dephlogijiicated -dir.—This kind
of air pofTefies fome of the properties of common air in
a very eminent degree, but is deficient in others. Thofe
in which it excels* are the fupport of flame and of ani¬
mal life. It is equally elaftic, or rather more fo, than
common air; as it likewife exceeds it a little in fpeeific
gravity, the proportion betwixt it and common air
being that of 160 to 152. On introducing a lighted
candle into dephlogifticated air, the flame not only
Bephlogif- grows larger, but becomes exceedingly bright; and
ticated air when the air is very pure,, the candle burns with a
produces in-cradling noife, as if the air contained fome combufti-
cen e leat. matter, at the fame time that the wax or tallow
waftes furprifingly faft.
The heat of the flame is in proportion to its light.
If we fill a bladder with dephlogifticated air, and then
faften to its neck a glafs tube whofe aperture is drawn
to a fine point, the dephlogifticated air, if driven out
by prefling the bladder, will augment the heat of a
candle to fuch a degree, that if any fmall bits of metal,
placed on a piece of charcoal, be held in the apex of
the flame, they will almoft inftantly be melted. Even
grains of platina may by this means be melted ; and in
a larger fire there is no doubt that the effedls of burn-
ing mirrors might be equalled.
Explodes On mixing dephlogifticated and inflammable air to-
violently gether, an explofion takes place as on mixing com-
with in- mon and inflammable air, but with much greater vio-
^aaima e jence_ jf announce vial, which for this purpofe ftiould
be very ftrong, be filled with a little more than one-
third of dephlogifticated and the reft inflammable air,
and the flame of a candle prefented to its mouth, it
will explode nearly as loud as a fmallpiftol.
LOGY. Sea. XIL
All phlogiftic procefles. are promoted much better Dephlogif-
by dephlogifticated than; common air. Dr Prieftley ^lcateri Air;
put a quantity of pyrophemis into one of the fmall jars
ufed for making experiments upon air in quickfilver; 57
then filling up the veflel with that fluid, he inverted i®hemently"
in a bafon of the fame, and threw in dephlogifticfited w;th pyr0..
air at different times. It always occafioned a hidden phorus.
and vehement accenfion, like the flalhing of gun-pow¬
der, and the air was greatly diminiflied.
It has been, ahnoft throughout all ages, believed. Common
that combuftion in every inftance diminilhed common ay ‘f "ot
air, or reduced it to a fmaller volume : but the late™' 7'
experiments of Mr Lavoifier have fhown, that this is
a miftake ; and that in ordinary procefles attended
with the production of fixed and phlogifticated air,
the quantity of vapour produced is equivalent to that
abforbed, or otherwife made to difappear during the
operation. With dephlogifticated air the cafe is very
different. Mr Lavoifier having introduced a burning But depiilo-
candle into a glafs jar filled with very pure air obtain- gifticated
ed from calcined mercury, a great heat took place; aj.r
which at firft expelled a fmall quanity of the air ; but “minutlon>
afterwards, when the candle was extinguiftied, it was
found that two-thirds of the bulk of air employed had
been converted into fixed air, or a quantity of this
kind of air equivalent to the former had been produ¬
ced. The remainder, after taking up the fixed air by
cauftic alkali, was H ill as pure as before. In the com¬
mon proceffes, he obferves, that not more than one-
tenth of the air employed is converted into fixed air.
In this experiment, the fuperior gravity of fixed air,
and the confequent £ondenfation of the other, muft
undoubtedly have produced fome diminution in the
volume of air, though Mr Lavoifier does not take no¬
tice of it. In other cafes, however, the diminution
is much more perceptible. Mr Scheele having intro¬
duced fome live coals into a matrafs filled with dephlo¬
gifticated air, found that it was diminiihed by one-
fourth of its quantity. Repeating the experiment-
with fulphur, the flame became larger and more vivid,
than in common air, and three-fourths of its quantity
were loft. Putting a piece of phofphorus into feven
ounce-meafures of this kind of air, flopping the mouth
of the bottle with a cork, and fetting fire to the phof¬
phorus within it, the vial broke in pieces, as foon as
the flame was extinguiflied; by the preffure of the ex¬
ternal air. Repeating the experiment with a ftronger
vial, and opening it afterwards under water, the fluid
rufhed into it in fuch a manner as almoft to fill it en¬
tirely. This extraordinary diminution was alfo per¬
ceived on fetting fire to inflammable air in- the dephlo¬
gifticated kind. The way in which he accompliihed
this was, by filling a matrafs with dephiogifticated air,
and inverting it over a phial containing an effervefcing
mixture of vitriolic acid and iron-filings plunged into
a veflel of hot water, and furniftied wkh a flender tube
reaching above the furface of the veflel,, as reprefented
Plate VIII. fig. 2. The inflammable air iffuing from-
the orifice of the fmall tube, was feton fire previous ,
to the inverfion of the matrafs, and the mouth of the
latter immerfed in the water; on which that fluid foon
began to rife, and continued to do fo till feven-eighths
of the veffel were full. In cafes of flow combuftion,
where common air is diminilhed and phlogifticated,
the dephlogifticated kind was found to be almoft en¬
tirely-
Sea. III. AERO
DephlogiT- tireljs deftroyed. A phial, containing 20 ounce mea-
ticated Air. fLlres 0f dephlogifticated air, and inverted into a folu-
v tion of hepar fulphuris, was entirely filled with the lat-
60 ter in the fpace of two days’
Phenomena The purity of dephlogifticated air is afcertained
°i!ticated' ’ts ^egree diminution with nitrous air; which,
wfthnitroust^at the diminution by liver of fulphur, or o-
,air. therwife, is to be confidered as a phlogiftic procefs, or
kind of burning, efpeclally as a confiderable degree of
heat is thereby generated. Very great differences are
perceived in this refpetl; and according to the quan¬
tity of diminution, the air is faid to be twoj three,
or four times better than common air. It is not yet
accurately determined how far this proportionable pu¬
rity extends. Dr Prieftley mentions fome extrafted
from red lead five times as pure as common air. Another
quantity, produced from a folution of mercury in nitrous
acid, was fo pure, that one meafure of it mixed with
two of nitrous air, which had been obtained in the
iirft part of tie fame procefs, occupied only 0.03 of a
meafure. “ Repeating .the experiment (fays he), I
found, that two meafures of nitrous air were rather
more than fuffieient to faturate one meafure of the de¬
phlogifticated air; fo that poffibly, had the former ex¬
periment been made with more circumfpeclion, the di¬
minution, extraordinary as it was, would have been
fomewhat greater. Indeed it cannot be fuppofed,
that exadtly two meafures of nitrous air ftiould be the
precife quantity that would afford the greateft diminu¬
tion. It fhould alfo be confidered, that a fmall por¬
tion of air might be yielded by the water in which the
experiments were made. Upon the whole, therefore,
I am inclined to think, that, were it poffible to make
both the dephlogifticated and nitrous air in the greateft
purity, and'then to mix them in fome exadt pro¬
portion, the aerial form of them both would be de-
ftroyed, the whole quantity feeming to difappear, as
in the mixture of alkaline and;acid-air.”
Mow de- Notwithstanding this great degree of purity, the
phlogifti- belt dephlogifticated air is capable of being contami-
cated air nated by fome of the proceffes which affedt the com-
tanunatedn,m°n a‘r our atmofpherc. Dr Piieftley having in¬
troduced a quantity of very ■dry, clean nails, into a re¬
ceiver filled with dephlogifticated air, and inverted it
in quickfilver, .found,, that about nine months after,
one-tenth -of the whole quantity had 3ifappeared, tho’
he could not perceive any ruft upon the nails. The
effects of combuftion have already been related, viz. as
producing a great quantity of pure fixed air ‘r but pu-
trefaftion and animal refpiration probably contaminate
it in a manner fimilar to that of atmofpherical air,
though few or no experiments feem to have been made
on this fubjedt. Mr Cavallo, however, informs us,
that “ when an animal is confined in a quantity of de¬
phlogifticated air, and is .kept therein till it dies, that
air is not rendered- fo bad but that it will ftill be ca¬
pable of confiderable diminution by nitrous air. This
feems to ftiow, that dephlogifticated air is fomewhat
different from pure common air ; or that common air
is originally different from dephlogifticated air, lowered
by the addition of phlogifton. The phenomenon is
certainly very remarkable; and fometimes a quantity
of dephlogifticated air, after having been breathed by
an animal till it died, will appear by the nitrous teft
to be even better than common air. When the expe-
2.
LOGY. 157
riment is performed over lime-water (to abforb tba Dephlogif-
fixed air produced in refpiration), the diminution by a ticated.Air.
mixture of nitrous air is lefs than it would otherwife v "
be ; but it is ftill diminiftied much more than common
air after an animal has died in it; which feems to in¬
timate, that the death of the animal in dephlogiftica¬
ted air is principally owing to the fixed air formed by
the act of refpiration. It may be faid, that the in¬
flammable principle difcharged through the lungs of
an animal, being perhaps combined with fome other
principle, requires a longer time to combine with the
dephlogifticated air than the phlogifton of nitrous air;
but this- is only an hypothetical explanation of the
abovementioned remarkable phenomenon, which re*-
quires many diredt proofs.” .
Dephlogifticated air is much inferior to that of the Vegetation
common atmofphere in fupporting vegetable life. This ill fupport-
has been afcertained by the experiments of Dr Prieft-de-
ley, Mr Fontana, Mr Scheele, Dr Ingenhoufz, &c. ^edair
Dr Prieftley took three fprigs of mint, and having put
all the roots.into vials containing the fame pump-water
which had been for fome time expofed to the atmofphere,
introduced one of them into a jar of dephlogifticated
air, another into a jar of common air, and a third into
that which had been phlogifticated with nitrous air fe-
veral months before, and in fuch a ftate, that one
meafure of it, and one of nitrous air, occupied the
fpace of 1 ^ meafures. Tlris.was done in April; and ,
on examining them on the 12th of May following, it
was found, that the plant in phlogifticated air had
grown remarbably, much better than that in common
air; while the plant in dephlogifticated air had a very
fickly appearance.. Examining them on the 26th of the
fame month, the appearance continued nearly as before;
but it was now found, that though the plant in phlo¬
gifticated air had grown fo well, the air was not fen-
fibly improved by it, though the dephlogifticated air
was injured by the plant which grew in it.
$3. Of the-Compofition of Dephlcgifticated Air.—
When Dr Prieftley firft difeovered the exiftence of this Dr Prieft-
fluid, having found that it was always procured by *c) ,s
means of earthy fubftances; and that as it came over, -P01 !e“*’
the bubbles appeared full of fine white powder; he
concluded, that it is compofed of the nitrous acid and
earth, with as much phlogifton as is neceffary to its
elafticity; and that the common atmofphere has as
much more as is neceffary to bring it into the mean
condition in which we find it. It was not long, how¬
ever, before this theory met with oppofition. Dr
Prieftley himfelf, though induced, from the wafte of
the folid matter ufed in his experiments, to conclude
that the, air contained fome quantity of earth, was
neverthelefs unable, by any method he could think of,
to afeertain that quantity. His experiments were op- ^
pofed by others made by Lavoifier; who infifted, that Difference
when folution of mercury was carefully diftilled, the betwixt Dr
metal was obtained in full quantity, or with fcarce ?Pej'e5r\
any lofs, notwithftanding the dephlogifticated air pro- ple(.
duced. This gentleman having put two. ounces and
one drachm of mercury into red precipitate, and afters
wards revived it, loft a very few grains of the metal;
which, he fays, might be the weight of a little red
matter that was found adhering to the neck of the
veffel. The fame thing was obferved by Mr Fontana,
who repeated the experiment often with left than a
gram
158 AERO
De| hlogif- grain weight o£ lofs. The veffel he ufed had a neck
tieatcd A;r. 0f about two feet long : and he particularly remarks,
_v that, in order to fucceed in this experiment, the fire
fhould be managed with very great dexterity; for if
that be too ftrong, part of the precipitate will be vo¬
latilized, and then the refult of the experiment is pre¬
carious.
Thefe experiments were oppofed by others made by
Dr Prieftley, who in feveral trials'found that a confi-
derable quantity of the metal was always loft. In one
of thefe experiments, out of 11 pennyweights 10
grains of mercury, the lofs amounted to one penny¬
weight two grains. In another experiment, 88 grains
were loft, out of a quantity of red precipitate, in the
preparation of which half an ounce of mercury had
been employed. The quantity of mercury loft in his
experiments, or rather the proportion of it to that of
, the metal employed, was always various, and the dxf-
Earth can- ference not very fmall; whence Mr Cavallo and others,
not be pro- with great appearance of reafon, conclude, that the
yt d to exifl true reafon of any perceptible lofs was the ftrong heat
d' ma^e ufe °* t^e diftillation, and confequently that
a;r- there is no reafon to fuppofe that any earth exifts in
dephlogifticated air.
The next queftion was, Whether any of the nitrous
acid exifted in dephlogifticated air ? That it contains
none in a proper ftate of acidity, is indeed evident from
many decifive experiments ; but an idea was naturally
entertained, that in the formation of dephlogifticated
66 air the nitrous acid was decompofed, and part of it en-
Whether tered into the compofition of the aerial fluid. This
ai-fd'enters £ave r^c to t^ie t^eories °f Mr Lavoifier and Mr
its con-troll-Kirwan, which are noticed under the article Acid ;
tion. as alfo the experiments of Mr Watt, which tend¬
ed to fhow that no nitrous acid was deftroyed in
the compofition of dephlogifticated air. To thefe
Mr Kirwan replied in the manner related in that ar¬
ticle. We fliall here, however, give a quotation from
Dr Prieftley as a kind of addition to Mr Watt’s tefti-
mony on this head, fo that the reader may be the bet¬
ter able to determine the weight of the evidence on
both fides.
“ At Mr Watt’s requeft (fays he), I endeavoured to
afcertain the quantity of acid that was expelled from
nitre, in procuring the dephlogifticated air from it.
To do this, I put two ounces of purified nitre into a
glafs retort, and receiving the air in 300 ounce mea-
fures of water, only filled each recipient half full, and
agitated the air very much in the water, in order to
make the fluid imbibe as much as poffible of the acid
it contained. Notwithftanding this agitation, however,
every veffel of the air retained a ftrong fmell of the acid.
The moment the air ceafed to come, I filled a large
phial with the water, and carried it to Mr Watt, who
carefully examined it; and in a paper which he prefent-
ed to the Royal Society, and which is publilhed in the
Philofophical Tran factions, he has given an account of
the quantity of acid that was contained in all the 300
ounces of water: whence it may be fairly inferred,
that there was no occafion to fuppofe that any of the
<tcid entered into the compofition of the air ; but that
it was all either rendered volatile or retained in the
water. On the other hand, the Abbe Fontana in¬
forms us, that, in diftilling an ounce of nitre with a
itrong heat, in order to expel dephlogifticated air from
LOG Y. Sea. III.
it, only a few grains of weak nitrous acid are obtain- Dephlogif- ;
ed, more or lefs as the fire applied is weak or ftrong: t‘catet^ A*r*
but that the quantity of dephlogifticated air extricated , ;
from it follows the contrary rule ; being greateft when
the heat is moft violent and fuddenly applied, and lefs
when the fire is gradually applied. 67 1
On calcining metals in dephlogifticated air, very fin- Dephlogif- j
gular phenomena are obferved, which feem to throwa‘f
great light upon the compofition of this fluid. “ One
of the moft Ample of all phlogiftic procefles (fays Drmetais,
Prieftley), is that in which metals are melted in dephlo¬
gifticated air. I therefore began with this, with a
view to afcertain whether any water be produced when
the air is made t.o difappear in it. Accordingly, into
a glafs veffel, containing feven ounce-meafures of pretty
pure dephlogifticated air, I introduced a quantity of
iron turnings, which is iron in thin fmall pieces, ex¬
ceedingly convenient for thefe and many other expe¬
riments, having previoufly made them, together with
the veflel, the air, and the mercury by which it was
confined, as dry as I poffibly could. Alfo to prevent
the air from imbibing any moifture, I received it im¬
mediately in the veflel in which the experiment was
made, from the procefs of procuring it from red pre¬
cipitate, fo that it had never been in contact with any
water. I then fired the iron by means of a burning
lens, and prefently reduced the feven ounce-meafures
to 0.65 of a meafure ; but I found no more water af¬
ter this procefs than I imagined it had not been pofii-
blc for me to exclude, as it bore no proportion to the
air which had difappeared. Examining the refiduum
of the air, I found one-fifth of it to be fixed air; and
when I tried the purity of that which remained by
the teft of nitrous air, it did not appear that any phlo-
gifticated air had been produced in the procefs : for
though it was more impure than I fuppofe the air with
which I began the experiment muft have been, it was
not more fo than the phlogifticated air of the feven
ounce-meafures, which had not been affe&ed by the
procefs, and which muft have been contained in the
refiduum, would neceflarily make it. In this cafe, one
meafure of this refiduum, and two of nitrous air, oc¬
cupied the fpace of 0.32 of a meafure. In another
experiment of this kind, ten ounce-meafures of de¬
phlogifticated air were reduced to 0.8 of a meafure, and
by^wafiiing in lime-water to 0.38 of a meafure. In
another experiment, 7 ? ounce-meafures of dephlogifti¬
cated air were reduced to half an ounce-meafure, of
which one-fifth was fixed air, and the refiduum was
quite as pure as the air with which I began the expe¬
riment ; the teft with nitrous air, in the proportions
above mentioned, giving 0.4 in both cafes.
“ In thefe experiments the fixed air muft, I pre¬
fume, have been formed by the union of the phlogifton
from the iron and dephlogifticated air in which it was
ignited ; but the quantity of it was very fmall in pro¬
portion to the air which had difappeared; and at that
time I had no fufpicion that the iron, which had been
melted and gathered into round balls, could have im¬
bibed it; a melting heat having been fufficient, as I
had imagined, to expel every thing that was capable
of affuming the form of air from any fubftance what¬
ever. Senlible, however, that fuch "a quantity of air
muft have been imbibed by fomething, to which it muft
have given a very perceptible addition of weight, and
feeing
Sea. III. AERO
Dephlogif- feeing nothing elfe that could have imbibed it, it oc-
,icated An. curre(j to me to weigh the calx into which the iron
68 k£eri reduced ; and I prefently found, that the
bephlogif- dephlogifticated air had aftually been imbibed by the
heated air melted iron, in the fame manner as inflammable air
kad been imbibed by the melted calces of metals in my
former experiments, however improbable fuch an ab-
forption might have appeared a priori. In the firft
inftance, about twelve ounce-meafures of dephlogifti¬
cated air had difappeared, and the iron had gained fix
grains in weight. Repeating the experiment very fre¬
quently, I always found that other quantities of iron,
treated in the fame manner, gained fimilar additions of
weight,, which was always very nearly that of the air
60 which had difappeared.
Is capable “ Concluding from the preceding experiments, that
of taking it iron,.fufficiently heated, was incapable of faturating it-
up from the fdf with
pure air from the atmofphere, I then pro-
f- here. ceeded to melt it with the heat of a burning lens in
the open air; and I prefently found, that perfect iron
was eafily capable of being fufed in this way, and con¬
tinued in this fufion a certain time, exhibiting the ap¬
pearance of boiling or throwing out air; whereas it
was, on the contrary, imbibing air ; and, when it was
faturated, the fufion ceafed, and the heat of the lens
could make no farther impreffion upon it. When this
was the cafe, I always found that it had gained weight
in the proportion of 7^ to 24, which is very nearly
one-third of the original weight. The fame was the
effe& when I melted fteel in the fame circumftances,
and alfo every kind of iron on which the experiment
could be tried. Rut I have reafon to think, that with
a greater degree of heat than I could apply, the iron
might have been kept in a ftate of fufion fomewhat
longer, and by that means have imbibed more than
70 even one-third of its original weight.
1 Remark- “ There was a peculiar circumftance attending the
able pheno- melting of caft iron with a burning lens, which ren-
itending^e d^d ^ iiupoffible to afcertain the addition that was
melting of made to its weight, and at the fame time afforded an
oaft-iron. affiufing fpe&ade : for the moment that any quantity
of it was melted, and gathered into a round ball, it
began to djfper-fe in a thoufand direftions, exhibiting
the appearance of a moft beautiful fire-work ; fome of
the particles flying to the diftance of half a yard from
the place of fufion ; and the whole was attended with
a confiderable hilling noife.. Some of the largeft pie¬
ces, which had been difperfed in this manner, I was
able to colled:, and having fubjected them to the heat
of the lens, they exhibited the fame appearance as the
larger mafs from which they had been fcattered.
“ When this caft iron was melted in the bottom of
a deep glafs receiver, in order to colled all the par¬
ticles that were difperfed, they firmly adhered to the
glafs, melting it fuperflcially, though without making
it crack, fo that it was Hill impoffible to colled and
weigh them. However, I generally found, that, not-
withftanding the copious difperfion, what remained af¬
ter the experiment rather exceeded than fell Ihort of
the original weight of the iron.”
On attempting to revive this calx of iron in inflam-
mable ai-r, a very new and unexpeded appearance took
phlngifti- place. Having put a piece of iron faturated with pure
yated and air into a veffel filled with inflammable air confined by
mable air water’ t^e inflammable air difappeared and the metal
e air. 3
o
Y.
I59
•n
Formation
of water
was revived; but on weighing it, he found that 2|.Be]'hlogif-
grains out of 114 had been loft, befides the 74- ounce- ticr'te(' "ir;
meafures of inflammable air which had vanifhed. Con- v
fidering all thefe circumftances, the Dodor had now
no doubt that the two kinds of air had united and
formed either fixed air or water ; and with a view to
determine this point, he repeated the experiment in a
veffel where the inflammable was confined by mercury,
both the veffel and mercury having been previoufly
made as dry as poffible. In thefe circumftances he had
no fooner begun to heat the iron, than the air was
perceived to diminifti, and at the fame time the inlide
of the veffel to become cloudy, with particles of dew
that covered almoft the whole of it. Thefe particles
by degrees gathered into drops, and ran down in ail
places, excepting thofe which were heated by the fun-
beams. On collecting the water produced in this ex¬
periment, by means of a piece of filtering paper care¬
fully introduced to abforb it, he found it to be as near¬
ly as poffible of the fame weight with that which had
been loft by the iron ; and alfo in every experiment of
this kind, in which he attended to the circumftance, 72
he found that the .quantity of inflammable air which Quantity-
had difappeared was about double that of the dephlo-Vrol1Vcei1
gifticated air fet loofe in the operation, fuppofing ^11:1 maa‘
that weight to have been reduced into air. Thus, at
one time, a piece of this flag abforbed yi ounce mea¬
fures of inflammable air, while it loft the weight of
about three ounce-meafures of dephlogifticated air,,
and the water collected weighed two grains. Another
time a piece of flag loft 1.5 grains, and the water pro¬
duced was 1.7 grains. In a third cafe, where 64 ounce-
meafures of inflammable air were reduced to 0.92 of
a meafure, the iron had loft the weight of 3.3 ounce-
meafures of dephlogifticated air, or nearly two grains.
The Doctor having fucceeded fo well with iron, nextExperi-
tried the calx of copper, or thofe fcales which fly offments with
from it by hammering whilft it is red-hot; and found coiTer) de¬
water produced in the inflammable air in the fame
manner as when the fcales of iron were ufed. On
ufing precipitate per fe, he imagined at firft that water
was obtained from this fubftance alfo; but on repeat¬
ing the experiment to more advantage, he found ntf
more water than might be fuppofed to have been con¬
tained as an extraneous fubftance either in the inflam¬
mable air or in the red precipitate. With iron, how¬
ever, the cafe was vaftly different. As the Dodtor
had formerly fatisfied himfelf that inflammable air al¬
ways contains a portion of water, and alfo that when,
it has been fome time confined by water it imbibes
more, fo as to be increafed in its fpecific gravity by
that means, he repeated the experiment with inflam¬
mable air which had not been confined by that fluid,
but was received in a veffel of dry mercury from the
veffel in which it .had been generated; but in this cafe<the
water was produced, to,appearance, as copioufly as in the.
former, experiment. “ Indeed (fays he), the quantity
of water produced, fo greatly exceeding the weight of
all the inflammable air, is fufficient to prove that it,
muft have had fome other fouree than any conftituent
part of that air, or the whole of it, together with-
the water contained in it, without taking into confi-
deration the correfponding lofs of weight in the iron.
“ I muft here obferve, that the iron flag which I
had treated in this manner, and which had thereby loft:
ri6o AERO
DcphlrgiT- the weight which it had acquired in dephlogifticated
ticati-d Air. ^ecame perfect iron as at firft, and was then ca¬
pable of being melted by the burning lens again ; fo
Iron may that the fame piece of iron would ferve for thefe ex-
he made toperiments as long as the operator ihould choofe. -It
imbibe de- was evident, therefore, that if the iron had loft its
^ phlogifton in the preceding fufion, it had acquired it
often as'we aSa’n from the inflammable air which it had abforbed ;
pleafe. and I do not fee how the experiment can be accounted
^ for in any other way.”
Experi- As thefe ’ experiments of iDr Prieftley tend very
ments of much to throw feme light on the compofition of de-
difh Crn- phi°gifucateci air? we (hall here give an account of
water C’° *ome others made by Mr Cavendifh, as well as thofe
of Dr Prieftley and the French chemifts, upon water :
From all which it is concluded by the moft celebrated
philofophers and chemifts, That dephlogifticated air is
one of the eonftituent and elementary parts of water,
inflammable air being the other ; though the opinion
is Hill contefted by fome foreign chemifts.
Fi!T. 'Yranf. “ As there feemed great reafon,” fays Mr Caven-
ixxivo-iaj. dilh, “ to think, from Dr Prieftley’s experiments, that
i the nitrous and vitriolic acids were, convertible into de¬
phlogifticated air, I tried whether the dephlogifticated
part of common air might not be converted into nitrous
or vitriolic acid.” For this purpofe he impregnated
fome milk of lime with the fumes of burning fulphur,
by burning 12 2 grains of fulphur in a large glafs re¬
ceiver, in which fome lac calcis was included. No
nitrous fait, nor any thing beixdes felenite, was pro¬
duced in the procefs. Neither was any nitrous acid
produced by phlogifticating common air with liver of
fulphur, or by treating dephlogifticated air in the fame
manner. The liver of fulphur ufed in thefe experi¬
ments was made with lime ; and the only obfervation
made on this occafion was, that the felenite produced
was much more foluble in water than.when made with
yg dephlogifticated vitriolic acid.
Whether To try whether any vitriolic acid was produced by
rhe phlogif- j-he phlogiftication of air, 50 ounces of diftilled water
air produceswepe impregnated with the fumes produced on mixing
vitriolic 52 ounce-meafures of nitrous air with a quantity of
acid, .common air fufficient to decompound it. This was
done by filling a bottle with fome of this water, and
inverting it into a bafon of the fame ; and then by a fy-
phon, letting in as much nitrous air as filled it half full;
after which, common dir was added flowly by the fame
fyphon, till the nitrous air was decompounded. When
this was done, the diftilled water was further impreg¬
nated in the fame manner till the whole quantity of
nitrous air was employed. The impregnated water
was feniibly acid to the tafte; and on diftillation yield¬
ed firft phlogifticated nitrous acid, then water, and
laftly a very acid liquor confifting of dephlogifticated
nitrous acid. By faturation with fait of tartar, 87-t
grains of nitre, without any mixture of vitriolated tar-
77 tar, or other vitriolic fait, were obtained.
Nitrousacld Thefe experiments having proved unfuccefsful, Mr
fromde * ^avendifli next proceeded to try the effects of explo-
phlogifti— ding; dephlogifticated and inflammable air together in
caterl and clofe veffels. He begins with relating an experiment
inflam- pf Dr Prieftley ; in which, it was faid, that on firing
mabie air. a mixture of common and inflammable air by eleftri-
city, in a clofe copper veffel holding about three pints,
a lofs of weight was always perceived, on an average
N° 4.
LOG Y. Sea. III.
about two grains, though the veflel was flopped in D?ptlogif-
fuch a manner that no air could efcape by the explo- Seated Air. 1
fion. It is alfo related, that on repeating the experi- v lX|
ment, in glafs veffels, the infide of the glafs, though
clean and dry before, immediately became dewy;
which confirmed an opinion he had long entertained,
that common air depofites its moifture by phlogiftica¬
tion. The experiment, however, did not fucceed with !|?w
Mr Cavendifh, at leaft with regard to the lofs of weight;
which never exceeded the fifth part of a grain, and 78
commonly was nothing at all. In thefe experiments Quantity ol
the greateft care was taken to obferve with accuracy S
the diminution of air by the explofion, and quality ofnecelj-ary ^
the remainder; from which it appeared, that 423 mea- nhlogiiti-]M
fures of inflammable air were nearly fufficient to phlo-cate com-
gifticate 1000 of common air, and that the bulk ofmon *Ir* -S
air remaining after the explofion is very little more
than four-fifths of the common air employed ; whence
he concludes, that “ when they are mixed in this pro¬
portion, almoft all the inflammable, and about one-fifth
of the common air, lofe their elafticity, and are con- - jgl
denied into the dew which lines the glafs.”
To examine more exactly the nature of this dew,
500,000 grain-meafures of inflammable air were burnt
wdth about 2{ times the quantity of common air, and
the burnt air was made to pafs through a glafs cylinder
eight feet long and three-fourths of an inch in diame¬
ter, in order to depofite the dew. The two airs were
conveyed flowly into this Cylinder by feparate copper
pipes, palling through a brafs plate which flopped up
one end of the cylinder ; and as neither inflammable nor
common air can burn by themfelves, there was no dan¬
ger of the flame fpreading to the magazines from which
they were cortveyed. Each of thefe magazines con-
fifted of a large tin veflel inverted into another juft big
enough to receive it. The inner veffel communicated
with the copper pipe, and the air was forced out of it
by pouring water into the outer veflel; and in order
that the quantity of common air expelled Ihould be
24 times that of the inflammable air, the water was
let into the outer veffels by two holes in the bottom of
the fame tin pan ; the hole which conveyed the water
into that vefiel in which the common air was confined
being 2| times as big as the other. In trying the ex¬
periments, the magazines being firft filled with their
•refpeftive airs, the glafs cylinder was taken off, and
water let by the two holes into the outer veffels, till
the airs began to iffue from the ends of the copper
pipes ; they were then fet on fire by a candle, and the
cylinder put on again in its place. By this means up¬
wards of 135 grains of water were left in the cylinder
which had no tafte nor fmell, and which left no per
ceptible fediment on being evaporated to drynefs; nei
ther did it yield any pungent fmell during the evapo¬
ration ; in fhort, itTeemed pure water. In one of his
experiments a little footy matter was perceived, but it
was found to proceed from the luting. On repeating
the experiment with dephlogifticated, inftead of com¬
mon air, the produce was nitrous acid.
The following conclufion is drawn by Mr Cavendiffi
from all thefe experiments: “ There feem two ways
by which the produ&ion of the nitrous acid, in the
manner above-mentioned, may be explained : firft, by
fuppofing that dephlogifticated air contains a little ni¬
trous acid, which enters into it as one of its component
parts;
•Sea. HI. AERO
few Dephlogif- parts ; and that this acid, when the inflammable air is
jj.jitieated Air. jn fu£gc;ellt proportion, unites to the phlogifton, and is
I 79 turned into phlogifticated air, but does not when the
n<>; tonclufions inflammable air is in too fmall proportion : and, fecond-
)■ from thefe ly, by fuppofing that there is no nitrous acid mixed
•r meKts* with or entering into the comppfition of dephlogifti-
; * cated air ; but that, when the air is in fufficient propor¬
tion, part of the dephlogifticated air with which it is
debafed is, by the itrcng affinity of phlogifton to de-
s phlogifticated air, deprived of its phlogifton, and turn¬
ed into nitrous acid; whereas, when the dephlogifti¬
cated air, is not more than fufficient to confume the in¬
flammable air, none then remains to deprive the phlo¬
gifticated air of its phlogifton, and turn it into acid.—
If the latter explanation be true, I think we muft al¬
low that dephlogifticated air is in reality nothing but
dephlogijlicated water, or water deprived of its phlo¬
gifton ; or, in other words, that water confifts of de¬
phlogifticated air united to phlogifton. On the other
hand, if the former explanation be true, we muft fup-
pofe, that dephlogifticated air confifts of water united
to a little nitrous acid, and deprived of its phlogifton ;
but ftill the nitrous acid in it muft only make a very
fmall part of the whole, as it is found that the phlo¬
gifticated air into which it is converted is very fmall
in comparifon of the dephlogifticated air. I think the
fecond of thefe explanations feems much the more like¬
ly ; as it was found that the acid in the condenfed li¬
quor was of the nitrous kind, not only when the de¬
phlogifticated air was prepared from nitrous acid, but
when procured from plants or turbith mineral. Ano¬
ther ftrong argument in favour of this opinion is, that
dephlogifticated air yields no nitrous acid when phlo¬
gifticated by liver of fulphur ; for if this air contains
nitrous acid, and yields it when phlogifticated by ex-
plofion with inflammable air, it is very extraordinary
that it (hould not do fo by other means. But what
forms a ftronger, and, I think, almoft decifive argu¬
ment in favour of this explanation, is, that when the
dephlogifticated air is very pure, the condenfed liquor
is made much more ftrongly acid by mixing the air to
be exploded with a little phlogifticated air.”
The experiments of Dr Prieftley alluded to were
. thofe in which inflammable air was fuppofed by Mr
Lavoifier to be procured from water by palling its
fteam through red-hot ft on tubes. It was foon difco-
vered, however, by Dr Prieftley, that this inflammable
air did not proceed from the water, but from the iron of
the tube; and mightbe obtained by tranfmitting aqueous
vapour through charcoal or iron placed in tubes of cop¬
per, glafs, or earthen ware, made red-hot, but not
through thefe tubes by the-mfelveSb In this cafe, the
lofs of the water employed exceeded that of the inflam¬
mable air produced in the proportion of 1.3 to 2; and
the iron which had thus abforbed the v/ater, appeared
exa&ly fimilar to that which had been burned in de¬
phlogifticated air in the 'manner already related. His
81 . conclufions from thence are thefe : “ Since iron gains
His opinion r)le fa.rae addition of weight by being melted in de-
the'eompo- phlogiftmated air, and alfo by the addition of water
fition of Von. I. Part I.
80
Dr Prieft¬
ley’sexperi-
LOGY. 161
when red hot, and becomes, as I have already obfer- DepMogft-
ved, the fame fubftance in all refpefts, it is evident that Uc‘ltc‘
this air or water, as exifting in the iron, is the very
fame thing; and this can hardly be explained but on
the fuppofition that water confifts of two kinds of air,
viz. inflammable and dephlogifticated.”
Of thefe procefles he gives the following explana¬
tion : “ When iron is heated in dephlogifticated air, we
may fuppofe, that, though part of its phlogifton efcapes,
to enter into the compofition of the fmall quantity of
fixed air which is then procured, yet enough remains
to form water with the dephlogifticated air which it
has imbibed, fo that this calx confifts of the intimate
union of the pure earth of iron and of water; and
therefore, when the fame calx, thus faturated with wa¬
ter, is expofed to heat in inflammable air, this air en¬
ters into it, deftroys the attra&ion between the water
and the earth, and revives the iron, while the water is
expelled in its proper form.”
The whole of the Dottor’s opinions on the compo¬
nent parts of this kind of air, however, are fummed up o^ferv an3
in the following fentence in his Obfervations relating to Exper. vi.
Theory,.—“ The only kind of air that is now thought 402.
to be properly elementary, and to confift of a Ample
fubftance, is dephlogifticated air ; with the addition at
leaft of the principle of heat, concerning which we know
very little 5 aftd as it is not probable that this adds any
thing to the weight of bodies, it can hardly be called,
an element in their compofition. Dephlogifticated air
appears to be one of the elements of water, of fixed
air, of all the acid's, and many other fubftances, which,
till lately, have been thought to be fimple.”
The experiments of the French philofophers were of Sis,
the fame nature with thofe of Mr Cavendifh, but con-
dufted on a larger feale. The inference drawn from ^ pren;;L
them was the fame with that already mentioned, viz. philofo-
that dephlogifticated and inflammable air in all cafes phers.
are the two conftituent parts of water. This opinion
is adopted by Mr Kirwan in his Treatife on Phlogijlon.
“ The experiments of Mr Cavendilh, and of Mr Mr Kir-
Monge,” fays he, “ appear to me to leave no room to "’^’5 coa*
doubt, that when very pure dephlogifticated and in-
flammable air are inflamed, the product is mere wa¬
ter (a) ; for when thefe airs are employed in the pro¬
per proportion, only 0.02 of the mixture of both airs
retains its aerial form. Now it is impoffible to fuppofe
that all the water obtained pre-exifted in thefe airs ;
that is, that 49 parts in 50 were mere water.
Notwithftanding thefe pofitive conclufions, however, 84
by fome of the moft refpeftable names in this country, Theforego-
the. evidences adduced have been unfatisfaefory to fome altoge-*
French chemifts ; who maintain, that Meffrs Caven- ,her fatfs_
difh, Prieftley, and Kirwan, are totally miftaken with fa<ftory.
regard to the production of water from dephlogifticated
and inflammable air ; contending, that the water ob¬
tained had previoully exifted in the air, and was not
originally produced m the operation. The fact, in¬
deed, becomes fomewhat dubious from fome experiments
related by Dr Prieftley himfelf, and of which we fhall
now proceed to give an account.
X One
(a) The experiments of Mr Cavendifh ffiow that nitrous acid is the produdl in this cafe. He takes notice of
the difference between the refult of the French experiments and his, but afexibes it to their ufing inflammable
air prepared from charcoal; His was from zinc.
E R O
Prieftley'
Dephlogif- One confequence of the hypothefis in queftion is evi-
ticated Air. dent, that if water really be produced by the dephlagra-
~v tion of either dephlogifticated or common air with in-
g - flammable air, the quantity of liquid obtained ought to
Difficulties increafe in proportion to the quantity of the two airs
arifing in confumed, and that without any limitation. This,
i)1 however, is not the cafe, as Dr Prieftley has obferved.
He had fucceeded indeed with fcales of iron and cop¬
per,- as has already been related; and in the experiment
with the latter, the produftion of water was fo copious,
that when only 3 f ounce-meafures of air were abforb-
ed, the water flood in drops on the infide of the veffel,
and fome of thefe ran down it. Water was alfo pro¬
cured by firing dephlogifticated and inflammable air
from iron by the electric fpark in a clofe vefiel, an ex¬
periment fimilar to thofe made by Mr Lavoifier at Pa¬
ris. In his firft experiment he put 3.75 ounce mea-
fures of a mixture of air, of which one-third was de¬
phlogifticated and two-thirds inflammable air from
iron, In a clofe veflel, and, after the explofion, found in
it one grain of moifture ; but on repeating the experi¬
ment with half as much dephlogifticated as inflammable
air,.he could perceive no fign of moifture. The greateft
difficulty, however, which he fays he ever met with re-
fpedting the preceding theory, arofe from his never ha¬
ving been able to procure any water when he revived
red precipitate in inflammable air, or at leaft no more
than might have been fuppofed to be contained in the
inflammable air as an extraneous fubftance.
In order to make the experiments with the fcales of
iron and that with the red precipitate as much alike
as poffible, and compare them both to the greateft ad¬
vantage, he made them one immediately after the other,
with every circumftance as nearly the fame as he could.
The inflammable air was the fame in both experiments,
and both the fcales of iron and red precipitate were
made as dry as poffible. They were heated in veflels
Uf the fame fize and form, and equally confined by dry
mercury; and yet, with the former, water was produced
as copioufly as before, viz. running down the infide of
the veflel in drops, when only four ounce-meafures of
inflammable air were abforbed ; but though he heated
the red precipitate till eight Ounce-meafures of the in¬
flammable air were abforbed, and only 0.75 of an ounce-
meafure remained, there was hardly any fenfible quan¬
tity of water produced, “ certainly,” fays he, “ not
one-tenth of what appeared in the experiment with the
fcales of iron. In this experiment there can be no
doubt but that the dephlogifticated air produced from
the red precipitate united with the inflammable air in
the veflel; and as no water equal to the weight of the
two kinds of air was produced, they moft have formed
fome more folid fubjiance, which, in the fmall quantities
I was obliged to ufe, could not be found.
“ The difficulty, with refpeft to what becomes of
the two kinds of air, was not leflened by the attempts
which I made to colleft all that I could from repeated
decompofitions of inflammable and dephlogifticated air
in a clofe veflel. As I had produced water in this pro-
cefx when no more than a Angle explofion was made at
a time, I thought that by continuing to make explo-
fions in the fame veflel, the water would not fail to ac¬
cumulate till any quantity might be colledted ; and I
intended to have collected a confiderable part of an
ounce. And as I fhould know- exadtly what quantity
logy. Sea. nr.
of air I decompofed, I had no doubt of being able to Dephlogif-
afcertain the proportion that the water and air bore to Seated Air.
each other. With this view a mixture was made of a " v
large quantity of air, one-third dephlogifticated and
two-thirds inflammable, from iron and oil of vitriol.—
But though I had a fenfible quantity of water at the
firft explofion (in each of which between four and five
ounce-meafures of the mixture of air were ufed), I was
furprifed to perceive no very fenfible increafe of the
quantity of water on repeating the explofions. Having
therefore expended 48 ounce-meafures, of the mixture,,
the procefs was difeontinued ; and, collecting the w’a-
ter with all the care that I could, I found no more
than three grains, when there ought to have been
eleven.
“In this procefs the infide of the veflel was always
very black after each explofion ; and when I poured in
the mercury after the explofion, though there was no¬
thing vifible in the air within the veflel,. there iffued
from the mouth ef it a denfe vapour. This wras the Inconden-
cafe, though I waited fo long as two minutes after any AWe vapour
explofion, before I proceeded to put in more mercury
in order to make another; which, if the vapour had
been fteam, would have been time more than fufficient
to permit it to condenfe into wat,er. I even perceived
this vapour when I had a quantity of water in the vef¬
fel, and the explofion Was confequently made over it,;
as well as in contaft with the fides of the veflel which
were wetted with it; fo that, as this vapour had paf-
fed through the whole body of water when the veflel
was inverted, it is probable that it muft have confifted
of fomething elfe than mere- water. But I was never
able to collect any quantity of it, though it muft have
been fomething produced by the union of the two kinds
of air.”
In order to collet a quantity of this vapour, he con¬
trived an apparatus, which, by diffufing it through a
thin glafs veflel, he fuppofed would condenfe all the
contents whether fluid or folid ; but after repeating the
experiment as carefully as poffible, by taking 20 ex¬
plofions, and repeating the whole feveral times over, he
could find nothing in the veflel befides a fmall quantity
of water, which, added to that in the ftrong veflel,
came far ffiort of the weight of the air that was decom¬
pofed.
“All the conje&ure,” fay he, “ that I can advance, 87
in order to explain this phenomenon is, that fince foot Prieftley’s
yields pure air, part of the foot is formed by the union con.ie<^l!re
of the dephlogifticated air in the atmofphere, and the thisvapeau.
inflammable air of the fuel: but fmoke, which contains
much foot, is foon difperfed, and becomes invifible in,
the open air. Such, therefore, may be the cafe here.
The foot formed by the union of the two kinds of air,
may be diffufed through the air, in the veffel in which
they are exploded, and be carried invifibly into the
common atmofphere ; which may account for my not
being able to coiled! any quantity of it in this appa¬
ratus.”
Not difeouraged by this bad fuccefs, the Doftor at- gg-
tempted to colled! this volatile matter by means of a Unfuccefs-
quantity of water incumbent upon the mercury in the ful attempts
ftrong glafs veflel in which the explofions were made,t0 cu^e<^
though he had found that part of it could efcape
through the water. He decompofed a great quantity of
the two kinds of air in thefe circumftances ; and pre-
fently
Sea. IV. A £ R O
toephlogif- fently found that the water became very cloudy, and
•ticatedAir.was at length filled wIth a blackifh matter. This he
* " colledled, and found that it remained perfectly black
upon the earthen veffel in which the water containing
it was evaporated; which Would not have been the
cafe if the blackifh matter in the water had been that
powder of mercury which is produced by agitating it in
pure water : For that black mafs always became white
running mercury the moment the water was evaporated
from it. If a fufficient quantity of this matter could
have been procured, he could have fatisfied himfelf
whether it was foot or not.
89 “ That water, in great quantities (fays he), is fome-
'Water m times produced from burning inflammable and dephlo-
able uan- g^icated air, is evident from the experiments of MefTrs
tity obtain- Cavendifh and Lavoifier. I have alfo frequently collect¬
ed from de- ed confiderable quantities of water in this way, though
yhlogiftica- never quite fo much as the weight of the two kinds of
ftunmaSle" a‘r decompofed. My apparatus for this purpofe was
a;r_ - the following : Into the mouth of a large glafs bal-
See Plate loon. I introduced a tube, from the orifice of which
VIII. fig. 3, there continually iffued inflammable air from a vef¬
fel containing iron and oil of vitriol. This being
lighted, continued to burn like a candle. Prefently
after the lighting of it, the infide of the balloon al¬
ways became cloudy, and the moifture, foon gathered
in drops, and fettled in the lower part of the balloon.
To catch what might ifliie in the form of vapour, in
the current of air through the balloon, I placed the
glafs tube b, in which I always found fome water con-
denfed. It is very poffible, however, that in both thefe
modes of experimenting, the water may be converted
into a kind of vapour, which is very different from
fleam, and capable of being conveyed a great way
through air, or even water, without condenfation along
with the air with which it is mixed ;• and on this ac¬
count it may not be poffible, in either of thefe modes
of experimenting, to colleft all the water into which
the two kinds of air may be converted. The nature
of this kind of vapour into which water maybe changed,
and-which is not readily condenfed by cold, is very
little underflood, but well deferves the attention of phi-
lofophers.
“ That the water collefted in the balloon comes
from the decoifipofitipn of the air, and not from the
ffefh air circulating through it, was evident from pla¬
cing balls of hot iron in the place of the flame, and
finding that, though the balloon \vas as much heated
by them as by the flame of the burning of the inflam¬
mable air, and confequently there muff have been the
fame current of the external air through it, nomoifture
was found in the balloon.”
Sect. IY. Of Phlogifticated Air.
The univerfal prejudice in favour of the exiftence
of that principle named Phlogijlon, firlt fuggefled by
Stahl, gave rifo, on the firft appearance of Dr Prieft-
ley’s difcoveries, to a theory, concerning the atlion
89 of this fubftance upon air and other bodies. As
PWogiiU- it had been obferved, that air was diminifhed, in
--^iome cafes at leafl, by burning, univerfally by re-
* ‘ ’ fpiration, and by fome other proceffes, it was ima¬
gined that phlogilton was a body of fuch a lingular na¬
ture, that when mixed with air, it always diminifhed
LOGY. 163
its bulk, inftead of enlarging it, which might have been Pnlogifti-
more naturally expe&ed from the mixture of any va- Air.,
pour whatever. It was alfo fuppofed by fome, that the
phlogiflonwasnotonly entirely devoid of gravity,but that
it was a principle of p ft live levity; fo that the abfolute
weight of bodies was diminifhed by an union with it,
and augmented when it was expelled, though their
fpecific gravity was diminifhed. Various other furprifing 90
properties were attributed to phlogiflou ; fuch as that Too great
of giving elaflicity to air, of conftituting flame hy
a chemical combination with air, &c. Its emiffion into phiogifton.
the atmofphere was fuppofed to be alwayr attended
with a diminution of air; and therefore, all proceffes
in which air was diminifhed and become noxious, fuch
as that by liver of fulphur, a mixture of iron filings and
brimftone, &c. were called phlogific procejjes. Refpi-
ration of animals was taken into the fame account; but
neither in this, nor in combuflion, was it allowed that .
any kind of vital fpirit was abforbed by the blood, or
feparated from the air by the burning body. On the
contrary, it was ftrenuoufly argued, that all this was
performed by the emijjion of phlogijlon from the lungs
or the inflamed fubflance, which depraved the air, and
diminifhed it in bulk; and as all air was fuppofed to
contain phiogifton, it was likewife imagined, that in all
cafes where air was mended, as by the growing of ve¬
getables, or agitation in water, the emendation was ac-
complifhed, not by the emiffion of any thing into the
atmofphere, but by the mere abforption of phfogifton.
In other refpefts this fubftance was thought to be an
exceedingly powerful principle in nature ; the light of
the fun itfelf and the eledtric fluid being faid to be modi¬
fications of it, the different kinds of airs to be phlogi-
gijlic vapours, &c.; fo that the whole fyftem of na-
taure feemed ready to be abforbed by it at once.
The formidable powers of this principle were firft 91
checked by the difcoveries of Mr Lavoifier, though the of
latter erred equally on the contrary fide ; and not con-o(.pofed0bv
tent with keeping the phlogiftic principle within due the fore gu
bounds, would needs deny its exiftence altogether *. chemifts.
In a treatife publifhed in the year 1782, he firft im- VLh*
pugns Dr Prieftley’s theory of refpiration, and denies
that “ the refpiration of animals has the .property of
phlogifticating air in a manner fimilar to what is effected
by the calcination of metals and many other chemical
proceffes 5 and that it ceafes not to be refpirable till
the inftant when it becomes furcharged, or at leaft fa-
turated, with phiogifton.”
In order to difprove this affertion, he introduced ^
four ounces of mercury to 50 cubic inches of common Mr Lavoi*
air, propofing to calcine the metal by keeping it for fiei’s expe-
12 days in a heat almoft equal to that which is necef-‘'“j V'T0’1
fary to make it boil. After the expiration of the ap
pointed time, 45 grains of precipitate per fe were form- andrefpira-
ed, and the air in the veffel was diminifhed by about tion.
d-th of its volume. In this ftate it did not precipitate
lime water; but inftantly extinguillied candles, and
killed animals immerfed in it; no longer affording any
red vapours, or being diminifhed by mixture with ni¬
trous air: On diitdling the precipitate produced, about
as much dephlogifticated air was obtained as had been
left by the common air in the calcination; and by re¬
combining this with the noxious air left in the veffel,
he recompofed a fluid nearly of the fame gocdnefswith
common air. Hence he draws the following conelu-
X- 2 fions j
164
AEROLOGY.
Setf, IY.
cate^0nS: 1 ’ ,^^at t^e a'r we breathe are mephitic,
■ ^ ^ ‘, or incapable of fupporting the refpiration of animals, or
93 the inflammation and combuftion of bodies. 2. That
Compofi- the furplus, or only -fth of the volume of atmofperical air,
tbn of at- is refpirable. 3. That in the calcination of mercury,
mo p erica) metallic fubftance abforbs the falubrious part, lea¬
ving only the mephitic portion of the air. 4. That by
reuniting thefe two portions which had been feparated,
we can recomp.mnd air fimilar to that of the atmofphere.
94 To determine the effefts of refpiration upon air, a
F.ffedh of live fparrow was placed under a glafs receiver, filled with
refpiration common air and inverted in mercury, containing 31
cubic inches. In a quarter of an hour it became agi¬
tated, and in 55 minutes died convulfed. Notwith-,
ftanding the heat of the animal, which neceflarily, at
firft, rarified the air in the receiver, there was a fen.
Able diminution of its bulk ; which, at the end of 15
minutes, amounted to one-fortieth : but, inftead of
increafing afterwards, the diminution became fomething
lefs in about half an hour; and when the animal was
dead, and the air in the receiver had recovered the tem>-
perature of the room where the experiment was made,
the diminution did not appear to exceed one-fixtieth
part.—This air which had been refpired by the fpar*-,
row, though in many refpe&s fimilar to that in which
the mercury had been calcined, differed from it in this
refpeft, that it precipitated lime-water, and, by intro¬
ducing cauftic fixed alkali to it, was redficed one-fixth
in bulk by the abforption of fixed air; after which it
appeared exactly the fame with that produced by the
calcination of mercury or other metals; and atmofphe-
rical air was recompofed by mixing this with pure de-
phlogifticated air in the proportions already men¬
tioned.
93 That common air is'compounded of two kinds of
Scheete’s elaftic fluids, Mr Scheele has proved by the following
expert- experiment“ I diffolved (fays he) one ounce of al-
snents. haline liver of fulphur in eight ounces of water; of this
folution I poured four ounces into an empty bottle,
whofe capacity was 24 ounces, and worked it well;
then I turned the bottle, immerfed its neck into a fmall
veffel with water, and kept it in this pofition a fort¬
night. The folution had partly loft its red colour, and
feme fulphur had been precipitated from it during this
time. After this I put the bottle in the fame pofition
in., a larger veffel with water, keeping the mouth and
neck under water, and the bottom of the bottle above
water, and thus I drew the cork under water, which
immediately ruflied with violence into the bottle. On
examining the quantity of water in the bottle, it was
found, that during this fortnight, fix parts out of 20
of air were loft.” On repeating the experiment with
the fame materials, and in the fame bottle, only four
parts out of 20 were loft by ftanding a'week, and no
more than fix after four months.
, From thefe experiments, and many, others fimilar,
Compofi- & appears that the doftrine of phlogifton had been car-
tion of at- ried too far by Dr Prieftlqy and other Britifh philofo-
mofphericalphers, and that the air confifts of two kinds of fluids;
ftrated10"" one Perfe<^iy fahttary, and friendly in the higheft de¬
gree to animal life; the other altogether unfit for it.
Thefe two appear incapable of being converted direft-
ly into one another by any procefs, natural or artifi¬
cial: for though both are deftruttible, yet they are
il>vays cpnverted into other fubftancss;-from which,
indeed, either the one or the other may be extracted PhlogifH-
at pleafure by employing the proper methods. The fated Air“,
ftrongeft arguments in favour of the tranfmutation of ,
phlogifticated air into that of a purer kind, were drawu
from the purification of noxious air by vegetation, and
by agitation in water. In the former cafe, however, ,
it has been obferved in the laft flection, that this feem-
ing purification is no other than an exchange of the
one air for the other; the vegetables abforbing the ■
phlogifticated, and' emitting the dephlogifticated air in ;
its ftead. With refpeft to the agitation in water,- the. •
matter remained more dubious; and it-is ,only in theh«wair is
laft volume of Dr Prieftley’s treatife that-we have any purified by
account of this being accompliftied by an emiflion of aSItation iri
purer air from the water. ■—U- Iri the infancy of my ex- gXper amj;
periments,” fays he, “ I conduded, that all kinds of obferv. vi*
air were brought by agitation to the fame ftate ; the 385
pureft air being partially-phlogifticated, and air com¬
pletely phlogifticated being thereby made purer ; in¬
flammable air alfo lofing its inflammability^ and all of
them brought into fueh a ftate as that a cancfle would
juft go out in them. This inference I made from all
the kinds of air with which I was then acquainted, and
which did not require to be confined by mercury, being
brought to that ftate by agitation in a trough of wa¬
ter, the furface of which was expofed to the open air ;
never imagining that when the air in my jar was fepa¬
rated from the common air by a body of water, gene¬
rally about twelve inches in depth (adding that with¬
in to that without the jar), they could have any influ¬
ence on each other. I have, however; been long con¬
vinced, that, improbable as it then-appeared to me, this
is a&ually the cafe.”’
This remarkable fact is illuftrated by the following 98
experiments : 1. About three ounce-meafures of air, Water per-
phlogifticated by nitrous air, was agitated for a quar- viousto air,.
frr • /ri c ar>d purifies-
ter or an hour in a veilel containing 20 ounces of wra-;t ;n pa{pint,.
ter, which had been boiled for feveral hours, and which through,
was ftill very warm. By this procefs it became dimi-
nifhed one-fixth, and confiderably improved in qua¬
lity. The next day the remainder was agitated for
another quarter of an hour, and the- water which
had been boiled at the fame time, when it was alfo
diininifhed in quantity and improved in quality.
2. An equal quantity of air, phlogifticated by means
of iron-filings and brimftone, being agitated for 20
minutes, was diminiftied by one-feventh, and improved
fo far that a candle would burn in it. 3. After ex¬
pelling all the air he could from a quantity of water
by boiling, he put to it, in feparate phials, air that
had been phlbgifticated with iron-filings and brimftone,
as well as that which the heat had expelled, leaving
them with their mouths in water, and agitating them
occafionally. Oh examining the phials in-about two.
months, he found both the air that was confined by
water and that which had been expelled by heat com¬
pletely phlogifticated. 4. That water does imbibe the
purer part of the atmofphere, in preferehce to that which
is impure, is evident, he fays, from any examination of
it: For if the water be clear, and free from any thing
that is putrefeent, the air expelled from it by heat is ge¬
nerally of the ftandard of 1; whereas that of the atmo¬
fphere, when the nitrous air is the pureft, is about 1.2.
Phlogifticated air is equally invifible with common 99.
air, and fomething more efaltic. ^Mr Kirwan pro-ofphlogiftl-.
cured catedjur.
|! Ni
Sea. IV. AERO
i PMogifti- cured fome perfectly phlogifticated, fo that it was not
' in the leail diminiihed by nitrous air, from a mixture
of iron-filings and brimftone. Having dried it by
frequently introducing dry filtering paper under the jar
that contained it, he found its weight to be to that of
the common air as 985 to 1000, the barometer Hand¬
ing at 30.46 and the thermometer at 6o°. The other
properties of it are, that it is extremely fatal to ani¬
mal life, and friendly to that of vegetables, infomuch
that it is now generally believed to be the true and proper
nourifhment of the latter. It feems to exift originally, in
very large quantity, in our atmofphere. It may be
feparated from the common mafs of air by combuftion,
by refpiration, by putrefaction, afid in Ihort by every
fpecies of phlogiftic procefs.; neither is there any other
fpecies of air but what may be converted into this by
means of fire, dephlogifficated air alone excepted.
Phlogifticated air is now generally believed to be a
combination of the nitrous acid with phlogifton; and
U that, in its gradual progrefs towards this, which is its
I phlogiftka- ultimate ftage, it firft a flumes the character of phlo-
ted air. gitlicated nitrous acid 5 then of nitrous air, in which it
readily parts with its phlogifton to the atmofphere, or
rather to the dephlogifticated part of ft; and laftly, it
I becomes phlogifticated air, in which the union betwixt
the principles is fo ftrong, that it cannot be broken by
• Ample expofure to dephlogifticated air without heat;
though the experiments- of Mr Cavendifh fhow, that
this may be done by mearre of the ekcfric fpark, which
produces the moft violent heat'we can imagine.
It had been frequently obferved, that common at-
mbfpherical air was always diminiffied by taking the
electric fpark in it; and this dminution was fuppofed to
be occafioned by the phldgtfticaiion of the air, and fepa-
ration of its fixed part; in confequenee of which it
was urged,.‘that lime-water is precipitated by taking
the eleftric fpark over-it in a fmall quantity of air.
toi Mr Cavendifh, however, who has carefully examined
Mr Caven- this fubjeft, denies that any fixed air is produced in
i s e!£Pl?" this manner; and by a fet of very curious experiments,
the*prlduc-Puh^cd in the 75th volume of the Philofophical
tionofni- Tranfaftions, has clearly fhown that nitrous acid, and
trous acid, not fixed air, is the produft of this operation.
The apparatus ufed in thefe experiments, was that
reprefented Plate Vril. fig. 4. and confifts only of a
crooked glafs tube, whofe ends are phmged into quick-
filver contained in two glafies, in the middle part of
which the air is confined betwixt the two portions of
quickfilver. The air was introduced by means of a
fmaller tube, fig. 5. the' tube M of the former fi¬
gure being filled with quickfilver, the bent end of which,
was introduced into a jar DEF, filled with the pro¬
per kind of air, and inverted in water. The end ■ 0
• being Hopped by the finger, the quickfilver was thus
prevented from falling out, let the tube be placed in
what pofition* it would, until this preffure was removed.
Upon introducing the crooked tube into the jar in the
pofition reprefented in the figure, and removing the
finger from the orifice at C,. the quickfilver would de-
fcend ; and by flopping this orifice again, any quan¬
tity of the fluid may be allowed to run out, and the
empty fpace of the tube will be filled with the air de-
fitred. Having thus got the proper quantity of air in¬
to the tube ABC, it was held with the end C upper-
rnoft, and. flopped with the finger ; and the end A,
o
Y.
165
made fmaller for that purpofe, being introduced Into Phlogifti-
the end of the bent tube M, the air, on removing the ^ated Alf-,
finger from C, was forced into that tube by the pref- v
fare of the quickfilver in the leg BC. Thus he was
enabled to introduce any quantity he pleafed of any
kind of air into the tube M; and by the fame means it
was in his power to let up any quantity of foap-ley, or
other liquor which he wanted to be in contadl with it.
In one cafe, however, in which he wiftied to introduce
air into the tube many times in the fame experiment,.
he made ufe of the apparatus reprefented fig. 6. Con¬
fining of a tube AB, of a fmaller bore, .a ball C and
a tube DE of a larger bore. This apparatus was firft
filled with quickfilver; and then the ball C and the
tube AB were filled with air, by introducing the end
A under a glafs inverted into water, which contained-
the proper kind of air, and drawing out the quick¬
filver from the leg ED by a fyphon. rAfter beigg thus
furnifhed with air, the apparatus was weighed, and the
end A introduced into one end of the tube M, and
kept there during the experiment; the way of forcing
air out of this apparatus into the tube being by thruft-
ing down the tube ED, a wooden cylinder of fuch a
fixe as almofl to fill up the whole bore, and by occa-
fionally pouring quickfilver into the fame tube, to fup-
ply the place of that puftied into the ball C. After
the experiment was finifhed, the apparatus was weigh¬
ed again, which ftiowed exaflly how much air had been -
forced into the tube M during the whole experiment;
it being equal in bulk to a quantity of quickfilver,
whofe weight was equal to the increafe of weight of
the apparatus. The bore of the tube M, ufed in thefe
experiments, was about the tenth of an inch in dia¬
meter ; and the length of the column of air occupying
the upper part of the tube was in general from -j-ths
tt> 1 { inches.-—In order to force an ele&rical fpark
through the tube M, it was necefiary to place an in-
fuMed ball at.fuch a diftance from the conduflor as to
receive a fpark from it, and to make a communication -
between that ball and the quickfilver in one of the
glafles, w-hile the quickfilver in the other glafs commu¬
nicated with the ground.
When the electric fpark was made to pafs through- •
common air included between ftiort Columns of a folu-
tion of litmus, the folution acquired a red colour, and -
the air was diminifhed, as had been obferved by Dr
Prieftley. When lime-water was ufed inftead of the
foliition of litmus, and the fpark was continued till the
air could be no farther dlininiftied but not the fmalleft -
cloud be perceived in the water, though the air was-
reduced to two thirds of its original bulk ; which is a
greater diminution than it could have fuffered by any
phlogiftic procefs, that being little more than one-fifth
of the whole.: The experiment being repeated with
impure dephlogifticated air, a great diminution took
place, but without "any cloud in the lime-water. Nei¬
ther was any cloud produced when fixed air was let up
into it ; but, on the addition of a little cauftic volatile
alkali, a brown fediment immediately appeared.
( It being thus evident that the lime was faturated by
fome acid produced in the operation, the experiment
was repeated with foap-leys, to difcover the nature of
it. A previous experiment had been made in order to
know what degree of purity the air ought to be of tu
produce the greateft diminution; and thus it was
found,
166 AERO
Phlogiili- Found, that when good dephlogifticated air was ufed,
cated Air. ^ tp,e diminution was but fmali; where perfedtly yihlo-
' gifticated air was made ufe of, no fenfible diminution
Proportions took place ; but when five parts of pure dephlogiftica-
of the dif- ted air were mixed with three of common air, almoft
ferent airs t}le w}10]e vvas made to difappear.—It muft be remcm-
for the pro- hered, that common air confifts of one part of dephlo-
dudtion of gifticated and four of phlogifticated air ; fo that a
uitiousacid. mixture of five parts of pure dephlogifticated air and
three of common air, is the fame thing as a mixture
of feven parts of dephlogifticated air with three of
phlogifticated. Having made thefe previous trials, he
introduced into the tube a little foap-leys, and then let
up fome dephlogifticated and common air mixed in the
above mentioned proportions, which, rifing into the
tube M, divided the foap-leys into its two legs. As
faft as the air was diminiftied by the eledtric fpark, he
continued to add more of the fame kind till no further
diminution took place. The foap-leys being then
poured out of the tube, and feparated from the quick-
filver, feemed to be perfectly neutralized, as they did
not at all difcolour paper tinged with blue flowers.
On evaporating the liquid to drynefs, a flnall quantity
of fait was left, which was evidently nitre, from the
manner in which a paper impregnated with the folution
■of it burned. On repeating the experiment on a lar¬
ger fcale, with five times the quantity of materials,
pure nitre was obtained in proportion, and was found,
by the tell of terra ponderofa falita, to contain no more
vitriolic acid than what might have been expedted in
the foap-ley itfelf, and which is exceedingly fmall.
As, in fome former experiments of Mr Cavendilh,
-difli’s (wi-* ^ keen found, that by deflagrating nitre writh
nionson the charcoal, the whole of the acid was converted into
nature of phlogifticated air, he concluded that this kind of air
j>hlo;pftica- is nothing elfe than nitrous acid united to phlogifton ;
tea air. according to which, it ought to be converted into ni¬
trous acid by being deprived of its phlogifton. “ But
(fays he) as dephlogifticated air is only water depri¬
ved of phlogifton, it is plain, that adding dephlogifti-
cated air to a body, is equivalent to depriving it of
phlogiftcn, and adding water to it; and therefore
phlogifticated air ought alfo to be reduced to nitrous
acid, by being made to unite or form a chemical com¬
bination with dephlogifticated air; only the acid thus
formed will be more dilute than if the phlogifticated
air was fimply deprived of phlogifton.
“ This being premifed, we may fafely conclude, that
in the prefent experiments, the phlogifticated air was
■enabled, by means of the eleftrical fpark, to unite to,
-or form a chemical combination with, the dephlogifti¬
cated air, and was thereby reduced to nitrous acid,
which united to the foap-leys, and formed a folution
of nitre; for in thefe experiments the two airs actually
-difappeared, and nitrous acid was formed in their room ;
and as it has been fhown, from other cireumftanccs,
-that phlogifticated air mull form nitrous acid when
combined with dephlogifticated air, the abovemention-
ed opinion feems to be fufficiently eitabliftied. And a
further confirmation is, that no diminution of air is per¬
ceived when the eledtric fpark is pafled either through
pure dephlogifticated or through perfectly phlogifti¬
cated air; which indicates a necelfity for the combi¬
nation of the two in order to produce nitrous acid.
It was alfo found by the laft experiment, that the.
3
LOGY. Sea. IV.
quantity of nitre produced was the fame that would Phlogiftj-
have been obtained from the foap-leys, had they been ca‘ei^
faturated with nitrous acid; which fhows, that the y
production of the nitre was not owing to any decom-
pofitioa of the foap-leys.
“ The foap-leys ufed in the foregoing experiments
were made from fait of tartar prepared without nitre,
and were of fuch a ftrength as to yield one-tenth
of their weight of nitre when faturated with nitrous
acid. The dephlogifticated air was alfo produced
without nitre ; that ufed in the firft experiment with
the foap-leys being procured from the black powder
formed by the agitation of quickfilver mixed with lead,
and that ufed in the latter from turbith mineral. In
the firft experiment, the quantity of foap-leys ufed was
35 meafures, each of which was equal in bulk to one
grain of quickfilver ; and that of the air abforbed was
416 fuch meafures of phlogifticated air and 914 of
dephlogifticated. In the fecond experiment, 178
meafures of foap-leys were ufed; which abforbed 1920
of phlogifticated air and 4860 of .dephlogifticated.
It mull be be obferved, however, that in both experi¬
ments fome air remained in the tube undecompofed,
whofe degree of purity I had no means of trying ; fo
that the proportion of each fpecies of air abforbed
cannot be known with much exadlnefs.
“ As far as the experiments hitherto publilhed extend,
we fcarcely know more of the nature of the phlogifti¬
cated part of the atmofphere, than that it is not dimi-
nilhed by lime-water, cauftic alkalis, or nitrous air;
that it is unfit to fupport fire or maintain life in ani¬
mals ; and that its fpecific gravity is not much lefs
than that of common air: fo that though the nitrous
acid, by being united to phlogifton, is converted into
air polfefled of thefe properties ; and, confequently,
.though it was reafonable to fuppofe, that part at leall
of the phlogifticated air of the dtmofphere confifts of
this acid united to phlogillon ; yet it might be fairly
doubted whether the whole is of this kind, or whe¬
ther there are not, in reality, many different fubltan-
ces confounded by us under the name Y)f phlogifticated I0^
air. I therefore made an experiment to determine Experi-
whether the whole of a given portion of the atmo- ment to de
fphere could be reduced to nitrous acid, or whether there te™>i e
was not a part of a different nature from the reft, which "hlogiftie*
would refufe to undergo that change. For this pur- ted air.
pofe, I diminifhed a fimilar mixture of dephlogiftica¬
ted and common air in the fame manner as before,
until it was reduced to a fmall part of its original
bulk ; after which fome dephlogifticated air was add¬
ed, and the fpark continued until no further diminu¬
tion took place. Having by thefe means condenfed
as much as I could of the phlogifticated air, I let up
fome folution of liver of fulphur to abforb the dephlo¬
gifticated air ; after which only a fmall bubble of air-
remained unabforbed, which certainly was not more
than -r l oth of the bulk of the phlogifticated air let up
into the tube ; fo that if there is any part of the
phlogifticated air of our atmofphere which differs from
the reft, and cannot be reduced to nitrous acid, we
may fafely conclude, that it is not more than Trjth
part of the whole.”
Though thefe experiments had fhown, that- the
chief caufe of this diminution of airs is the converfion
of the phlogifticated kind into'nitrous acid, it feemed
not
' Sea. V. AERO
S Phlogiftj- not unlikely, that when any liquor containing inflam-
1 ^atf d Air‘, mable matter was in contaft with the air in the tube,
fome of this matter might be burnt by the fpark, and
T05 thereby diminilh the air. In order to determine this,
i! Effects of the eleftric fpark was palled through dephlogifticated
I tjie cledric air included between different liquors; and the refult
dephlogifti-t^ie experiments was, that when dephlogifticated
3 catedairin-air, containing onb’ ^oth part of its bulk of phlogi-
I cMed be- fticated air, was confined between Ihort columns of
I tween diffe- foap-leys, and the fpark palled through it till no far-
’ rent 11uors' ther diminution could be perceived, the air loft ^^-ds of
its bulk; which is not a greater diminution than might
very likely proceed from the decompofition of the
fmall quantity of phlogifticated air contained in it, as
the dephlogifticated air might eafily be mixed with a
fmall quantity of common air while putting into the
tube. When the fame dephlogifticated air was con¬
fined between columns of diftilled water, the diminu¬
tion was rather greater than before, and a white pow¬
der was formed on the furface of the quickfilver be¬
neath : the reafon of which, in all probability, was,
that the acid produced in the operation corroded the
quickfilver, and formed the powder; and that the ni¬
trous air produced by that corrofion united to the de¬
phlogifticated air, and caufed a greater diminution
than would otherwife have taken place. When a fo-
lution of litmus was ufed inftead of diftilled water, the
folution foon acquired a red colour ; fwhich grew paler
and pale? as the fpark was continued, till it became
quite colourlefs and tranfparent. The air was dimi-
mfhed'by almoft one-half, and might perhaps have been
further diminilhed had the fpark been continued.
When lime-water was let up into the tube, a cloud
was formed, and the air was further diminilhed by
about one-fifth ; the remainder was good dephlogifti¬
cated air. ■ In this experiment, therefore, the litmus
was, if not burnt, at leaft decompounded, fo as to
lofe entirely its purple colour, and to yield fixed air;
fo that, though foap-leys cannot be decompounded
by this procefs, yet the folution of litmus can, and
fo very likely might the folutipns of many other fub-
ftanees be. But there is nothing in any of thefe ex¬
periments which favours the opinion of the air being
at all diminilhed by means of phlogifton communica¬
ted to it by the electric fpark.
Sect. V. Of Fixed Air.
The difeovery of this kind of air is as old as Van
10£ Helmont; who gave it the name of gas ftlveftre, from
Fixed air its being emitted in great quantity by burning char-
found in a coal. Subfequent difeoveries Ihowed, that a fluid of
r™-the fame kind was plentifully produced by fermenting
fuaces! liquor, in almoft every kind of combuftion, and natu¬
rally generated in vaft quantity in mines and coal-pits,
where it is known by the name of the choak-damp ;
that it exifts in a concrete ftate in alkaline falts, chalk,
limeftone, the Ihells of marine animals, magnefia alba,
• "See. in a very large proportion, conftituting one-half,
and fometimes more of their weight; and that it might
always be extracted from the atmofphere, in unlimit¬
ed quantity, by expofing certain fubftances to it.—
■On examining the nature of this fluid, it was found
fo manifeftly acid, that it has now obtained a place
among thefe fubftances under the name of aerial acid;
LOGY. i67
or, more improperly, cretaceous acid, from its being Fixed Air.
contained in great quantities in chalk, as has been al- "v '
ready mentioned.
Fixed air is the heavieft of all permanently elaftic g I°7
fluids, excepting thofe derived from the mineral acids, gravity
Mr. Kirwan determines it to be to common air as 1500 of fixed air!
to 1000, the barometer being at 29.85, the thermo¬
meter at 64, and the fixed air being extracted from
calcareous fpar by marine acid, whofe fpecific gravity
was 1.0x45. He obferves, however, that though this
air was obtained in the drieft manner poffible, and that,
the globe which contained it appeared perfe&ly free
from moifture; yet, when carried into a room 27 de¬
grees colder, the infide of the globe was covered with
dew, which foon formed vifible drops.—In its concrete
ftate, fixed air is one of the heavieft bodies in nature.
Mr Kirwan, in the 71 ft volume of the Philofophical
TranfaCtions, gives an account-of his ingenious method
of finding the fpecific gravity of fixed air in its fixed
ftate, when combined with calcareous earth; from
which it appears, that fixed air, in that ftate, is pro-
digioufly concentrated, and, were it poffible to exift
by itfelf in that concentrated ftate, it would be the
heavieft body known, gold and platina excepted.
Mr Kirwan firft afeertained the fpecific gravity of a
piece of white marble; then expelled the fixed air irom
a known weight of it finely powdered, by means of di¬
luted vitriolic acid; the bulk and weight of the obtain¬
ed fixed air being afeertained. Next, 'he calcined a
known quantity of the fame fort of marble, by keeping
it in a white heat for the fpace of J4 hours; after
which, being weighed again, and from the weight loft
by this calcination, the weight of the fixed air, which
muft have efcaped from it according to the above men¬
tioned experiment, being fubtra&ed, the remainder is.
the weight of water contained in the marble; from,
which experiments it appears, that 100 grains of the
marble contained 32.42 grains of fixed air, 11.66 grains-
of water, and 55.92 grains of pure calcareous earth.
“ I next (fays he) proceeded to difeover the fpecific
gravity of the lime. Into a brafs box, which weighed
607.65 grains, and in the bottom of which a fmall hole
was drilled, I fluffed as much as poffible of the finely-
powdered lime, and then ferewed the cover on, an ft
weighed it both in air and in water. When immerfed
in this latter,, a confiderable quantity of common air
was expelled; when this ceafed, I weighed it. The
refult of this-experiment is as follows:
Grains..
607.65-
73-75
1043-5
43^-85
256.5
182.3
Weight of the box in air
Its lofs, of weight in water,
Weight of the box and lime in air
Weight, of the lime fingly in air
Lofs of weight of the box and lime in water
Lofs of weight of the lime fingly - -
“ Hence, dividing the abfolute weight of the lime
by its lofs in water, its fpecific gravity was found to
be 2.3908
“ From thefe data I deduced the fpecific gravity of
fixed air in its fixed ftate ; for 100 grains of marble con-
fift of 55.92' of earth, 32.42. of fixed air, and 11.66 of
water ; and the fpecific gravity of the marble is 2.717.
Now the fpecific gravity of the fixed air, in its fixed
ftate, is as its abfolute weight, divided by its lofs of
weight in water; and its lofs of weight in water is a s
the.
*6*
AERO
tfixed Air, the lofs of *00 grains of marble, minus the lofles of the
v 1 pure calcareous earth and the water. •
Lofs of xoo grs. of marble =-i£!5L.—grs.
Lofs of 55.92 grs. of calcareous
earth - - =~'^=«3-39 grs-
o
Y.
;Lofs of 11.66 grs. of water =
1.66
“ Then the lofs of the fixed air 36.8—35.05=1.75;
confequently its fpecific gravity is 8.52.”
108 Fixed air differs confiderably in its properties from
Its other the airs already mentioned. Its acidity is manifeft to
properties. tjle tafte, and ft ill more from its neutralifing both fixed
and volatile alkalis ; which it will do in fuch a manner
as not only to deflroy their caufticity, but to give them
a manifeflly acid tafte, and will moreover enable them
to form cryftals of a neutral or acidulous fait. It has
a confiderable antifeptic power, and will even check the
putrefaftion of animal fubftances; though it has been
obferved, that in this cafe it a&s only by abforbing the
putrid effluvia already emitted from the body, and be-
■comes itfelf very offenfive, while it fweetens the other.
When taken into the lungs, it is equally poifonous with
phlogifticated or any other noxious air, and extinguifhes
flame as effectually; but, when mixed with dephlogif-
ticated air, may be infpired without any danger, and
even in its pure ftate may be fwallowed in large quan¬
tities, not only without danger, but with the moft fa-
lutary effeits in fome difeafes, whence it has now be¬
come an article of the Materia Medica. As an acid it
Hands in the loweft rank, being expelled from alkalis
by every other; though it is capable of feparating oils,
fulphur, and the colouring matter of Pruffian blue, from
the fubftances with which they are combined.
109 The origin of this acid was for a long time as muck
Conftituent unknown as that of the others; and while the general
of fixed air Preiuc^ce remained that acids were a kind of primary
’ elements unchangeable in their nature, it was fuppofed
that fixed air was fome modification of the others, pro¬
bably the nitrous. - But the difcoveries made of late
years, have abundantly fhown, that the chemical prin¬
ciples are 'by no means fo indeftrudtible as they were
imagined; and that the vegetable acids particularly,
may be almcft totally refolved into fixed air. Hence
it was naturally fuggefted, that fixed air itfelf might
be.a compound of fome other principles ; and it was
fuggefted by Dr Black, that it was a combination of
atmofpherical air with phlogifton. As the air of our
atmofphere, however, is compounded of two fubftances,
one of which naturally contains no phlogifton, and the
other as much as it can hold; it feemed unlikely that
there Ihould be any poffibility of adding to the quantity
of phlogifton contained in a portion of the atmofphere,
without decompofing it in fome manner or other. Suc¬
ceeding experiments evinced, that it was by a decom-
pofition of the pure part of atmofpherical air, and a
combination of the phlogifton of the fuel with its bafis,
that fixed air was produced; and this faft was evinced
by numerous experiments made by Mr Kirwan, Mr
Lavoifier, and Dr Prieftley, fo that it is now looked
upon to be generally eftablilhed: and as the experiments
N° 5- ■
Se&.V.
made by Dr Prieftley appear fully as convincing as Fixed Air.
any, we fhall here content ourfelves with giving an ac- 1 v—
count of them.
The compound nature of fixed air, and the principles no
from which it is formed, were firft difcovered by Mr Dr Priefi-
Kirwan; but Dr Prieftley was not convinced by the 1
proofs he adduced, till after making fome experiments the compo- !|
of his own. The firft was, by firing (havings of iron fition of 1
in dephlogifticated air; when he obferved a confider- flxed air» :
able refiduum of fixed air, though that in the receiver
had be?n of the pureft dephlogifticated kind, and iron
could only have yielded inflammable air. The hypo-
thefis of Mr Kirwan was (till further confirmed by an
experiment in which iron-filings, which could only have
yielded inflammable air, were mixed with red precipi¬
tate, which is known to yield only pure dephlogifti¬
cated air. On heating thefe in a glafs retort, they
gave a great quantity of fixed air, in fome portions of
which nineteen-twentieths were abforbed by lime-wa¬
ter, and the refiduum was inflammable ; but when the
red precipitate was mixed with powdered charcoal,
which had been found to yield only inflammable air,
the fixed air produced from. it was fo pure that only
one-fortieth part remained unabforbed by water, which
is as pure as that generally prepared from chalk and oil
of vitriol. In fome of thefe experiments it appeared,
that three ounce-njeafures of dephlogifticated air went
teethe compofition of two of fixed air : for one ounce
of red precipitate gave 60 ounce-meafures of dephlo¬
gifticated air; and, when mixed with two ounces of
iron-filings, it gave about 40 ounce-meafures of fixed
air that were actually abforbed by water, befides a re¬
fiduum that was inflammable. The fame proportion
was obtained when half the quantity of materials were
made ufe of; but on ufing an onnee of each, only 20
©unce-meafures of fixed air, including the refiduum,
could be got.
In confidering this fubjeeft farther, it occurred to Dr
Prieftley, that his experiments, in which charcoal was
ufed, lay open to an objection, that fince dry wood, and
imperfectly made charcoal, yield fixed air, it might be
faid, that all the elements of fixed air are contained in
charcoal; and though this fubftance alone, even with
the affiftance of water, will not yield fixed air, this
might be effedted by treating it with other fubftances
without, their importing any thing to it; efpecially as
the inflammable air procured from charcoal by means
of water, appears to contain fixed air when decompofed
with the dephlogifticated kind. In order to expel all
the fixed air from charcoal, hfe made a quantity of it
from dry oak, and pounding it while hot, inftantly
mixed four meafures of it with one of red precipitate,
and, putting them into an earthen retort, got, with a
heat no greater than what was fufficient to revive the
mercury, a large quantity of air, half of which was
fixed. Afterwards the proportion of fixed air was lefs,
and at laft no fixed air at all was obtained; but as the
refiduum was worfe than the common atmofphere, he is
thence inclined to believe, notwithftanding Mr Caven-
pofed of phlogifton and dephlogifticated air. In ano- concernin
ther experiment he found a better proportion of char- the comp
coal and red precipitate. This was by mixing one fition of
ounce of precipitate with the fame quantity of perfect i
char- e air’ ||
-Sf %•
Sea, V. AERO
Fixed Air. charcoal hot from the retort in which it was made.
11,1 *' Putting thefe into a coated retort, he expelled from
them, by a ftrong heat, about 30 ounce-meafures of air,
the whole of which was the pureft fixed air, leaving
only about one-fortieth part unabforbed by water, and
this almofl: perfectly phlogifticated.
Having recolle&ed, that in fome former experiments
.he had obtained fixed air from nitrous acid and char¬
coal, he therefore repeated the experiment with fome
of the fame charcoal which had then been made ufe of;
when fixed air was obtained, in the quantity fometimes
only of one-fifth, and fometimes of one-half; to the for¬
mation of which he fuppofed the dephlogifticated air
produced by heating the nitrous acid mutt have contri¬
buted. On account of the obje&ions, however, which
might he made to the ufe of charcoal, he next employ-
ed ;V(3A , which was liable to nothing of this kind; and
on mixing an ounce of iron-filings with as. much char¬
coal, and then heating them in a glafs retort, he ob¬
tained 20 ounce-meafures of air, of which one-feventh
remained unabforbed by water. The refiduum was of
the ftandard of i.yz, but flightly inflammable. Re¬
peating the experiment with half an ounce of iron filings,
he got 26 ounce-meafures of air, of which the firft
part was pretty pure, but afterwards one-tenth remain¬
ed unabforbed by water ; but on mixing one ounce of
precipitate with two ounces of filings, he got about 40
ounce-meafures of air, of the firft portions of which
only one-twentieth was unabforbed by water, though
towards the conclufion the refiduum was greater. In
this procefs he got in all 36 ounce-meafures of pure
fixed air, completely abforbed by water, befides about
other four ounce-meafures, which, he fuppofes, might
have been abforbed in receiving the air and transferring
it into other velfels.
Fixed air was alfo produced from red precipitate
mixed with brafs filings, with zinc, from turbith mi¬
neral with iron filings, and from the black powder into
which mercury mixed with lead is eafily converted. In
this laft cafe the Dodftor fuppofes that the fixed air was
produced from the dephlogifticated kind abforbed by
the metals and the phlogifton of the lead; and this is
t x confirmed by an obfervation that the fixed air always
# comes firft in the procefs, when the phlogifton is moft
* _ readily feparated, but afterwards the produce becomes
quite pure and dephlogifticated. In attempting, how¬
ever, to increafe the quantity of fixed air by heating
this black powder in dephlogifticated air, he found on¬
ly an augmentation of the quantity of dephlogifticated
air, and that of the pureft kind.
“ Perhaps,” fays he, “ as decifive a proof as any of
the real production of fixed air from phlogifton and de¬
phlogifticated air, may be drawn from the experiments
in which I always found a quantity of it when I burn¬
ed fulphur in dephlogifticated air. In one of thefe ex¬
periments, to which I gave particular attention, fix
ounce-meafures and an half of the dephlogifticated air
were reduced to about two ounce-meafures, and one-
fifth of this was fixed air. When both the vitriolic
acid and fixed air produced by this operation were
abforbed by water, the remainder was very pure dephlo¬
gifticated air.
“ I had always concluded, that no fixed air could
be procured by the decompofition of inflammable air
which had been produced by mineral acids, becaufe I
Vol. I. Part I.
o
Y.
169
had not been able to do it with that which I had got Fixed Air.
by means of vitriolic acid; but I learned from Mr Me- v f
therie, that this is peculiar to the vitriolic acid, the re¬
mains of which, diffufed through the inflammable air,
procured by it, he conje&ures, may actually decompofe
the fixed air produced in the procefs. For, as I have
hinted before, when the inflammable air is produced
from iron by means of fpirit of fait, there is a very per¬
ceivable quantity of fixed air when it is united with de¬
phlogifticated air. When I decompofed -thefe two
kinds of air in equal quantities, they were reduced to
about 0.5 of a meafure, and of this not more than a-
bout one fortieth part was fixed air. This experiment
ought, however, to be added to the other proofs of
fixed air being produced by the union of dephlogifti¬
cated air and phlogifton. , ii
“ The laft inftance, which I fnall mention, of the Preportion
generation of fixed air from phlogifton and dephlogif-
ticated air, is of a much more ftriking nature than any
that I have yet recited. Having made what I call phlogiftica-
charcoal of copper, by palling the vapour of fpirit of ted air.
wine over copper when it was red-hot, I heated a piece
of it in different kinds of air. In common air, obfer-
ving neither increafe nor decreafe in the quantity, I
concluded, perhaps too haftily, that no change was
made in it : for when I repeated the experiment in
dephlogifticated air, the charcoal burned very intenfe-
ly ; and when a part of it was confumed, which (like
common charcoal in the fame procefs, was done with¬
out leaving any fenfible refiduum) I found that no heat
which I could apply afterwards, had any farther effeft
on what was left of the charcoal. Concluding, there¬
fore, that fome change muft be made in the quality of
the air, I examined it, and found about nine-tenths to
be the pureft fixed air ; and the refiduum was fuch as
would have been made by feparating the abfolutely pure
part of the dephlogifticated air, leaving all the impuri¬
ties behind.—Having afcertained this fadl, I repeated
the experiment, weighing the piece of charcoal very
carefully before and after the procefs ; and then found,
that by the lofs of one grain of charcoal, I reduced four
ounce-meafures of dephlogifticated air till one-ninth on¬
ly femained unabforbed by water ; and again, with the
lofs of one grain and an half of the charcoal, I reduced
fix and an half-meafures of dephlogifticated air till five
and an half-meafm-es were pure fixed air. In this pro¬
cefs there was a diminution of bulk after the experi¬
ment, as might have been expected from the change of
the air into one of a heavier- kind by means of a fub-
ftance or principle that could not add much to the
weight of it. In one of the experiments, 4.3 ounce-
meafures of dephlogifticated air were reduced about
one-thirtieth part of the wdiole ; and in this cafe, when
the fixed air was fepaxated by water, there was a refi¬
duum of 0.75 of a meafure of the ftandard of 1.0,
whereas the dephlogifticated air, before the experiment,
had been of the ftandard of 0.2.
“ That dephlogifticated air actually enters into the
compofition of the fixed air, in this experiment, is evi¬
dent from the weight of the latter, which far exceeds
that of the charcoal difperfed in the procefs. For, in
this laft experiment, the weight of the fixed air pro¬
duced was 4.95 grains. Confequently, fuppofing the
charcoal to be wholly phlogifton, as it is very nearly fo,
fixed air may be faid to confift of 3.45 parts of dephlo-
Y gifticated
1
Effects of
the eledfrie
fpark on
fixed air.
Pneftley’s
hypothefis
concerning
the compo
fition of
phlogiftica-
AERO
giftlcated air, and 1.5 of phlogifton; fo that the de-
phlogifticated air is more than three times the propor¬
tion of phlogifton in it.—I muft not conclude, how¬
ever, without obferving, that, in one experiment, I ne¬
ver failed to produce fixed air; though it is not eafy to
fee how one of its fuppofed elements, viz. dephlogifti-
cated air, could enter into it. This is by heating iron
in vitriolic acid air. In one of thefe experiments, four
ounce-meafures of the vitriolic acid air were reduced to
0.65 of an ounce-meafure; and of the quantity loft
three and an half meafures were fixed air abforbed by
lime-water, and the remainder weakly inflammable.”
Fixed air, even when pure and unmixed, is remark¬
ably altered by the eleftric fpark, part of it being thus
rendered immifcible in water. Dr Prieftley,. having
taken the electric fpark for about two hours in a fmall
quantity of fixed air confined by mercury, found, that
after the operation one-fourth of it. remained immifci¬
ble with water; though, before it, only one-thirtieth
part had remained unabforbed. The infide of the tube
had become very black ; which, in other experiments
of a fimilar kind with vitriolic acid air, he had obferved
to arife from the adhefion of a fmall quantity of mer¬
cury fuperfaturated with phlogifton. In another ex¬
periment, in which the fpark was taken an hour and
ten minutes in about half an ounce-meafure of fixed
air, one-fifth remained unabforbed, and the ftandard of
the refiduum was 0.9; though, before the operation,only
one-thirtieth part had been abforbed,: and the ftandard of
the refiduum was 1.0. In this experiment, alfo, he ob¬
ferved, that the air was increafed about a twentieth
part. On taking the eledtric fpark an hour in half an
ounce of fixed air, as much refiduum was left as had
remained in five times the quantity of the fame fixed
air in which no fpark had been taken. This refiduum
was alfo much purer than that of the original fixed air,
the ftandard being 0.8 ; whereas that of the original
fixed air had been, as before, 1.0. On repeating the
experiment, he found the refiduum ftill greater, but
equally pure ; and, in this cafe, a good quantity of
black matter was obferved adhering to the tube. Ha¬
ving taken the fpark in a fmall tube containing i^j-th of
an ounce-meafure of fixed air, the infide of the tube
was clouded with black matter, and in the bottom was
a fmall quantity of yellowifli matter refembling ful-
phur ; the refiduum was between one-fourth and one-
fifth of the whole, and lefs pure than formerly. This
circumftance he alfo fuppofes to be a proof that
fixed air may be compofed of phlogifton and de-
phlogifticated air. Purfuing this experiment, by ta¬
king the eledtric fpark three hours in a fmall quantity
of fixed air, he obferved that it was firft increafed, and
then diminifhed about one-eighth of the tvhole; the
infide of the tube being very black on the upper part;
And below the mercury veiy yellow, for the fpace of
a quarter of an inch all round the tube; but1 this fpace
had been above the mercury in the beginning of the
operation. One-third of the air remained unabforbed
by water; but fo impure, that jthe ftandard of it was
1.8, or almoft completely phlogifticated.—Varying
the procefs by ufing water impregnated with fixed air
inftead of mercury, the quantity of air was; much aug¬
mented by that which came from the. water ; but thus
the far greater part of it was .incapable of being ab¬
forbed by lime-water; and on this occafipn he obfer-
L O G Y. Seft.V.
ved, that water impregnated with fixed air is a much Fixed Air.
worfe conductor of eleftricity than the fame fluid im-' v
pregnated with mineral acids. On ftill varying the
circumftances of the experiment, by ufing common
water inftead of that which had'abforbed fixed air, he
found that the quality of the refiduum was evidently
better than that of the original fixed air. 115
In order to difcover whether the heat or light ofFffe&s^of a
the eledtric fpark were the circumftances which effect- ^?r.
ed the change, the Doctor threw a ftrong light, by
means of a lens, for fome hours, on a quantity of
pounded glafs confined in fome fixed air; but though
the volume of refiduum was thus fomewhat increafed,
•yet as it was of the fame quality with common air, he
fufpefted that it might be only that portion which had
been introduced among the particles of the glafs. The
quantity of air was increafed after the operation. With
glafs-houfe fand made very hot, the quantity of air
was likewife increafed ; but the experiment was not
more fatisfadtory than the former. Heated bits of
crucibles increafed the quantityof refiduum in the pro¬
portion of 10 to 6.6 ; but the quality was injured ei¬
ther diredlly by a comparifon with nitrous air, or by
producing a larger quantity of refiduum: equally bad.
By heating iron, however, in fixed air, part of it was
evidently converted into phlogifticated air. On heat¬
ing turnings of malleable iron for fome time in fixed
air, one-tenth part of it was rendered immifcible with
water; and on repeating the procefs with the remain¬
der, there was a refiduum of one-fourth of the whole.
There was alfo a fmall addition to the quantity of air
after the firft part of the procefs, but none after the
fecond; nor could he, after a third and fourth pro¬
cefs, render more than one-fourth immimible with wa¬
ter. In two experiments, the refiduum was inflam¬
mable, and burned with a blue flame. 1T^
With regard to the quantity of fixed air which may Quantity of
be expelled from different fubftances, Dr Prieftley ob- fixed air ex-
ferves, that from feven ounces of whiting, the pureftP^J™111
calcareous fubftance we are acquainted with, he expel- fubftanc"es.
led by heat 630 ounce-meafures of air; by which
means the whiting was reduced to four ounces. One
third of this was fomewhat phlogifticated ; the ftand¬
ard being 1.36 and 1.38. Repeating the experiment,
he obtained 440 ounce-meafures of air from fix ounces
of whiting ; about one-half of which was fixed air, and
the remainder of the ftandard of 1.4. On moiftening
fome calcined whiting with water impregnated with vi¬
triolic acid air, he obtained 90 ounce-meafures; of
which the firft portions v/ere three-fourths fixed air, and
the ftandard of the refiduum 1.5; the latter had lefs fixed
air,: and the ftandard of the refiduum was 1.44. The
whiting was rendered black and hard, but became foft
and wliite .with fpi.rit of fait. Three ounces and a
•quarter of lime fallen in the air, yielded 375 ounce-
irieafures; of which about one-fifth was fixed air, and the
ftandard of the refiduum 1.4. Four ounces of white
lead had yielded 240 meafures of air when the retort
melted. The refiduum tof the firft procefs was one-
third, the ftandard 1.36 ; and of the laft the ftandard
was iv28, that with the common atmofphere being
1.23. Two ounces and three quarters of wood-afhes
yielded, in a very ftrOng heat, 430 ounce-meafures of
air ; of the firft portion of which one-tenth, of the fe¬
cond one-third, and of the third one-half, was fixed
Sea. VI. AERO
Fixed Air. a[r. The ftandard of the refiduum of the firft portion
was 1.6, and of the fecond 1.7. It extinguifhed a
candle ; fo that the air came properly from the a flies,
and not from any remaining particles of the charcoal
mixed with them. After the procefs, the afhes weigh¬
ed 839 grains; but by expofure to the air for one day,
the weight was increafed to 842 grains; and, perhaps
with more heat than before, yielded 50 ounce-meafures
of air; of which about one-eighth was fixed air, and
the ftandard of the refiduum 1.3 8 and 1.41. A can¬
dle burned in this refiduum, and the afhes were redu¬
ced to 7894- grains. Two ounce-meafures of Hom-
berg’s pyrophorus burned in the open air, and then
diftilled in a retort, yielded 144 ounce-meafures of
air; of which one-half at'firft was fixed air, but at the
laft very little. The refiduum of the firft portion ex-
tinguifhed a candle, but that of the laft burned with
a blue lambent flame. The ftandards of both with ni¬
trous air were about 1.8. The pyrophorus was then
kept two days in the retort, with the mouth immerfed
in mercury; after which, on being taken out, it burn¬
ed as ftrong as ever. Immediately before the burning,
it weighed 428 grains; immediately after it, .449 :
but being fpread thin and expofed to the atmofphere
for a night, the weight was increafed to 828 grains;
though, on being well dried, it was again reduced to
486. Subjefting it to a greater heat than before, the
matter yielded no ounce-meafures of air; the firft
portions of which were half fixed air, but the laft con¬
tained very little, and burned with a blue lambent
flame. It was then reduced to 396 grains. The ex¬
periment was then repeated with a quantity of pyro¬
phorus, which would not take fire in the open air;
and on heating this fubftance in an earthen retort, five-
fevenths of the firft part of the produce was fixed air:
but this proportion gradually diminifhed; till at laft
nine-tenths of the whole was inflammable air, burning
with a lambent blue flame. This inflammable air be¬
ing decompofed with an equal quantity of dephlogifti-
cated air, yielded 0.86 of a meafure of fixed air. A-
Hother quantity of pyrophorus, which burned very \Vell,
and which by expofure to the atmofphere had gained
132 grains, being again expofed to heat in an earthen
retort, gave 180 ounce-meafures of air; three-fevenths
of the firft portion of which was fixed, and the reft
phlogifticated air; but afterwards only one-half was
fixed and the reft inflammable, burning with a lambent
blue flame ; and at laft it was wholly inflammable.
This pyrophorus took fire again after being poured
out of the retort, but not without the afliftance of ex¬
ternal heat. It had been red-hot through the whole
mafs at the firft burning, and the furface was covered
with white allies ; but all the infide was as black as
ever it had been. Four ounces of dry ox-blood yield¬
ed 1200 ounce-meafures of air, and it was conje&ured
that not lefs than 200 meafures had efcaped. It con¬
tained no fixed air. The firft portion burned with a
large lambent white flame, the middle portion fainter,
and the laft was hardly inflammable at all. The re¬
maining coal weighed 235 grains, and was a good con¬
ductor of eleftricity.
Sect. VI. Inflammable Air.
We owe the knowledge of the exiftence, andoffome
remarkable properties, of this air, to Mr Cavendilh, by
LOGY. 171
whom they were firft publilhed in 1767. Its effedts,b'flamma-
however, had long before been fatally experienced by Air-
miners ; in whofe fubterraneous habitations it is often ^r;
collected in fuch quantities as to produce the moftinflamma-
dreadful effedts. It is produced in abundance from hie air pro-
putrid animal and vegetable fubftances; and, in gene- '*uce(l'n
ral, by all thofe which part with their phlogifton ea-
lily. Being much lighter than common air, it always ters, &c.
rifes to the top of thofe places where it is generated ;
fo that it cannot be confined except in fome vaulted
place, but always ftrives to afeeud and mix with the
atmofphere. By itfelf it is very noxious, and will in-
ftantly put an end to animal life ; but when mixed
with atmofpherical air, may be breathed in much
greater quantity than fixed air. Its great inflamma¬
bility in this ftate, however, renders it very dangerous
to bring any lights, or even to ftrike a flint with fteel,
in thofe places where it abounds. But this only takes
place when the inflammable air is mixed with common
atmofpherical or with dephlogifticated air ; in which
cafe, the explofion is much more violent than the for¬
mer ; for pure inflammable air extinguilhes flame as
effedtually as fixed or phlogifticated air.
Befides the fubterraneous places already mentioned,
this kind of air is found in ditches; over the furface of
putrid waters, out of which it efcapes; in burying-
•places; in houfes of office, where putrid animal and vege¬
table matters are accumulated; and may, by Handing
or boiling, be extra&ed from the waters of moft lakes
and rivers, efpecially thofe in which great quantities
of fermenting and putrefying matters are thrown : and
as putrefaftion thus feems to be the principal fource of
inflammable air, it thence happens, that much more Greatqiiait -
of it is produced in warm than in cold climates. In tides pro-
thofe countries, we are informed by Dr Franklin, that ducc,r\in
if the mud at the bottom of a pond be well ftirred, and jutes'
a lighted candle brought near to the furface of the wa¬
ter immediately after, a flame will inftantly fpread a
confiderable way over the water, from the accenfion of
the inflammable air, affording a very curious fpcftacle
in the night-time. In colder climates, the generation
of inflammable air is not fo plentiful as to produce this
phenomenon ; neverthelefs Mr Cavallo informs us, that
it may be plentifully procured in the following manner, up
in all the ponds about London. “ Fill a wide-mouthed Mr Caval-
bottle with the water of the pond, and keep it invert- *°’s
ed therein ; then, with a ftick, ftir the mud at the ^rinflam-
bottom of the pond, juft under the inverted bottle, fomable an¬
as to let the bubbles of air which come out of it enter from'ponds.
into the bottle ; which air is inflammable. When by
thus ftirring the mud in various places, and catching
the air in the bottle until this is filled, a cork or glafs
ftopper muft be put over it whilft ftanding in water;
and then the bottle muft be taken home, in order to
examine the contained inflammable fluid at leifure.” i20
The great quantity of inflammable air produced in Meteors
warm climates has given occafion to fome philofophers thou£,l)t to
to fuppofe, that it may pofiibly have fome ftiare in
producing certain atmofpherical meteors. The weak
lightnings without any explofion, which are fome-
times perceived near the horizon in ferene weather,
are by them conjectured to proceed from inflammable
air fired by electric explofions in the atmofphere.
Mr Volta fuppofes that the ignes faiui are occafioned
by the inflammable air which proceeds from marfhy
Y 2 grounds.
172 AERO
Inflamma* grounds, and is fet on fire by eleftric fparks: but thefe
^ic A'ir- ! phenomena can be accounted for in a more probable
" "v manner from the aftion of the eleftric fluid itfelf.
This kind of air is more common than any of the
other noxious airs; for there is hardly any inflammable
fubftance on earth, out of which it may not be ex-
trafted by one means or other. The fluids, however,
which go by the generel name of inflammable air, have
fcarce any other property in common to them all, be-
i?,r fides thofe of inflammability, and being fpecifically
Differences lighter than the common atmofpherical air. In other
among in- refpefts, the differences between them are very confi-
airs!maWe derable. The fmell, weight, power of burning, of
preferving their properties, and the phenomena attend¬
ing their combuftion, are by no means the fame in
them all; fome burning in an explofive manner;
others quietly, and with a lambent flame of a white or
blue colour. It is, however, neceflary to make a
proper diftinftion between an inflammable elaftic fluid
or inflammable gas, which may be properly called fo,
and that which is evidently made by combining an in¬
flammable fubftance with common air; which being
eafily feparable from the air, leaves that fluid in the
ftate it was before. Thus a drop of ether, put into a
quantity of common air, mixes itfelf with it, and takes
fire on the approach of flame, like a mixture of inflam¬
mable and common air; but if the air to which ether
js added be wafhed in water, the latter is foon fepara-
ted from it. Common air becomes alfo inflammable
by being tranfmitted through feveral effential oils ;
and thus the air contiguous to the plant called fraxi-
nella becomes inflammable in calm and hot weather,
m ky the emiffion of its inflammable air.
Extra&ed By heat alone, a confiderable quantity of this kind
from vafi- 0f a;r may be extrafted from moft inflammable fub-
ces b^heat" I^ances’ ant^ even ^rora ^ome the metals. Dr Hales
e s y .ea • obtained inflammable air by limply diftilling wax,
pitch, amber, coals, peafe, and oyfter fhells ; and Mr
Fontana informs us, that he obtained a confiderable
quantity of inflammable air from fpathofe iron, by the
aftion of fire only applied to it in a matrafs. Dr
Prieftley, however, obtained it from a vaft number of
other fubftances, by diftilling them in a gun-barrel; to
the extremity of which was luted a tobacco-pipe, or
fmall glafk tube, with a flaccid bladder tied on the
end. He obferves, that the heat muft be fuddenly
*33 applied, in order to get a coafiderahle quantity of air
More air from thefe fubftances. “ Notwithftanding (fays he)
procured by ^ fatne care be taken in luting, and in every other
*haUnd^u-refpeftj fix, or even ten, times more air may be got
at heat. by a hidden heat than by a flow one, though the heat
that is laft applied be as intenfe as that which was ap¬
plied fuddenly. A bit of dry oak, weighing about
twelve grains, will generally yield a fheep’s bladder
full of inflammable air with a brifk heat, when it will
only yield two or three ounce-meafures if the fame
heat be applied gradually.” When he wanted to ex-
traft inflammable air from metals, a*glafs was ufed, the
focus of which afforded a more intenfe heat than any
furnace he could apply : and in this way he obtained
inflammable air from feveral metals; as iron, brafs,
and tin; but with the metallic calces he had no fuc-
cefs.
In the infancy of his experiments, and even after
vtery confiderable practice, the Doftor imagined, that
LOGY. Sea. VI.
the inflammable air produced in this way came only Inflamma-
from the metal, without attending to the fhare which Ah.
water had in the produftion. Some late experiments ' ^
of Mr Lavoifier, however, Ihowed, that water had a How pro¬
great ftiare in the produftion of inflammable air ; info- cured from
much that it gave occafion to a fuppofition, that thevvater an.fi
water was the only fource from whence it was derived, and^ohd ^
This miftake, however, was detefted by Dr Prieftley; fubftances.
who, by his numerous and accurate experiments, feems
in a manner to have exhaufted the fubjeft. The me¬
thod which Mr Lavoifier had followed, was to fend
the fteam of boiling water through a red-hot iron
tube; in doing which, the intenfe heat acquired by
the water occafioned the produftion of a great quan¬
tity of inflammable air. Dr Prieftley repeated his ex¬
periments not only with water, but with other fluids.
Sending the vapour of two ounces of fpirit of wine
through a red-hot earthen tube, he obtained 1900
ounce-meafures of inflammable air, which burned with
a white lambent 'flame. It contained no fixed air ;
and 30 ounce-meafures of it weighed eight grains lefs
than an equal quantity of common air. He collefted
alfo 0.35 of an ounce-meafure of water. In this experi¬
ment, the weight of the water collefted was 168 grains,
of the inflammable air 633 grains, and that of the fpirit
of wine originally was 821 grains; fo that as little was
loft in the procefs as could be expefted.— Repeating the
experiment with vitriolic ether, an ounce of it treated
in the fame manner in an earthen tube almoft filled
with pieces of broken earthen retorts and crucibles,
one tenth part of an ounce of water was collefted,
and 740 ounce-meafures of inflammable air were pro¬
cured, without any mixture or fixed air, burning
with a white lambent flame like that of wood, and
not exploding with dephlogifticated air. Twenty-
nine ounce-meafures of this weighed five grains lefs
than an equal quantity of common air. Vapour of
fpirit of turpentine yielded inflammable air mixed with
much black fmoke, which foon collefted on the fur-
face of the water in the receiver. The fmell of this
air was exceedingly offenfive, and its flame was much
lefs luminous than that of the former. Its fpecifia
gravity was the fame with that of the air procured
from fpirit of wine. Olive oil yielded a confiderable
quantity of air on being mixed with calcined whiting ;
the firft portions burning with a large white flame, and
the laft with a lambent blue one.
In extrafting air from folid fubftances, the fteam
of water was always neceflary ; and thus inflammable
air was produced from a great number of different
ones. From fulphur treated in this manner in an
earthen tube, inflammable air was obtained of a nature
fimilar to that from oil of vitriol and iron. From ar-
fenic, the produce was one-feventh of fixed air; but
all the reft ftrongly inflammable, with a fmell fcarcely
diftinguifhable from that of phofphorus. Twenty
ounce-meafures of this air weighed 44- grains lefs than
an equal quantity of common air. Both thefe experi¬
ments, however, were very troublefome, on account of
the volatility of the matters, which fublimed and
choaked up the tubes. From two ounces of the
fcales of iron, or fining cinder, which he has found to
be the fame thing. Dr Prieftley obtained 580 ounce-
meafures of air ; one-tenth of the firft part of which
was fixed air, but afterwards it was all inflammable.
Forty
f
Sea. VI. AERO
Inflamma- Forty ounce meafures of this air weighed two grains
j*16 Air more than an equal quantity of common air. From
v charcoal expofed to the red-hot Iteam of water, in¬
flammable air was procured in great quantities. From
ninety-four grains of perfedf charaoal, that is, prepared
with a ftrong heat fo as to expel all fixed air from it,
and 240 ounces of water, 840 ounce-meafures of air
were obtained, one-fifth part of which was fixed air;
and the inflammable part appeared likewife, by decom-
pofition, to have a quantity of fixed air intimately
combined with it.—Three ounces of bones burnt black,
and treated in this manner in a copper tube, yielded
840 ounce-meafures of air; the water expended being
288 grains, and the bones lofing 1 io grains of their
weight. This air, he obferves, differs confiderably
from that of any other kind of inflammable air; being
in feveral refpefts a medium betwixt the air procured
from charcoal and that from iron. It contains about
one-fourth of its bulk of uncombined fixed air, but
not quite one-tenth intimately combined with the re¬
mainder. The water that came over was blue, and
pretty firongly alkaline; owing to the volatile alkali
not having been totally expelled by the heat which had
reduced the bones to blacknefs.
A variety of fubftances, faid not to contain any
phlogifton, were fubje&ed to the fame procefs, but
without yielding any inflammable air. The experi¬
ments with iron, however, were the moft fatisfaftory,
as being fubjeft to lefs variation than thofe with char¬
coal ; and clearly evincing, that the air in the procefs
does not come from the water alone, but from the
iron alfo; or, as Dr PriefUey fays, “ only from the
iron ; the weight of water expended, dedu&ing the
weight of air produced, being found in the addition
of weight in the iron as nearly as could be expefted in
experiments of this kind. And though the inflam¬
mable air procured in this procefs is between one-
third and one-half more than can be procured from
iron by folution in acids, the reafon may be, that
much phlogifton is retained in the folutions; and
therefore much more may be expelled from iron when
pure water, without any acid, takes place of it. The
produce of air, and likewife the addition of weight
gained by the iron, are alfo much more eaftly afcer-
tained in- thefe experiments than the quantity of water
expended in them; on account of the great length of
the veffels ufed in the procefs, and the different quan¬
tities that may perhaps be retained in the worm of the
T2J tub>
Proper- The following are the refults of fome of the Doc-
tiuns of in-tor’s experiments.- Two hundred and fixty-feven
flammable grains, added to the weight of a quantity of iron, pro-
ed from111' ^uced a lofs of 336 grains of water, and an emiflion
iron by °f 840 ounce-meafures of air; and in another experi-
tneans of ment, 140 grains added to the weight of the iron
Seam. produced a lofs of 240 grains of water, and the emif-
fion of 420 ounce-meafures of air. “ The inflammable
LOGY, 173
air produced in this manner (fays he) is of the lightell
kind, and free from that very offenfive fmell which is , e Air' ^
generally occafioned by the rapid folution of metals in
oil of vitriol; and it is extricated in as little time in
this way as it is polfible to do it by any mode of folu¬
tion. The following experiment was made with a
view to afcertain the quantity of inflammable air that
may be procured in this manner from any given quan¬
tity of iron. Nine hundred and fixty grains of iron,
when diffolved in acids, will yield about 800 ounce-
meafures of air ; but, treated in this manner, it yield¬
ed 1054 meafures, and then the iron had gained 329
grains in weight” (a). ii6
Inflammable air having been at firft produced only ®^t^e^coa 1
from metals by means of acids, it was then fuppofed prjndplcsof
that part of the acid neceffarily enters into its compo- inflamma-
fition; but this hypothefis is now found to be ill blc air.
grounded. “ That no acid (fays Dr Prieftley), is ne- „ ^.7
ceffarily contained, or at leaft in any fenfible quantity, co°t^|;c(j
either in inflammable air, though produced by means in it.
of acids, or in the dephlogifticated air of the atmo-
fphere, is evident from the following experiment, which'-
I made with the greateft care : Taking a bafon which
contained a fmall quantity of water tinged blue with
the juice of turnfole, I placed it in a bent tube of
glafs, which came from a veffel- containing iron and
diluted oil of vitriol; and lighting the current of in¬
flammable air as it iffued from this tube, fo that it
burned exactly like a candle, I placed over it an in¬
verted glafs jar, fo that the mouth of it was plunged
in the liquor. Under this jar the inflammable air burn¬
ed as long as- it could ; and when extinguifhed for
want of more pure air, I fuffered the liquor to rife as
high as it could within the jar, that it might imbibe
whatever fhould be depofited from the decompofition
of either of the two kinds of air. I then took off
the jar, changed the air in it, and, lighting the ftream-
of inflammable air, replaced the jar as before. This
I did till I had decompofed a very great quantity of
the two kinds of air, without perceiving the leaft
change in the colour of the liquor, which muft have
been the cafe if any acid had entered as a neceffary
conftituent part into either of the two kinds of air..
1 alfo. found no acid whatever in the water, which was
procured by keeping a ftream of inflammable air con-
ftantly burning in a large glafs balloon, through which
the air could circulate, fo that the flame did not go
out. Neither was there any acid produced in the de¬
compofition of inflammable and dephlogifticated air
in a ftrong clofe glafs veffel.
“ With refpeft to inflammable air, I have obferved,
that when fufficient care is taken to free it from any
acid vapour that may be accidentally contained in it,
it is not in the fmalleft degree affetted by a mixture of
alkaline air. On the whole, therefore, I have at pre-
fent no doubt, but that pure inflammable air, though it
certainly contains •water, does not neceffarily contain
any
(a) In thefe experiments, the D.oftor feems not to have fuppofed that any particular kind of water was ne-
celfary for this production of inflammable air: but in the Memoirs of the Philofophical Society at Haerlem, it
is afferted by Dr Deiman and M.. Paets Van Trooftwyk, that the experiment will not fucceed when boiled or
diftilled water, or any other than that containing fixed air, is made ufe of; and to this air they attribute the
calcination of the iron and production of inflammable air- This affertion,. however, is contrary to what we find
related by Mr Kirwan. Seen0 138..
174 AERO
Tnflamma- any acid: yet an acid vapour maybe eafdy difFufed
^le '‘’r' ) through it, and may perhaps in many cafes be obfti-
v nately retained by it, as no kind of air feems to be ca¬
pable of fo great a variety of impregnations as inflam-
12 8 mable air is.”
Water ne- Mr Cavendifli firft perceived the neceflity of moi-
k^roduc ^ure t0 t^e produ&ion of inflammable air ; but it was
tioii. C not 11 ntd after making feveral experiments that Dr
Prieftley could adopt the fame idea. He had obferved
fome very remarkable circumftances relating to the
produ&ion of inflammable air from charcoal, by which
he was induced to fuppofe that the former was pure
J2g phlogiilon in a volatile ftate without any moifture
Charcoal whatever. The Doftor obferves, that “ charcoal is
totally con- generally faid to be indeftrudtible, except by a red
toTnfliwn-1" heat in contact with air. But I find (fays he), that it
mable air. Is perfectly deftrudtible, or decompofed, m vacuo, and,
by the heat of a burning lens, almoft convertible into
inflammable air; fo that nothing remains befides an
exceedingly fmall quantity of white allies, which are
feldom viflble, except when in very fmall particles they
happen to crofs the fun-beams as they fly about the
receiver. It would be impoflible to collect or weigh
them ; but, according to appearance, the alhes thus
i.;o produced, from many pounds of wood, could not be
Weight of fuppofed to weigh a grain. The great weight of afhes
veeffrorn " Pro^uce^ by burning wood in the open air arifes from
the air. what is attracted by them from the air. The air which
I get in this manner is wholly inflammable, without
the lealt particle of fixed air in it. But in order to
this, the charcoal muft be perfeftly well made, or with
fuch a heat as would expel all the fixed air which the
wood contains ; and it muft be (Jontinued till it yield
inflammable air only, which, in an earthen retort, is
foon produced.
“ Wood or charcoal is even perfectly deftru&ible,
that is, refolvable into inflammable air, in a good
earthen retort, and a fire that would about melt iron.
In thefe circumftances, after all the fixed air had come
over, I feveral times continued the procefs during a
whole day; in all which time inflammable air has
been produced equably, and without any appearance
of a termination. Nor did I wonder at this, after
feeing it wholly vanifh into inflammable air in vacuo.
A quantity of charcoal made from oak, and weighing
about an ounce, generally gave me about five ounce-
meafures of inflammable air in twelve minutes.”
Experi- Although from thefe experiments it did not appear
j. ent fhow- that water was in any way efientially neceflary to the
cefilf16 f6" Produ&i°n this kind of inflammable air, it appeared
water* to wianifeftly to be fo in the following: “ At the time
the produc- (fays he) when I difperfed any quantity of charcoal with
tion of in- a burning lens in vacuo, and thereby filled my receiver
flammable with nothing but inflammable air, I had no fufpicion
that the wet leather on which my receiver flood could
have any influence in the cafe, while the piece of char¬
coal was fubjeft to the intenfe heat of the lens, and
placed feveral inches above the leather. I had alfo
procured inflammable air from charcoal in a glazed
earthen retort for two whole days fucceffively, during
which it continued to yield it without intermiflion.
Alfo iron-filings in a gun-barrel, and a gun-barrel it-
fclf, had always given inflammable air whenever I tried
LOGY. Sea. IV.
the experiment. Thefe circumftances, however, de- Infiamma-
ceived me, and'perhaps would have deceived any other 7" A‘r~
perfon ; for I did not know, and could not have be-
lieved, the powerful attraction between water and char- Excel live
coal or iron, when the latter are intenfely hot. They attraction
will find, and attract it, in the midft of the hotteft ^^coal or
fire, and through any pores that may be left open in jron an(j
a retort; and iron-filings are feldom fo dry as not to water,
have as much moifture adhering to them as is capable
of enabling them to give a coniiderable quantity of in¬
flammable air. But my attention being now fully
awakened to the fubjett, I prefently found that the
circumftances above mentioned had actually mifledme ;
I mean with refpeft to the conclufion which I drew
from the experiments, and not with reipeCt to the ex¬
periments themfelves, every one of which will, I doubt
not, be found to anfwer, when properly tried.
“ Being thus apprifed of the influence of unper¬
ceived moifture in the production of inflammable air,
and willing to afeertain it to my perfeCt fatisfaCfion,
I began with filling a gun-barrel with iron-filings in
their common ftate, without taking any-particular pre¬
caution to dry them, and I found that they gave air
as they had been ufed to do, and continued to do fo
many hours : I even got ten ounce-meafures of inflam¬
mable air from two ounces of iron-filings in a coated
glafs retort: At length, however, the production of
inflammable air from the-gun-barrel ceafed ; but, on
putting water to it, the air was produced again ; and ,23
a few repetitions of the experiment convinced me that Inflamma-
I had been too precipitate in concluding that inflam-blt;airisnot
mable air is pure phlogifton. I then repeated the ex- °~
periment with the charcoal, rnaking the receiver, theS
ftand on which I placed the charcoal, and the charcoal
itfelf, as dry and hot as pofiible, and ufing cement in-
ftead of wet leather, in order to exclude the air. In
thefe circumftances I was not able, with, the advantage
of a good fun and an excellent burning lens, to decom-
pofe quite fo much as two grains of the piece of char¬
coal which gave me ten ounce-meafures of inflamma¬
ble air ; and this, I imagine, was effected by means
of fo much moifture as was depofited from the air in
its ftate of rarefaction, and before it could be drawn
from the receiver. To the produdion of this kind of
inflammable air, therefore, I was now convinced that
water is as eflential as to that from iron.” ,^4
In his analyfis of different kinds of inflammable air, Prieftley’s
the DoCtor obferves, that the difference moil com- ?-nalyfis of
monly perceived is, that fome of them burn with arynd^of in-
lambent flame, fometimes white, fometimes yellow, flamrnafois
and fometimes blue ; while another kind always burns air.
with an explofion, making more or lefs of a report
when a lighted candle is dipped into a jar filled with
it. The inflammable air extracted from metals by
means of acids is of this laft kind; and that from wood,
coal, or other inflammable fubftances by means of heat,
belongs to the former. It has alfo been obferved, that
thefe kinds of inflammable air have different fpecific
gravities ; the pureft, or that which is extracted from
iron, &c. being about ten times as light as common
air ; but fome of the other kinds not more than twice
as light (a).
This difference was for fome time attributed to a
quantity
(a) Here the Doctor’s calculation differs fomewhat from that of Mr Kirwan ; who, in his Treatife on Phlo¬
gifton,
He Air
Sea. VI. AERO
Jnflamma- quantity of fixed air intimately combined with the
heavier kinds, fo that it could not be difcovered by
lime-water, while the lighteft contained no fixed air at
all. In order to afcertain this point, he had recourfe
to decompofition ; which was performed by mixing
with the inflammable air to be tried an equal quantity
of common or dephlogiilicated air, and then confining
them in a llrong glafs vefiel previoufly filled either with
water or mercury; making afterwards’ an eledlric fpark
in fome part of the mixture by means of wires inferted
through the fides of the veflel, and nearly meeting
within it. Thus he fuppofed that he might be able to
determine the quantity of co7niined fixed air, and like-
wife the relative quantity of pfilogifton contained irt
each of them. The former appeared by vyaihing the
air with lime-water after the explofion, and obferving
how much of them was obferved ; and the latter by
examining the i-efiduum with the teft of nitrous air,
and obferving the purity of it. Findii>g, however*
that, in fome cafes, more fixed air was found after the
ekplofion than could have been contained in the inflam¬
mable air, he was thence led to obferve the generation of
% j fixed air from the principles mentioned in the laft fedtion;
Fixed air In profecuting this fubject, it was found, that one
generated meafure of inflammable air produced by fleam from
in the de- metals, and one of dephlogifticated air, fuch as by
Uorrofin m'xture with two:meafures of nitrous air was reduced
flammable to 0.72 of a meafure, were reduced by explofion to
air. 0,6 of a meafure ; the refiduum, by an equal quantity
of nitrous air, was reduced to 0.87. With the fame
dephlogifticated air, the inflammable air from fining-
cinder and charcoal was reduced only to 1.85 of a
meafure; but by waftiing in lime-water, to 1.2. The
refiduum examined by nitrous air appeared to be of the
ftandard of 0.9. In another procefs, the diminution after
the explofion was to 1.55, and that after wafhing in lime-
water to 0.65, of a meafure; in a third, by explofion to
1.6, and by waftiing to 0.66; and in a fourth, the firft
diminution was to 1.6, arid the fecond to 0.6. In this
laft experiment there was a generation of an entire
meafure of fixed air; and that this had not been con¬
tained originally in any latent ftate in the original
fluid, was evident from the fpecific gravity of the in-
.flammable air m'ade-ufe of. This, indeed, was one of
the heavieft kinds of the fluid : but 40 ounce-meafures
of it weighed only two grains more than an equal bulk
of ccmmon air; whereas, had all the fixed air found
in the refiduum been contained in the original air, it
muft have been at leaft one-half heavier. “ Indeed
(fays the Do£lor) if any quantity of inflammable air,
of about the fame fpecific gravity with common air
(which is the cafe with that fpecies of it I am now
confidering),- yield fo much as feven-tenths of its bulk
of fixed air in confcquence of its explofion with de¬
phlogifticated air, it is a proof that at leaft part of
that fixed air was generated in the procefs, becaufe
feven-tenths of fuch fixed air would weigh more than
the whole meafure of inflammable air,”
LOGY. 175
Equal parts of dephlogifticated air and the inflam- Tnfiamma-
mable kind produced from fpirit of wine, were redu- |^c Al1'' ,
ced to one meafure, and by waftiing in lirhe-water to v
0.6 of a meafure. The ftandard of the refiduum was
1.7.—In another experiment, in which the vapour of
the fpirit of wine had pafled through a tube filled with
bits of crucibles, the firft diminution was to 1.6, the
fecond to 1.4, and the ftandard of the refiduum was to
1.84 : but in a third, the firft diminution was to 1.2,
the fecond to 0.9.—Air procured by fteam from red-
hot platina was reduced to 0.72 of a meafure, and the
ftandard of the refiduum was 0.9. It contained no
fixed air.— Air from brimftone, with an equal part of
dephlogifticated air, was diminiihed to 0.6, and no
fixed air was found in the refiduum. Its ftandard was
0.95.—With inflammable air from arfenic, the firft re¬
duction was to 1.15, the fecond to 0.95. The ftand¬
ard was 0.82.—With the inflammable air procured by
a decompofition of alkaline air, the diminution by ex¬
plofion was to 0.96, and no fixed air was contained in 1
the refiduum; the ftandard of which was 0.8. — In¬
flammable air from ether refembles that from fpirit of
wine. The firft diminution was to 1.36, the fecond to
1.2 ; and the ftandard was-1.9.
Inflammable air procured by means of fteam from
charcoal of metals produces a confiderable quantity of
fixed air; the firft diminution being to 1.12, the fe¬
cond to 0.8, and the ftandard of the refiduum 1.9.
This analyfis was of the firft portion that came over,
the fecond was fomewhat different; the firft diminu¬
tion being to t.o, the fecond to 0.75, and the ftand¬
ard of the refiduum 1.9.— From coai% or the charcoal
of pitcoal, the firft diminution was to 1.15, the fecond
to 0.95, and the ftandard 1.9 ; but the dephlogiftica¬
ted air in this experiment was by no means pure.
With inflammable air from fpirit of turpentine, the
firft diminution was to 1.7, the fecond to 1.6, and the
ftandard 1.9—From bones, the firft diminution was
to 0.67, the fecond to 0.58 ; the ftandard 1.47.—
From common charcoal, the firft diminution was to
1.5, the fecond to 0.74, and the ftandard 1.7. In ano¬
ther experiment, the firft diminution was fo 0.82, the-
fecond to 0.63, and the ftandard of the refiduum
MT- ' . .
Inflammable air procured by diftilling fome rich-
mould in a gun-barrel had a very offenfive fmell, like
that procured from putrid vegetables; it contained one-
twentieth part of uncombined fixed air. When this-
was feparated from it, and the remainder decOmpofed
with dephlogifticated air, the firft diminution was to
1.4, the fecond to 0.67, and the ftandard of the refi¬
duum was 0.6.—The air procured from caft-iron has
likewife a peculiarly offenfive fmell; and, on this ac¬
count, the Dodlor imagined, that it might contain
more phlogifton than common inflammable air, fo as.
to abforb more dephlogifticated air than the other,.
But this conjeclure did not appear to be well founded;,
for on exploding it with dephlogifticated air in the
proportions
gifton, informs us, that in his experiments he ufed “ inflammable air extracted from clean newly-made filings
of foft iron, in the temperature of 590, by vitriolic acid whofe fpecific gravity was 1.0973, and obtained over
mercury* having very little fmell, and what it had being very unlike the ufual fmell of inflammable air.”—The
weight of this air, when the barometer flood at 29.9, and the thermometer at 6o°, was found to be to that.of.
common air as 84.3 to 1.000 ; and, confequently, near iz times lighter.
176 AERO
Intiamma- proportions already mentioned, the diminution was
I’*6 Air- the fame as with inflammable air produced from the
~v ' malleable kind, viz. 1.56.
In thefe experiments, it feemed evident, that at leaft
part of the fixed air found after the explofion was pro¬
duced by its means; but the following feem no lefs con¬
vincing proofs, that fixed air may be converted into the
inflammable kind, or at leaft that the elements of fixed
air may remain in inflammable air in fuch a manner as
T36 to be imperceptible. On heating in an earthen re-
Fixe.l air tort a quantity of flaked lime, which had long been
convertible kept clofe corked in a bottle, it gave air, of which one-
mahUUp*1* fifth was generally fixed air ; but in the gun-barrel the
fame lime yielded no fixed air at all, but a great quan¬
tity of inflammable air of the explofive kind, like that
which is got from iron alone by means of water. As
this total difappearance of the fixed air appeared ex¬
traordinary, the Doctor was induced to repeat it feve-
ral times with all pofiible care; and the following was
the refult of his experiments : Three ounces of flaked
lime, which had for fome time been expofed to the
open air, heated in an earthen tube, yielded 14 ounce-
meafures of air, of which only two and an half remain¬
ed unabforbed by water ; the refiduum was flightly in¬
flammable, but not perfectly phlogifticated. Three
ounces of the fame lime, heated in a gun-barrel, gave
20 ounce-meafures of air, all of which was inflam¬
mable, and no -part fixed. It was expedted, how¬
ever, that fhe fixed air would have appeared on the de-
compofition of this inflammable air with the dephlogif-
ticated kind* but after this procefs, it appeared to be
exactly fuch inflammable air as is procured from metals
by the mineral acids, or by fteam ; the diminution of
the two kinds of air being exaftly the fame : and tho’
fome fixed air was found in the refiduum, it was no
more than is ufually met with in the decompofition of
inflammable air procured by means of fpirit of fait.—
Suppofing that the two kinds of air might incorporate,
when ©ne of them was generated within the other, a
gun-barrel was filled with fixed air, and the clofed end
of it put into a hot fire. Inflammable air was inftant-
ly produced ; but when the fixed air was feparated
from it, it burned like inflammable air with which no
other kind had ever been mixed.
On heating iron-turnings in five ounce-meafures of
fixed air, the quantity of it was increafed about one
ounce-meafure, and there remained one and three-fourths
unabforbed by water. The experiment was repeated
with the fame refult; and it was farther obferved, that
though the inflammable air procured in this manner
did not appear by the teft of lime-water to contain any
fixed air, yet when it was decompofed by firing it with
an equal quantity of dephlogifticated air, the refiduum
contained one-third of fixed air. The diminution was
to 1.45. Hence the Doftor conjeftures, that though,
in fome cafes, the fixed air appears to be generated by
the decompofition of dephlogifticated and inflammable
air, yet that inflammable air, when thus produced in
oontaft with fixed air, may combine with it, fo as to be
properly contained in it, and in fuch a manner that it
cannot be difeovered by lime-water.
Inflammable air, when produced in the drieft way
poflible, is exceedingly light, as has been already ob-
ferved i but Dr Prieftley has found, that by ftanding
N° 5- 3
LOGY. Sedt. VI.
on water, a very confiderable increafe ’is made in its Inflamma-
fpecific gravity; fo that from being ten or twelve times hh Air. ^
lighter than atmofpherical air, it foon becomes only
feven times lighter. This great propenfity to unite Great pro-
with water is alfo taken notice of by Mr Kirwan; who [ entity of
tells us, that the bulk of innflammable air obtained o-
ver water with the afliftance of heat towards the end, unite* with
was one-eighth greater than when produced over mer- water,
cury ; but that the weight of it in the former cafe was
only eight or nine times lefs than common air. 
“ From 85 cubic inches of inflammable air obtained
over water, I extra died,” fays he, “ by oil of vitriol ex¬
pofed to it for 55 hours, two grains of water; and*
though undoubtedly there is an error in all thefe expe¬
riments, yet there can be little doubt but this inflam¬
mable air contained one-half its weight of water. The
inflammable air, by the fubtra&ion of its water, loft its
fmell, but continued as inflammable as ever; andthere¬
fore there is no reafon to think that it was decompofed,
or that water is any way eflential to it.”
This conclufion is directly contrary to that of Dr
Prieftley, that water is an effential ingredient in the
compofition of inflammable air; nor do the experi¬
ments of the latter, already recited, feem to have had
any weight with him, as he concludes his Treatife on
Phlogifton in thefe words. “ To the proofs I have Mr j^ir-
heretofore given, that inflammable air and phlogifton wan’s con-
are the fame fubftance, juft as ice and the vapour ofclslhn con-
water are called the fame fubftance, no objedion of
any weight has fince been made. Some have thought <4 ;nj]am_
that I ftiould have included the matter of heat or ele- mable air.
mentary fire in the definition of inflammable air: but as
fire is contained in all corporeal fubftances, it is per-
feftly needlefs, except where bodies differ in the quan¬
tity of it they contain ; and in this refpeft I exprefsly
mentioned its difference with phlogifton to confift.—
Others, attending to the quantity of water contained
in inflammable air, have fuppofed it to be an effential
ingredient in the compofition of this air, and have call¬
ed it phlogifticated water; but they may as well fup-
pofe water to be an effential ingredient in common air,
or fixed air, and call this laft acidulated water: for in¬
flammable air, equally as other airs, may be deprived of
its water without any limitation, and yet preferve all
its properties unaltered; which ftiows the prefence of
water to be no way effential to it. Laftly, others have
thought, that it effentially requires an acid or an alkali,
or fome faline fubftance, for its bafis; as if there were
any more repugnance in the nature of things, that phlo¬
gifton fhould exift in an aerial ftate without any bafis,
than marine air, alkaline air, or dephlogifticated air;
when it is evident, that an aerial ftate requires no more
than a certain proportion of latent heat: but the pro-
du&ion of inflammable air from iron by means of di-
ftilled water, without any acid or fait, has effeftually
done away any fufpicion of that fort.”
On the other hand, Dr Prieftley informs us, that p'r;e4_
“ inflammable air feems now to confift of water and ley’? con-
inflammable air : which, however, feems extraordinary, clufion._
as the two fubftances are hereby made to involve each
other; one of the conftituent parts of water being in¬
flammable air, and one of the conftituent parts of in¬
flammable air being water ; and therefore, if the expe¬
riments would favour it (but I do not fee that they do
fo).
I Seel. VI.
O
Inflamma- fo), it would be more natural to fuppofe, that water,
. k’6 Air~ ; like fixed air, confifts of phlogifton and dephlogifticated
v air, in fome different mode of combination.
“ There is an aftonilhing,variety in the different
kinds of inflammable air, the caufe of which is very im-
perfeftly known. The lighteft, and therefore probably
the pureft kind, feems to confift of phlogifton and. wa¬
ter only. But it is probable that oil, and that of dif¬
ferent kinds, may be held in folution in feveral of them,
and be the reafon of their burning with a lambent flame,
and alfo of their being fo readily refolved into fixed air
when they are decompofed by dephlogifticated air;
though why this fliould be the cafe, I. cannot ima-
sine-
“ When inflammable and dephlogifticated air are
burned together, the weight of the water produced is
never, I believe, found quite equal to that of both kinds
of air. May not the light, therefore, emitted from the
flame, be part of the phlogifton of the inflammable air
united to the principle of heat ? And as light accom¬
panies' the elettric/park, may not this alfo be the real
accenfion of fome phlogiftic matter, though it is not eafy
to find the fource of it ?”
The Frepch chemifts, who deny the exiftenee of
phlogifton, are of opinion, that inflammable air is a
fimple uncompounded element; but for a more full
140 difeuffion of this fubjeft, fee the article Phlogiston.
Abforption Inflammable air is abforbed by water in confiderabk
mable'air but by the application of heat may be expel-
by water, led again in equal quantity. By agitation in water Dr
Prieftley was formerly of opinion that this kind of air
might be rendered as good as common air; but this
undoubtedly proceeds from the atmofpherical air tranf-
mitted by the water, as is the cafe with phlogifticated
air mentioned in the laft feftion. After a quantity of
water, which had abforbed as much inflammable air as
it could, had been fuffered to ftand a month, it was ex¬
pelled by heat, and found to be as ftrongly inflammable
as ever. The water, after the procefs, depofited a
kind of filmy matter; which he fuppofed to be the
earth of the metal that had been employed in produ-
141 cing it.
Its effects Plants in general grow tolerably well in inflammable
iTancT" a”"’ an<^ tbe willow plant has been obferved to abforb
anima[ life great quantities of it. Its inflammability is not dimi-
nifhed by the putrefaction of animal fubftances, nor
does their putrefaftion feem to be retarded by it. Ani¬
mals confined in it are killed almoft as foon as in fixed
. air : but infeCts, which can live a confiderable time in
phlogifticated air, live alfo a confiderablr time in this
kind of air ; but at laft they become torpid, and appear
to be dead, though they will ftill recover if removed
into the open air. Mr Cavallo relates, that the Abbe
Fontana, having filled a large bladder with inflammable
air, began to breathe it in his prefence ; after having
made a very violent expiration, in which cafe the ef-
fedls are moft -powerful. The firft infpiration produced
a great oppreffion in his lungs, the fecond made him
look very pale, and the third was fcarce accomplifhed
when he fell on his knees through weaknefs. Birds and
I4i fmall quadrupeds, inclofed in fmall veffels of this air,
Has little died after a very few infpirations. Laftly, inflammable
refra&ive air appears to have a fmaller (hare- of refradtive power
power. than common air ; for Mr Warltire informs us, that
having placed an hollow triangular prifin, of which the
Vol. I. Part I.
LOGY. 177
angle was 72 degrees, fo as to half cover a large obje&-Inflamma-
glafs in one of Mr Dollond’s perfpe&ives, and fo turn- , ble Air~ ,
ed round as to make the frame of a window, at the di- v
ftance of 1280 feet, feen partly through the prifm and
partly through common air, appear undivided. The
inflammable air was then blown out of the prifm, but
no part of the apparatus was moved; when the frame
of the window feen through the object-glafs and
the prifm as before, feemed to feparate about four
inches. I43
The inflammability of this fpecies of air has given Schemes ts
occafion to various projefts concerning it; fuch as thaten'P'°y u
of employing it to give light and heat; and lamps have
beendeferibed, which maybe lighted by the elettricfparki 1
in the night-time. By its means alfo very pretty arti¬
ficial fires are made, with glafs tubes bent in various
directions, and pierced with a great number of fmall
apertures. The inflammable gas is introduced into
thefe tubes, from a bladder filled with that fluid, and
fitted with a copper cock. When the bladder is pref-
fed, the inflammable air, being made to pafs into the
tube, iffues out of all the fmall apertures, and is fet on
fire by a lighted taper. None of thefe contrivances,
however, have ever been applied to any ufe ; and the
fcheme of Mr Volta, who propofed to fuhftitute its ex-
plofive force inftead of gun-powder, is found infuffi-
cient, on account of the weaknefs of the explofion, ex-.
cept when the two airs are fifed in very great quantity,
which would be incompatible with the fmall bulk ne-
ceflary for warlike engines.
Sect; VII. Sulphurated Inflammable Air.
This was difeovered by Dr Prieftley at the time
when he was engaged in the experiments of which fome
account has been given in the laft feCtion,' of tranfmit-
ting the fteam of water and other fluids through red- r44
hot tubes containing fome folid material. Having, a- Firft pro-
mong others, treated manganefe in this manner, by cured from
flopping one end of the heated tube with a cork be- manganefe.
fore the fteam was applied, he received forty ounce-
meafures of air, of which one-fixth was fixed air and
the reft of the ftandard of 1.7, lambently inflammable.
Having then opened the other end of the tube in or¬
der to admit the fteam, air was produced more co-
pioufly thap.before. Of 50 ounces of this air, one-
feventh was fixed, and the reft, of the ftandard of 1.8,
explofively inflammable. The laft portions were very
turbid; and the fmell, efpecially that of the laft por¬
tion, was very fulphureous, tinging the water of a very-
dark colour, by depofiting in it a quantity of blackifti
water. However, the air itfelf became prefently tranf-
parent, and had no other appearance than that of any
other kind of air. . On looking at the jar in about ten
minutes after, it was quite black and opaque ; fo that
nothing could be feen in the infide of it. Filling after¬
wards another jar with the fame kind of air, in order
to obferve the progrefs of this uncommon phenomenon,
he found, that when the water was well fubfided, black
fpecks began to appear in different places, and, ex¬
tending themfelves in all directions, at length joined
each other, till the whole jar was become perfectly
black, and the glafs opaque. When this was done, he
transferred the air into another jar ; and it foon pro¬
duced a fimilar effedt upon this, though it never became
Z fo
178 AERO
Inflatnma- f0 black as the jar in which it had been firft recei-
ble Air. ve(j> jt alf0 frequently happened, that only the lower
' ~v part of the jar would become black, as if the matter
with which it was loaded had kept fubfiding, though
invifibly, in the mafs of air, and occupied only the
lower regions, leaving the upper part entirely free from
it. On expofing to the open air the velfels thus turn¬
ed black, the colour prefently difappeared, and a yel¬
low or brown incruftation was left upon it. The fame
change took place when the veffels were inverted in,
water, in order to obferve the alteration of the air with¬
in them ; but on examining this air, no feniible change
was perceived. In feme cafes, indeed,, he "thought the
air was injured, but it was much lefs fo than he had
expefted. After depofiting the black matter, the air
ftill retained its fulphureous fmell, and he did not i*
*45 magine that- it would ever leave it entirely,
frorr^ivor On trying other fpecimens of manganefe, no air of
mekedTn^ ^is kind was obtained; but fome time after, having
vitriolic occafion to make a large quantity of inflammable air,
acid air. he ufed, inftead of frelh iron, fome that had been al¬
ready melted iq vitriolic acid air. Diffolving this with
a confiderable quantity of frefh metal in diluted vitrio¬
lic acid, he found that the water in which the air wa’s
received became very black, and depolited more fedi-
ment than had appeared in the experiment with the
manganefe. The jars were as. black as ink, but be¬
came yellow on expofure to the air as before ; fo that
there could be no doubt of its being the fame thing
he had got before. On burning a quantity of it, this
kind of air appeared to contain fome vitriolic acid, the
balloon being filled with a very denfe white fume, which
rendered the water fenfibly acid to the tafte. On de-
compofing it with dephlogifticated air, however, he
found the diminution exaftly the lame as when com-,
mon inflammable and deplogifticated air were ufed ; fo
that it appeared to contain neither more nor lefs phlo-.
gifton than the other ; only there was a fmall quantity
of fixed air produced, which is never the cafe with
Common inflammable air from vitriolic acid and iron.
When the fulphurated inflammable air is received o-
ver mercury, very little black matter is produced on
the jars; and it is remarkable, that though the black
matter collefted on them, when the air is taken through
water, foon. grows yellow upon expofing it to the air,
it is not the cafe with that which remains in the wa¬
ter ; it adheres to the evaporating vefiel in form of a-
black incruftation,. which does not burn blue until it
has been digefted in the nitrous acid, which deprives it
of its fuperfluous phlogifton, and leaves it. both of the
colour, and. fmell of fulphur.
S ecT. VIII.. Of Alkaline Air.
This was procured by Dr Prieftley, in the begin¬
ning of his experiments,, from common fpirit of fal-
ammoniac with quicklime, or the materials from which
it is made, kfe did not at that time profecute the
difeovery farther than by impregnating water with it;
by which means he could make a much ftronger alka¬
line fpirit than any to be met with in the Ihops.. His
method of procuring it was by mixing one part of
pounded fal-ammoniac with three parts of flacked lime;
and for common experiments the fame quantity of ma¬
terials would laft a confidorable time.
LOGY. Sed.VIIL
This kind of air, when pure, is inftantly fatal to ani- Alkaline
mal life, and extinguiihes flame ; though, when mixed Air> ,
with common atmofpherical air, it is flightiy inflam- v
mable,. and alfo medicinal in faintings and other cafes p I4^.
of debility. A candle dipped into a jar of this air 0f alkaline
is.extinguilhed ; but juft before the flame goes out, it air.
is enlarged by the addition of another flame of a pale
yellow colour, and fometimes a weak flame fpreads for
a confiderable way, or even through the whole body of
the alkaline air. The eleftric fpark taken in it ap¬
pears of a red colour. Every fpark taken in it aug¬
ments its bulk, and by degrees turns the whole into
inflammable air.. It is readily abforbed by water, as
has been already obferved, and diffolves ice almoft as
faft as an hot fire. On confining fame water impreg¬
nated with alkaline air in a glafs tube, and thus expo-
fmg it to a ftrong heat in a fand-furnace for fome days,
he obferved that a white fediment or ineruftation was
formed on the furface. The Do&or remarked, that
bits of linen, charcoal, and fponge, admitted into a
quantity of alkaline air, diminilhed it, and acquired a
very pungent fmell; efpecially the fponge, a bit of
which, about the fize of an hazle-nut, abforbed an
ounce-meafure. It is remarkable that copper, w'hich
is fo, eafily corroded by the common volatile alkalis,
is not affefted by alkaline air. The fpecific gravity of
this kind of air is, by Mr Kirwan, determined to be
to that of common air as 600 to 1000; though, as he
juftly obfervea, this muft differ very confiderably accor¬
ding to the quantity of moifture it contains. J47
In profecuting his experiments on alkaline air, Dr Proofs of
Prieftley concluded that it contains phlogifton, both its conta.'n-
from its being convertible into inflammable air by elec inff Pe¬
trie explofions, and likewife from its reviving the cal-®1 on*
ces of metals. In attempting to afeertain the quan¬
tity of lead revived in alkaline air, he met with two
difficulties; the firft, on account of fome part of the
calx being blackened and imperfeftly revived ; the fe-
cond, that the lead completely revived was diffolved by
the mercury employed to confine the air. To prevent
this laft inconvenience, he put the powdered mafficot
(the fubftance he chofe to employ on this occafion) in¬
to fmall earthen cups, contriving to place them with-
their mouths upwards, in fuch a manner, that when
the lead was revived by means of a burning lens, it
would remain in the cup, and not mix with the mer¬
cury which fupported it. The proportions of metal
then revived, were fix grains of lead in three ounce-
meafures, 16 *- in three meafures and an half, 13 in two-
and an half, and 12 in three and three-fourths; but thef
experiment on which he laid the greateft ftrefs, was that
in which 26- grains of lead were revived in y? ounce-
meafures of alkaline air. In this proportion, 100
onnee-meafures of alkaline air would revive 352 grains
of lead ;. but an equal quantity of inflammable air from,
iron would have revived 480 grains of metal. This
deficiency appeared fomewhat furprifing to the Doftor,
confidering that alkaline air is refolved into more than
twice its bulk of the inflammable kind; though it is
poffible, that inflammable air from , iron may contain
more phlogifton than that into which alkaline air is re--
folvable.
On heating red precipitate in alkaline air, the mer¬
cury was revived as in other cafes, and a confiderable
quantity of water was produced, though none appears
Oil :
2.
Sea. VII. AERO
Alkaline on reviving it with common inflammable air. “ It has
Air. even (fays he) run down in drops in the infide of a
' veflel which contained five ounce-meafures of the air;
and a confiderable quantity of dephlogifticated air was
found in the refiduum.” On throwing the focus of the
lens on red precipitate, inclofed in this kind of air, till
three meafures of it were reduced to two, water was
i produced as ufual, and the ftandard of the refiduum
was 1.7. In another experiment, a violent explofion
took place before he could obfefve whether any water
• 148 was produced or not.
!feonverfion In examining the phenomena which attend the con-
of alkaline verfion of alkaline air into the inflammable kind, the
Krlv1' Do&Qr was induced to believe that it was occafioned
by heat alone, without the concurrence of light. The
effects of the former were firft perceived on heating
feme ochre of iron in alkaline air ; when, though the
matter turned black, as in an incipient reduction of the
metal, he found a confiderable increafe of quantity in¬
stead of decreafe in the air, as he had expedted ; and,
on examining the quality of it, he found that it con¬
tained no fixed air, but was entirely inflammable. With
feales of iron a fimilar enlargement was perceived; but
in this way he could never increafe the quantity to more
than double that which had been originally employed,
and even after this the whole fmelled ffrongly of vola¬
tile alkali; the iron had undergone no change.
The Dodtor now, concluding from thefe experiments
that the change of alkaline into inflammable air was
produced by this caufe alone, proceeded to repeat the
experiment, by heating in the alkaline air bits of dry
crucibles, or of earthen retorts, which had been jult
before expofed to very great heats, fo that they could
not be fuppofed to give out any air themfelves, and
therefore could only ferve to communicate a ftrong
heat to the alkaline air; and in thefe experiments the
refult was the fame as when ochre and iron were made
ufe of. The bits of white earthen ware were always
turned black ; but finding the fame effeft of augment¬
ing the air and giving it an inflammable quality, though
he ufed the bit of crucible over and over again, he was
thoroughly conrinced that the change was effedled by
heat alone.
In all thefe experiments, however, with a burning-
glafs, as a ftrong light was alfo concerned, he heated a
quantity of alkaline air in a green glafs retort, receiving
in a glafs tube, filled with water, all the air that could
be expelled from it by heat. At firft it was all abforb-
ed by the water, being merely alkaline air expelled by
the rarefaction ; but when the bulb of the retort be¬
came red-hot, he found that the bubbles driven out
were not wholly abforbed, and at laft none of them
were fo. Thefe were altogether inflammable ; fo that
no doubt remained of the change being produced by
heat alone, without any intervention of light.
It was farther obferved, that whenever the alkaline
air was changed into inflammable by means of bits of
retorts or crucibles containing clay, they always be¬
came black during the procefs. He inclined therefore
to fuppofe, that fomething might be depofited from
the air which might attach itfelf to the clay. “ In¬
deed, (fays he) if this was not the cafe, I do "hot fee
why the clay Ihould become black ; though, perhaps,
part of the fame phlogifton which forms the inflam-
tnable air may be attracted by the red-hot clay, with-
L o G V. 179
out there being any proper decorapofition of the air. Nitrous Air.
That this is the cafe feems probable from an experi- v ^
ment in which I ufed porcelain inftead of common
earthen ware ; which did not become black in the pro¬
cefs, though inflammable air was produced.” ,40
In fome of Dr Prieftley’s experiments, he had oh-Volatile al-
ferved that iron, which had long rufted in nitrous air,
gave out a ftrong fmell of volatile alkali. This extra- nitrous air
ordinary phenomenon, however, was only perceived and iron,
where the nitrous air and iron had been in contaft for
a very long time; but he found that it was much foon-
er produced by making ufe of a weak folution of cop¬
per ; by putting iron into which he obtained that fpe-
cies of nitrous air called dephlogifticated. A phial con¬
taining fome of this iron, which had been ufed only
once for the purpofe juft mentioned, having been kept
clofe corked for about two months, was accidentally
broken ; when fome pieces of the iron were found co¬
vered with a green cruft, and thefe had a ftrong fmell
of volatile alkali. On making fome more experiments
on this fubjeft, he found that two months {landing was
requifite to produce the alkaline fmell defired.
Sect. VIII. Of Nitrous Air.
150
This kind of air is plentifully obtained in all cafes How pre-
where the nitrous acid is combined with phlogifton : duced.
Thus, when it is mixed with metals, or animal or ve¬
getable fubftances, nitrous air is produced in great
quantities; but very fparingly when treated with me¬
tallic calces, earths, or other matters which are faid to
contain little or no phlogifton. All the metals, ex¬
cepting gold, platina, and regulus of antimony, which
are not foluble in the pure nitrous acid, yield nitrous
air on being treated with it 5 and even from thefe,
when diffolved in aqua regia, fome quantity of this air
may be obtained. Every metal, however, does not
yield it in equal quantity, with equal facility, or e-
qually good. Silver, copper, iron, brafs, bifmuth or
nickel, when put into nitrous acid, yield this air in
confiderable quantity: Mercury yields it but flowly
without the application of heat, though no great de¬
gree of it is neceffary. Copper and iron, efpecially the
latter, require the acid to be cautioufly applied on ac¬
count of the violent emiflion of fumes. Gold, platina,
and regulus of antimony, when put in aqua regia, yield
nitrous air pretty readily; but lead yields it in fmaller
proportion than any other metal, and zinc does the
fame among the femimetals, the elaftic fluid produced
from it being moftjy phlogifticated air.
In the produftion of this kind of air, great differen¬
ces are perceived by a diverfity in the ftrength of the
acid. Thus, if we diffolve copper in ftrong nitrous a-
cid, no nitrous air is produced, though the fame ma¬
terials will yield air in great quantity by the mere af- r^I
fuflion of water to dilute the acid. This is very pro-Why ftroug
perly explained by Doftor Prieftley, from the property citrous acid
that the nitrous acid has of attracting phlogifton, ‘ts.
which is evident from what happens in the folution 0fnitrousai *
mercury. When ftrong fpirit of nitre is poured upon
this metal, the folution foon begins, and is very rapid,
yet not a Angle bubble of elaftic fluid is produced ; but
in a ftiort time the acid next to the'mercury is chan¬
ged of an orange colour, which is an indication of its
having acquired phlogifton, probably from the nitrous
Z 2 air
i8o AERO
NitronsAir. aiV which is decompofed the moment it is formed, and
'   before its particles are united into vifible bubbles. The
bubbles of air indeed break througlr the coloured acid,
but they-difappear the moment they come in contadl
with the pale-coloured acid. As foon as the whole
quantity of acid has affumed the orange colour, nitrous
air efcapes from it in confiderable quantity; but the
mixture of water deprives the acid of its power , of de-
• compofing nitrous air. The ftrong and pale-coloured
nitrous acid ought to be diluted with at leaft two or
three parts of water to one of the acid, for the
eafy production of nitrous air from copper and mer¬
cury.
In common experiments, no other degree of heat is
neceffary than that produced by the effervefcence itfelf,
except mercury be ufed, which requires the application
of fome degree of heat; but when the metal expofes
a very great furface to the acid, as is the cafe when
the filings of the metal are ufed, the effervefcence and
production of nitrous air are often much quicker than
can be conveniently managed. The moft proper me¬
thod of producing nitrous air, however, is explained
152 in the laft fcCtion of this treatife.
Properties Nitrous air by itfelf is equally tranfparent and in-
of nitrous vjflble with common air, excepting at its firft produc¬
tion, when it is fomewhat coloured, owing to a little
• fuperfluous nitrous acid, or to fome earthy particles
which are carried up with it. Its fmell refembles that
of nitrous acid, or indeed is' the very fame ; becaufe,
in pafiing through the common air to our noftrils, it
is decompofed, and converted into nitrous acid. The
fame is to be faid of its taite ; though Mr Fontana,
who tailed it without any contaft of external air, af¬
firms that it has no tafte whatever. The method in
which he afcertained this fa6t was as follows. Having
firft introduced the nitrous air into a bottle of elaftic
gum in water, as is done with glafs bottles, he brought
his mouth, (hut, while the neck of the elaftic-gum
bottle was under water, near the neck of it; and then,
by preffing the bottle, introduced the nitrous air into
his mouth. The experiment, however, is by no means
void of danger; for if the perfon happens to draw any
quantity of this air into the lungs, he may be nearly
fuffocated, as nitrous air is exceedingly noxious. In
performing of it, he recommends to exhauft the mouth
entirely of common air, though he does not inform us
how this can be done; nor indeed is it eafy to con¬
ceive the poffibility of doing fo.
Though nitrous air extinguilhes flame, it may by
certain proceffes be brought in to fuch a ftate that a
candle will burn in it with an enlarged flame; and it
becomes what Dr Prieftley calls dephlogijiicated nitrous
air, which is treated of in the next fe&ion. It is
remarkable, however, that when a candle is extin-
guiftied, as it never fails to be in common nitrous air,
the flame feems to be a little enlarged about its edges
by the addition of another bluiih flame before the for-
>53 mer g?es out.
Extremely Nitrous air feems to be the moft fatal to animal life
imd andve-0^ an.^‘ -E*ven infedls, which can bear phlogifticated
getable life.an<^ inflammable air, generally die the moment they
are put into it. Frogs, fnails, and other animals
which, do not refpire very frequently, die in a few mi¬
nutes, and generally do not recover even when taken
out of this noxious fluid before they are dead. Plants
LOG Y. Sea.VIIL
perilh very foon in nitrous air, and even in common Nitron?Air.
air faturated with nitrous air; but Dr Prieftley informs
us, that “ though in general plants die almoft imme¬
diately in water impregnated with nitrous air, yet in
one cafe of this kind, when the fuperfluous nitrous air
was let out under water, fo that no part of it was de¬
compofed in contact with the water, the plant grew
in it remarkably well.”
Water, by agitation in nitrous air, may be made to
imbibe one tenth part of its bulk; and afterwards the ni¬
trous air may be expelled again by boiling, though not
in the fame quantity as it was abforbed ; but for this
purpofe the water Ihould be previoufly deprived of its
air. Dr Prieftley informs us, that having carefully
pumped all the air out of a quantity of rain-water,
letting it Hand 24 hours in a good vacuum, and then
impregnating it with nitrous air, he inftantly expelled
it again by boiling, when he obtained only about one
fourth part of it, though fufficiently pure, and with¬
out any mixture of fixed air. Water may alfo be de¬
prived of the nkrous air it contains, though it does not
freeze quite fo readily when impregnated with this air
as in its natural ftate.
Nitrous air is abforbed by ftrong oil of vitriol nearly
in the fame quantity as by water; the acid acquiring
a purple colour, by reafon of the phlogifton contained
in the piteous air. The ftrong nitrous acid abforbs it
in great quantity; and becomes fmoking, orange co¬
loured, and afterwards green, on account of the phlo¬
gifton contained in it. Marine acid imbibes but a
fmall quantity, and very flowly, acquiring at the fame
time a light-blue colour. Both nitrous, air and com¬
mon' air phlogifticated by it are meliorated by agita-
tation in nitrous acid.
Nitrous air is abforbed in confiderable quantity by
radical vinegar, and the concentrated vegetable acid.—
Solution of green vitriol imbibes it in much greater
quantity than water, and acquires a black colour;
which, however, foon goes off by expofure to the
common air. Its tafte alfo becomes acid.—Very little
is abforbed by cauftic alkalis. Oil-olive flowly ab¬
forbs a confiderable quantity, but oil of turpentine
abforbs much mdre. By a little agitation, it will
imbibe more than ten times its quantity of nitrous
air ; acquiring at the fame time a yellowilh or orange
colour, and becoming a little glutinous. The part
which is not abforbed appears to be converted into
phlbgifticated air.—Ether and fpirit of wine abforb
it very quickly’, but no nitrous air is obtained by the
application of heat after they have abforbed it. It is
greatly diminilhed by oil of turpentine, liver of fulr
phur, and pyrophorus ; all of which leave it in a phlo¬
gifticated ftate. It is alfo diminilhed and phlogiftica¬
ted by being kept in a bladder, alternately expofed to
moifture and drynefs. Nitrous acid air has the fame
effed.
One of the moft remarkable properties of nitrous Dimjnffliea
air, is its diminution with dephlogiftieated air; by dephlogifti.
which means it becomes a tell of the quantity of thatcatc<*air*
kind of air contained in the atmofphere. With pure
dephlogiilicated air, the diminution is almoft to no¬
thing, at the fame time that fome quantity of nitrous
acid is reproduced by the decompofition of the nitrous
air; but as our atmofphere is always mixed with a
confiderable quantity of phlogifticated air, on which
nitrous.
Sea. IX.
AEROLOGY.
i8i
NitrousAir. nitrous air has no effeft, the diminution in this cafe is
never fo confiderable. Upon this principle the Eudi-
155 ome,ter is confti’U'Sled.
Its antifep- Another very remarkable property of nitrous air is
tic power, its ftrong antifeptie power; infomuch that animal mat¬
ters may, by its means, be preferved for many months
without corruption. This property', it was thought,
might have been extremely ufeful on many occafions;
but Dr Prieftley, after a number of experiments on
the fubjeft, concludes in the following manner. “ Ni¬
trous air will indeed preferve meat from putrefaclion ;
but after long keeping, it becomes very offenfive both
to the noftrils and palate, though the fmell is not alto¬
gether that pf putrefaction ; and indeed the fubftance
continuing quite firm, it could not be properly putrid.
—Having, formerly experienced, the remarkable anti-
feptic power of nitrous air, I propofed an attempt to
preferve anatomi'cal preparations, &c. by means of it;
but Mr Key, who made the trial, found, that, after
fome -months, various animal fubftarices were fhrivel-
led, and did not preferve their forms in this kind of
i?6 air.” . . . . ’
Specificgra- The fpecific gravity of nitrous air, as well as of
vity oi tii- other kinds, has been afcertained by Mr Kirwan. As
trous air. ^ C0rr0<jes metals, he endeavoured to find its weight
by comparing the lofs fuftained by the materials which
produce it. Thus he found, that 14 grains of the
materials produced 38.74 inches of nitrous air; and,
confequently, by proper calculation,- that the fpecific
gravity of nitrous air is to that of atmofpheric air as
1195 to 1000.—“ If this air (fays he) had been ob¬
tained over water, or in lirong heat, its weight would
probably have been very different; as it is liable to be
mixed with phlogifticated air, nitrous vapour, and a
variable quantity of water. Nitrous Vapour would
render it heavier, and phlogifticated air jsr water pro-
hahly lighter-”
Component With regard to the conftituent principles, or de¬
parts of ni- ments of nitrous air, all thofe who Ipok upon phlogi-
trous air. ^.on t0 ’De a fubftance, have believed that the
former is a compound of nitrous acid and phlogifton.
By the oppofite party, it is iuppofed to be a fubftance
entirely fimple, and one of the conftituent parts pf the
nitrous acid. This opinion feems in part now to be
entertained by Dr Prieftley himfelf, notwithftanding
his former fentiments on the fubjed. “ I had no
doubt on the fubjeft (fays he) until I read the work
of Mr Metherie ; who afferts, that nitrous air contains
no proper nitrous acid, but only one of the elements
of it; the other being dephlogifticated air, which had
before been confidered by Mr Lavoifier as the prin¬
ciple of all acidity.—Among other obfervations in
fupport of his affertipn, Mr Metherie has the follow¬
ing. 1. Nitrous air burnt together with inflammable
air, produces no nitrous acid. 2. Though nitrous air
be obtained from a folution of mercury in the nitrous
acid, almoft all the acid is found in the folution. 3.
Nitrous air, abforbed by marine acid, does not make
aqua regia. 4. He is of opinion, that a fmall por tion
of the nitrous.acid being decompoftd, furnifties a pure
ajr, fo altered, that, uniting with inflammable air, it
changes it into nitrous air.
“ In reviewing the experiments I had formerly
made on this kind of air, I could not recoiled, any pf
them in which the pure nitrous acid was produced, ex¬
cepting that with dephlogifticated air, befides the ex- NitrousAir.
periment in which it was decompofed by the eleftric 1 J J
fpark ; which furnifhes a ftrong objection to’this hy
pothefis.” To afcertain, the matter more fully, the
following experiments were made.
“ When nitrous air is decompofed by iron, or by a
mixture of irpn and fulphur, the water, over which the
procefs is condufted, acquires no acidity ; but I had
fuppofed that all the acid was abforbed by the iron.
Having by me a quantity of this iron which had been
reduced to perfeft ruft in nitrous air, and which, I
knew,' muft have imbibed more than its weight of this
air, I thought that the acid might be obtained from it
by diftillation ; but a quantity of this ruft of iron, di-
ftilled in an earthen retort, yielded neither nitrous air
nor nitrous acid, at leaft in any quantity that could
favour the common hypothefis.
“ I then endeavoured to decompofe nitrous air by
heating iron in it with a burning lens; and in this
procefs I fucceeded far beyond my expetfation : for
the air was prefently diminiftied in quantity, while the
iron became of a darker colour, was fometimes melted
into balls, and gathered confiderable weight, though
it had no.appearance of cqntaining any nitrous acid.—
In the firft experiment, the original quantity of ni¬
trous air Was diminiftied to about one-third ; and after
this, it was increafed.” The increafe was found to
arife from a production of inflammable and dephlogi¬
fticated nitrous air.
The Doctor proceeded to try various other experi¬
ments on the decompofition of nitrous air, particularly
that of burning Homberg’s pyrophorus ; but without
any fuccefs, or obtaining the fmalleft particle of ni¬
trous acid. His concluftons from the whole are the
following. ; ,^g
“ Water feems to be a necefiary ingredient in ni-Nitrous air
trous as well as inflammable air ; at leaft; without a
quantity of water, nitrous air cannot be formed. For ^atecDii-
example, copper will be difiblved in ftrong nitrous troug acj4
acid without producing any nitrous air, juft as iron and watsr,
may be diffolved in concentrated vitriolic acid without
producing inflammable air.
“ That nothing is neceflary to the formation of ni.
trolls air beftdes phlogifticated nitrous acid and water,.
is evident from the production of it.by the impreg¬
nation of pure water with phlogifticated nitrous vapour
formed by the rapid folution of bifmuth ; an experi.
ment which I mentioned before. However, to make
it in a more unexceptionable manner, . I interpofed a
glafs vefiel between that in which the folution was
made and that in which the water to be impregnated'
with the phlogifticated vapour was contained, that
whatever was diftilled ove* by the heat of the procefs
might be prevented from reaching the water. In
thefe circumftances, however, when nothing but the
dry phlogifticated vapour could enter the water, it be¬
gan to fparkle and yield nitrous air very copioufly as
foon as it had received a bluer tinge from the impreg¬
nation.—Nitrous air is alfo produced by pouring a
highly coloured or phlogifticated nitrous acid into pure
water, in which no metal or earthy matter is any way-
concerned. r-p
“ I have formerly obferVed, how readily, nitrous air Ffilifts of
is diminiftied by taking the eleflric fpark in it. Tliis ti‘e e!«ftric
experiment I have frequently repeated, in order mo>'e tr,a^ yl* ^
particularly
t82 AERO
NltrousAir. particularly to afcertain the quantity and quality of the
i v 1 refiduum. In one experiment half an ounce of nitrous,
air was reduced, an lefs than half an hour, to one^juar
ter of its bulk. One-fourth of the refiduum was ftill
nitrous, and the reft phlogifticated. Taking the elec¬
tric fpark in a quantity of nitrous air till it was dimi-
niflied to one-third, the whole was completely'phlogi¬
fticated, not affefting common air at all, and extinguilh-
ing a candle. A white matter was formed with the
mercury over which the fpark was taken, which made
the water admitted to it extremely turbid. In another
procefs, the ele&ric fpark was taken in a quantity of
nitrous air till it could be no more diminifhed, when it
* was reduced in bulk in the proportion of iol to 24.
Letting it ftand all night upon the mercury, it was in-
creafed in the proportion of 11^- to 24 ; feemingly by
the acid uniting to the mercury and generating more
nitrous air, fince it had that fmell. No water appear¬
ed after the procefs; and the water admitted to it ac¬
quired no acid tafte, but an aftringent one like that of
water impregnated with nitrous air. There #as a white
powder formed, as in the former experiments.—To try
if it were poflible to make water imbibe the acid from
the nitrous air, the eleftric fpark was taken in it, with
a fmall quantity of water over the mercury. But even
this water did not acquire any acid tafte, but only air
aftringent one.”
The Do&or concludes his experiments on this fub-
iect with a conje&ure, that the phlogifton, and neither
the heat nor light of the eleftric, contributes to the de-
compofition of the nitrous air. As his final fentiments
on the matter, however, are merely conjecture, without
any certain experiments to confirm them, we fiiall here
refer the reader to -his SeCtion on Theory, at the end
of his fixth volume of Experiments, &c.
Sect. IX. Of DephlogijlicatedNitrous dir-
This fpecies differs from common nitrous air in be-
*6o ing able to fupport flame, though it ftill continues fatal
How pro- t0 anijnal life. Common nitrous air may be converted
£ure ’ into the dephlogifticated kind by particular proceffes ;
though, when zinc is diffolved in the-nitrous acid, if
.the air be taken at different times, that which comes
about the middle, or rather the latter end of the pro¬
cefs, will be of this kind ; in which it not only fup-
ports the burning of a candle, butAhe flame is enlarged
(fometimes to four or five times its original bulk) by
the addition of a weaker and bluiih flame round
the former ; and this burning is fometimes accompa¬
nied with a crackling noifej as if the candle was burn¬
ing in dephlogifticated air. It may alfo be obtained
in fome part of the procefs of procuring nitrous air
from iron, though with this metal the fuccefs is uncer¬
tain ; but tin yields a conliderable quantity of it. By
expofing iron to nitrous air, it may be fo far dephlo¬
gifticated as. to admit a candle to burn in it. Dr Prieft-
ley filled an eight-ounce phial with, nails, and then with
mercury and difplacing the mercury with nitrous air,
left the phial inverted in a quantity of the fame fluid.
Two months after, the nitrous air was found to be
changed in fuch a manner as to admit a candle to burn
in it with its natural flame; and by continuing ftill -
longer in contact; with the iron, a candle would burn
in it with an enlarged flame. Thefe changes, however,
LOGY. Sea. IX.
are very irregular, fo that theyfeldom produce the like Dephlogif- 1
effects with the regularity one might expeft. J)r dcated Ni- ;
Prieftley once found, that by the contaft of iron introus ^ ir* , i
quickfilver, it was fo changed as to be fired with an
explofion like a weak inflammable air; whilft another
quantity of nitrous air, which had been treated in like -
manner for about the fame length of time, only ad¬
mitted a candle to burn in it with an enlarged flame. 1($r ;
In that fc&ion of .his laft volume in which the Doc- Component
tor treats of this kind of air, he obferves, that water is Parts .<le* 4
abfolutely neceffary to its compofition, or rather to the Phl°glftica‘ j|
y • • c.i • tt ted nitrous -F
decompolition of the common nitrous air by iron. He air.
had decompofed it before', either by previoufly filling
the veffels that were to contain the nitrous air with wa¬
ter or with mercury; though it had always required
a much longer time when the latter was made ufe of.
The reafon of its being formed at all in this laft way,
was a fmall quantity of moifture adhering to the infide
of the veffel containing the mercury. ^
To try the influence of water in this cafe, he now Effedts of
procured a number of very clean fmall needles ; and water on
having made a phial, and likewife a proper quantity ofnitrous air'
mercury, quite clean and dry, he put the needles into
thephial,and, filling it up with mercury, introduced the
nitrous air: but it continued in this way for fix or
eight months without the fmalleft alteration. Intro¬
ducing a few drops of water, a diminution of about
one-third of the air took place, and the remainder ap¬
peared to be phlogifticated. On the 26th of May 1782,
he examined a quantity of nitrous air, which had been
confined with iron-lhavings from the 27th of Auguft
preceding, when he found one-half of it abforbed ; the
remainder fupported the flame of a candle better than
common air, though a moufe died in it; and yet this
air had continued feveral months in the fame ftate with
regard to quantity, nor was it at all probable that its
quality would have been altered by any length -of
time. l6j
Though this kind of air is produced by tlie contaft Beft me-
of iron and nitrous air, the D oft or has never been abletho<1
to afcertain the quantity of nitrous air which a given Procunn«
quantity of iron can decompofe ; and though iron foon
becomes fo much affefted by this procefs that it crum¬
bles into powder, it ftill feems equally capable of de-
compofing a frefh quantity. Having made a compa¬
rative experiment, by putting together one quantity of
nitrous air with frefh iron and another with ruft, he
found that in both the air was diminifhed to about one-
third, and a candle burned in both equally well; but
neither of them had the properties of frefh nitrous air
in any degree.
. As the procefs for obtaining dephlogifticated nitrous
air by means of iron is veiy tedious, the Doftor en¬
deavoured to find another which might be attended
with lefs inconvenience. This he accomplifhed by dif-
folving turnings of iron in a dilute folution of copper
in nitrous acid (the fame that remains after the pro-
duftion of nitrous air), mixing it again with an equal
quantity of water. Without this precaution, he tells
us, that though the iron will at firft be afted upon very
flowly, yet the mixture will at length grow fo hot as
aftually. to boil, and the procefs will be exceedingly
troublefome ; however it will be neceffary, previous to
any attempt to diffolve the iron, to heat the folution of
copper, in order to expel all the nitrous air and fuper-
flueus
Sea. IX. AERO
Deph’ogif- fluous nitrous acid. Without this precaution a quan-
trcms Air*" t^t5r common nitrous air will be produced.
» , ' 1 Dephlogifticated nitrous air is abforbed by water al-
1 moll as readily as fixed air, and in confiderable quan¬
tity ; the liquid taking up about one-half its bulk of
air. After being thus faturated, the whole quantity
of dephlogifticated nitrous air may be expelled pure by
heat, and is eafily received in veffels containing mer¬
cury. It was likewife obferved, that as this kind of
air much refembles fixed air in its properties -of being
imbibed by water, and expelled again by heat, it re¬
fembles it alfo in this farther property, that all the air
which has been aftually incorporated with the water
will not be imbibed by water again. But the propor¬
tion of this part is three or four times greater than the
correfponding part of fixed air ; it is alfo confiderably
more phlogifticated. Water impregnated with it very
foon parts with it again on being expofed to the r.tmo-
fphere.—It difcovers not the fmallefl trace of contain¬
ing either acid or alkali. Its fpecific gravity is lefs
than that of common air. On heating red precipitate
in this kind of air, pure dephlogifticated air was pro¬
duced without affecting, or being affected by, the ni¬
trous air. Repeating the experiment with malleable
iron, the quantity of it was enlarged, and the whole
phlogifticated, without any mixture of fixed air. By
ffc u^oach t(> ca§ **n£> k’ts of clean crucibles or retorts in this kindLof
the nature a‘r>’t feemed to approach in quality to common atmo-
of atmo- fpherical air ; and the effects were always found to be
ipherical the more confiderable the longer the procefs was con-
|air‘ tinued. On attempting, however, to determine whe¬
ther this change in the conftitution of dephlogifticated
nitrous air was occafioned by means of heat or light,
he heated it in earthen tubes; but found, that though
thefe were glazed both on the outfide and infide, and
feemed perfectly air-tight both before and after the ex¬
periment, the air had efcaped. By the eleftric fpark
it was rendered wholly immifcible with water, and
brought to the ftandard of 1.45 ; fo that the Doctor
had no doubt of its being refpirable. Yet this kind of
air, though it admits a candle to burn fo well in it, will
not kindle pyrophorus, though the nitrous air from
which it is produced would inftantly fet it on fire.
t6s
How pro¬
cured.
Sect. X. 0/ Vitriolic, Nitrous, Marine,
and other Acid Airs-
§ I. Vitriolic acid Air.—This is always a combina¬
tion of vitriolic acid with phlogifton, and confequently
may be procured from any mixture of that acid in its
highlyconcentrated Rate with phlogiftic matters. Hence
it is obtained from all the metals, gold and platina ex¬
cepted, on boiling them with ftrong oil of vitriol. It
is alfo procurable from the fame acid rendered black by
any phlogiftic matter. No greater heat is required to
expel this kind of air than that produced by the flame
of a candle. It is the heavieft of all aerial fluids,, next
tofluor acid air, being to common air 33 2265 to 1000.
Dr Prieftley informs us, that a quantity of vitriolic
acid thus impregnated with phlogifton, will yield many
times more air than an equal quantity of the ftrongeft
fpirit of fait.—When the vitriolic acid air is produced
in great plenty, the top of the phial in which it is gene¬
rated is commonly filled with white vapours. The air
has .alfo the fame appearance as it is tranfmitted through
LOGY. 183
the glafs tube; and it is fometimes difcoverable in the Nitrous
recipient. When fuch fubftances are put to the oil ofAci;i Air‘ ,
vitriol as caufe a great effervefcence with that acid, care "v
fhould be taken to add them by very fmall quantities
at a time, and likewife to apply the heat by very flow
degrees, left the rapid production of air, and the heat
attending it, fhould break the veffels. It is moft equa¬
bly produced by ufirtg ftrong oil of vitriol and char¬
coal ; but in moft cafes the production of vitriolic acid
air is attended with that of inflammable, and fometimes
fixed or phlogifticated air. With ether about one-
half of the firft produce is inflammable ; but’the quan¬
tity leffens as the procefs goes on. The DoCtor ob¬
ferved, that, when quickfilver was ufed, the acid was
not turned black, as in other experiments of the like
nature. He alfo obferved, that iron yielded a little in¬
flammable air together with the acid gas ; but that the
elaftic fluid produced when zinc was ufed, contained
about two parts of inflammable and one of acid air.
Copper, filver, and lead, when heated in vitriolic acid,
yield the pureft vitriolic acid air, without any mixture
of inflammable air; but the lead yields only a very
fmall quantity, and requires a great degree of heat. It
is procured in the greateft abundance from the fumes
of burning fulphur, and is then called the volatile vi¬
triolic, or fulphureous acid; for an account of the pro¬
perties of which, fee Chemistry, [Index). jgg,
$ 2. Of Nitrous Acid Air.—This is the pure nitrous How ob--
acid by itfelf, without any addition of phlogifton. It tained.
is procured by heating the ftrong fpirit of nitre in a
phial, and then receiving the vapour in glafs veffels filled
with quickfilver. It is, however, extremely difficult,
or rather impoffible, to preferve it for a length of time ,5^
by means of any fluid hitherto known. Water abforbs Cannot bs
it immediately, and quickfilver is corroded, and pro- preferved
duces nitrous air. “ But (fays Dr Prieftley) tho’ the^^f®”5
acid vapour very foon unites with the quickfilver, yet,
the jar in which it was received being narrow, the fa
line cruft which was formed on the furface of the quick¬
filver, impeded the action of the acid upon it till I
had an opportunity of admitting water to the air I
had produced, and of fatisfying myfelf, by its abforp-
tion, of its being a real acid air, having an affinity with
water fimilar to other acid airs.”
The moft remarkable property of this vapour is, that Affumes a
its colour may be made more or lefs intenfe by the red colon*
mere circumftance of heat. It may be confined
glafs veffels with ground-ftoppers, or in tubes hermeti¬
cally fealed, and thus expofed to the adlion of heat :
in which cafe it will be found, that the colour of the
vapour becomes confiderably more intenfe in propor¬
tion as the glafs veffel containing it is more or lefs
heated; and that, on the contrary, the intenfity of
the colour diminiflies as it is cooled. “ It feems pro¬
bable (fays Dr Prieftley), that if this vapour was not
confined, but had room to expand itfelf, it would be¬
come colourlefs with heat. This at leaft is the cafe
when it is combined with water. The phenomena f.
refer to are very common in the procefs for making
dephlogifticated air, in which I firft obferved them.
But the fame things are obfervable in the procefs for
producing any other kind of air in which much fpirit .of.
nitre is made ufe of; and likewife conllantly in the
common procefs for making fpirit of nitre itfelf. It
is, that when the heat is moderate, the vapour within
184
AEROLOGY Sett. X.
MariHe the glafs tube or retort is red; but that, as the heat
Acid Air. , jncrcafes> {t becomes tranfparent.” The Dodbor ha-
169 ving obferved that red lead, impregnated with nitrous
Its effe6h vapour, may be preferved a long time without deli-
-®n red-lead, quefcing or lofing its acid, made life of a compofition
of this kind for procuring the nitrous vapour with
which he filled his tubes. By imbibing this vapour
the minium loft its red colour arid became white. “ I
put (fays he) a fmall quantity of this white minium
into a glafs tube clofed at one end ; then, holding it to
the fire, make it emit the red vapour till the whole
tube is filled with it; and having the other end of the
tube drawn out ready for clofing, asfoon'as the vapour
begins to iffue out of that end, I apply my blowpipe
and feal it. By this means I conclude that the tube
is filled with a pure red vapour, without any mixture
of nitrous air, and perhaps common air alfo.” For a
further' accourit of the properties of nitrous acid air,
fee Chemistry, (Index.)
Of Marine Acid ylir.—-The marine acid, by
heat, may be refolved into a permanently elaftic and
tranfparent invifible vapour, w’hich, however, is more
,j^0 eafily preferred in its aerial ftate than nitrous acid air.
Stow ob- as the former has no effedf upon quickfilver. An eafy -
stained. and cheap method of obtaining this kind of air is by
filling a phial, fitted with a glafs tube and ftopper,
with common fait, and then pouring a fmall quantity
of oil of yitriol upon it; which, by the affiftance of
heat, will difengage the acid principle, or the marine
acid air, from the fait. “ A phial (fays Dr Prieftley)
prepared in this manner will fuffice, for common ex¬
periments, many weeks ; efpecially if fome more oil
of vitriol be occafionally put to it. It only requires a
little more heat at the laft than at the firft. Indeed,
at firft, the heat of a perfon’s hand will often be fuf-
ficient to make it throw out the vapour. In warm
weather it will even keep fmoking many days without
the application of any other heat. On this account
it fhould be placed where there are no metallic uten-
fils which it can corrode ; and it may eafily be per¬
ceived when the phial is throwing out this acid vapour,
as it always appears in the open air in form of a light
white cloud.’’
After the marine acid has yielded all the air that
171 can be expelled from it, it is extremely weak, fo that
Its proper- it can but barely corrode iron. The gas itfelf is con-
ties. fiderably heavier than common air, the fpecific gravity
of the two being in the proportion of five to three ;
a cubic inch weighing 0.654 grains. It is very fatal
to animal life, but lefs fo than pure nitrous air; for
flies and fpiders live longer in marine acid than in ni-
troits air. In dipping a candle into a jar of this air
the flame is extinguifhed ; but the moment btfore it
goes out, and alfo w'hen it is afterwards firft lighted
again, it burns with a green or light-blue flame, like
that of common fait thrown into a fire. Its diminu¬
tion by the electric fpark is barely perceptible. Ice
is diffolved by it as fait as if it touched a red-hot iron.
It is partly abforbed by almoft every fubftance con¬
taining phlogifton, and the remaining part becomes
inflammable. Oil of olives abforbs it very flowly, and
oil of turpentine very'fail ; by which they both be¬
come almoft black, and the remainder of the air is in¬
flammable. Effential oil of mint abforbs marine air
pretty fait, becoming brown, confiftent, and fo heavy
N° S' l
as to fink in water ; and its fmell is in great meafure Flyor Acid
altered. Ethe'r abforbs it very faft, and has its colour ^ir> &c-
altered by the impregnation, becoming firft turbid, v '
then yellow, and at laft brown. The air over the ether jyi
is ftrongly inflammable. A fmall bit of phofphorus Changed
fmoked and gave light in this acid air ; and the elaftic into iniiam-
ftuid was but- little diminilhed in twelve hours. Onma e air*
the admiflion of water, about four-fifths of the gas
were abforbed, and the reft was inflammable. This
change was alfo effedfted by a great number of other
fubftances: fome of which, however, required a con-
fiderable time to produce their effeft ; fuch as crufts
of bread not burned, dry wood, dry fleflx, roafted pieces
of beef, ivory, and even flints. SccChemistry, (Index.)
§ 4. Of Fluor Acid Air.—The difeovery of fluor
acid air was made by Mr Scheele, who obtained it by
diftilling the fpar called fluor with vitriolic acid. Dr
Prieftley, who made feveral experiments upon the fub-
jetft, was of opinion that this new' acid was only the Different
vitriolic difguifed by its connection with the fluor. (!nm vuno-
He even fuppofed that he had produced it by pouring 1C aci air<>
vitriolic acid on other phofphoric fpars: both thefe
opinions, however, he has now retraced, and believes
the fluor acid to b.e one of a peculiar kind. Its moft
remarkable property is the great attraction it has for
filiceous earth, fo that it even corrodes and makes
holes in the retorts in which it is diftilled. See Che¬
mistry, (Index.) -
§ 5. Of the Vegetable and another Acid Air.—By
means of heat alone, the concentrated vegetable acid
emits a permanently elaftic and aerial fluid. This has
the properties of the acid of vinegar ; but, like it, is
weaker than the reft of the mineral acid airs, though
it agrees with them in its general characters. Water
imbibes it as readily as any of the other acid airs; oil-
olive readily abforbs it, and in confiderable quantity,
lofing at the fame time its yellowifh colour, and be- 174
coming quite tranfparent. Common air is phlogifti- Phlogifti-
cated by it, as it is alfo by the liquid vegetable acid. cates c.om*
As the vegetable acid, however, from which this air 01 <ur‘
had been obtained, was diftilled by oil of vitriol, the
Doftor fufpeCled that what -he had examined might
derive moft of its properties from the oil of vitriol,,
and rather be vitriolic than vegetable acid air. 175
An acid air, fomewhat different from any hitherto Air from
deferibed, was obtained by Dr Prieftley from the va-
pour arifing on diftilling to drynefs a folution of gold
in marine acid impregnated with nitrous acid vapour,
wdiich makes the beft kind of aqua regia. “ The
produce (fays he) was an acid air of a very peculiar
kind, partaking both of the nature of the nitrous and ma¬
rine acids; but more of the latter than*>f the former, as
it extinguiftied a candle ; but it was both extinguilhed
and lighted again with a moft beautiful deep blue flame.
A candle dipped into the fame jar with this kind of
air went out more than 20 times fucceflively, making
a very pleafing. experiment. The quantity of this
acid air is very great; and the refiduum I have fome-”
times found to be dephlogifticated, fometimes phlo-
gifticated, and at other times nitrous air.”
Sect. XI. Of Hepatic Air.
This fpecies of air, firffi particularly taken notice
of by Mr Bergman, who obtained it from an ore of
zinc
Sea. XII. AERO
Atmofphe zinc called Pfcudogakna nigra Danneniorenjis, and
rical Air which was found to contain 29 parts of fulphur, one
of regulus of arfenic, fix of water, fix of lead, nine
I pro(]UCed of iron, 45 of zinc, and four of filiceous earth. The
firft from hepatic air was produced but in fmall quantity by
an ore of pouring oil of vitriol on this mineral; fpirit of fait
zinc. produced it in much larger quantity ; but nitrous acid
Beft Obtain- produced only: nitrous air. The moft proper method
ed from he-of obtaining this air is by pouring marine acid on he-
par fulphu-par fulphuris, which extricates it in vail quantity. It
is faid alfo to be fometimes produced naturally from
putrefying matters. It is the chara&eriftic of all li¬
vers of fulphur, whether they be made with alkalis or
earths. The fmell of the pure gas is intolerable ; and
the vapour has a difagreeable effect on many metallic
fubftances, particularly filver, lead, copper, &c. de-
ftroying their colour, and rendering them quite black.
It is fuddenly fatal to animal life, renders fyrup of
violets green, and is inflammable, burning with a very
light blue flame. It is decompofed by vitriolic and
nitrous air, by dephlogiilicated air, and by the contact
of atmofpherical air, in which cafe it depofites a fmall
quantity of fulphur ; being indeed, as is fuppofed by
Mr Bergman and Mr Kirwan, no other than fulphur
kept in an arrial form. Its fpecific gravity, compared
with that of atmofpherical air, is as 1106 to 1000.
It combines readily with water, and gives the fmell to
the fulphureous medicinal waters. Its great attra&ion
for fome of the metals and their calces makes it the
balls of fome Sympathetic Inks. See alfo Chemistry,
(.Index.)
Sect. XII. Of Jtmofpherical Air. ■
The two component parts of our atmofphere, viz.
dephlogifticated and phlogifticated air, have been fo
fully treated of under their refpe6tive fedlions, that
little remains to be faid in this place, excepting to de-
t-g termine the proportion in which they are ufually met
Proportion with in the common air. The only regular fet of ex-
of the two perjments which have been made on this fubjetff are
•cfwhidi^8 thofe Mr Scheele. He conftru&ed an eudiometer,
iscompofed. confifting of a glafs receiver, which could contain 34
ounces of water, and a glafs cup containing a mixture
of one pound of iron-filings, and an equal weight of
flowers of fulphur moiftened ; which cup Handing up¬
on a glafs fupporter, was inferted in the former re¬
ceiver, which, when this was in it, could contain 33
ounces of water. To the outfide of the glafs tube or
receiver, was affixed a flip of paper, to the height of a
third of the tube, containing 11 divifions, each corre-
fponding to one ounce of water. This paper was var-
i)idled over with oil varnilh, to prevent its being fpoil-
ed by water. The whole then was placed in water,
which gradually rofe as the air was diminiflied. This
mixture would ferve four times before the power of di-
miniftiing air was loft. He carefully compared the
height of the air therein with the barometer and ther¬
mometer, both before and after the experiment; in
eight hours the experiment was completed. With
this inftrument he examined the goodnefs of the com¬
mon air in Stockholm every day for a whole year, and
found the diminution never to exceed nor to fallftiort
of -j-y; fo that upon a medium it may be eftimated at
y9-. During the months of January and Februaiy it
J Vo1.1. Part I.
LOGY. 1S5
was ff. The 23d of March it was fr, though the A'mofphe-
cold increafed, and the barometer flood higher than rical Air-.
before. The 19th of April it was -fy, though the ba- ""v
rometer and thermometer did not vary, and fo flood till
the 21 ft. In May and June it flood between ^ and
yy. The 30th of July it flood at yy. From the 3d
to the 1 yth of September at -j^. The 6th of Ofto-
ber at -fy, during a high ftorm ; but after it flood be¬
tween ^ an(i till the 4th of November, when it
fell to yy, and continued between -jy- and to the
20th, when it rofe to yy. The 21 ft it fell to 8, and
flood between yy and T9y till the 8th of December,
when it rofe to yy; and from thence to the 31ft it
flood between yy and
As it has already been fliown that the pure dephlo¬
gifticated part of the atmofphere is entirely confumed
by phlogiftic proceffes, fuch as that of fermenting
brimftone and iron-filings, this eudiometer muft be
confidered as an exaft teft of the proportion of de¬
phlogifticated air contained in the atmofphere. The
fmall variation in the quantity (hows, that the procef¬
fes in nature which deftroy this air, are nearly balanced
by thofe which produce it; though it muft appear fur-
prifing, that both thefe fluids, fo extremely different,
Ihould be produced at all feafons of the year in a pro¬
portion nearly equal; nor is it lefs furprifing that two
fluids of unequal fpecific gravity ftiould remain incor¬
porated together without any tendency to feparate,
which it is certain they never do, either in the atmo¬
fphere itfelf, or when confined in veffels in any quanti¬
ty whatever.—A s phlogifticated air is fomewhat light¬
er than dephlogifticated, it might be fuppofed that the 179
former would occupy the higher regions of the atmo- Upper re-
fphere in fuch a manner as to render them confider-
ably more unwholefome than the lower parts ; but this faiubrious
feems not to be the cafe : On the contrary, it appears than the
by experiments with the eudiometer, that the upper lower.
parts of the air contain a greater proportion of dephlo¬
gifticated air than thofe near the earth. See Eudio¬
meter.
Sect. XIII. Of the artificial Production of Ain of
different Kinds.
§ 1. Fixed Air, or Aerial Acid. The artificial me¬
thods of producing this are principally three, viz. by
fermentation, by heat, and by acids.
(1.) By fermentation. When vegetable or animal
fubftances, efpecially the former, are fermented, they
yield a great quantity of fixed air. In breweries, on
the furface of the fermenting liquor, there is always a
ftratum of fixed air reaching as high as the edge of the
vats; fo that if thefe veffels are deep, and the ferment¬
ing liquor much below their edges, the above-mention¬
ed ftratum may be fome feet in thicknefs. The fame
phenomenon is obfervable in the fermentation of wines
in general; and it is owing to the produ&ion and ela-
fticity of fixed air, that fermenting liquors, when put
into clofe veffels, often burft them with great violence.
The cafe is the fame whatever fubftance it is that un¬
dergoes the vinous fermentation, though the quantity
of fixed air produced is not the fame in all fubftances,
nor even in the fame fubftance at different times. From
42 cubic inches of beer Dr Hales obtained 639 cubic
inches of air in 13 days. From a quantity of fugar
A a undergoing
i86
O
O
Y.
Sea. xnr.
OfArtificial undergoing the vinous fermentation, Mr Cavendifh ob- lefs mixed with any putrid or offenfive effluvium, than OfArtificiai
tained fo much fixed air, that out of too parts of the
former 57 appeared to have been volatilized and con¬
verted into fixed air.
But though a vaft quantity of fixed air efcapes du¬
ring this procefs of fermentation, a very confiderable
portion ftill remains united with the fermented liquor,
and to this it owes all its brilknefs and agreeable pun¬
gent acidulous tafte ; for when the fixed air is totally
evaporated, the liquor becomes entirely vapid and flat.
Hence alfo we are furniflied with a method of reftoring
the brifltnefs to thefe liquors after they have loft it in
a whole animal,* or than the liver, &c. The propor-(
tion of inflammable and of fixed air is alfo various, ac¬
cording to the various parts employed.
(2.) By heat. In every combuftion, except that of
fulphur or of metals, a quantity of fixed air is genera*
ted. This mav be obferved bv fixing a lighted candle
in an inverted receiver over a bafon of lime-water, for
a precipitation of the lime will prefently enfue; and
the fame precipitation (which is one of the charade-
rift ics of fixed air) will always enfuc, whether a candle,
a burning piece of wood,, or, in fhort, any other com-
confequence of being expofed to the atmofphere, viz. buftible fubftance, except fiilphur or metals, be made
by impregnating them again with fixed air, either na- ufe of..
i4- oz.
meafure"
of
rwj
Si:
5" J
During this produftion or extrication of fixed from
atmofpherical air, the latter is commonly fuppofed to
be confiderably diminifhed, though Mr Lavoiiier and
Mr Scheele have now rendered that opinion doubt¬
ful. If a piece of charcoal be burned by throwing-
the focus of a lens upon it when contained, in a glafs-
receiver inverted in water, after the apparatus is cool¬
ed, the water will have mounted a fmall way into the-'
receiver. The diminution, however, is limited, and
depends on feveral circumftances. Dr Hales has ob¬
ferved, that, in equal receivers, the air fuffers a greater
diminution by burning large candles than fmall ones ;
and likewife that, when equal candles are made ufe of,,
the diminution is greater in fmall than in large recei¬
vers. The caufe of this phenomenon probably is, that
the air contained in the receiver cannot all come into
contadt with the flame of the candle j whence, as fooa
as the air which is neareft the flame becomes conta¬
minated, the candle is extinguiflied. Thus the author
of a Concife Treatife on the Various Kinds of Perma¬
nently Elaftic Fluids, has diminifhed the air of an in¬
verted receiver one fixth part, by moving the candle
whilft it burned through the different parts of the yef-
fel, fo that the flame was brought into contact with a
greater quantity of the confined air than if it had re¬
mained in one fituation till it became extindt. Dr
Mayow obferved, that by the burning of a candle the
air was diminifhed of one thirtieth only ; Dr Hales
found it to be diminifhed of one twenty fixth part; and
Dr Prieftley found it to be diminifhed of one fifteenth
turally or artificially produced.
Dr Prieftley has made feveral experiments in order
to determine the quantity of fixed air contained in fe¬
veral forts of wine. His method was to take a glafs
phial (fitted with a ground ftopple and tube),, capable
of containing i|- ounce-meafure. This he filled with
wine, plunging it into a proper vefl'el of water. The
whole was then put over the fire, and the water,, into-
which the phial was plunged, fuffered to boil. The
end of the tube being placed under the mouth of an
inverted receiver filled with quickfilver, the heat expel¬
led the fixed air from the wine, which entering into
the receiver, afcended in bubbles through the quick-
Jilver to the top, pufhing out part of the metal and ta¬
king its place. The refult of his experiments, was as
follows :
Madeira  (
Port of fix years old Pn . -/-j- j of a
Hock of five years
Barrelled claret
Tokay of 16 years ^
Champagne oftwoyears g 2 oz. meafures.
.Bottledcydevof 12years [ 8 3^- ditto.
During the acetous fermentation alfo, liquors emit
a vapour, great part of which is fixed air, though the
nature of its other component parts has not. yet been
thoroughly afcertained.
Fixed air is likewife produced, though in no great
quantity, by putrefaftion. Iti this cafe, however, a
great part of the elaftic fluid confifts of inflammable
and phlogifticated air, and the fixed air itfelf feems to or fixteenth. Mr Cavendifh obferved, that air fuf-
be intimately connedted with a putrid offenfive effluvi¬
um. It feemed to Dr Priellley to “ depend in fame
meaftire upon- the time and other circumftances in the
diffolution of animal or vegetable fubftances, whether
they yield the proper putrid effluvium, or fixed or in¬
flammable air.”
The elaftic fluid produced by putrifying vegetables,
when kept in a moderate degree of heat, is almoft all
fixed air; while that from animal fubftances contains
feveral times more inflammable than fixed air. Vege-
fered a diminution of one-tenth of the whole quantity,
by, palling through an iron-tube filled with red-hot.
powder of charcoal. A. candle, or any other Combuf-
tible body, will ceafe to burn by itfelf, and confequently
to contaminate a quantity of confined air much fooner
than when it is, in fame manner, forced to burn by the
external application of heat. “ The focus of a burn¬
ing mirror,” fays Dr Prieftley, “ thrown for a fuffi-
cient time either upon, brimftone or wood, after it has
ceafed to burn of its own, accord, and has become
table fubftances yield almoft all the permanently elaftic charcoal, will have a much greater effect of the fame
fluid in a few days, but animal bodies continue to emit kind, diminifhing the air to its utmoft extent, and
it for feveral weeks. When the elaftie fluid yielded making it thoroughly noxious.” The combuftion of
by animal fubftances is abforbed by water, and that the phofphorus of urine diminiflies air in a great de-
water boiled, the fixed air may then be obtained with- gree. Mr Lavoifier has obferved, that by the com-
out any mixture of the putrid effluvium. It is alfo to bullion of phofphorus, air maybe diminilhed of about,
be obferved, that the quantity of elaftic fluid produ- one-fifth or one-fixth. This accurate philofopher has
clble from animal fubftances is various according to alfo obferved, that the acid of phofphorus thus formed,
the nature of the parts of the animal employed. Thus acquires the weight loft by the diminilhed air; finding
the mufcular parts will yield leis elaftie fluid, and alfo that about three inches of air were abforbed by every
4 ’ one
Se&.XHT. AERO
OfArtifidal one grain o? phofphorus, when the experiment was
-Airs- | tried with a receiver inverted in water, upon the fur*-
v face of which a fmall quantity of oil had been intro¬
duced ; but when the receiver was inverted in quick*-
filver, the abforption was conftantly between two one-
fourth and two three-fourth inches for each grain* Mr
Cavallo mentions his having often repeated the expe¬
riment of burning phofphorus in a glafs tube inverted
in water, by applying the clofed part of the tube,
wherein the phofphorus was contained, to a pretty
ftrong fire, when he always obferved that the utmoft
diminution of the inclofed air effedled by this means
was full one-fifth.
Dr Hales remarked, that after the extinction of
candles in a receiver, the air continued to diminifh for
feveral days after. This may be owing to the gradual
abforption of part of it by the water; it having been
remarked by Dr Prieftley, “ that this diminution of
air by burning is not always immediately apparent, till
the air has palfed feveral times through water; and that
when the experiment was made with veffels Handing in
quickfilvqj- inftead of water, the diminution was generally
inconfiderable till the air had palfed through water.”
In thefe experiments of burning combuftible bodies
in a quantity of air, and meafuring the diminution, we
jhould always remark two caufes of miftake, viz. the
abforption of air by the coaly refiduum of the burned
matter, which fometimes is very confiderable, or by the
fluid in which the receiver is inverted, and the produc¬
tion of elaflic fluid from the burning fubftances ; thus
gunpowder generates a great quantity of elaftic "fluid
when inflamed, &c»
Even the eleftric fpark feparat-es fixed air from com¬
mon atmolpherical air; for when a number of thefe
fparks are taken in a fmall quantity of common air
over lime-water, a diminution will take place, the lime
will be precipitated, and if we put a blue vegetable
juice inllead of the lime-water, it will be turned red
by the acidity of the fixed air depofited upon it. Dr
Prieftley having cemented a wire into one end of a glafs
tube, the diameter of which was about one-tenth of an
inch, and shaving fixed a brafs ball to that extremity
of the wire which was out of the tube, filled the lower
part of it with the juice of tumfole or archil, fo that a
quantity of common air was contained in the tube be¬
tween the extremity of the wire and the furface of the
liquor. Then taking eleftric fparks between the faid
wire and liquor for about one minute, the upper part
of the liquor began to look red, and in about two mi¬
nutes it was manifeftly fo. The air, at the fame time,
was diminifhed in proportion as the liquor became red;
but when the diminution arrived to be one-fifth of the
■quantity of the air contained, then a longer eleftriza-
tion produced no fenfible effedf. “ To determine,”
fays the Doftor, whether the caufe of the change of
colour was in the air or in the eleftric matter, I ex¬
panded the air which had been diminifhed in the tube
by means-of an air-pump, till it expelled all the liquor,
and admitted frefh blue liquor in its place ; but after
that, electricity produced no fenfible effedi, cither on
the air or on the liquor; fo that it was evident that the
eledtric matter had decompofed the air, and had made
it depofite fomcthing that was of an acid nature.”
The calcination of metals, as already obferved, phlo-
gifticates, and confequently diminilhes comir.on air ;
LOGY. 187
hut does not produce any fixed air, fince the lime-water, OfArtificial
over which the calcination is made, does not become , ,
turbid ; and when metallic calxes are expofed to a fuf- v
ficient ftrong heat, they in general yield fome fixed
air: fo that it feems that the fixed air which is formed
in the adt of the calcination of metals is abforbed by
the calx. Some fixed air may be obtained from red
lead, by no greater degree of heat than that of the flame
of a candle applied to the phial that contains it.
The calcareous earths, which, when a died on by obtained
acids, yield a vaft quantity of fixed air, produce a very from earths
fmall quantity of it when expofed to a ftrong heat by
themfelves, in a proper veffel, even when expoled to the ° ei '
focus of a lenS. Dr Prieftley, in his experiments re¬
lating to the production of dephlofticated air from va¬
rious fubftances, when moiftened with nitrous acid, and
afterwards expofed to a fufficieht degree of heat, gene-*
rally found that fome fixed air was produced together
with the dephjogifticated air ; but often obtained fixed
air only, without any dephlogifticated air being mixed
with it, or fixed and nitrous air together* From half an
ounce of ruft of iron, moiftened with fpirit of nitre, and
dried, he Obtained about a quart of elaftic fluid, about
one-third of which was fixed and the reft nitrous air.
From alhes of pit-coal, treated in the fame manner, he
obtained nearly the like refult. But'in thofe experi¬
ments, theDoftor moilly ufed a gun-barrel, into which
he introduCed the fubftances to be tried; fo that it is very
probable, as he juftly obfervcs, that the iron might have
contributed to the formation of the fixed air. In faft,
when he tried fubftances of the fame fort, firft in a gun*
barrel and then in glafsveffels, he obtained much more
fixed air in the former than in the latter cafe. One
of thofe experiments he made with tobacco pipe-clay,
which, after'being moiftened with fpirit of nitre, was
when dry expofed to the fire in a gun-barrel, and yield¬
ed fome elaftic fluid, which appeared to be wholly fix¬
ed air ; but repeating the experiment in a glafs-phial
with a ground ftopple, and taking the produced da-
ftie fluid at eight different times, found that on the
begimnng fome fixed air was produced, but afterwards
the produce was dephlogifticated dr. He,made a
fimilar experiment with flints carefully calcined in clofe
veffels, and obtained a fimilar refult. ^
Moft minerals contain fixed air, which may be ex-jrom dige4
traded to a certain degree by means of heat. Mrirent miue-
Krenger, diftilling a grecnifh fufible fpar, which was^als.
luminous in the dark, obtained from it fome perma¬
nently elaftic fluid, which, like fixed air, cryftallized a
folution of fixed alkali. Mr Fontana, in his analyfis of
the malachite, finds that that mineral contains a vaft
quantity of fixed air, as pure as that which is extract¬
ed from chalk by means of vitriolic acid.
From almoft every metallic ere and earthy mineral
fome fixed air may be obtained, as well as from chalk,
lime-ftone, marble, marine (hells, fixed and volatile al¬
kali, and from magnefia alba, by means of a violent fire,
ot of acids.
In Mr Boyle’s, Dr Boerhaave’s, and Dr Hales’s
w'orks, and in other books, the quantities of elaftic
fluid generated in various proceffes, and by divers fob-*
ftances, are mentioned with diftin&ion; but as thofe
writers were not acquainted with the charafteriftic pro-*
perties of fixed air, we do not know whether the elaftic
fluid mentioned by them was pure fixed air or not.
A a 3 From
i88 A E R Q
OfArtlficial From animal fubftanees, mixed with fpirit of nitre,
, Airs- , and fometimes heated a little, in order to facilitate the
~ v produftion of elaftic fluid. Dr Prieftley obtained, in
general, fixed air ; but whereas the fixed air produced
by a fimilar procefs with vegetable fubftances is moftly
mixed with nitrous air, this is mixed with an elaftic
fluid, which is feldcm nitrous in a very flight degree,
but is often phlogifticated air, viz. in fuch a ftate as
f xtinguifhes a candle, does not diminifli- common air,
nor is itfelf diminifhed by nitrous air. Towards the
end of the procefs, the Doftor remarks, “ that when,
by means of a ftrong heat, the produce of air is very
rapid, and the air full of clouds, it is, like air, produ¬
ced from vegetable fubftances in the fame circumitan-
ces, flightly inflammable, burning with a lambent,
181 greenifli, or bluifli flame.”
Abundant- (3.) By acids. Calcareous fubftances in general pro-
ly produced (]uce abundance of fixed air when acted upon by any
reous fub-a"ac^’ onty the ftrongeft acids will expel from them
fiances. more fixed air than the weakeft; and it happens to be
peculiarly advantageous for thofe who want to produce
a great quantity of fixed-air, that the vitriolic acid is
both the cheapeft and ftrongeft acid, and, upon the
whole, the fitteft for this purpofe. The phenomena
attending the production of fixed air from calcareous
fubftances, &c.. are themfelves very remarkable, and.
furnifh the fubjeft of much fpeculation in philofophy..
—The principal fads are the following. 1. When
calcareous earths, alkalis, and magnefia, in their ufual
ftate, are mixed with acids, they caufe an effervefcence;
and confequently the produdtion of a permanently ela¬
ftic fluid, namely, fixed air. 2. Thefe fubftances re¬
tain the fixed air very obftinately; fo that a ftrong fire
is neceflary to expel it from magnefia, and the ttrongeft
is not fufficient to expel it entirely from fixed alkalis,
and efpecially from calcareous earths (a). When thefe
fubftances are treated with acids, they yield the fixed
air, becaufe they have a ftronger attradion to thofe
acids than to the fixed air. 3. The calcareous earths
which are infoluble in water, when deprived of the
fixed air become foluble in it. Thus lime-ftone is not
foluble in water, but lime (viz. lime-ftone deprived of
its fixed air) is foluble in water. And if thofe fub-
iftances, deprived of their fixed air, are put in a fitua-
tion proper to recover their loft fixed air, they lofe
the property of being foluble in water. Thus, when
lime-water is expofed to fixed air, the lime abforbs the
fixed air; and, lofing at the fame time its property of
being foluble in water, is precipitated from it in the
ftate it was before calcination, viz. of a calcareous
earth infoluble in water, and capable of effervefeing
with acids. 4. Alkalis, both fixed and volatile, when
deprived of their fixed air, become more cauftic, and
more powerful folvents, incapable of cryftallization,
and of effervefeing with acids. But if to thofe alkalis,
and alfo earths rendered more cauftic, their fixed air
be reftored, they acquire at once all the properties
they had before they were deprived of the fixed air,
viz. they become more mild, effervefee with acids, re¬
cover their weight, &c.
LOGY. Sea.XTin.
Thofe properties of calcareous earths and alkalis OfArtificial
were afeertained by the learned Dr Black, who per- A‘rs'
formed: a variety of decifive and well-contrived experi¬
ments, upon which he formed a juft theory, viz. that
the cauftieity, ftiarpnefs, folubility, &c. of thofe fub¬
ftances, wras owing to the fixed air being expelled from
them; and that when they were combined with.a pro¬
per quantity of fixed air, they were mild, &c. The
Docftor gives the epithet of mild to thofe fubftances:
when they are combined with air, and of cauftic when-
deprived of it; as.cauftic calcareous earth, cauftic fixed-
alkali, &c. Among the other experiments, he connec¬
ted two phials by means of a bent tube; in one of which
he put fome cauftic fpirit of faf ammoniac; and in the
other fome mild, alkali, or mild calcareous-: earth; then
pouring, through a hole made in the. fide of the latter
phial, fome acid upon the mild alkali, fo as to produce
fome fixed air, which, palling through the tube into
the other phial, combined with the fpirit of fal ammo¬
niac, and rendered it mild.
Eajy methods of obtaining Fixable Air for occaftonal
Experiments, &c.
( .) By Fermentation. Mix together equal parts oft
brown fugar and good yeft of beer, to which add about
twice the bulk of water. This mixture being put in¬
to a phial, to which a bent tube with a cork may be
adapted, will yield a confiderable quantity of fixed air,,
which may be received into a phial filled with quickfil-
ver or water, as in the following procefs.
(2.) By Acids. Let a glafs tube, open at both ends,
be bent, by means of a blow-pipe and the flame of a
candle, nearly into the ftiape of an S, as it is repre-
fented by AB, and fix a cork D to one of its extre-plate
mities, fo as to fit the neck of a common phial, that 1*
may hold about four or five ounce meafures. The hole
through the cork may be made with an iron wire red-
hot, and the tube may be faftened in it with a bit of
foft wax, fo as not to let any air go through. Fill a
fimilar phial, or any glafs receiver K, with water, and Cavallo m
invert it after the manner Ihown above, in.abafin
about half filled with water Now put fome chalk or
marble, grofsly powdered, into the bottle E, fo as to
fill about a fourth or fifth part of it, and upon it pour
fome water, juft enough to cover the chalk ; then add
fome oil of vitriol to it, which needs not be more than
about the fourth or fifth part of the water. Imme¬
diately after, apply the cork D, with the tube AB,
to the bottle, and putting it in the fituation FG, let
the extremity B of the tube pafs through the water of
the bafin into the neck of the bottle K, which now
muft be kept up with the hand, or other convenient
fupport, as it cannot reft upon the bottom of the ba¬
fin. The mixture of chalk, &c. in the bottle FG,
will immediately begin to effervefee, ftiowing a froth¬
ing, and an inteftine motion accompanied with heat,
that may be felt by applying the hand to the outfide
of the fluid. The elaftic fluid called fixed air is co-
pioufly emitted from this mixture, and pafling through
the bent tube, will go into the bottle K, as appears
by the bubbles which come out of the tube, and, paf-
fing
(a) Chalk, lime-ftone, &c. after being kept in a very ftrong fire for many hours, if they are put into
acids, yield a confiderable quantity of fixed air; which ftiows that the pureft quick-lime contains fome
fixed air.
| Sea. xm. AERO
4 0i Artificial ,,jg through the water, afcend to the top of the in-
, Airs- , verted bottle. In proportion as the elaftic fluid fills
* the bottle K, the water gradually defcends, and at laft
is quite expelled from it; the bottle K then is filled
with fixed air, and being corked under water, may be
removed from the bafin, and kept for ufe. Another
bottle may then be filled with water, and may be in¬
verted over the extremity of thcbent tube in the place
of K, which other bottle may be filled in a fimilar man¬
ner, and fo on till the mixture in FG has finifhed to
yield any fixed air.
If one of thefe bottles filled with fixed air be un¬
corked, and, holding it with the mouth upwards, a
lighted wax taper, bent like L, or a fmall piece of it
affixed to the extremity of a wire, be immediately let
down in it, the flame will be inftantly extinguiffied.
The fame thing will happen if a lighted piece of wood
is let down in it.
Take a clean bowl, and putting the mouth of a bot¬
tle, filled with Iked, air, in it, uncork it, and keep it in
that fituation for about a minute. The fixed air be¬
ing fpecifically heavier than common air, will come out
of the bottle, and will remain at the bottom of the
bowl, whilft common air enters into the bottle; which
1, bottle may now be removed ; and, in order to ffiow the
real exiftence of the fixed, air, which will immediately
I Ca-vallo q» (how its being heavier than common air,, put, a lighted
/**r‘ wax-taper into the bowl, pretty near its bottom, which
taper will be extinguiffied immediately. The air in
this experiment muft be agitated as little as it is pof-
fible. That the flame of the wax taper was really ex¬
tinguiffied by the fixed air, may be eafily proved in the
following manner:—Blow once or twice into the bowl,
by which means the fixed air will be expelled from it;
and then, on letting down a lighted wax-taper in it as
before, it will be found that it is no longer extinguiffi¬
ed, but will burn very well, the bowl being now filled
with common air. This experiment never fails of fur-
prifing the fpeffators, as it clearly exhibits two remark-
. able properties of a fluid, which they can neither fee
nor diftinguiffi by the feeling.
When the bottle K is about half filled with fixed
air, put a mark with a bit of foft wax on the outlide
of it, juft coinciding with the level of the water in it,
and immediately after ffiake the bottlebut taking
care that its mouth be not lifted above the furface of
the water in the bafin. After having ffiaked it for
about a minute, on intermitting the agitation, it will
be found that the water is above the mark; which
{hows that feme of the fixed air has been abforbed by
it. Let this abforption be carried on as far as pof-
fible, by agitating the bottle repeatedly, and allowing
time to let more fixed air be produced and enter into
the bottle in proportion as the water abforbs it. Then
appply the hand, or a finger, to the mouth of the bottle
whilft under waterbring the bottle out, and turn it
with the mouth upwards.. The water then will be
found to have acquired a pleafant acidulous tafte. The
water thus impregnated with fixed air changes the blue
infufion of feme vegetable fubftances into red ; fo that
if a weak folution of heliotrope is mixed with it, or
indeed if it is fimply expofed to fixed air, the liquor
acquires a reddiffi appearance. It alfo corrodes iron,
and fome other metals, much more eafily than common
water.. But the greateft and moft. ufeful property of
LOG Y. 189
this acidulated water, or water impregnated with fixed CfArtiiiciui
air, is its being a powerful antifeptic. As the moft, A!f%‘ ,
ufed mineral waters are medicinal principally on account
of their being impregnated with fixed air, befides which
they generally contain fome fmall portion of metal or
fait diffolved ; they may be imitated by impregnating-
water wdth fixed airv and then adding that quantity of
fait or of metal, that by analyfis the. original mineral
waters are found to contain*
183
It is for its great property of hindering putrefac-Ufrfui pro-
tion, that fixed air by itfelf, or incorporated with va-.Pert:es.°^
rious-fluids, efpecially with water, and that vegetables, xe air*
fugar, and other fubftances wffiich abound with fixed
air, are very powerful remedies in putrid difeafes. Sir
John Pringle fuppofes, with great probability, that
the frequent ufe of fugar and freffi vegetables, which
at this time make up a confiderable part of the diet.of
the European nations, prevents thofe putrid difeafea
and plagues which formerly were rather frequent.—-
Dr Macbride, ffiow'ing experimentally that fixed air
is difeharged by fuch fubftances as form our common
food, aferibes the prefervation of the body from putre¬
faction.in great meafure to the fixed air, which in the
ordinary procefs of digeftion is difengaged from the a*
liment, and incorporates with the fluids of the body.
From the fame property it may be alfo ufefully ap¬
plied to feveral ceconomical purpofes. Mr Henry
found, that fixed air can preferve fruit for a confider¬
able time. He tried a bunch of Italian grapes, which
being fufpended in the middle part of Dr Nooth’s ap¬
paratus, and being fupplied with plentiful ftreams of
fixed air every day, was preferyed without any figns of
decay for about one month longer than a fimilar bunch
fufpended in a decanter containing common air.
Strawberries and cherries he alfo found to be prefer-
ved without decay fome days longer in fixed than - in
common air. Indeed, fixed air preferves not only
fruit, but refifts putrefaction in generaL Dr Mao
bride, in his elegant Eflays on Medical and Philoio-
phical SubjeCts, has publiffied variousexperiments which
demonftrate this property of fixed air. He found, .that
not only goad meat was preferved incorrupt for a con¬
fiderable time, when expofed to fixed air;,but that
the putrefaction of fubftances aCtually putrid was im¬
peded by this means, and even that thofe fubftances
were reitored from the putrefeent to a found ftate.
That putrefaCtion was checked by fermentation, was Rtfifis .-u.
difeovered by Sir John Pringle; and Dr Macbrideu-efuctio...
obferved, that this effeCt was owing to the- fixed air
produced in the aCt of fermentation. But it muft
be obferved, that when the found, or even putrid fob-!
ftances, expofe a very great forface to the .fixed air, as
is the cafe with milk, bile, and other fluids impregna¬
ted with fixed air, and alfo with fmall bits of meat,
then they are preferved for a confiderable time : but
large pieces of folid animal fubftances, as. for inftance
roundiffi pieces of fleffi of about half a pound weight,
do not feem to remain incorrupt much longer in. fixed
than in'eommon air; at leaft the difference is inconfi-
derable. Sir William Lee, baronet, in two of his h •-
ters to Dr Prieftley, informs him of his having found,
that fleffi-meat, even in the hot feafon, could be pre¬
ferved wholefome for feveral days, by only waffiing it
two or three times a-day in water impregnated with
fixed.
190 AERO'
OfArtific'ai fixed air. tl We have been enabled,” lays he, “ to
, Airs' , preferve meat as perfectly fweet and good to the ex-
v ' tent of ten days, as at the firft killing ; and there feems
no doubt it might be preferved much longer.” He
has even recovered fome meat that had begun to
change. This ufeful difcovery. Sir William juftly ob-
ferves, may be very beneficial to the public, efpe-
cially to butchers. “ Particularly a butcher,” fays
he, “ who deals pretty largely, alfures me he found
the greateft fuccefs from it, and only objects that the
veal was a little difcoloured, though kept perfe&ly
fweet.”
Fixed air, as it combines with water, fo it may be
combined with other liquors. Beer, wine, and other
fermented liquors, may be impregnated with fijsed air,
and by this means their lharpnefs may be reftored,
when they are become vapid, or, as it is commonly faid,
dead. The acidulous tafte communicated by the im¬
pregnation of fixed air, cannot be difcovered in beer,
■wanes, and, in fhort, in fuch liquors which have much
tafte of their own. Milk acquires an acidulous tafte
by being impregnated with fixed air, and is thereby
preferved incorrupt for fome days ; which affords a very
eafy expedient of preferving milk in thofe places where
it cannot be had new very often.
185
Production £ 2. To produce Inflammable Air.—The procefs
of inflam- for ma}l;ng this fort of gas is the fame as that for ma¬
ma c air. gxe(j ajr . one 0f the materials only muft be dif¬
ferent, viz. iron-filings, or grofsly powdered zinc, mull
be ufed inllead of chalk ; to which filings fome oil of
vitriol and water muft be added, in the fame propor¬
tion as in the fixed air, or rather a little mofe of oil of
vitriol.
N.B. Inftead of the filings of iron, fmall nails, or
fmall bits of iron-wire, anfwer equally well.
The inflammable elaftic fluid produced by this mix*
ture has a difpleafing fmell, even when mixed with a
very large quantity of common air ; fo that if any
confiderable quantity of it comes out of the bottle,
before the cork with the bent tube be applied to it, &c.
its fmell may be perceived all over the room in which
the experiment is made, but this fmell is not particu¬
larly offenfive.
When a bottle has been filled with this elaftic fluid,
Hop the mouth of it with your thumb, or any Hopper,
and taking it out of the bafin, bring it near the flame
of a candle ; and when the mouth of the bottle is very
near it, remove the ftopper, and the elaftic fluid con¬
tained in the bottle will be immediately inflamed; and
if the capacity of the bottle is nearly equal to four
■Ounce-meafures, it will continue burning quietly for
about .half a minute, the flame . gradually defeending
lower and lower, as far as about the middle of the bot¬
tle, in proportion as the inflammable gas is confumed.
In this experiment we fee, that inflammable air fol¬
lows the general rule of all other combuftible fub-
ftances, namely, that of burning only when in contact
with common air: thus the flame of this gas, whilft
burning, is obfervable only on that furface of ft which
^ is contiguous to the common air ; fo that if the bottle
Pheno ke clofed, the flame is put out immediately, becaufe
mena. the air is intercepted from it. But if the inflammable
air were put in fuch a fituation as to expofe a very
great furface to the common air, it is plain, that by
LOOT. Sea. XBt,
this means its combuftion would be accelerated, fo as OfArtifidal J
to let it burn inftantly, and go off with an explofion, , Airs~ .
caufed by the fudden rarefaftion of the air. In fa£t, " v '
this effect may be eafily obferved in the following man¬
ner: When the bottle is to be inverted into the bafin,
in order to let it be filled with the inflammable gas,
inftead of filling it entirely with water, let half of it
remain filled with common air; then invert it, and let
the other half, which is now filled with water, be filled
with inflammable air after the ufual manner; and when
the bottle is full, remove it in the manner {flown above,
and approach it to the flame of the candle, by which
means the inflammable air takes fire ; but now it ex¬
plodes all at once with a large flame and a confider¬
able report, fometimes breaking the bottle in which it
is contained. In this cafe, the bottle being filled with
equal parts of inflammable and common air, thefe two
elaftic fluids were mixed together, fo that almoft every
particle of the one touched every particle of the other,
and hence the fudden combuftion was occafioned. The
force of this explofion is fo very confiderable, that fome
piftols have been contrived, which are charged with a
mixture of air and inflammable gas, and being fired
by means of an ele&ric fpark, are capable to drive a
leaden bullet with great violence. Sometimes thofe j
piftols are made of glafs (but in this cafe they are not
charged with a bullet), and it is very diverting to (how
that piftols are charged and explode by the combuftion
of an invifible fubftance-.
When a {lender pipe is tied to the neck of a blad¬
der, and the bladder is filled with inflammable air,
after the manner deferibed in the preceding experi¬
ment (viz. when the bladder was required to be filled
with fixed air), two very pleafing experiments may be
performed with it. Firft, the inflammable gas may be
inflamed by applying the flame of the candle to the
extremity of the pipe ; and fqueezing at the fame time
•the bladder, a ftream of fire will be formed in the air,
which will laft as long as the bladder contains any in¬
flammable air; for this gas coming out of the pipe
with violence, will continue inflamed for a confiderable
way in the air. Secondly, the extremity of the pipe
may be dipped into a folution of foap, then removing
it from the folution, and fqueezing the bladder very
gently, a ball of foap-water may be formed, including
inflammable ait: which ball, on account of the inflam¬
mable gas being much lighter than common air, as foon
as it is detached. from the pipe will afeend upwards,
and will break by daftiing againft the ceiling, contrary
to thofe commonly made by children, which in ftill air
go downwards.—Whilft the ball is afeending, if the
flame of the candle be approached to it, the film of
foap-water will be inftantly broke, and the inflam¬
mable air will take fire ; thus a flame may be fhown
to be feemingly produced from a foap-ball. ^
By taking electric fparks in any kind of oil, fpirit Inflamma-
df wine, ether, or fpirit of fal ammoniac, Dr Piieft-ble air ob-
ley obtained inflammable air. The oil, or other li- tamed from
quor, was confined in a glafs tube by quickfilver, and
a wire was cemented in the upper part of the tube,
through which the fparks being fent, went to the
quickfilver through the oil; but after that a few fparks
had been taken, a quantity of inflammable air was
generated, See. Left the produttion of inflammable
air ftiould be attributed to the cement which faftened
the
I
Isea. Xlir. A K R o
2i ©fArtificial the wire, the Doctor repeated the experiment with
Al^ ether in a glafs fyphon ; but the inflammable air was
i generated as before. This elattic fluid does not lofe
its inflammability by being palled feveral times from
one velfel into another through water.
Alkaline air, by taking eleftric explofions in it, is
changed into inflammable air.
By means of acids, inflammable air is obtained in
greater abundance, and more readily. Iron, zinc, or
tin, yield plenty of inflammable air when a&ed on by
diluted vitriolic or marine acids.
If iron is put into llrong vitriolic acid, the quan
tity of elaltic fluid that is produced is very little, ex¬
cept heat be applied to the phial, for then the pro¬
duction of eiaftic fluid is more copious but this ela-
itic fluid is vitriolic acid air, mixed with a fmall por¬
tion of inflammable air, the proportional quantity of
it being lefs when the acid is more concentrated.
Zinc, treated after the fame manner, produces the like
effects, except that it gives more elailic fluid, without
the application of heat, than iron does ; and the greats
eft part of the produced eiaftic fluid is inflammable.
In order to obtain the greateft quantity of inflam¬
mable air from iron or zinc, the vitriolic acid muft be
diluted with much water, as about one part of ftrong
oil of vitriol to five or fix parts of water. Dr Prieft-
ley found, that 11 grains of iron yielded ounce-
meafures of inflammable air. According to Mr Ca-
vendifli, one ounce of zinc, diffolved either in the vi¬
triolic or marine acid, yields a quantity of inflammable
air equal to the bulk of 356 ounces of water one
ounce of iron, diffolved by means of vitriolic acid,
yields a quantity of inflammable air equal to the bulk
of 412 ounces of water ; and one ounce of tin yields
half as much inflammable air as iron does.
The folutions of iron, tin, copper, lead, and zinc,
in the marine acid, produce marine acid air, and in¬
flammable air, but in various quantities. The propor¬
tion of the former to the latter is as. one to eight in
iron, as one to fix in tin, as three to one in copper
and lead,, and as one to ten in zinc. Regulus of anti¬
mony, diffolved in marine acid, with the application
of heat, yields a fmall quantity of eiaftic fluid,, which
is weakly inflammable.
Dr Prieftley obtained inflammable air, not only by
diffolving various fubftances in marine acid, but alfo by
expofing divers bodies, to marine acid air, , which is
probably the pureft part, of the marine acid. Having
admitted iron-filings to this acid air, they were diffol¬
ved by it pretty fait ; half of the elaftic fluid difap-
peared, and the reft was rendered unabforbable by wa¬
ter, and inflammable. The fame effe6t was produced
by almoft every fubftance which contains plilogifton,
as by fpirit of wine, oil of olives, fpirit of turpentine,
charcoal, phofphorus, bees-wax, fulphur, dry cork¬
wood, pieces of oak, ivory, pieces of roafted beef, and
even fome pieces of a whitiftt kind of flint.
A greater or fmaller portion of the acid air was ab-
forbed, and the reft fometimes was all inflammable,
and often was partly acid air, which was foon abforbed
on the admifiion of water, and partly inflammable.
In fliort, it feems as if this acid air, having a great
affinity with phlogifton, feparates it from all thofe fub¬
ftances which contain it even in fmall quantity, and
from that combination becomes inflammable,-
LOGY. 191
By means of nitrous acid, inflammable air may be OfAnificial
obtained from various fubftances containing phlogifton ;, Airs- ,
but it is always mixed with nitrous air, and fometimes v
alfo with fixed and common or phlogifticated air. If
two parts of fpirit of wine, mixed with one part of
nitrous acid, are put into a phial with a ground-ftopple
and tube, and the flame of a candle be applied to it, fo
as to heat it gradually, the inflammable air will be pro¬
duced very readily ; the inflammability of which is,
however, not very permanent, for by a little waffiing
in water it may be annihilated. In the folution of
moft fubftances in nitrous acid, it generally happens,
that the eiaftic fluid, which is obtained towards the
latter end of the procefs, poffeffes the property of be¬
ing inflammable : thus iron, diffolved in nitrous acid,
yields nitrous air; but when the nitrous air ceafes to
be produced, if the heat of a candle be applied to the
folution, more eiaftic fluid will be produced which is
inflammable. “ The nitrous acid (fays Dr Ingen-
houfz) when mixed with iron-filings in a very diluted
ftate, gives, by the affiftance of a moderate degree of
heat, a mixture of different airs, partly fixed, partly
common air, and partly phlogifticated air. See further
the article Aerostation.
§ 3. To produce Nitrous Air.—This permanently
eiaftic fluid is never found naturally, like fixed or in¬
flammable air, but is entirely artificial. 188
Either filver, copper, brafs, iron, mercury, bifniuth, Nitrous air
or nickel, when mixed with nitrous acid, yield nitrous ^
air in great quantities. Some of them, efpecially mer¬
cury, require the aid of heat in order to produce the
eiaftic fluid ; the flame of a eandle applied to the phial
is fufficient: but others, efpecially copper and iron,
da not want the application of any heat. Gold, pla-
tina, and the regulus of antimony, when put in aqua
regia, yield nitrous air pretty readily. Among the
metals, lead yields nitrous air in the fmalleft quantity.
“ I poured (fays Dr Prieftley) fmoking fpirit of nitre
into a phial with a ground-ftopple and •tube, contain¬
ing 1 r ounce-meafure filled with fmall leaden ihot,
fo as to leave no common air at all, either in the
phial or in the tube; and I placed it. fo as to
receive the air that might come from it in water.
After waiting an hour, in which little or no air waS p^^
produced, I applied the flame of a candle,. though fuijftanccs
not' very near, to it: and in thefe circumftances I got produced,
about an ounce-meafure of air : but upon fome water
ruihing into the phial while the candle was withdrawn,
air was produced very plentifully. I collefted in all
about a quarter of a pint; and might probably have
got much more, but that the fait formed by the folu¬
tion of the lead had fo nearly clofed up the tube, that
I thought: proper to difeontinue the procefs. The air,
both of the firft and of the laft produce, was of the
fame quantity-; and fo far nitrous, that two meafures
of common air, and one of this, occupied the fpace
of two meafures only ; excepting that the very firft
and very laft produce, mixed with common air, took
up a little more room than that which I got in the
middle of the procefs. When the air was produced
very fail, it was exceedingly turbid, as if it had been
filled with a white powder.”
Among the femi-metals, zinc gives the weakeft ni¬
trous air, when diffolved in nitrous acid. The eiaftic
fluid
AERO
^ Maid produced from it is mo illy phlogifticated air.
From four penny weights and 17 grains of zinc, diflbl-
ved in fpirit of nitre diluted with an equal quantity of
water. Dr Prieftley obtained about 1 2 ounce-meafures
of very weak nitrous air. It occalioned a very flight
effervefcence when mixed with common air. The
Dodtor obtained nitrous air even from fome flowers of
zinc. “ Having (fays he) mixed a quantity of blue
fpirit of nitre with flowers of zinc, which were • of a
dull colour, and appeared from feveral experiments to
contain a portion of phlogi'fton, it yielded, with the
heat of a candle applied to the-phial which contained
it, ftrong nitrous air ; -when the common fpirit of nitre,
applied in the fame manner, gave only phlogifticated
air ; the phlogifton of which came probably from the
calx itfelf, though a fmall portion of it might have been
in the nitrous acid, which I believe is never entirely
free from it.”
The quantity of nitrous air that may be obtained
from various metals, is difficult to be afcertained, on
account of the diverfity occafioned by the ftrength of
the acid, the various nature of the metallic fubftance,
and the .method of .performing the experiments. The
following is a table of the produces of nitrous air from
various metals, extracted from Dr Prieftley’s firft vo¬
lume of Experiments and Obfervations; but which,
as, the author himfelf intimates, is far from being very
accurate.
,dwt. grs.
6 o of 151 ver yielded 174-ounce-meafures.
5 19 of qtiickfilver, 44.
1 24- of copper, 144-
2 o of brafs, 21
o 20 of iron,
1 5 of bifmuth, 6
o 12 'of nickel, 4
The various ftrength of the nitrous acid produces
great diverfity in the production of nitrous air. Thus,
if copper is diffolved in ftrong nitrous acid, it will not
produce the leaft quantity of nitrous air; but when dif¬
folved in diluted nitrous acid, it produces a great quan-
tity;of that elaftic fluid. The ftrong and pale-coloured
nitrous acid fhould he diluted with at leaft two or three
parts of water to one of the acid, for the eafy pro-
duftion of nitrous air from copper and mercury.
The brilknefs of the effervefcence, and the produc¬
tion of nitrous air, are promoted by heat, and alfo by
letting the metallic fubftance prefent a great quantity
of furface to the acids.
For the generality of experiments, no other degree
of heat is required than that produced by the effer¬
vefcence itfelf, except mercury be ufed, which requires
the application of fome heat. When the metal exhi¬
bits a very great furface to the acid, as is the cafe when
filings are ufed, the effervefcence and production of
nitrous air are often much quicker than can be con¬
veniently managed.
Copper or brafs, when clipped into flat bits, each
about two or three grains in weight, and about a
quarter of a fquare inch in furface, and when diffolved
in nitrous acid properly diluted, yield nitrous air very
equably; but if iron be ufed, the pieces of it fhould
be larger and fewer; in ftiort, it fliould prefent a much
lefs furface to the diluted acid ; otherwife the increafe
of heat in the procefs, and the rapid production of
N°J- 3
logy. Sea.xnr.
elaftic fluid, render the operation both difficult and OfArtificial
dangerous for the operator. Airs-
As the nitrous air is moftly neceffary to try the
goodnefs of refpirable air, it is of great confequence l9°
to make it always of one conftant degree of goodnefs.; ^ e
but this object is anfwered by diffolving fubftances of the^beft. *
a very homologous nature in the nitrous acid; there¬
fore it is plain, that the metals whofe nature is more
uniform muft be .preferred for this purpofe. Accord¬
ingly, brafs yields nitrous air of a more uniform nature
than iron : copper is fuperior to brafs ; but pure mer¬
cury is ftill fuperior to copper: and indeed this is the
metal which, confidering its nature, uniformity of fub¬
ftance, and eafy folution, is upon the whole the moft
ufeful for .this purpofe.
It has been generally obferved, that felid vegetable
fubftances, when diffolved ijr nitrous acid, yield more
nitrous air than the animal fubftances, though this ni¬
trous air is not fo pure as that obtained from metals.
Sometimes it contains fome fixed air, and a good
deal of inflammable air, which is moftly produced to¬
wards the end of the procefs. On the other hand, the
nitrous air extracted from animal-fubftances generally
contains a good deal of phlogifticated air, and fome-
times fome fixed air. In order to obtain nitrous air
from the folution of animal and vegetable fubftances
in nitrous acid, often fome degree of heat muft be ap¬
plied to the phial. The acid alfo fometimes muft be
very concentrated, and in other cafes it muft be dilu¬
ted ; but it is hardly worth while, or practicable, to
determine with exaCtnefs all thofe particular cafes.
To make Nitrous /iir.—The metal, viz. copper,
brafs, or mercury, is firft put into the bottle (which,
as well as the whole procefs, is the fame as that de-
fcribed for fixed Air), fo as to fill about one-third of
the fame ; then fome water is poured into the bottle,
fo as juft to cover the metal-filings; and laftly, the ni¬
trous acid is added, the quantity of which, when ftrong,
fhould be about one-third or half the quantity of the
water. The fmell of the nitrous gas is very penetra¬
ting and offenfive, and occafions a red fmoke as foon
as it comes into contad with the common air ; hence,
whenever any of it efcapes from the bottle, it may be
obferved not only by the iinell, but alfo by the flight
red colour.
In order to obferve the principal property of this
elaftic fluid, which is that of diminifhing the bulk of
common air, let a glafs tube, clofed at one end, and
gbout nine inches long, and half or three quarters of
an inch in diameter, be filled with water, and inverted
in water; then take a fmall phial, of about half as
ounce-meafure, filled with common air, and plunging
it under the water contained in the fame bafin where
the inverted tube is kept, let that quantity of air en¬
ter into the tube, which will go to the top of it, the
water fubfiding accordingly. Let a mark be made,
either with a file or by flicking foft wax on the tube,
juft oppofite to the furface of the water in it, which
will mark how much of the tube is filled by that given
meafure of air. After the fame manner, fill the fame
fmall phial (which we fhall call the meafure) again with
air; throw that air into the tube, and put a mark on
the tube coinciding with the level of the water in it.
In this manner let four or five meafures be marked on
the tube. Now, if three meafures of common air are
put
Sea. XIII. AEROLOGY. 193
•OfArtificial pUt into this tube, when filled with water and inverted, the Antediluvians to the great purity of the atniofphere Of Artificial
. Al1 , they will fill a fpace of it as far as the third mark, at that time; the whole mafs being afterwards tainted , Airs‘ ,
" v The fame thing will happen if three meafures of ni- by the deluge, in fuch a manner that it could never v
trous inllead of common air be put in it; but if two regain its former purity and falubrity. But all this as
meafures of common air and one meafure of nitrous yet is mere conjecture; and excepting the fingle fact,
air, or one meafure of the former and two of the lat- that animals live much longer in a quantity of dephlo-
ter, be introduced in it, they will fill a fpace much gifticated than of common air, there' is no evidence
fhorter than the third mark. On the moment that that the former contributes more to longevity than the
thefe two kinds of elaftic fluids come into contaCt, a latter. Dr Prieftley even throws out a conjecture, that
reddilh appearance is perceived, which foon vaniflies, the ufe of dephlogifticated air might perhaps wear out
and the w'ater, which at firft nearly reaches the third the fyftem much fooner than common air, in the fame
mark, rifes gradually into the tube, and becomes nearly manner as it confumes fuel much fafter than common
ftatiopary after about two or three minutes; which air. The great quantity, however, even of the pureft
(hows that the diminution is effected gradually. See air, which is requifite to fupport animal life, and the
Eudiometer. expence and trouble of the moft ready methods of
' procuring it, have hitherto prevented any fair trial
§ 4. To procure Defhlogisticated Air.—This is from being made. Yet philofophers, confidering the
no other than exceedingly pure atmofpherical air,- en- probability there is of this kind of air being falutary
tirely free from thofe heterogeneous vapours w'hich con- in many difeafes, have beftowed fome pains in at-
taminate the air we commonly breathe. The eafieft tempting to find out methods of procilring it eafily
method of procuring this air is to put fome red-lead into and in large quantity ; concerning which wre have
the bottle, together with fome good itrong oil of vi- the following obfervations in Cavallo’s Treatife on
triol, but without any water. Let the red-lead fill Air.
about a quarter of the bottle, and the vitriolic acid be “ A man makes in general about 15 infpirations in
about the fame quantity or very little lefsthen ap- a minute, and takes in about 30 cubic inches of aerial
ply the bent tube to the bottle, and proceed in the fluid. But the air which has been once infpired is not
fame manner as above. . But it muft be remarked, that thereby much injured, and it may be refpired again
without heat this mixture of red-lead and vitriolic acid and again ; fo that, upon a very moderate calculation,
will not give any dephlogifticated air, or it yields an and as appears from acftual experiments often repeated,
inconfiderable quantity of it; for which reafon the flame we may fafely aflert, that a perfon can breathe 400
of a candle (that of a wax taper is fufficient) muft be cubic inches of good ordinary atmofpheric air, at
applied under the bottom of the bottle ; which for this leaft 30 times, without any inconvenience, i. e, it
purpofe muft be rather thin, otherwife it will be eafily would ferve for two minutes ; after which that air,
cracked (a). In this manner the red-lead, will yield though much depraved, is ftill in a ftate of being
a good quantity of elaftic fluid, the greateft part of breathed, but then it would occafion fome uneafinefs.
which is dephlogifticated air; but not the whole quan- Now, fuppofing the dephlogifticated air employed to
tity of it, for a good portion of fixed air comes out be four times more pure than common air, 400 cubic
with it. In order to feparate the fixed from the de- inches of dephlogifticated air would ferve for at leaft
phlogifticated air, the invented bottle, when filled with 120 refpirations or eight minutes,
the compound of both, as it is emitted from the red- “ But fuppofing that 30 inches pf common air are
lead, mufts be fliook in the bafin for impregnating completely phlogifticated by a fingle infpiration, and
water with fixed air ; by which means the water will changed for fuch as is quite frefti, which indeed is the
abforb the whole quantity of fixed air, and leave the cafe in common refpiration, then 450 cubic inches of
dephlogifticated air by itfelf. common air will be requifite for one minute’s refpira-
From every experiment it appears, that dephlogifti- tion, and 27,000 for one hour ; and as dephlogiftica-
cated air, if it could be readily obtained, and at a cheap ted air is fuppofed to be four times as good, the fame
rate, would be a moft valuable manufa&ure. The quantity of it will ferve for four hours. Indeed, if we
heat communicated by means of it to burning fuel is could depend on the affertions of Mr Fontana, that
incredible. by adding lime-water to abforb the fixed air produced
Thefe are not the only advantages which might be by refpiration, an animal can live 30 times as long as
expe&ed from dephlogifticated air. It has been found without it, no doubt a much fmaller quantity would
by experience, that animals will live much longer in ferve.”
.this kind of air than in an equal quantity of common But it is certain fuch aflertions cannot be true ; be-
air; whence it is fuppofed, that the breathing of it muft caufe, though the fixed air fhould be abforbed as foon
be much more healthy, and contribute to longevity as produced, the remaining quantity would ftill be
much more than the common atmofphere. Nay, there contaminated by phlogifton. -Nay, we are informed
are not wanting fome who attribute the longevity of by Dr Prieftley, who repeated Fontana’s experiments,
Vol.I. Parti. Bb that
( a ) In this operation the flame of the candle, when once applied, muft be kept continually near it; and
when the mixture does not produce any more elaftic fluid, or the operation is required to be intermitted, care
Should be taken to remove the extremity of the bent tube from the water firft, and then to take off the flame of
the candle from under the bottle ; otherwife, if the flame of the candle be firft removed, the materials within
the bottle condenfmg by cold, the water immediately enters, which in an inftant fills the bottle, and generally
breaks it.
194 AERO
Of Artificial that animals •will not live longer in a quantity of de-
, Airs‘ , phlogifticated air when it ftands in contaft with lime-
v water, than they will when no lime-water is ufed.
In what manner a difference fo enormous can take
place, between philofophers in other refpefts fo accu¬
rate, we can by no means determine. It is plain,
however, that if 27,000 inches of common air are ne-
ceffary for a perfon in one hour, the fame quantity of
dephlogifticated air cannot be breathed longer than
four hours, nor even fo long, with any real advantage.
Mr Cavallo indeed allows only 12000 inches for four
hours ; but though this might no doubt.fuftain life for
that time, the perfon muft at beil expert nothing
from it fuperior to the common atmofpere, if he was
not materially injured by it.
Avery readymethod of procuring dephlogifticated air
in large quantity, is by means of nitre; and on the fup-
pofition that 12,000 inches are fufficient for four hours,
(or for 40 hours, as he limits the Abbe Fontana’s fuppo-
fition), Mr Gavallo proceeds in the:following manner:
“ The inftruments neceffary for the produftion of de¬
phlogifticated air from nitre are the following; viz.
earthen retorts, or earthen veffels with a ftraight neck,
fomewhat in the fhape of Florence flafks, but with a
longer neck, thefe being cheaper than the retorts, and
anfwering as well;—a fmall furnace, in which the
earthen retort, muft be kept red-hot; a common
chimney-fire is not fufficient.. Thefe furnaces may be
very eafily made out of large black lead crucibles.
The nitre muft be put into the retort or other veffel,
fo as to fill half or nearly three quarters of its belly ;
then a bent glafs tube is luted to the neck of the ear¬
then veffel, in fuch a manner as not to let any elaftic
fluid efcape into the open air. The beft lute or ce¬
ment for this or fimilar purpofes is made by mixing to¬
gether whiting and drying oil. The retort being put
into the furnace, muft be furrounded with lighted
charcoal, which is to be fupplied according as it waftes:
in ftiort, the belly of the retort muft be kept quite
red-hot, or rather white-hot, for about three hours at
leaft. If, inftead of the retort, the other defcribed
earthen veffel be ufed, care fliould be had to place it
with the neck as little inclined to the horizon as pof-
fible, left the nitre ftiould ftop the neck and break it.”
The air is then to be received into large glafs jars, as
is ufual in other experiments on air.
“ The retort or other earthen veffel that is ufed for
this purpofe cannot ferve for more than once, becaufe
it generally breaks in cooling; and befides, the de-
eompofed nitre cannot eafily be taken out of it. The
retort capable of holding a pound of nitre (the quan¬
tity neceffary for producing 12,000 cubic inches of
dephlogifticated air) for this operation, cofts at leaft
half-a-crown ; the other earthen veffels in the lhape of
Florence flail:;;, but with longer necks, coft about
l8d. a-piece, or 2 s. } fo that the price of thefe veffels
forms a confiderable part of the expence. If glafs
veffels are employed, the nitre will not yield near fo
much air, though of a purer fort, becaufe the glafs
veffels cannot endure fuch a great fire as the earthen
ones. The retorts of metal, or at leaft of thofe metals
which are moft ufually employed for this purpofe, viz.
iron and copper, phlogifticate in a great meafure the
air as foon as produced. Confidering, then, all thefe
circumftances, it appears, that when a perfon has all the
LOGY. Sea. xm.
ufual apparatus and furnace, the expences at prefent Of Artificial
neceffary in London for the produ&ion of 12,000 cu- Air-*
hie inches of dephlogiftieated air, (viz. the price of one u“—v—
pound of nitre, of an earthen retort or other veffel, and
of charcoal), amount to about 4s. or 4s. 6d.”
Another method of preparing dephlogifticated air
is, by blowing that of the common atmofphere thro*
melted nitre. In this procefs the phlogifton contained
in the atmofphere is gradually confumed, by detonating
with the acid of the nitre, and therefore iffues much
more pure than before. This method has the appear¬
ance at firft of being much eafier and more commodious
than the former; but as it is impoffible to mix the at-
mofperic air fo exaftly with the melted nitre that every
particle of the one may come in contact with every
particle of the other, it is plain that the former me¬
thod muft be preferable ; not to mention that it will
be found exceedingly troublefome to blow the air
through the nitre, as the latter will be perpetually apt
to cool and concrete into lumps by the cold blaft.
$ 5. To procure Vitriolic Acid Air,—This confifts’of
the vitriolic acid, united with fome phlogifton,which vo¬
latilizes and renders it capable of affuming the form of
a permanently elaftic fluid. To obtain it, fome ftrong
concentrated vitriolic acid muft be put into the ufual
bottle, together with fome fubftance capable of fur-
nifhing phlogifton. Olive oil anfwers very well. The
oil of vitriol fhould be about three or four times as
much as the fweet oil, and both together fhould fill
about one-third or half the bottle. A gentle degree
of heat is then required, in order to let thefe materials
yield any elaftic fluid ; which may be done by apply¬
ing the flame of a wax taper, as diredted above for the
produftion of dephlogifticated air.
$ 6. To procure Marine Acid Air, which is no o-
ther than the marine acid itfelf, and which without any
addition becomes a permanently elaftic fluid ; put fome
fea-falt, or common kitchen fait, into the ufual bottle
in which the materials for producing elaftic fluids are
generally put, fo as to fill about a fourth part of it,
and upon this fait pour a fmall quantity of good con¬
centrated vitriolic acid; then apply the bent tube to
the bottle, and introduce it through the quickfilver
into the receiver, filled with and inverted in quickfilver
after the ufual method, and the elaftic fluid is copi-
oufly produced.
$ 7. To procure Nitrous Acid Air.—This may be
obtained from heated nitrous acid, the vapour of which
acquires a permanent elafticity, and it has been found
to remain uncondenfed into a vifible fluid by any cold
to which it has been hitherto expofed. The great dif¬
ficulty is to find a fluid capable of confining this acid
air; becaufe it is eafily and abundantly abforbed by
water, which is one of its properties by which it differs
from nitrous air. It a&s upon quickfiiver, and alfo up¬
on oils: hence its examination cannot be made but
very imperfectly ; for fubftances muft be expofed to it,
or mixed with it, whilft it is actually changing its na¬
ture by aCting on the mercury or other fluid that con- -
fines it.
When water has abforbed a good quantity of this
elaftic fluid, it acquires the properties of nitrous acid;
and when heated, it yields a large quantity of nitrous
airj
Sea. XIII. AERO
OfArtificial air, viz. a quantity many times greater than that which
, •Air9~ , water is won't to imbibe of it by agitation, or by any
v "" known means.
When the nitrous acid air is combined with effen-
tial oils, a confiderable effervefcence and heat are pro¬
duced, nearly in the fame manner as when the nitrous
acid itfelf is poured upon thofe oils.
§ 8. Fluor /4cid Air.—Put fome of thofe minerals
called fiuors, or fiifible /pars, pulverized, into the ufual
bottle, and upon it pour fome concentrated oil of vi¬
triol; then adapt the bent tube, &c. The fluor acid
LOGY. 195
air is at firft produced without the help of heat; but in Of Artificial
a fhort time it will be necelfary to apply the flame of ^r3, .
a candle to the bottle, by which means a confiderable
quantity of this elaftic fluid is obtained.
§ 9. Alkaline Let the ufual bottle be about
half filled with volatile fpirit of fal ammoniac; and after
applying the bent tube, &c. let the flame of a candle
be brought under the bottle, by which means the al¬
kaline air will be produced copioufly.
Hepatic Air. See Seft. XI. fupra.
INDEX.
A.
Aerial acid, a name for fixed
air, n° 106.
Air, fuppofed anciently to be
homogeneous, 1. Not fo in
reality, 2. Has fome way of
purifying itfelf, 3. Halley’s
calculation of the quantity of
water evaporated into it from
the fea, 4. Dr Watfon’s of
the moifture evaporated from
dry ground, ibid. How it is
purified from the aqueous va¬
pour, 4. From phlogillic va¬
pours, 5. Why a dry air is
always wholefome, but a
naoift one is not, ibid. Con¬
taminated in certain places by
various kinds of vapours, ibid.
How purified from vapours
heavier than itfelf, ibid. Its
fpecificgravitycompared with
water, 6. Its prefliire as a
gravitating fluid, 7. Effe&s
of its gravity op vegetables
and animals, ibid. Of its e-
lafticity, 8. Whether this can
be impaired, 9. Its elafticity
is always in proportion to its
denfity, ibid. How far a
quantity of air may be com-
prefled, 10. Is capable of
vaft dilatation by its elaftic
force, ibid. In what propor¬
tion it is expanded by heat,
11. Its elafticity fuppofed to
be the caufe of earthquakes,
ibid. Effects of its elafticity
on various bodies, 12. Great
folvent power of the air, 13.
Its chemical effects, 15. Air
contained in mineral waters,
19, 20. Decompounded in
the calcination of metals, 29.
Is not diminilhed in common
cafes of combuftion, 58. A
kind of air procured from fo-
lution of gold, 175.
Alkaline air: Its properties,
146. Contains phlogifton,
147. Converted into inflam¬
mable air, 148.
Animals: Caufe of their death
in dephlogifticated air, 61.
Effects of inflammable air on ,
them, 141.
Arfenic: Inflammable air pro¬
duced from it by the red-hot
(team of water, 1 24.
AJhes gain moft of their weight
by abforption from the atino-
fphere, 122.
Atimfpbere confifts of two very
different kinds of fluids, 24,
93. The proportions of
thefe, 178. The upper parts
of it more falubrious than the
lower, 179.
B.
Black'% (Dr) difcoveries, 21.
His theory concerning fixed
air attacked at firft, but now
univerfally received, 23.
Boyle's difcoveries, 1 7.
C.
Calcination of metals: Mr La-
voifier’s experiments on it,
92. His conclufions there¬
from with regard to the
compofition of atmofpherical
air, 93.
Cajl iron: Remarkable pheno¬
menon attending its calcina¬
tion with a burning-glafs, 70.
Cavallo's conclufions from Dr
Ingenhoufz’sexperiments, 38
His method of collefting in¬
flammable air from ponds,
119.
Cavendijh's experiments on
water, 75. On the pro-
duftion of nitrous acid, 1 o 1,
102.
Charcoal yields a great quantity
of fixed air, 16.—totally con¬
vertible into inflammable air,
129. Its exceffive attra&ion
for water, 132.
Combujlion, whether common
air is diminilhed by it, 58,
i83-.
Contagion ofthe plague, of a hea¬
vy fluggilh nature, 5.
Copper: Dr Prieftley’s experi¬
ments to produce water by its
means, 73. Is not affefted
by alkaline air, 146.
Cotton-nvool: Quantity of de¬
phlogifticated air produced by
its means from water, 45.
Cretaceous acid: An improper
name for fixed air, 107.
D.
Darknefs: Its effefts on the
produftion of air, 42.
Dephlogifticated air difcovered
by Dr Prieftley, 24. Firft
obtained by means of a burn-
ing-glafs from precipitate per
fe, 25. Why called dephlo¬
gifticated, 2 6. Produced from
a great variety of fubftances,
ibid. Difcovered by Mr
Scheele, 28. May be ob¬
tained without the ufe of ni¬
trous acid, 29. Produced in
greateft quantities by a fud-
den and violent heat, 30.
Method of procuring it from
different fubftances, 31. How
it is produced by nature, 32.
Method of obtaining it from
water, 36. From the leaves
of plants, 37. By means of
raw filk, 41. From various
other fubftances, 45. Quan¬
tity of it produced from wa¬
ter, 46. Of the caufe of its
produftion, 47. At what
times it is produced of the
beft quality, 48. Found in
fea-water, 53. How to pre-
ferve it in large quantity, 54.
It produces intenfe heat, 55.
Explodes violently with in¬
flammable air, 56. Burns
violently with pyrophorus,
57. Is diminilhed by com¬
buftion, 59,—and by nitrous
air, 60, 154. In what man¬
ner it may be contaminated,
61. Does not fupport vege¬
tation, 62. Of its compo¬
nent parts, 63. Does not
contain earth, 65. Whether
it contains any nitrous acid,
66. Imbibed by calces of
metals, 67. By iron, 68.
Mr Cavendifh’s experiments
on its compofition, 75. Ni¬
trous acid produced from a
mixture of it and inflamma¬
ble air, 77. Suppofed to be
one of the component parts
of water, 81, 82, 83. Ef-
fedts of the eledtric fpark on
it when inclofed between dif¬
ferent liquors, 105. Dr
Prieftley’s experiments on the
produdtion of fixed air from
it, no.
Dephlogifticated nitrous air, how
procured, 160. Its compo¬
nent parts, 161. Beft me¬
thod of procuring it, 163.
Made to approach to the na¬
ture of atmofpherical air,
164.
Diminution of air, fuppofed to
be owing to phlogifton emit¬
ted into it, 89.
E.
Earth is not a component part
of dephlogifticated air, 65.
Effervefcence between acids and
alkalis occafioned by fixed air
in the latter, 21.
Eider-down: Dephlogifticated
air produced by its means
from water, 45.
Eleflric jfpark : Its effedts on de¬
phlogifticated air inclofed be-
2 tween
196
tween, different liquors, lo'j’.
On fixed air, 113. On nitrous
air, 159.'
F.
Fermentation: Why it will not
go on in vacuo, 12.
Fermented liquors reftored from
a vapid ftate by adding fixed
air to them, 1 80.
Finery-cinder, the. fame with
fcales of iron, confifts of the
metal united with dephlogi-
fticated air, 124.
Fire fuppofed to be the caufe of
the air’s elailicity, 11.
Fixed air contained in abfor-
bent earths and alkaline falts,
21. Its proportion in thefe
fubftances, 22. Effervefcence
of thefe fubftances with acids
occafioned .by fixed air, 21.
Increafes the weight of me¬
tallic precipitates, 21. Sup-
pofed to be the principle of
union in terreftrialbodies, ibid.
Separated from fermenting
and putrefying fubftances, 2 1.
Diffolves earths and metals,
22. Formed by the union
of phlogifton with dephlogi-
fticated air, 67. Found in a
great variety of fubftances,
106. Specific gravity, and
other properties of this kind '
of air, 107, 108. Its con-
ftituent principles, 109. Dr
Prieftley’s experiments on its
compofition, 110. Propor¬
tion of it produced from de-
phlogifticated air, 112. Ef-
fects of the eleftric fpark on
it, i J 3. Of a ftrong heat on
it, 115. Quantity of it ex¬
pelled from different fubftan¬
ces, 116. Generated in the
decompofition of inflammable
air, 135. Convertible into
inflammable air, 136. Great
quantities produced by fer-
mentingfubftances, 180. Pro¬
portions contained in differ¬
ent kinds of wines, 181. E-
mitted by putrefying mat¬
ters, 182.
Fantasia, Abbe: Effefts of his
breathing inflammableairjiqi.
Frenck philofophers, their expe¬
riments on the compofition of
water, 82.
Fur of a Ruffian hare produces
dephlogifticated air with wa¬
ter, 47.
G.
Cold: A peculiar kind of air
produced from its folution,
AERO
175. A beautiful experi¬
ment with it, ibid. Green
matter obferved by Dr Prieft-
ley in glafs jars producing de-
. phlogifticated air, proved to
be of an animal nature, 40.
H
Hales, Dr, his difcoveries, 18,
I9-
Heat: Its effects oil fixed air,
115.
Hepatic air, produced from an
ore of zinc, 176.
Bejl obtained from liver of ful-
phur, 177. Its properties,
ibid.
Hot climates: Great quantity
of inflammable air produced
in theifi, 118.
Human hair produces dephlo¬
gifticated air with water, 45.
I.
Ice diffolved very fall by alka¬
line air, 146. And by ma¬
rine acid air, 171.
Incondenfible vapour arifing from
water, 86. Prieftley’s con-
je&ures concerning it, 87.
Attempts to collect it, 88.
Inflammable air: Method of
burning it in the dephlogi¬
fticated kind, 59. Water
produced from a mixture of
inflammable and dephlogifti¬
cated air, 77. Quantity of
it neceffary to phlogifticate
common air, 78. This kind
of air produced in mines,
from putrid waters, &c. 117.
Great quantities generated in
hot climates, 118. Mr Ca-
vallo’s method of colle&ing
it from ponds, J19. Me¬
teors thought to be produced
by it, 120. Different kinds
of inflammable air, 12 i. Ex-
trafted from various fubftan¬
ces by heat, 122. More air
procured by a hidden and
violent than by a gradual
heat, 123. How procured
from water and other fluid
and . folid fubftances, 1 24.
Proportions of inflammable
air procured from iron by
means of fteam, 125. Of
the conftituent parts of in¬
flammable air, 126. No acid
contained in it, 127. Water
neceffary to its production
according to Dr Prieftley,
128. Denied by Mr Kir-
wan, 138. Charcoal totally
convertible into it, 129. Ex¬
periment Ihowing the necef-
O G Y.
fity of water for the produc¬
tion of inflammable air, 131.
Is not pure phlogifton, 133.
Prieftley’s analyfis of diffe¬
rent kinds of it, 1 34. Fixed
air generated in its decom¬
pofition, 135. Fixed air
convertible into it, 136. Has
a great propenfity to unite
with water, 137, Dr Prieft¬
ley’s conclufion with regard
to its component parts, 139.
Its abforption by water, 140.
Its effeCls on vegetation and
animal life, 141. Has little re-
fractive power, 142. Schemes
to employ it for various pur-
pofes, 143.
Ingenhoufz, Dr, his experiments
in the melioration of air by
vegetation, 35. Produces de¬
phlogifticated air from water
by means of the leaves of
plants, 37. Conclufions from
his experiments, 38. His
theory difputed, 51.
Iron fometimes diffolved by the
air, 13. Yields dephlogifti¬
cated air with oil of vitriol,
31. Imbibes dephlogifticated
air, 68. Takes it from the
atmofphere, 69. May be
made to imbibe dephlogifti¬
cated air as often as we pleafe,
74. Properties of the in¬
flammable air obtained from
it by means of fteam, 125.
K.
Kirwan’s conclufion concerning
the artificial production of
water, 8 3. Obferves the pro¬
penfity of inflammable air to
unite with water, 137." His
opinion concerning the confti¬
tuent principles of inflamma¬
ble air, 138.
L.
Lavoi/ier corrects a procefs of
Dr Prieftley, 31. His ex¬
periments on the diminution
of air by burning, 58, 59.
Differences betwixt him and
Dr Prieftley, 64. Denies
the exiftence of phlogifton,
91. His experiments on the
calcination of metals and re-
fpiration, 92, 93, 94.
Lead: Proportions of it re¬
vived in alkaline air, 147.
Leaves of plants feparate de¬
phlogifticated air from water,
37. Refume this property
after they feem to have loft
it, 52.
Light: Effefts of it in the pro-
Index.
duCtion of dephlogifticated
air, 30. EffeCts of light
without heat, 43. Of arti¬
ficial light, 44.
Lint produces dephlogifticated
air, 45._
Litmus, its foliition decom¬
pounded by taking the elec¬
tric fpark in dephlogifticated
air confined over it, 105.
Liver of fulphur abforbs dephlo¬
gifticated air, 95. Yields
hepatic air in plenty, 177.
M.
Manganefe: Sulphurated in¬
flammable air firft produced
from it, 144.
Marble, why it fometimes burfts
with froft, 5.
Marine acid air, how procu¬
red, 170. Its properties, 171.
Changed into inflammable air,
172.
Mediterranean fea : Quantity
of water evaporated from its
furface, 4.
Metallic vapours, their poifon-
ous qualities, 5.
Metallic calces imbibe dephlo¬
gifticated air, 67.
Mercury yields dephlogifticated
air either with nitrous or vi¬
triolic acid, 31.
Mineral waters contain air, 19,
Mint reftores noxious air to a
ftate of falubrity by its vege¬
tation, 32, 33.
Mofetes, their nature, 5.
Muftard, its effefts on air, 35.
N.
Nitre yields a great quantity of
dephlogifticated air, 28.
Nitrous air diminifties dephlo¬
gifticated air, 60,154. Yields
nitrous acid when decompo-
fed, 76. How procured, 150.
Why ftrong nitrous acid yields
none, 151. Properties of it,
152. Extremely fatal to ve¬
getable and animal life, 153.
Has a ftrong antifeptic pow¬
er, 155. Its fpecific gravity,
156. Its component parts,
157. Compofed of phlo¬
gifticated nitrous acid and
water, 158. Effedls of the
electric fpark on it, 159.
Nitrous acid, whether or not
it enters the compofition of
nitrous air, 66. Produced
from dephlogifticated and in¬
flammable air, 77.
Nit sous acid air, how procu¬
red, 166. Cannot be pre-
ferved
Index.
ferved by means of any fluid,
167. Affumes a red colour
by being heated, 168. Its
effefts on red lead, 169.
Noxious air, how purified by
agitation in water, 97.
O.
Oils and Salts, why they fepa-
rate in vacuo, 7.
Olive oil, with whiting, yields
inflammable air, 124.
P.
' Phlogijlicated air, its properties,
t 99. Nitrous acid procured
by means of it, 100. Mr
' Cavendifti’s opinions on its
nature, 103,
■Phlogi/lication of air, whether
it produces any vitriolic acid,
76. Explained, 89.
Phlogifton, too great powers at-
‘ tributed to it, 90. Its ex-
iftence denied by the foreign
chemifts, 91. Whether in¬
flammable air, is pure phlq-
gifton or not, 133, 138.
Contained in alkaline air,
I47*
Plants purify air by their ve¬
getation, 38.
Populus nigra, dephlogifticated
air plentifully produced from
water by means of its cotton¬
like fubilance, 46, 47.
Precipitate per fe, yields no
water on being revived into
a metal, 73.
Prieftley, Dr, difcovers dephlo¬
gifticated air, 24. His firft
hypothefis concerning the
component parts of dephlo¬
gifticated air, 63. Diffe¬
rence betwixt fome of his ex¬
periments and thofe of La-
voifier, 64. His opinion con-
A E R O
cerning the non-exiftenceN of
nitrous acid in dephlogiftica¬
ted air, 66. Difficulties a-
rifing from fome of his ex¬
periments cbncerning the ge¬
neration of water in defla¬
grating dephlogifticated and
inflammable air, 85. His
conje&ures concerning the
incondenfihle vapour of wa¬
ter, 87. His experiments on
the compofitron of fixed air,
1IO. His opinion concern¬
ing the compofition of phlo-
gifticated air, i n. Experi¬
ment in favour of his hypo¬
thefis concerning phlogifti-
cated air, 114.
Putrefying fubjlances emit fixed,
air, 182.
R.
Raw-flli produces dephlogifti¬
cated air by means of water,
41. Various fubftances fub-
ftituted for it, 45. Compa-
rifoh between its furface and
that of the cotton-like fub-
ftance of the Populus nigra,
47-
Red-lead yields no dephlogifti¬
cated air when firft prepared,
and but little for fome time
after, 29. Gives a greater
quantity by a fudden than a
flow heat, 30.
Refpiration, Mr Lavpifier’s ex¬
periments on it, 91.
Retorts with long necks proper
for diftilling dephlogifticated
air, 31.
S.
Scales of iron the fame with
finery-cinder, 124.
Scheele difcovers dephlogiftica¬
ted air, 28. His experiments
L O G Y.
on its diminution by com-
buftion, 59. On the com¬
ponent parts of the atmo-
fphere, 24.
Sea-water contains pure air, 53.
Seltzer-water imitated by Mr
Vend, 20.
Sheep's wool feparates dephlogi¬
fticated air from water, 45.
Soot yields pure air by diftilla-
tion, 87.
Sponge imbibes a*great quantity
of alkaline air, 146.
Spun-glafs, unfuccefsful attempt
to procure dephlogifticated
air from water by its means,
49-
Steam, proportions of inflamma¬
ble air obtained by its means
from differentfubftances, 125'.
Its influence on the produc¬
tion of inflammable air from
charcoal, 132.
Stones fometimes diflblved by
the air, 14.
Sulphureous vapours, their per-,
nicious effeds, 5.
Sulphur yields inflammable air
withfteam, 124.
Sulphurated inflammable air pro¬
cured from maflganefe, 144.
and from iron melted in vi¬
triolic acid air, 145.
T.
Tbomfon, Sir Benjamin, his ex¬
periments on the production
of dephlogifticated air, 39
etfq.
Turpentine oil yields inflamma¬
ble air, 124.
V.
Vegetation will not go on in
vacuo, and why, 12. Pro¬
duces dephlogifticated air, 3 2.
Improves noxious air, 33.
197
Experiments feemingly con-
tradiciory, 34. Dr Ingen-
houfz’s experiments on this
fubjed, 35.
Van Helmont's difcoveries, 16.
. Vegetable acid air phlogifticateS'
common air, 1 74.
Vitriolic acid air,. 165.
Volatile alkali produced from-
nitrous acid and iron, 149.
W.
Water, quantity of it evapo¬
rated from the Mediterrane¬
an, 4. From an acre of
ground, ibid. Why it boils
violently in vacuo, 7. Pro¬
duces dephlogifticated air,
36. Quantity of air yielded
by it, with the mixturo of
various fubftances, 46. By
water alone, 50. Formed by
the deflagration of inflam¬
mable and dephlogifticated
air, 71. Quantity produced
in this manner, 72, 73. Ca-
vendifli’s experiments on this
fubjeCt, 75. Dr Prieftley?s;
experiments on the fame, 80, ■
81. Experiments of the
French philofophers and Mr
Kirwan, 82, 83. Water per¬
vious to air, 98. Methqd of
procuring inflammable air by
its means, 124. Always ne-
, ceflary to the produ&isn.of
this kind of air,. 128, 131.
Attraction betwixt it and
burning charcoal or iron, 132.
Great propenfity of inflam¬
mable air to unite with it,
137,140. Its effeCts on ni--
trous air, 162.
Wines, proportions of fixed air*
in different' kinds, of them,-
182.
A E R
Aeromaney AEROMANCY, a fpecies of divination performed
II by means of air, wind, &c. See Divination, n° 5,.
Aeronau- AEROMETRY, the fcience of meafuring the air.
i t”'a' , It comprehends not only the doCh ine of the air itfelf,
confidered as a fluid body ; but alfo its preffure, elafti-
city, rarefaftion, and condenfation. But the term is
at prefent not much in ufe, this branch of natural phi-
lofophy being more frequently called Pneumatics. See
Pneumatics.
s AERONAUT, a perfon who attends and guides
an air-balloon. See Aerostation and AiK-Ballon.
AERONAUTICA, from and v*.T«x0f) derived
from vauf, fliip ; the art of failing in a veffel or machine.
A E R
through the atmofphere, fuftained as a ffiip in the fea. Aerophyw-
See Aerostation. lacea.
AEROPHYLACEA^ a term fifed by naturalifts '■"""'v--*'''
for caverns or refervoirs of air, fuppofed to exiftfin the
bowels'of the earth. Kircher fpeaks much of aero-
phylacea, or huge caverns, replete with air, difpo-
fed under ground ; from whence, through numerous:
occult paffages, that element is conveyed either to
fubterraneous receptacles of water, which, according'
to him, are hereby raifed into fprings or rivers, or in¬
to the funds of fubterraneous fire, which are hereby
fed and kept alive for the reparation of metals, mine¬
rals, and the like..
AEROSTATION
A
ERG
S
T A T I O
N
198
IS a fcience newly introduced into the Encyclopaedia.
The word} in its primitive fenfe, denotes the fcience
of fufpending- weights in the . air; but in its modern ac¬
ceptation, it lignifies aerial navigation, or the art of na¬
vigating through the atmofphere. Hence alfo the ma¬
chines which are employed for this purpofe are called
aerojlats, or aeroftatic machines; and from their globu¬
lar fhape, air-balloons.
The romances of almoft every nation have recorded
inftances of perfons being carried through the air, both
1 by the agency of fpirits and by mechanical inventions;
Lord Bacon but till the time of the celebrated Lord Bacon, no ra-
I'ftd'th" t^ona^ principle appears ever to have been thought of
true prim by which this might be accompliihed. Before that
ciples of ae- time, indeed, Friar Bacon had written upon the fubjedt;
rotation, and many had been of opinion, that, by means of arti¬
ficial wings, fixed to the arms or legs, a man might fly
2, as well as a bird: but thefe opinions were thoroughly
Impofiibili- refuted by Borelli in his treatife De Motu Animalium,
ty of flying where, from a comparifon between the power of the
nfcalmeans niufcles which move the wings of a bird, and thofe
which move the arms of a man, he demonftrates that
the latter are utterly infufficient to ftrike the air with
'fuch force as to raife him from the ground. It can¬
not be denied, however, that wings of this kind, if
properly conftrudted, and dexteroufly managed, might
be fufficient to break the fall of a human body from an
high place, fo that fome adventurers in this way might
poflibly come off with fafety ; though by far the great-
eft number of thofe who have raflily adopted fuch
fchemes, have either loft their lives or limbs in the at-
3 tempt.
Scheme of In the year 1672, Biftiop Wilkins publifhed a trea-
BifliopWil-tife> intitled, The Difcovery of the New World; in
.Albemisde which l16 mentions, though in a very indittindt and
Saxonia. confufed manner, the true principle on which the air
is navigable ; quoting, from Albertus de Saxonia and
•Francis Mendoca, “ that the air is in fome part of it
-navigable : and upon this ftatic principle, any brafs or
iron veffel (fuppofe a kettle), whofe fubftance is much
heavier than that of wafer, yet being filled with the
lighter air, it will fwim upon it and not fink. So fup¬
pofe a cup or wooden veflel upon the outward borders
of this elementary air, the capacity of it being filled
with fire, or rather ethereal air, it muft neceffarily, up¬
on the fame ground, remain fwimming there, and of it-
felf can no more fall than an empty fliip can fink.”
This idea, however, he did not by any means purfue,
but refted his hopes entirely upon mechanical motions,
to be accompliflied by the mere ftrength of a man, or
by fprings, &c. and which have been demonftrated in-
4 capable of anfwering any ufeful purpofe.
Bifliop La- The only perfon who brought his fcheme of flying
na’sfcheoie. to any kind of rational principle was the Jefuit Francis
Lana, cotemporary with Bifiiop Wilkins. He, being
acquainted with the real weight of the atmofphere,
j uftly concluded, that if a globular veflel wrere exhauft-
ed of air, it would weigh lefs than before ; and confi-
dering that the folid contents of vefiels increafe in
much greater proportion than their furfaces; he fuppo-
fed that a metalline veflel might be made fo large,
that, when emptied of its air, it would be able not
only to raife itfelf in the atmofphere, but to carry up
pafiengers along with it; and he made a number of
calculations neceflary for putting the projedt in execu¬
tion. But though the theory was here unexception¬
able, the means propofed were certainly infufficient to
accomplilh the end: for a veflel of copper, made fo
thin as was necefiary to make it float in the atmo¬
fphere, would be utterly unable to refill the external
preflure ; which being demonftrated by thofe fkilled in
mechanics, no attempt was made on that principle. ^
In the year 1709, however, as we were infonned by Strange
a letter publilhed in France in 1784, a Portuguefe propofal of
projector, Friar Gufman, applied to the king for en- Fr‘ar Gul~*
couragement to his invention of a flying machine. The man*
principle on which this was conftrudted, if indeed it
had any principle, feems to have been that of the pa¬
per kite. The machine was conftru&ed in form of a
bird, and contained feveral tubes through which the
wind was to pafs, in ordei* to fill a kind of fails, which
were to elevate it; and when the wind was deficient,
the fame effedl was to be performed by means of bel¬
lows concealed within the body of the machine. The
afeent was alfo to be promoted by the eleftric attrac¬
tion of pieces of amber placed in the top, and by two
fpheres inclofing magnets in the fame fituation.
Thefe childilh inventions (how the low ftate of fci¬
ence at that time in Portugal, efpecially as the king,
in order to encourage him to farther exertions in fuch
an ufeful invention, granted him the firft vacant place
in his college of Barcelos or Santarem, with the firft
profeflbrlhip in the Univerfity of Coimbra, and an an¬
nual penfion of 600,000 reis during his life. Of this
De Gufman,. it is alfo related, that in the year 1736,
he made a wicker balket of about feven or eight feet
diameter, and covered with paper, which raifed itfelf
about 200 feet in the air, and the effedl was generally
attributed to witchcraft.
In the year 1766, Mr Henry Cavendilh afeertained Loflibility
the weight and other properties of inflammable air, de- °
termining it to be at leaft feven times lighter than air thought
common air. Soon after which, it occurred to Dr of by Dr
Black, that perhaps a thin bag filled with inflammable an<*
air might be buoyed up by the common atmofphere ; rt'ava °*
and he thought of having the allantois of a calf prepa¬
red for this purpofe : but his other avocations prevent¬
ed him from profecuting the experiment. The fame
thought occurred fome years afterwards to Mr Cavallo ;
and he has the honour of being the firft who made ex¬
periments on the fubjedl. He firft tried bladders ; but
the thinneft of thefe, however Well feraped and prepa¬
red, were found too heavy. He then tried Chinefc
paper ; but that proved fo permeable, that the vapour
paffed through it like water through a fieve. His ex¬
periments, therefore, mr^le in the year 1782, proceed-
I99
AEROSTATION.
ed no farther than blowing up foap-bubbles with in¬
flammable air, which afcended rapidly to the cieling,
? and broke againft it.
Aeroftation But' while the difcovery of the art of aeroftation
difenvered feemed thus on the point of being made in Britain, it
Mont°ol' was at once announced in France, and that from a
tier. S ‘ quarter whence nothing of the kind was to have been
expected. Two brothers, Stephen and John Mont¬
golfier, natives of Annonay, and matters of a confider-
able paper-man ufaftory there, had turned their thoughts
towards this project as early as the middle of the year
1782. The idea was firft fuggefted by the natural
afcent of the fmoke and clouds in the atmofphere; and
their defign was to form an artificial cloud, by inclofxng
the fmoke in a bag, and making it carry up the cover-
g ing along with it. Towards the middle of November
Account of that year, the experiment was made at Avignon with
his experi- a fine filk bag of a parallelepiped fhape. By applying
jnent?. burning paper to the lower aperture, the air was rare¬
fied, and the bag afcended in the atmofphere, and
ftruck rapidly againft the ceiling. On repeating the
experiment in the open air, it rofe to the height of
about 70 feet.
An experiment on a more enlarged fcale was now
projected; and a new machine, containing about 650
cubic feet, was made, which broke the cords that con¬
fined it, and rofe to the height of about 600 feet. A-
nother of 35 feet in diameter rofe about 1000 feet
high, and fell to the ground three quarters of a mile
from the place where it afcended. A public exhibition
was next made on the 5th of June 1783, at Annonay,
where a vaft number of fpeftators affembled. An im-
menfe bag of linen, lined with paper, and containing
upwards of 23,000 cubic feet, was found to have a
power of lifting about 500 pounds, including its own
weight. The operation was begun by burning chop¬
ped ftraw and wool under the aperture of the machine,
which immediately began to fwell; and after being fet
at liberty, afcended into the atmofphere. In ten mi¬
nutes it had afcended 6000 feet; and when its force
was exhaufted, it fell to the ground at the diftance of
7668 feet from the place from whence it fet out.
Socm after this, one of the brothers arrived at Paris,
where he was invited by the Academy of Sciences to
repeat his experiments at their expence. In confe-
quence of this invitation, he conftrufled, in a garden
in the Fauxbourg of St Germain, a large balloon of an
elliptical form. In a preliminary experiment, this ma¬
chine lifted up from the ground eight perfons who held
it, and would have carried them all off if more had not
quickly come to their afliftance. Next day the expe¬
riment was repeated in prefenee of the members of the
academy ; the machine was filled by the combuftion of
50 pounds of ftraw made up in fmalF bundles, upon
which about 12 pounds of chopped wool were thrown
at intervals. The ufual fuccefs attended this • exhibi¬
tion : The machine foon fwelled; endeavoured, to a-
feend; and immediately after fuftained itfelf in the
air, together with the charge of between 4 and 500
pounds weights It was evident , that it would have
afcended to a great height; but as it was defigned
to repeat the experiment before the king and royal
family at Verfailles, the cords by which it was tied
down were not cut. But in confequence of a violent rain
and wind which happened at this, time, the machine was
2
fo far damaged, that it became neceflary to prepare a
new one for the time that it had been determined to
honour the experiment with the royal prefencC; and
fuch expedition was ufed, that this vaft machine, of
near 60 feet in height and 43 in diameter, was made,
painted with water-colours both within and without,
and finely decorated, in no more than four days and
four nights. Along with this machine was fent a Some ani-
wicker cage, containing a fheep, a cock, and a duck, ™als ^e|y.
which were the firft animals ever fent through the at-
mofphere. The full fuccefs of the experiment was pre¬
vented by a violent guft of wind which tore the cloth
in two places near the top before it afcended: How¬
ever, it rofe to the height of 1440 feet; and, after re¬
maining in the air about eight minutes, fell to the
ground at the diftance of 10,200 feet from the place ■
of its fetting out. The animals were not in' the leaft
hurt. 10
The great power of thefe aeroftatic machines, and Mr Pilatre
their very gradual defeent in falling to the ground, had
originally fhowed that they were capable of tranfport-rial navigaI
ing people through the air with all imaginable fafety ; tor.
and this was further confirmed by the experiment al¬
ready mentioned. As Mr Montgolfier, therefore,
propofed to make a new aeroftatic machine of a firmer
and better conftruftion than the former, Mr Pilatre de
Rozier offered himfelf to be the firft aerial adven¬
turer.
This new machine was conftrufted in a garden in
the Fauxbourg of St Antoine. It was of an oval ftiape,
about 48 feet in diameter and 74 in height; elegantly
painted on the outfide with the figns of the zodiac,
ciphers of the king’s name, and other ornaments. A
proper gallery, grate, See. were appended in the man¬
ner afterwards deferibed; fo that it was eafy for the
perfon who afcended to fupply the fire with fuel, and
thus keep up the machine as long as he pleafed. The .
weight of the whole apparatus was upwards of 1600
pounds. The experiment was performed on the 15th n
of October 1783. Mr Pilatre having placed himfelf Account of 1
in the gallery, the machine-waa inflated, and permit-
ted to afeend to the height of 84 feet, where he kept V°5 a*
it afloat for about four minutes and a half; after6
which it defeended very- gently :. and ‘fuch was its
tendency to afeend, that it rebounded to a confiderable
height after touching the ground. Two days after,
he repeated the experiment with the fame fuccefs as .
before; but the wind being ftrong, the machine did
not fuftain itfelf fo well as formerly. On repeating
the experiment in calmer weather, he afcended to .
the height of 210 feet. His next afcent was 262
feet; and- in the defeent, a guft of wind having
blown the machine over feime large trees of an adjoin¬
ing garden, Mr Pilatre fuddenly extricated himfelf
from fo dangerous a fituation, by throwing fome ftraw
and chopped wool on the fire, which raifed him at
once to a fufficient height. On defeending again, he
once more raifed himfelf to a proper height by throw¬
ing ftraw on the fire. Some time after, he afcended
in company with Mr Girond de Villette to the height
of 330 feet; hovering -over Paris at leaft nine minutes
in fight of all the inhabitants, and the machine keep¬
ing all the while perfectly fteady.
Thefe experiments had fhown, that the aeroftatic
machines might be raifed or lowered at the pleafure of
the.
.2.00
AEROSTATION.
Hifloryv
the perfons who afcended : they had likewife dxfcover-
ed, that the keeping them faft with ropes was no
advantage ; but, on the contrary, that this was attend¬
ed with inconvenience and hazard. On the 21ft of
November 1783, therefore, M. Pilatre determined to
undertake an aerial voyage in which the machine fliould
be fully fet at liberty. Every thing being got in rea-
dinefs, the balloon was filled in a few minutes ; and
M. Pilatre placed himfelf in the gallery, counterpoifed
by the Marquis d’Arlandes, who occupied the .other
fide. It was intended to make fome preliminaiy ex¬
periments on the afcending power of the machine:
-but the violence of the wind prevented this from being
.done, and even damaged the balloon effentiallyfo
that it would have been entirely deftroyed had not
timely alfiftance been given.. The extraordinary exer¬
tions of the workmen, however, repaired it again in
two hours, and the adventurers fet out. They met
with no inconvenience during their voyage, which
laded about 25 minutes; during which, time they
had palled over a fpace of above five miles.—From
the account given by the Marquis d’Arlandes, it ap¬
pears that they met with feveral different currents of
air; the effedt of which was, to give a very fenfible
Ihocfe to the machine, and the diredtion of the motion
feemed to be from the upper part downwards. It ap¬
pears alfo that they were in fome danger of having the
balloon burnt altogether; as the Marquis obferved fe¬
veral round holes made by the fire in the lower part of
it, which alarmed him confiderably, and indeed not
without reafon. However, the progrefs of the fire
was eafily flopped by the application of a wet fpunge,
and all appearance of danger ceafed in a very fhort
time.
Montgol- This voyage of M. Pilatre and the Marquis d’Ar-
fier’s ma- landes may be faid to conclude the. hiflory of thofe
chines fu- aeroftatic machines which are elevated by means of
r-feded hy fire; for though many other attempts have been made
witfiin-' uPon the fame principle, molt of them have either
flammable proved unfuccefsful or were of little confequence. They
air. have therefore given place to the other kind, filled with
inflammable air; which, by reafon of its fmaller fpe-
cific gravity, is both more manageable, and capable of
performing voyages of greater length, as -it does not
require to be fupplied with fuel like the others. This
was invented a very fhort time after the difcovery had
been made by M. Montgolfier. This gentleman had
indeed defigned to keep his method in fome degree a
fecret from the world ; but as it could not be conceal¬
ed, that a bag filled with any kind of fluid lighter than
the common atmofphere would rife in it, inflammable
air was naturally thought of as -a proper fuccedaneum
13 for the rarefied air of M. Montgolfier. The firfl ex-
Experi- periment was made by two brothers Meffrs Roberts,
Meffrs^ anh M. Charles a profeffor of experimental philofo-
Chai les and phy* The bag'which contained the gas was compo-
lloberts. fed of lutefiring, varnifhed over with a folution of the
elaflic gum called caoutchouc.;, and that with which
they made their firfl effay was only about 13 Englifh
feet in diameter. Many difficulties occurred in filling
it with the inflammable air, chiefly owing to their ig¬
norance of the proper apparatus; infomuch, that, af¬
ter a. whole day’s labour from nine in the' morning,
they had got the balloon only one third part full.
Next morning they were furprifed to find that it had
fully inflated of itfelf during the night: but Upon in- 14 1
quiry, it was found, that they had inadvertently left1,1 w|la£ . ^
open a flop-cock connected with the balloon, by which.j,aqoon ;■
the common air gaining accefs, had mixed itfelf with partly filled
the inflammable air; forming a compound flill lighter may inflate
than the common atmofphere, but not fufficiently light ^t^'
to anfwer the purpofes of aeroflation. Thus they were
obliged to renew their operation ; and, by fix o’clock
in the evening of next day, they found the machine
confiderably lighter than the common air ; and, in an
hour after, it made a confiderable effort to afcend.
The public exhibition, however, had been announced
only for the third day after ; fo that the balloon was
allowed to remain in an inflated flate for a whole day; I?
during which they found it had loft a power of afcent Lots of j
equal to about three pounds, being one feventh part power in
of the whole. When it was at laft fet at liberty, after |^r :
having been well filled with inflammable air, it was 35
pounds lighter than an equal bulk of common air. It
remained in the atmofphere only three quarters of an
hour, during which it had traverfed 15 miles. Its
fudden defcent was fuppofed to have been owing to a
rupture which had taken place when it afcended into
the higher regions of the atmofphere. ,5
The fuccefs of this experiment, and the aerial voy-Firft aerial
age made by Meffrs Rozier and Arlandes, naturally voyage of
fuggefted the idea'of undertaking fomething of the"sand
fame kind with a balloon filled with inflammable air. Roberts.
The machine ufed on this occafion was formed of gores
of filk, covered over with a varnifh made of caoutchouc,
of a fpherical figure, and meafuring 274- feet in dia¬
meter. A net was fpread over the upper hemifphere,
and was faftened to an hoop which paffed round the
middle of the balloon. To this a fort of car, or ra¬
ther boat, was fufpended by ropes, in fuch a manner
as to hang a few. feet below the lower part of the bal¬
loon ; and, in order to prevent the burfling of the ma¬
chine, a valve was placed in it; by opening of which
fome of the inflammable air might be bccafionally let
out. A long filken pipe communicated with the bal¬
loon, by means of which it was filled. The boat was
made of bafket-work, covered with painted linen, and
beautifully ornamented ; being 8 feet long, 4 broad,
and 3t deep ; its weight 130 pounds. At this time,
however, as at the former, they met with great difficul¬
ties in filling the machine with inflammable air, owing
to their ignorance of the moft proper apparatus. But
at laft, all obftacles being removed, the two adventu¬
rers took their feats at three quarters after one in the
afternoon of the firft of December 1783. Perfons
fltilled in mathematics were conveniently ftationed with
proper inftruments to calculate the height, velocity,
&c. of the balloon. The weight of the whole appa¬
ratus, including that of the two adventurers, was found
to be 6044-'pounds, and the power of afcent when they
fet out was 20 pounds; fo that the whole difference
betwixt the weight of this balloon and an equal bulk
of common air was 624 pounds. But the weight of I7
common atmofphere difplaced by the inflammable gas Specific
was calculated to be 771 pounds, fo that there remains gravity of
147 for the weight of the latter; and this calculation
makes it only 5^ times lighter than common air. ™js m
At the time the balloon left the ground, the ther- voyage,
mometer flood at g° of Fahrenheit’s fcale, and the
quicklilver in the barometer at 30.18 inches; and, by
means
AjKMOSTA 7Vf^V
Vei-faillep
Plate H.
Bkaclmi-d’s BaUoon.
irontgoliier's jv
"//WAUfr.'
Montgolfiers Balloon.
' Aw,r/;>t//yr/,/■' /#/,</sw A
Cliarles’ ^ RobertsB.
Hiftory,
AE RO STATION.
means of the power of afcent with which they left the
ground, the balloon rofe till the mercury fell to 27 in¬
ches, from which they calculated their height to be
about 600 yards. By throwing out ballaft occafion-
ally as they found the machine defcending by the e-
fcape of fome of the inflammable air, they found it
practicable to keep at pretty near the fame dillance
from the earth during the reft of their voyage; the
quickfdver fluctuating between 27 and 27.65 inches,-
and the thermometer between 530 and 57°, the whole
time.- They continued in the air for the fpace of an
hour and three quarters, When they alighted at the
diftance of 27 miles from Paris ; having fuffered no
inconvenience during their voyage, nor experienced
any contrary currents of air, as had been felt
jg by Meflrs Pilatre and Arlandes. As the balloon  ,   ~ .
Mr Charles Ml retained a great quantity of inflammable gas, Mr amufed himfelf with endeavours to fly by mechanical
afcends by Charles determined to take another voyage by him- means, though he had never fucceeded in the under-
himfelf. felft Mr Robert accordingly got put of the boat, taking. As foon as the difcovery of tlie aeroftatic ma-
which was thus lightened by' 130 pounds, and of chines was announced, however, he refolved to add the-
ings and windings of the voyage, he fuppofes-that he
had gone through nine miles at leaft. By the calcu¬
lations of M. de Maunier, he rofe at this time not lefs
than 10,500 feet high ; a height fomewhat greater
than that of Mount ./Etna. A fmall balloon, which
had been fent off before the two brothers fet out on
their voyage, took a direction oppofite to that of the
large one, having met with an oppofite current of air,
probably at a much greater height.
The fubfequerit aerial voyages differ fo little, from
that juft now related, that any particular defcription of aa
them feems to be fuperfluous. It had occurred to Mr^Attempts
Charles, however, in his laft flight, that th-era might be guide
a poflibility of dire&ing the machine in the atmofphere; ^°hi^;n
and this was foon attempted by Mr Jean-Pierre Blan- the atmo_
chard, a gentleman who had, for feveral years before, fphere.
eonfequence the aeroftatic machine now had nearly,
as much power of afcent. Thus he was carried up
with fuch velocity, that in twenty minutes he was ah
moft 9000 feet high, and entirely out of fight of ter-
reftrial objects. At the moment of his parting with
the ground, the globe had been rather flaccid ; but it
foon began to fwell, and the inflammable air efcaped
from it in great quantity through the filken tube, fie
alfo frequently drew the valve that it might be the
more freely emitted, and the balloon effectually pre¬
vented from burfting. The inflammable gas being
confiderably warmer than the external air, diffufed it-
felf all round, and was felt like a warm atmofphere ;
but in ten minutes the thermometer indicated a varia¬
tion of temperature as great as that between the
warmth of fpring and the ordinary cold of winter.
His fingers were benumbed by the cold, and he felt a
wings of his former machine to a balloon, and made no
doubt that it would then be in his power to direft him¬
felf through the air at pleafure. In his firft attempt
he was fruftrated by the impetuofity of a young gentle¬
man, who infifted, right or wrong, on afcending along
with him. In the fcuffle which enfued on this occa-
fion, the wings and other apparatus were entirely de- 2,
ftroyed ; fo that Mr Blanchard was obliged to commit Two firft
himfelf to the direftion of the • wind ; and in another voyages of
attempt it was found, that all the ftrength he could ap- an”
ply to the wings was fcarce fufficient to counteract the
impreffion of the wind in any degree. In his. voyage,-
he found his balloon, at a certain period, aCted upoi»
by two contrary winds ; but, on throwing out four
pounds of ballaft, he afcended to a place where he met-
with the fame current he had at fetting out from the ^
earth. His account of the fenfations he felt during pjisfenfa-
Has a pain violent pain in his right ear and jaw, which he afcribed this voyage, was fomewhat different from that of Mr tions while
Charles ; having, in one part of it, found the atmo- u
fphere very warm, in another cold ; and having once n
found himfelf very hungry, and at another time almoft
overcome by a propenfity to deep. The height to
the valleys ; but the height to which Mr Charles was which he arofe, as meafured by feveral obfervations with-
n his ear to the dilatation of the air in thefe organs as well as to
whcirtn the t^ie externa^ C°W. "The beauty of the profpeCl which
' higher re- now enjoyed, however, made amends for thefe in-
gions. conveniences. At his departure the fun was fet
got in the atmofphere, rendered him again vifible, tho’
only for a fhort time.. He faw, for a few feconds, va¬
pours rifing from the valleys and rivers. The clouds
feemed to afcend from the earth, and colled one upon
the other, ftill preferving their ufual form; only their
ao colour was grey and monotonous for want of fufficient
Various light in the atmofphere. By the light of the moon,
wind'and^ ke Perceived that the machine was turning round with
eddWfti him in the air ; and he obferved that there were con-
thefe re- trary currents which brought him back again. He ob-
gions. ferved alfo, with furprife, the effe&s of the wind, and
21 that the ftreamers of his banners pointed upwards ;
•ftrisbaii- he fays, could not be the effed either of his
nets ftand afcent: or defcent, as he was moving horizontally at the
upwards, time. At laft, recolledmg his promife of returning
to his friends in half an hour, he pulled the valve, and
accelerated His defcent. When within 2cofeet of the
earth, he threw out two or three pounds of ballaft,
which rendered the balloon again ftationary: but, in a
afphere.
mathematical inftruments, was thought to be very little
lefs than 10,000 feet; and he remained in the atmo¬
fphere an hour and a quarter.
The attempts of Mr Blanchard to di red his machine Voyage 0f
through the atmofphere, were repeated in the month of Meff. Mor-
April 1784 by Meflrs Morveau and Bertrand, at Dijon, veau and
who raifed themfelves with an inflammable air-balloon Beitrand-
to the height, as it was thought, of 13,000 feet; paf-
fing through a fpace of 18 mile's in an hour and 25
minutes. Mr Mcrveau had prepared a kind of oars
for direding the machine through the air 5 but they
were damaged by a guft of wrind, fo that only two of
them remained ferviceable; by working thefe, however,'
they were able to produce a fenfible effed on the mo- z6
tion of the machine. In a third aerial voyage perform- Third voy- -
ed by Mr Blanchard, he feemed to produce fome effed aKe ^
by the agitation of his wings, both in afcending, de- ,a'‘c ^
fcending, moving fidewife, and even in fome meafure
igainft the wind; however, this is fuppofed, with fome
Ettle time afterwards, he gently alighted in a field probability, to have been a miftake, as, in all his-fuc-
about three miles diftant from the place whence, he fet ceeding voyages, the effeds of his machinery could not
out; though, by making allowance for all the turn- be perceived.
Vot. I. Part I. C c The
Cc
202 A E R O S T
11 The fuccefs of Meffrs Charles and Robert in their
a^eof MefT ^ormer experiments, encouraged them icon to repeat
Charles and them, with the addition of fome machinery to direct
'-Robert. their courfe. Having enlarged their former balloon to
the fize of an oblong fpheroid 46-j- feet long and 274-
in diameter, they made it to float with its longeft part
parallel to the horizon. The wings were made in the
fhape of an umbrella without the handle, to the top of
which a flick was faftened parallel to the aperture of
the umbrella. Five of thefe were difpofed round the
boat, which was near 17 feet in length. The balloon
was filled in three hours, and, with the addition of 450
pounds of ballaft, remained in aquilibrio with the at-
mofphere. About noon, on the 19th of September
1784, they began to afcend very gently in confequence
of throwing out 24 pounds of ballaft, but were foon
48 obliged to throw out eight pounds more in order to
Are in dan-avoid running againft fome trees. Thus they rofe to
irer of run-jbg height of 1400 feet, when they perceived fome
thunder- thunder-clouds near the horizon. On this they afcend-
clouds. ed and defcended, to avoid the danger, as the wind
blew direftly towards the threatening clouds; but,
from the height of 600 feet to that of 4200 above the
furface of the earth, the current was quite uniform and
in one direction. During their voyage they 16ft one
of their oars; but found, that by means of thofe which
remained, they confiderably accelerated their courfe.
From the account of their voyage, it would feem that
they had pafled fafely through the thunder-clouds ; as
we are informed, that, about 40 minutes after three,
they heard a loud clap of thunder ; and, three minutes
after, another much louder; at which time the ther¬
mometer funk from 77 to.59 degrees. This fudden
cold, occafioned by the approach of the clouds, con-,
denfed the inflammable air fo that the balloon defcend-
ed very low, and they were obliged to throw out 40
49 pounds of ballaft; yet on examining the heat of the air
■ Heat of the within the balloon, they found it to be 104°, when that
‘their bal” *'^e ex,:ernal atmofphere was only 63. When they
loon. " had got fo high that the mercury in the barometer flood
•only at 23,94 inches, they found themfelves becalmed ;
fo that the machine did not go even at the rate of two
feet in a fecond, though it had before gone at the rate
Rffedt of of 24 feet in a fecond. 'On this they determined to
their oars in try the effedl of their oars to the utmoft; and, by
mo^gthe^kiHg them for 35 minutes, and marking the fhadow
1 ' of the balloon on the ground, they found, in that time,
that they had defcribed the fegment of an ellipfis whofe
longeft diameter was 6ooo feet. After having tra-
•velled about 150 miles, they defcended, only on account
of the. approach of night, having flill 200 pounds of
hallaft left.
Their conclufion, with regard to the effeft of
‘their wings, is as follows : “ Thofe experiments ftiow,
that far from going againft the wind, as is faid by
fome perfons tq be poflible in a certain manner, and
fome aeronauts pretend to have actually done, we only
obtained, by means of two oars, a deviation of 22 de¬
grees : it is certain, however, that if we could have
ufed our four oars, we might have deviated about 40
degrees from the dire&ion of the wind, and as our ma¬
chine would have been capable of carrying feven per¬
sons, it would have been eafy for five perfons to have
gone, and to have put in adion eight oars>-by means of
A T I O N. Hiflory.
which a deviation of about 80 degrees would have been
obtained.
“ We had already obferved (fay they), that if we
did not deviate more than 12 degrees, it was becaufe
the wind carried us at the rate of 24 miles an hour ;
and it is natural to judge, that, if the wind had been
twice as ftrong as it was, we ftiould not have deviated
more than one-half of what we adually did; and, on
the contrary, if the wind had been only half as ftrong,
our deviation would have been proportionably great-
er.” 3I
Flaving thus related all that has been done with re- Contrivan*
gard to the conducting of aeroftatic machines through ccs ufed t0
the atmofphere, we ftiall now relate the attempts that
have been made to leflen their expence, by falling upon flammable
fome contrivance to afcend without throwing out bal- air.
laft, and to defcend without lofing any of the inflam- 3a
mable air. The firft attempt of this kind was made Voyage of
by the Duke de Chartres; who, on the 15th of July the Duke
1784, afcended with the two brothers, Charles and Ro- de Chartres,
bert, from the Park of St Cloud. The balloon was
of an oblong form, made to afcend with its longeft dia¬
meter horizontally, and meafured 55 feet in length
and 24 in breadth. It contained within it a fmaller
balloon filled with common air; by blowing into which
with a pair of bellows, and thus throwing in a confi-
derable quantity of common air, it was fuppofed that
the machine Would become fufficiently heavy to defcend,
efpecially as, by the inflation of the internal bag, the
inflammable air in the external one would be condenfed
into a fmaller fpace, and thus become fpecifically hea¬
vier. The voyage, however, was attended with fuch
circumftances as rendered it impoffible to know what
would have been the event of the fcheme. The power
of afcent with which they fet out, feems to have been
very great; as, in three minutes after parting with the
ground, they were loft in the clouds, and involved in 33
fuch a denfe vapour that they could fee neither the fky Is involved
nor the earth. In this fituation they feemed to be dark
attacked by a whirlwind, which, befides turning the jt'ackeTby
balloon three times round from right to left, {hocked, a W}1!F[.
and beat it fo about, that they were rendered incapable wind,
of ufing any of the means propofed for dire&ing their
courfe, and the filk fluff of which the helm had been
compofed was even torn away. No feene can be con¬
ceived more terrible than that in which they were now
involved. An immenfe ocean of fhapelefs clouds rolled
one upon another below them, and feemed to prevent
any return to the earth, which ftill continued invifible,
while the agitation of the balloon became greater every
moment. In this extremity they cut the cords which
held the interior balloon, and of confequence it fell
down upon the aperture of the tube that came from
the large balloon into the boat, and flopped it up.
They were then driven upwards by a guft of wind from
below, which carried them to the top of that ftormy
vapour in which they had been involved. They now
faw the fun without a cloud ; but the heat of his rays,
with the diminifhed denfity of the atmofphere, had fuch
an effedft on the inflammable air, that the balloon feem¬
ed every moment ready to burft. To prevent this they
introduced a flick through the tube, in order to pufh
away the inner balloon from its aperture ; but the ex-
panfion of the inflammable air pulhed it fo clofe, that
!
AEROSTATION.
Hiftory.
all attempts of this kind proved ineffe&ual. It was
now, however, become absolutely neceffary to give vent
to a very confiderable quantity of the inflammable air;
for which purpofe the Duke de Chartres himfelf bored
two holes in the balloon, which tore open for the length
©f feven or eight feet. On this they defcended with
great rapidity ; and would have fallen into a lake, had
they not haftily thrown out 60 pounds of ballaft, which
enabled them juft to reach the water’s edge.
The fuccefs of the Scheme for raifing or lowering
aeroftatic machines by means of bags filled with com¬
mon air being thus rendered dubious, another method
was thought of. This was to put a fmall aeroftatic
' machine with rarefied air under an inflammable air-
balloon, but at fuch a diftatrce that the inflammable air
©f the latter might be perfectly out of the reach of the
fire ufed for inflating the former; and thus, by increa-
fing or diminifliing the fire in the finall machine, the
34 abfolute weiglit of the whole would be confiderably di-
Unfortu- minifhed or augmented. This fcheme was unhappily
an^ de at if6 Put *n execut‘on hy the celebrated Mr Pilatre de Ro¬
of Meffrs z^er> and another gentleman named Mr Romaine. Their
Rozierand inflammable-air balloon was about 37 feet in diameter,!
Romaine. and the power of the rarefied-air one was equivalent to
about 60 pounds. They afcended without any appear¬
ance of danger or finifter accident; but had not been
long in the atmofphere when the inflammable-air bal¬
loon was feen to fwell very confiderably, at the fame
time that the aeronauts were obferved, by means of te-
lefcopes, very anxious to get down, and bufied in pull¬
ing the valve and opening the appendages to the bal¬
loon, in order to facilitate the efeape of as much in¬
flammable air as poffible. A Ihort time after this the
whole machine was on fire, when they had then attained
the height of about three quarters of a mile from the
* ground. No explofion was heard ; and the filk which
eompofed the air-balloon continued expanded, and
feemed to refill the atmofphere for about a minute ;
after which it collapfed, and the remains of the appara¬
tus defcended along with the two unfortunate travellers
fo rapidly, that both of them were killed. Mr Pilatre
feemed to have been dead before he came to the ground;
but Mr Romaine was alive when fome perfons came up
to the place where he lay, though he expired imme¬
diately after.
Thefe are the moft remarkable attempts that have
been made to improve the fcience of aeroftation; tho’
a great number of other expeditions through the at¬
mofphere have taken place. But of all the voyages
which had been hitherto proje&ed or put in exe-
V< y?ge of cution> the m°ft daring was that of Mr Blanchard
MefLBIan-and Dr Jeffries acrofs the ftraits of Dover which
chard and feparate Britain from France. This took place on
Jeffries the 7th of January 1785, being a clear frolly mor-
StraitMrf “ing* .with a wind, barely perceptible, at N. N. W.
X)pver. The operation . of filling the balloon began, at 10
o’clock, and, at three quarters after twelve, every
thing was ready for their departure. At one o’clock
Mr Blanchard defired the boat to be pufhed off, which
now flood only two feet diftant from that precipice fo
finely defcribed by Shakefpeare in his tragedy of King
Lear. As the balloon was fcarcely fufficient to cany
two, they were obliged to. throw out all their ballaft
except three bags of 10 pounds each ; when they at
laft rofe gently, though making very little _ way on
account of there being fo little wind. At a quarter
after one o’clock, the barometer, which on the cliff
flood at 29.7 inches, was now fallen to 27.3, and the
weather proved fine and warm. They had now a moft
beautiful profpeft of the fouth coaft of England, and
were able to count'37 villages upon it. After palling
over feveral veffels, they found that the balloon, at 50
minutes after one, was defcending, on which they threw
out a fack and an half of ballaft; but as they faw that
it ftill defcended, and that with much greater velocity
than before, they now threw out all the ballaft. This
ftill proving ineffeAual, they next threw out a parcel of
books they carried along with them, which made the
balloon afcend, when they were about midway betwixt
France and England.. At a quarter pall two, finding
themfelves again defcending, they threw away the re- •
mainder of their books, and, ten mimites after, they
had a moft enchanting profpeft of the French coaft.
Still, however, the machine defcended; and as they had
now no more ballaft; they were fain to throw away
their provifions for eating, the wipgs of their boat, and
every other moveable they could eafily fpare. “ We
threw- away, fays Dr Jeffries, our only bottle, which,
in its defcent, call out a fleam like fmoke, with a ruffl¬
ing noife; and when it ftruck the water, wo heard and
felt the Ihock very perceptibly on our car and balloon.’>
All this proving infufficient to Hop the defcent of the
balloon, they next threw out their anchors and cords,.
und at laft ftripped off their cloths, faftening themfelves
to certain flings, and intending to cut away the boat
as their laft refource.. They had now the fatisfa&ion,
however, to find that they were riling ; and as they
paffed over the high lands between Cape'Blanc and
Calais, the machine rofe very fall, and carried them to .
a greater height than they had been at any former
part of their voyage. They defcended fafely among
fome trees in the foreft of Guiennes, where there was
juft opening enough to admit them.
It would be tedious as well as unneceffary to recount
all the other aerial voyages that have been performed
in our own or other countries : It appeared fufficient
for the purpofe of this article to notice thofe which
were moft remarkable and interefting ; and therefore
an account of the ingenious Mr-Baldwin’s excurfion
from Chefter, alluded. to .albove, Ihall. now clofe our enu¬
meration.
On the 8th of September 1-785, at .forty minutes ;
pall one P. M. Mr Baldwin afcended from Chefter in
Mr Lunardi’s(A) balloon. After traverfingin a variety
of different directions, he firft alighted, at .28 minutes
after three, about twelve, miles from Chefter, in the
neighbourhood of. Frodfham; then reafeending and
purfuing his excurfion,. he finally landed at Rixton
mofa, five miles N. N. E. of Wavington, and 25 miles
from Chefter. Mr Baldwin has publilhed his Obferva-
tions and Remarks made during his voyage, and taken
from .minutes. Our limits will not admit of relating
C c 2 many
(a) Of this gentleman’s adventurous excurfions moft people have been witneffes ; and therefore it appeared.!
unaeceffary to take up room with an account of them in this article. .
204
A E R O S T
A T I O N.
Hiftory
many of his obfervations; but the few following are
fome of the moft important and curious. “ The fen-
fation of afcending is compared to that of a ftrong
preflure from the bottom of the car upwards againft
the foies of his feet At the diftance of what appeared
to him feven miles from the earth, though by the ba¬
rometer fcarcely a mile and a half, he had a grand and
moft enchanting view of the city of Chefter and its
adjacent places below. The river Dee appeared of a
red colour; the city very diminutive; and the town
entirely blue. The whole appeared a perfeft plain,
the higheft building having no apparent height, but
reduced all to the fame level, and the whole terreftrial
profpeft appeared like a coloured map. Juft after his
firft afcent, being in a well-watered and maritime part
of the country, he obferved a remarkable and regular
tendency of the balloon towards the fea; but ftiortly
after rifing into another current of air, he efcaped the
danger; this upper current, he fays, was vifible to him
at the time of his afcent, by a lofty found ftratum of
clouds flying in a fafe direction. The perfpeftive ap¬
pearance of things to him was very remarkable. The
loweft bed df vapour that firft appeared as cloud was
pure white, in detached fleeces, increafing as they
rofe: they prefently coalefced, and formed, as he
exprefles it, a fea of cotton, tufting here and there by
the aftion of the air in the undifturbed part of the
clouds. The whole became an extended white floor
of cloud, the upper furface being fmooth and even.
Above this white floor he obferved, at great and une¬
qual diftances, a vaft affemblage of thunder-clouds,
each parcel confifting of whole acres in the denfeft
form; he compares their form and appearance to the
fmoke of pieces of ordnance, which had confolidated
as it were intomaffesof fnow, and penetrated through the
upper furface or white floor of common clouds, there
remaining wifible and at reft. Some clouds had mo¬
tions in flow and various direttions, forming an appear¬
ance truly, ftupendous and majeftic. He endeavours
to convey fome idea of the fcene by a figure; (and from
which fig. 13. of 2d Plate II. is copied), reprefents
a circular view he had from the car of the balloon, him-
felf being over the centre of the view, looking downonthe
white floor of clouds and feeing the city of Chefter
through an opening, which difcovered the landfcape be¬
low, limited by furrounding vapour, to lefs than two miles
in diameter. The breadth of the outer margin defines
his apparent height in the balloon (viz. 4 miles) above
the white floor of clouds. Mr Baldwin alfo gives a
curious defcription of his tracing the Ihadow of the
balloon over tops of volumes of clouds. 'At firft it
was final!, in fize and fltape like an egg ; but foon en-
creafcd to the magnitude of the fun’s difc, ftill grow¬
ing larger, and attended with a moft captivating ap¬
pearance of an iris encircling the whole (hadow at fome
diftance round it, the colours of which were remarkably
brilliant. The regions did not feel colder, but rather
-warmer* than below. The fun was hotteft to him
when the balloon was ftationary. The difeharge pf a
cannon when the balloon was at a confiderable height,
was diftinctly heard by the aeronaut; and a difeharge
from the fame piece, when at the height of 30 yards,
fo difturbed him as to oblige him for fafety to lay hold
.firmly of the cords of the balloon. At a confiderable
height he poured down a pint-bottle full of water; and
as the air did not oppofe a refiftancefufficient to break
the fteam into fmall drops, it moftly fell down in large
drops. In the courfe of the balloon’s tract it was
found much affefted by the water (a circumftance ob¬
ferved in former aerial voyages). At one time the
direction of the balloon kept continually over the wa¬
ter, going diredtly towards the fea, fo much as to en¬
danger the aeronaut; the mouth of the balloon was
opened, and he in two minutes defeended into an under
current blowing from the fea : he kept defeending, and
landed at Bellair farm in Rinfley, x 2 miles from Chefter.
Here he lightened his car by 31 pounds, and inftantly
reafeending, was carried into the interior part of the
country, performing a number of different manoeuvres.
At his greateft altitude he found his refpiration free and
eafy. Several bladders which he had along with him
crackled and expanded very confiderably. Clouds and
land, as before, appeared oh the fame level. By way
of experiment, he tried the upper valve two or three
times, the neck of the balloon being clofe; and re¬
marked, that the efcape of the gas was attended with a
growling noife like millftones, but not near fo loud.
Again, round the fliadow of the balloon, on the clouds
he obferved the iris. A variety of other circumftances
and appearances he met with, is fancifully deferibed;
and at 53 minutes paft three he finally landed. 36
The frequency of aerial voyages, accompanied with of ac
particular details of trifling and uninterefting circum-ro a 10n‘
ftances, and apparently made with a view to promote
the intereft of particular perfons, regardlefs of any ad¬
vancement in knowledge, have now funk the fcience of
aeroftation fo low in the opinion of moft people, that
before giving any account of the moft . proper method
of conftruCting thefe machines, it may feem neceffary
to premife fomething concerning the ufes to which
they may pofiibly be applied. Thefe, according to Mr
Cavallo, are the following.
“ The fmall balloons, efpecially thofe made of paper,
and raifed by means of fpirit of wine, may ferve to ex¬
plore the direction of the winds ip the upper regions
of the atmofphere, particularly when there is a calm
below: they may ferve for fignals in various circum¬
ftances, in which no other means can be ufed; and let¬
ters or other fmall things may be eafily fent by them,
as for inftance from Ihips that cannot fafely land on
account of ftorms, from befieged places, iflands, or the
like. The larger aeroftatic machines may anfwer all
the abovementioned purpofes in a better manner; and
they may, befides, be ufed as a help to a perfon who
wants to afeend a mountain, a precipice, or to crofs a
river ; and perhaps one of thofe machines tied to a boat
by a long rope, may be, in fome cafes, a better fort of
fail than any that is ufed at prefent. The largeft fort
of machines, which can take up one or more men, may
evidently be fubfervient to various ceconomical and phi-
lofophical purpofes. Their conveying people from
place to place with great fwiftnefs, and without trouble,
may be of effential ufe, even if the art of guiding them
in a direction different from that of the wind ihould
never be difcovered. By means of thofe machines the
ihape of certain feas and lands may be better afeer-
tained; men may afeend to the tops of mountains they
never vifited before; they may be carried over marfhy
’ssn*
Principles. A E R O S
and dangerous grounds; they may by that means come
out of a befieged place, or an ifland; and they may, in
hot climates, afcend to a cold region of the atmofphere,
either to refrefh themfelves, or to obferve the ice, which
is never feen below; and, in fhort, they may be thus
taken to feveral places, to which human art hitherto
knew of no conveyance.
“ The philofophical ufes, to which thefe machines
may be fubfervient, are numerous indeed; and it may
be fufficient to fay, that hardly any thing which paffes
in the atmofphere is known with preciiion, and that
principally for w-ant of a method of afcending into it.
The formation of rain, of thunder-ftorms, of vapours,
hail, fnow, and meteors in general, require to be atten¬
tively examined and afcertained. The adlion of the
barometer^ the refraftion and temperature of the air in
various regions, the defcent of bodies, the propagation
of found, &c. are fubje&s which all require a feries of
obfervations and experiments, the performance of which
could never have been properly expected before the
difcovery of aeroftatic machines.”
To thofe ufes we may add the gratification of curiofity
and pleafure as a very ftrong inducement to the practice
of an art, in which, with any tolerable degree of cau¬
tion, there appears not to be the fmalleft danger.
Every one who has tried the experiment teftifies, that
the beauty of the profpedt afforded by an afcent, or
the pleafure of being conveyed through the atmo¬
fphere, cannot be exceeded. No one has felt the
leaft of that giddinefs confequent upon looking from
the top of a very high building or of a precipice, nor
have they any of the ficknefs arifing from the motion
of a veffel at fea. Many have Jbeen carried by bal¬
loons at the rate of 30, 40, or even 50 miles an hour,
without feeling the leaft inconvenience, or even agi¬
tation of the wind; the reafon of which is, that as
the machine moves with nearly the velocity of the wind
itfelf, they are always in a calm, and without uneafi-
nefs. Some have apprehended danger from the elec¬
tricity of the atmofphere; and have thought that a
ftroke of lightning, or the fmalleft eleftric fpark, hap¬
pening near a balloon, might fet fire to the inflamma¬
ble air. and deftroy both the machine and the adven¬
turers. Mr Cavallo has fuggefted feveral confiderations
for diminiihing apprehenfions of this kind. Balloons
have been already raifed in every feafon of the year,
and even when thunder has been heard, without in¬
jury. Jn cafe of danger, the aeronauts may either de-
fcend to the earth, or afcend above the region of the
clouds and thunder-ftorms. Befides, as balloons are
formed of materials that are not conductors of electri¬
city, they are not likely to receive ftrokes, efpecially
as by being encompaffed with air they ftand infulated.
Moreover, inflammable air by itfelf, or unmixed with
a certain quantity of common air, will not burn ; fo
that if an eleftric fpark ftiould happen to pafs through
the balloon, it would not fet fire to the inflammable
37 air, unlefs a hole was made in the covering.
Principles The general principles of aeroftation are fo little
tiener° ^ different from thofe of hydroftatics, that it may feem
fuperfiuous to infift much upon them. It is a fa£t
univerfally known, That when a body is immerfed in any
fluid, if its weight be lefs than an equal bulk of that
fluid, it will rife to the furface; but if. heavier, it will
fmk ; and if equal, it will remain in the place where it
T A T I O N. 205
is left. For this reafon fmoke afcends into the atmo¬
fphere, and heated air in that which is colder. The 38
afcent of the latter is fliown in q. very eafy and fatis- Pxperi-
factory manner by bringing a red-hot iron under one *"ent?
of the feales of a balance, by which the latter is ‘n_ impuiffof*
ftantly made to afcend ; for, as foon as the red-hot heated air.
iron is brought under the fcale, the hot a,ir being light*
er than that which is colder, afcends, and ftrikes the
bottom, which is thus impelled upwards, and the op-
pofite fcale defeends, as if a weight had been put in¬
to it. u
Upon this Ample principle depends the whole theo¬
ry of aeroftation ; for it is the fame thing whether we
render the air lighter by introducing a quantity of
heat into it, or inclofing a quantity of gas fpecifically
lighter than the common atmofphere in a certain fpace;
both will afcend, and for the fame reafon. A cubic
foot of air, by the moft accurate experiments, has
been found to weigh about 554 grains, and to be ex¬
panded by every degree of heat, marked on Fahren¬
heit’s thermometer, about tW1 part of the whole.
By heating a quantity of air, therefore, to 500 de¬
grees of Fahrenheit, we will juft double its bulk when
the thermometer ftands at 54 in the open air, and in
the fame proportion we will diminifh its weight; and
if fuch a quantity of this hot air be inclofed in a bag,
that the excels of the weight of an equal bulk of com¬
mon air weighs more than the bag with the air con¬
tained in it, both the bag and air will rife into the at¬
mofphere, and continue to do fo until they arrive at a
place where the external air is naturally fo much rare¬
fied that the weight becomes equal; and here the whole
will float.
The power of hot air in raifing weights, or rather
that by which it is itfelf impelled upwards, may be
fliown in the- following manner: Roll up a flieet of
paper into a conical form, and, by thrufting a pin in¬
to it near the apex, prevent it from unrolling. Fatten
it then, by its apex, under one of the feales of a ba¬
lance by means of a thread, and, having properly
counterpoifed it by weights, put it into the oppofite
fcale ; apply the flame of a candle underneath, you
will inftantly perceive the cone to arife, and it will not
be brought into equilibrium with the other but by a
much greater weight than thofe who have never feen
the experiment would believe. If we try this experi¬
ment with more accuracy, by getting proper recep¬
tacles made which contain determinate quantities of
air, we will find that the pow.er of the heat depends
much more on the capacity of the bag which contains
it than could well be fuppofed. Thus, let a cubical
receptacle be made of a fmall wooden frame covered
with paper capable of containing one foot of air, and
let the power of a candle be tried with this as above
diredled for the paper cone. It will then be found that
a certain weight may be raifed; but a much greater
one will be raifed by having a receptacle of the fame
kind which contains two cubic feet; a ftill greater
by one of three feet ; a yet greater by one of four feet,
&c. and this even though the very fame candle be
made ufe of; nor is. it known to what extent even
the power of this fmall flame might be carried. Rarefied-
From thefe experiments it appears, that in the aero- air balloons
ftatic machines conftrudled on Montgolfier’s'plan, it^®’^^’! c
muft be ah advantage to have them as large aspoffible ;|a‘r'e.e ass
becaufe poffible.
206 A E R O S T
becaufe a fmaller quantity of fire will tfren have a great¬
er effect in railing them, and the danger from that
element, which in this kind of machines is chiefly to be
40 dreaded, will be in a great meafure avoided. On this
How bal-^ fubjedt it may be remarked, that as the cubical con-
rife'by'the tents a globe, or any other figure of which balloons
common are made, increafe much more rapidly than their fur-
heat of the faces, there muff ultimately be a degree of magni-
atmofpfjere. tude at which the imalleft imaginable heat would raife
any weight whatever. Thus, fuppofing any aeroftatic
machine capable of containing 500 cubic feet, and the
air within it to-be only one degree hotter than the ex¬
ternal atmofphere; the tendency of this machine to
rife, even without the application of artificial heat,
would be near an ounce. Let its capacity be increafed
16 times; and the tendency to arife will be equivalent
to a pound, though this may be done without making
the machine 16 times heavier than before. It is cer¬
tain, however, that all aeroftatic machines have a ten¬
dency to produce or preferve heat within them, which
would by no means be imagined by thofe who have
not made the experiment. When Meffrs Charles and
Roberts made their longeft aerial voyage of 150 miles,
they had the curiofity to try the temperature of the
air within their balloon, in comparifon with that of
the external atmofphere ; and at this time they found,
that, when the external atmofphere was 63°, the ther¬
mometer within the balloon ftood at 104°. Such a dif¬
ference of temperature mull have given a machine of
the magnitude which carried them a confiderableafcend-
ing power independent of any other caufe, as, it amount¬
ed to 41 grains on every cubic foot; and therefore in
a machine containing 50,000 fuch feet would have
been almoft 200 pounds. Hence we may eafily ac-
count for what happened at Dijon, and is recorded by
A'ballot n Mr Morveau. “ A balloon, intended to be filled with
at Dijon inflammable air, being completed, was, by way of
into the at hUed with common air, and in that ftate ex-
jpofpbere, P0fed to the atmofphere. Now it was obferved, and
indeed a fimilar obfervation had been made before,
that the air within the balloon was much hotter than
the circumambient air: the thermometer in the former
ftood at I20c; whereas in the latter, even when the fun
Ihone upon it, the thermometer ftood at 84°. This
ftiowed a confiderable degree of rarefadlion within the
balloon; and confequently it was fufpefted, that, by
means of this rarefaction alone, efpecially if it were
to increafe a little, the balloon might afcend. On the
30th of May, about noon, the wind being rather
ftrong, agitated the balloon fo that two men were em¬
ployed to take care of it ; but, notwithftanding all
their endeavours, it efcaped from its confinement, and,
lifting up about 65 pounds weight of cords, equato¬
rial circle, &c. rofe many feet high, and, palling over
fome houfes, west to the diftanee of 250 yards, where
at length it was .properly fecured.”
Internal This difference between the external and internal
beat of the heat being fo very confiderable, muft. have a great in-,
balloon* has fllienCe.upon aeroftatic machines, and will undoubtedly
enceVn U ^nfluence thofe filled with inflammable air as well as the
aerial voy- other kind. Npr is.it unlikely, that the Ihort time
ages. which fnany aerial voyagers have been able to continue
in the atmofphere, may have been owing to the want
of a method of preferving this internal heat. It may
flaturally be fuppofed, and indeed it has always been
A T I O N. Principles*
found, that balloons, in palling through the higher re¬
gions of the atmofphere, acquire a very eonfiderable
quantity of moifture, not only from the rain or fnow
they fometimes meet with, but even from the dew and
vapour which condenfes upon them. On this an eva¬
poration will inftantly take place ; and, as it is the pro¬
perty of this operation to produce a very violent cold,
the internal heat of the balloon muft be foon exhaufted
in fuch a manner as to make it become fpecifically hea¬
vier than the common atmofphere, and confequently
defcend in a much Ihorter time than it would have done
by the mere lofs of air. To this, in all probability,. 43
we are to afcribe the defcent of the balloon which car- Great ten-
ried Meffrs Blanchard and Jeffries ; and which feemed
fo extraordinary to many people, that they were ob- chard>3 ],a|^
liged to have recourfe to an imaginary attraction in ]0on to de-
the waters of the ocean in order to folve the pheno-fcend ac-
menon. This fuppofition is rejected by Mr Caval-counted^or*
lo ; who explains the matter, by remarking, that in
two former voyages made with the fame machine,
it could not long fupport two men in the atmofphere;
fo that we had no occafion to wonder at its weaknefs
on this occafion. “ As for its rifing higher (fays he),
juft when it got over the land, that may be eafily ac¬
counted for. In the firft place, the two travellers,
threw out their clothes juft about that time; fecondly,
in confequence of the wind’s then increafing, the bal-
kion travelled at a much greater rate than it had done
whilft over the fea ; which increafe of velocity leffened
its tendency to defcend: befides which, the vicilfitudes
of heat and cold may produce a very confiderable ef-
feft ; for if we fuppofe, that the air over the land was
colder than that over the fea, the balloon coming into
the latter from the former, continued to be hotter than
the circumambient air for fome time after; and confe¬
quently, it was comparatively much lighter when in
the cold air over the land, than when in the hotter air
over the fea; hence it floated eafier in the former than .
in the latter cafe.”
It feems indeed very probable, that there was fome-
thirig uncommon in the cafe of Mr Blanchard’s balloon .
while palling over the fea ; for, as it rofe higher after
reaching the land than in any former period of the
voyage, and likewife carried them to the diftance over
land more than half of that which they had paffed over
water, we can fcarce avoid fuppofing, that it had a
tendency to defcend when over the water more than
when over land, independent of any lofs of air. Now,
it does not appear that the air over the fea is at all
warmer than that above land ; on the contrary, there
is every reafon to believe, that the fuperior refledtive
power of the land renders the atmofphere above it
warmer than the fea can do : but it is very natural to
fuppofe, that the air above the fea is more moift than
that above land ; and confequently, by letting fall its
moifture upon the balloon, muft have occafioned an e-
vaporation that would deprive the machine of its inter¬
nal heat, v/hich it would partly recover after it entered
the warmer and drier atmofphere over land. 44
We lhall now proceed to the conftruclion of aero- Conftrue-
ftatic machines ; of which the fmaller are only for a- tion of ae-
mufement, or fome flight experiments, and are very ma-
eafily made* As in all of them, however, it is of thec 1‘ies*
utmoft cohfequence to have the weight as little as pof-
fible, the jhape becomes. an objeft of great confidera-
tipn, .
Pradice. A E R O S 1
45 tion. For this purpofe a fpherical figure has been ma-
Gf their thematically demonftrated to be the bell; as capable of
* ' containing a greater quantity under a fmaller furface
than any other. Thus a perfect fphere cdntains lefs
furface in proportion to its folidity than a fpheroid ; a
fpheroid lefs than a cylinder; the latter lefs than a
cube ; and a cube ftill lefs than a paralklopiped. In
all cafes, therefore, where we can fill the whole capa¬
city of the balloon with air equally light, the fpherical
figure is undoubtedly to be preferred ; and this holds
good with regard to all inflammable air-balloons, whe¬
ther their fize be great or fmall; but in the rarefied
air ones, where the under part muft neceflarily be much
colder than the upper, the globular fhape feems not fo
proper. An inverted cone, or truncated pyramid, with
the fmaller part undermoft, feems then to be moft pro¬
per, as it allows the heated air (which has a great ten¬
dency to expand as well as to afcend) to collect in the
wide part at the top,, while the ufelefs furface in the
lower part, and which, in any other figure, would con¬
tain only the colder and heavier air, is thus thrown
afide. In fail it has been found, that aeroftatic ma¬
chines, railed by means of rarefied air, when made of
the ihape of a parallelepiped, or even one deviating
ftill more from the Ihape of a globe, have anfwered the
purpofe as well as they could have been fuppofed to
do, had ever fo much care been taken in forming them
exaftly to that ftiape. The very firft machine made
by Mr Montgolfier was in form of a parallelepiped ;
and though it contained only 40 cubic feet, ihowed a
very confiderable power of afeent. A very large one,
74 feet high, which Mr Montgolfier had defigned to
exhibit before the royal family, had the middle part of
it prifmatic for about the height of 25 feet; its top
was a pyramid of 29 feet; and its lower part was a
truncated cone of near 20 feet. It weighed 1000
pounds; and, notwithftanding its ihape, in a very ftiort
time manifefted a power of afeent equal to 500 pounds.
Another aeroftatic machine of a fmall fize, but of the
figure of a parallelepiped, being fuffered to afcend
with 30 iheets of oiled paper fixed in a wire frame,
and fet on fire, rofe to a great height, and in 22 mi¬
nutes could not be feen. It feems therefore, that, with
regard to the ihape of thefe machines, it is by no means
neceflary to adhere rigidly to that of a fphere; but
g that any oblong form anfwers very well.
Materials. For experimental purpofes, both the inflammable
and rarefied air-balloons may be made of paper ; the
former being made of that kind called^/tf-/«/?, var-
niihed over with linfeed-oil; the latter either of that
or any other kind, without varnifh. In order to avoid
the danger of burning, however, it has been propofed
to impregnate the paper of which thefe fmall rarefied
air-balloons are made with folution of fal-ammoniac,
alum or fome other fait; but this does not feem to be
neceifary. Thpfe filled with inflammable air have been
made of gold-beater ikin or peeled bladders ; but the
cheaper material of paper is undoubtedly preferable.
■ For aeroftatic machines of ft larger fize, the material
Sell; varnifh univerfally employed is varnilhed filk ; and for thofe of
for inflam- the rarefied-air kind, linen painted over with fome fize
mable-air colour, or lined with paper. The beft varnifh for an
cordin^ ^o" inflammable air-balloon is that made with bird-lime,
Mr de St ‘an<i recommended by Mr Faujas de Saint-Fond, in a
fond. treatife publiihed on the fubjedt. The following is his
4
' A T I O N, 207
method of preparing it: “ Take one pound of bird*
lime, put it into a new proper earthen pot that can re¬
fill the fire, and let it boil gently for about one hour,
viz. till it ceafes to crackle ; or, which is the fame
thing, till it is fo far boiled,, as that a drop of it being
let fall upon the fire will burn : then pour upon it a
pound of fpirits of turpentine, ftirring it at the fame
time with a wooden fpatula, and keeping the pot at a
good diftance from the flame, left the vapour of this
efiential oil Ihould take fire. After this, let it boil for
about fix minutes longer; then pour upon the whole
three pounds of boiling oil of nuts, linfeed, or poppy,
rendered drying by means of litharge ; ftir it well, let
it boil for a quarter of an hour longer, and the varnifh
is made. After it has refted for 24 hours, and the
fediment has gone to the bottom, decant it into ano¬
ther pot; and when you want to ufe it, warm, and ap¬
ply it with a flat brufh upon the filk fluff, whilft that
is kept well ftretched. One coat of it may be fuffi-
cient; but if two are neceffary, it will be proper to
give one on each fide of the filk, and to let them dry
in the open air while the filk remains extended.” 48
Mr Cavallo gives the following method of preparing Mr Caval-'
this varnifh, which he prefers to that of M. de Stlo>smetho^*
Fond.—“ In order to render linfeed-oil drying, boil
it with two ounces of faccharum faturni and three
ounces of litharge, for every pint of oil, till the oil
has diffolved them, which will be accomplifhed in half
an hour; then put a pound of birdlime and half a
pint of the drying oil into a pot (iron or copper pots
are the fafeft for this purpofe), the capacity of which
may be equal to about one gallon, and let it boil very
gently over a flow charcoal fire till the birdlime ceafes
to crackle, which will be in about half or three quar¬
ters of an hour; then pouf upon it two pints and a
half more of drying oil, and let it boil for one hour
longer, ftirring it very frequently with an iron or
wooden fpatula. As the varnifh, whilft boiling, and
efpecially when it is nearly done, fwells very much,
care fhould be had to remove, in thofe cafes, the pot
from the fire, and to replace it when the varnifh fub-
fides, otherwife it will boil over. Whilft the fluff is
boiling, the operator fhould, from time to time, ex¬
amine whether the varnifh has boiled enough; which
is thus known :—Take fome of it upon the blade of a
knife, and then, after rubbing the blade of another
knife upon it, feparate the knives ; and when, on this
feparation, the varnifh begins to form threads between
the two, you may conclude that it is done ; and,
withoot lofing time, it muft be removed from the fire.
When it is almoft, though not quite, cold, add about
an equal quantity of fpirit of turpentine : mix it
well together, and let it reft till the next day ; when,
having warmed it a little, ftrain and bottle it. If
it is too thick, add fome more fpirit of turpentine.
When this varnifh is laid upon the filk, the fluff
fhould be made perfeftly dry, and ftretched ; fo that
the varnifh, which ought to be ufed lukewarm, may
fill up the pores of the fluff. The varnifh fhould be
laid once very thin upon one fide of the fluff; and,
about 12 hpurs after, two other coats of it fhould be
laid on, one on each fide ; and, 24 hours after, the
filk may be ufed, though, in cold weather, it may be
left to dry fome time longer.”
Much has been faid in France of their elaftic gum*
varnifh,
208 AEROSTATION. Pradice
vamifli, and its compofition kept a fecret; but Mr each equal to a quarter of the circumference, fo that
Baldwin, after many expenfive trials, declares to the the whole length AE of the pattern may be equal to
world what he confiders as the fecret; and it is merely half the circumference. Thirdly, divide AD into 18
this: “Take any quantity of caoutchouc, as two ounces equal parts; and to the points of divifion apply the
averdupois ; cut it into fmall bits with a pair of fcif- lines hi, kl, &c. parallel to each other, and perpen-
fars; put a ftrong iron ladle (like that ufed by plum- dicular to AD. Fourthly, divide the whole circum-
bers) over a common pitcoal or other fire. The fire ference in twice the given number of pieces, and make
muft be gentle, glowing, and without fmoke. When DC and BB each equal to the quotient of this divi-
the ladle is hot, much below a red heat, put a fingle fion ; fo that the whole, BC, is equal to the greateft
bit into the ladle. If black fmoke iffues, it 'will pre- breadth of one of thefe pieces. Fifthly, multiply the
fently flame and difappear, or it will evaporate with- above-mentioned quotient by the decimals annexed to
out flame: the ladle is then too hot. When the fg, viz. 0.99619, and then the product exprefles the
ladle is lefs hot, put in a fecond bit, which will pro- length of fg“, again multiply the fame length of DE
duce a •white fmoke. This •white fmoke will continue by the decimals annexed to hi, and the product ex-
during the operation, and evaporate the caoutchouc:
therefore no time is to be loft; but little bits are to
be put in, a few at a time, till the whole are melted.
It fjhould be continually and gently ftirred with an
iron or brafs fpoon. Two pounds or one quart of
the beft drying oil (or of raw linfeed-oil, which, to¬
gether with a few drops of neats-foot oil, has flood a
month, or not fo long, on a lump of quicklime, to
make it more or lefs drying), is to be put into the
melted caoutchouc, and ftirred till hot, and the whole
poured into a glazed veffel, through a coarfe gauze or
fine fieve. When fettled and clear, which will be in
a few minutes, it will be fit for ufe either hot or cold.”
Mr Baldwin is not at liberty, he obferves, to publifh
the art of laying on the varnifh: but fays, that it con-
fifts in making no intejline motion in the varnifh, which
would create minute bubbles ; that therefore brufhes
are improper. Mr Blanchard’s method of making elaftic-
gum varnifh for the filk of a balloon, is the following.
“ Diffolve elaftic gum (caoutchouc) cut fmall in five
times its weight of fpirit of turpentine, by keeping them
feme days together ; then boil one ounce of this folu-
tion in eight-ounces of drying linfeed-oil for a few mi¬
nutes ; laftly, ftrain it. It muft be ufed warm.” The
pieces of filk for the balloon muft be cut out of a pro¬
per fize, according to the dimenfions, after the varnifh
is fufficiently dry. They may be joined by laying
about half an inch of the edge of one piece over the
edge of the other, and fewing them by a double Hitch¬
ing. Mr Blanchard ufes expeditioufly the following
method. He lays about half an inch of the edge of
one piece flat over the edge of the other, and pafies a
hot iron over it; in doing which a piece of paper
ought to be laid both under and over the filk. The
joining may be rendered more fecure by running it with
a filk thread, and flicking a ribband over it. The
ribbands laid over feams may be ftuck with common
glue, provided the varnifh of the filk is properly dried.
When the glue is quite dry, the ribbands fhould be
varnifhed over, to prevent their being unglued by the
^ rain.
Of cutting The beft method of cutting the pieces of filk that are
tic gores to form a balloon, is to deferibe a pattern of wood or ftiff
for a gli-be. card.paper, and then to cut the filk upon it. As the
edges of fuch a pattern are not perfect circles, they
cannot be deferibed by a pair of compaffes : but the
ad Plate ILbeft method of drawing them is as follows. Firft, draw,
fig- 5- on a flat furface two right lines AE and BC, per¬
pendicular to each other. Secondly, Jind the circum¬
ference anfwering to the given diameter of the balloon
in feet and decimals of a foot; and make AD and DE
6. ' 3
preffes the length of hi; and, in fhort, the product
arifing from the multiplication of the length of DC by
the decimals annexed to each of the parallel lines;
gives the length of that line. Laftly, having found
the lengths of all thefe lines, draw by hand a curve¬
line palling through all the extremities of the faid
lines, and that is the edge of one quarter of the pat¬
tern. The other quarters may be eafily deferibed, by.
applying to them a piece of paper cut according to
that already found;—Suppofe, for example, that the
diameter of the balloon to be conftructed is 20 feet,
and that it is required to make it of 12 pieces: then,
in order to draw the pattern for thofe pieces, find the
circumference of the balloon, which is 62.83 feet, and,
dividing it by four, the quotient is 15.7 feet; make
therefore AD equal to 15.7 feet, and DE likewife of
the fame length. Divide the circumference 62.83 hy
2£, which is double the number of pieces that are to
form the balloon, and the quotient, 2.618 feet, is the
length of DC and likewife of BD ; fo that BC is
equal to 5.236 feet. Then,, having divided the line
AD into 18 equal parts, and having drawn the paral¬
lel lines from thofe points of divifion, find the length
of each of thofe lines by multiplying 2.618 by the de¬
cimals annexed to that line; Thus,. 2.618, multiplied
by 0.99619, gives 2.608 feet for the length of Jg; and
again, multiplying 2.618 by 0.98481, gives 2.578
feet for the length of hi; and fo of the reft.—In cut¬
ting the pieces after fuch a pattern, care fhould be
taken to leave them about three quarters of an inch all
round larger than the pattern, which will be taken up
by the feams.
To the upper part of the balloon there ftiould be
adapted, and well fitted in, a valve opening inwards ;
to which fhould be faftened a firing pafling through
a hole made in a fmall piece of round wood fixed in
the loweft part of the balloon oppofite to the valve, the
end of this, firing faftened in the car below, fo that the
aeronaut may open the valve when occafion requires.
The adlion of this valve may be underftood from fig. 3.
A round brafs plate AB has a round hole CD,, about'
two or three inches diameter, covered on both fides
with ftrong fmooth leather. On the infide there is a
fhutter E, alfo of brafs, covered with leather, which is
to clofe the hole CD ; being about two inches larger
in diameter than the hole. It is faftened to the lea¬
ther of the plate AB ; and by a fpring, which need
not be very flrong, it is kept againft the hole. The
elafticity of the gas itfelf will help to keep it fhut.
To this fhutter the firing is faftened, by which it is
occafionally opened for the efcape of gas. A fmall
firing
Seriate i:
Acorsi'ics.
Aerostation.
/3.
'Practice. A EROSTATION.
ft ring or other fecurity fhould be fixed to the ftiutter
and the plate, fo as not to admit the fhutter to be
opened beyond a certain fafe diftanee. To the lower
part of the balloon two pipes ftiould be fixed, made of
the fame ftuff as the envelope ; 6 inches diameter for
a balloon of 30 feet, and proportionally larger for bal¬
loons of a greater capacity. They muft be long enough
for the car. For balloons of 18 feet and lefs diame¬
ter, one neck or pipe will be fufficient. Thefe pipes
are the apertures through which the inflammable gas
is introduced'into the balloon.
The car or boat is belt made of wicker-work, cover¬
ed with leather, and well painted or varniflied over;
and the proper method of fufpending it, is by ropes pro¬
ceeding from the net which goes over the balloon.
This net fliould be formed to the fhape of the balloon,
and fall dewn to the middle of it, with various
cords proceeding from it to the circumference of a
circle about two feet below the balloon; and from
that circle other ropes fhould go to the edge of the
boat. This circle may be made of wood, or of feve-
ral pieces of flender cane bound together. The mefhes
of the net may be fmall at top, againft which part of
the balloon the inflammable air exerts the greateft
force; and increafe in fize as they recede from the top.
A hoop has fometimes been applied round the middle
of the balloon to faften the net. This, though not
abfolutely neceflary, is beft made of pieces of cane
bound together, and covered with leather.
With regard to the rarefied-air machines, Mr Ca-
vallo recommends firft to foak the cloth in a folution
of fal ammoniac and common fize, ufing one pound of
each to every gallon of water ; and when the cloth is
quite *dry, to paint it over in the infide with fome
earthy colour, and ftrong fize'or glue. When
this paint has dried perfettly, it will then be proper to
varnifli it.with oily varniih, which might dry before it
could penetrate quite through the cloth. Simple dry¬
ing linfeed oil will anfwer the purpofe as well as any,
provided it be not very fluid.
Of fiffing ^ now only remains to give fome account of the
aeroftatic method by which aeroftatic machines may be filled
machines, with their proper gas, in order to give them their
power of afeending into the atmofphere ; and here we
are enabled to determine with much greater precifion
concerning the inflammable-air balloons than the others.
Methods of With regard to them, a primary confideration is, the
procuring moft proper method of procuring the inflammable air.
inflamma- Jt may be obtained in various ways, as has been fhown
ble air.. under the article Aerology : But the moft advanta¬
geous methods are, by applying acids to certain metals;
by expofing animal, vegetable, and fome mineral fub-
ftances, in a- clofe vdfel to a ftrong fire ; or by tranf-
mitting the vapour of certain fluids through fed-hot
tubes.
1. In the firft of thefe methods, iron, zinc, and
vitriolic acid, are the materials moft generally ufed.
The vitriolic acid muft be diluted by five or fix parts
of water. Iron may be expefted to yield in the com¬
mon way 1700 times its own bulk of gas 5 or one cubic
foot of inflammable air to be produced by 4! ounces
of iron, the like weight of oil of vitriol, and 2z\ oun¬
ces of water. Six ounces of zinc, an equal weight of
oil of vitriol, and 30 ounces of water, are neceffary
for producing the fame quantity of gas. It is more
Vol. I. Part I.
proper to ufe the turnings or chippings of great pieces
of iron, as of cannon, See. than the filings of that
metal, becaufe the heat attending the effervefcence
will be diminifhed 5 and the diluted acid will pafs
more readily through the interftices of the turnings
when they are heaped together, than through the filings,
which ftick clofer to one another. The weight of the
inflammable air thus obtained by means of acid of vi¬
triol, is, in the common way of procuring it, gene¬
rally one feventh part of the weight of common air;
but with the neceffary precautions for philofophical
experiments, lefs than one-tenth of the weight of
common air. Two other forts .of elaftic fluids are
fometimes generated with the inflammable air. Thefe
may be feparated from it by paffing the inflammable
air through water in which quicklime has been diffol-
ved. The water will abforb thefe fluids, cool the in¬
flammable air, and prevent its over-heating the bal¬
loon when introduced into it.
Fig. 7. of 2d Plate II. reprefents an apparatus de-
feribed by Mr Cavallo as proper for filling balloons of
the fize of two or three feet in diameter with inflam¬
mable air, after paffing it through water.—A is the
bottle with the ingredients ; BCD a tube fattened in
the neck at B, and paffing through C, the cork of the
other bottle, in which there is another hole made to re¬
ceive the tube on which the balloon is tied. Thus it
is plain, that the inflammable air coming out of the
tube D will pafs firft through the water of the bottle
E and then into the balloon. Two fmall calks may
be ufed inftead of the bottles A and E.
2. Inflammable air may be obtained at a much
cheaper rate by the action of fire on various fubftances;
but the gas which thefe yield is not fo light as that
produced by the effervefcence of acids and metals. The
fubftances proper to be ufed in this way are, pit-coal,
afphaltum, amber, rock-oil, and other minerals; wood,
and efpecially oak, camphor-oil, fpirits of wine, ether,
and animal fubftances, which yield air in different de-
.grees, and of various fpecific gravities 5 but pit-coal is
the preferable fubftance. A pound of this expofed to
a red heat, yields about three cubic feet of inflammable
air, which, whether it be paffed through water or not,
weighs about one-fourth of the weight of common air.
Dr Prieftley found, as we have elfewhere noticed, that
animal or vegetable fubftances will yield fix or feven
times more inflammable air when the fire is fuddenly
increafed than when it is gently raifed, though it be
afterwards made very ftrong. Mr Cavallo obferves,
that the various fubftances above enumerated generally
yield all their inflammable air in about one hour’s time.
The general method is, to inclofe the fubftances in
iron or earthen veffels, and thus expofe them to a ftrong
fire fufficient to make the veffels red-hot: the inflam¬
mable air proceeding from the aperture of the veffel is
received into a tube or refrigeratory, and,paffingthrough
thebube or worm, is at laft collected in a balloon or
other veffel. A gun-barrel has often been ufed for ef-
fays of this kind. The fubftance is put into it fo as
to fill fix or eight inches of its loweft part, the re¬
mainder filled with dry fand: a tube, adapted to
the mouth of the barrel, is brought into a bafin of
water under an inverted receiver; and the part of the
barrel containing the fubftance being put into the
fire and made red-hot, the inflammable air is col-
D d le&ed
209
AEROSTATION. Praftice.
lefted in the inverted receiver. As the gun-barrel can¬
not ferve for producing a large quantity of inflammable
air, Mr Cavallo recommends, as the moft advantageous
fhape, the following contrivance :—Let the veffel be
made of clay, or rather of iron, in the (hape of a Flo¬
rence flafk, fomewhat larger, and whofe neck is longer
and larger (See ABC, fig. 8.) Put the fubftance to be
ufed Into this veffel, fo as to fill about four-fifths or lefs
of its cavity AB. If the fubflance is of fuch a nature
as to fwell much by the aftion of the fire, lute a tube
of brafs, or firft a brafs and then a leaden tube, to the
neck C of the veffel; and let the end D of the tube be
fliaped as in the figure, fo that going into the iter of a
tube HI, it may terminate under a fort ol ' erted vef¬
fel EF, to the upper aperture of which the balloon G
is adapted. Things thus prepared, if the part AB of
the veffel is put into the fire, and made red-hot, the in¬
flammable air produced will come out of the tube CD,
and palling through the water will at laft enter into the
balloon G. Previous to the operation, as. a confider-
able quantity of common air remains in the inverted
veffel EF, which it is more proper to expel, the veffel
EF Ihould have a ftop-cock K, through which the
common air may be fucked out, and the water afcend
as high as the ftop-cock. The dimenfions of fuch an
apparatus Mr Cavallo gives thus : Diameter of largeft
part of the veffel ABC feven inches, length of whole
veffel 16 inches; diameter of its aperture one inch, dia¬
meter of the cavity of tube CD three-fourths of an
inch; lower aperture of the veffel EF fix inches, leaft
height of the veffel EF 24 inches; its aperture F about
two inches. The aperture of the veffel EF Ihould be
at leaft one foot below the furface of the water in HI.
Care muft be taken that the fire ufed in this procefs be
at a fufficient diftance, otherwife it may happen to fire
the inflammable air which may efcape out of the veffel
EF.
3. The laft method of obtaining inflammable air was
lately difcovered by Mr Lavoifier, and alfo by Dr.
Prieftley. Mr Lavoifier made the fteam of boiling wa¬
ter pafs through the barrel of a gun, kept red-hot by
burning coals. Dr Prieftley ufes, inftead of the gun-
barrel, a tube of red-hot brafs, upon which the fteam
of water has no effeft, and which he fills with the
pieces of iron which are feparated in the boring of can¬
non. By this method he obtains an inflammable air,
the fpecific gravity of which is to that of common air
as 1 to 13. In this method, not yet indeed reduced
to general practice, a tube, about three quarters of an
inch in diameter, and about three feet long, is filled
with iron turnings; then the neck of a retort, or clofe
boiler, is luted to one of its ends, and the worm of a
refrigeratory is adapted to its other extremity. The
middle part of the tube is then furrounded with burn¬
ing coals, fo as to keep about one foot in length of it
red-hot, and a fire is always made under the retort or
boiler fufficient to make the water boil with vehemence.
In this procefs a confiderable quantity of inflammable
air comes out of the worm of the refrigeratory. It is
faid that iron yields one half more air by this means
than by the action of vitriolic acid.
For filling large balloons, a greater apparatus is ne-
ceffary ; and the only materials that can, with any cer¬
tainty of fuccefs, be employed for producing the pro¬
per gas, are, oil of vitriol, and iron filings or turnings^
It has indeed been recommended to ufe zinc inftead
of iron filings, becaufe white vitriol, the fait produced
by the union of the vitriolic acid and zinc, is much
more valuable than the green fort produced by the u-
nion of the fame acid with iron. But though this is
undoubtedly the cafe, it will as certainly be found, up¬
on trial, that the fuperior price of the zinc will be more
than an equivalent for all the advantage that can be
derived from the additional price of the white vitriol. ^
For a balloon of 30 feet diameter, Mr Cavallo vecom- jyrr Caval-
mends 3900 pounds of iron turnings, as much oil ofio’sreceqst.l
vitriol, and 19,500 pc.—ds of w^ater. Thefe pro¬
portions, however, appear too great with refpeft to
the acid and metal, and too little with refpeft to the
water. Oil of vitriol will not exert its power upon
iron unlefs it be diluted with five or fix times its quan¬
tity of water; in which cafe, a much fmaller quantity
of both acid and metal will ferve. Mr Lunardi, who jvjr Hinar-j
from the number of his voyages had certainly much di’smethod,
praftical knowledge in aeroftation, filled his balloon
at Edinburgh and Glafgow with about 2000 pounds
of iron (the borings of cannon procured from Carron),
as much vitriolic acid, and 12,coo pounds of water.
The iron was placed in his veffels in layers, with ftraw
between them, in order to increafe the furface. His
apparatus was not materially different from that of Mr
Cavallo, reprefented bottom of Plate I. fig. 2. where
AA are two tubs, about three. feet in diameter and
nearly two feet deep, inverted in large tubs EiB filled
with water. In the bottom of each of the inverted
tubs a hole is made, and a tube E of tin adapted, which
is about feven inches in diameter, and feven or eight
long. To thefe tubes the filken ones of the balloon
are to be tied. Round each of the tubs B, five, fix,
or more ftrong calks are placed; in the top of each
two holes are made, and to one of thefe holes a tin
tube is adapted, and fo fhaped, that, palling over the
edge of the tub B, and through the w^ater, it may ter¬
minate with its aperture under the inverted tub A.
The other hole of thefe calks ferves for the introduc¬
tion of materials, and is flopped with a wooden plug.
When the balloon is to be filled, put the net over it,
and let it be fufpended as ffiowm by CDF; and having
expelled all the common air from it, let the filken tubes
be faftened round the tin ones EE ; and the materials
being put into the calks, the inflammable air, palling
into the balloon, will foon diftend, and render it ca¬
pable of fupporting itfelf; after which the rope GH
may be flipped off. As the balloon continues to be
filled, the net is adjufted properly round it; the cords
that furround it are faftened to the hoop MN ; then
the boat IK being placed between the two fets of
cafks, is faftened to the hoop MN, and every thing
that is required to be fent up, as ballaft, inftruments,
&c. is placed in it. At laft, when the balloon is little
more than three quarters full, the filken tubes are fe¬
parated from the tin ones of the inverted tubs, and their
extremities being tied up, are placed in the boat.
Laftly, the aeronauts being feated in the-boat, the la-,
teral ropes are flipped off, and the machine is abando •
ned to the air. (See Blanchard's -balloon, Plate II.)
This apparatus was at laft reduced by Mr Lunardi to
its utmoft fimplicity, by ufing only tw'o large calks, ,
and fuffering the vapour to go into the balloon with- '
out paging through water. Thua his balloon was filled
iPradHce. A E R O S T
in lefs than half an hour, when, before, it had requi¬
red two hours at leaft. The finking of his cafks in the
ground was alfo an additional convenience, as it created
no confufion, and rendered the materials much more
eafily conveyed into them.
With regard to the rarefied-air balloons, the method
r of filling them is as follows. A fcaffold ABCD, the
I'Of filling
I rarefied-a'
| balloons.
A T I O N.
fcending, and difcharge of the ballaft for afcending,
will by degrees render the machine incapable of float¬
ing ; for hr the air it is impoffible to fupply the lofs of
ballaft, and very difficult to fupply that of inflammable
air. Thefe balloons will alfo rife or fall by means of
the rarefaction or condenfation of the inclofed air, oc-
cafioned by heat and cold. It has been propofed to
breadth of which is at leaft two-thirds of the diameter pf aid a balloon in its alternate motion of afcent and de-
the machine, is elevated about fix or eight feet above
the ground. From the middle of it defcends a well E,
rifing about two or three feet above it, and reaching
to the ground, furnifhed with a door or two, through
which the fire in the well is fupplied with fuel. The
well fhould be conftruCted of brick or of plaftered wood,
fcent, by annexing tp it a veffel of common air, which
might be condenfed for lowering the machine, and ra¬
refied again, by expelling part of it, for raifing the
machine: But a veflel adapted to this purpofe muft
be very ftrong; and, after all, the affiftance afforded by
it would not be very confiderable. ,M. Meunier, in Gr¬
and its diameter fhould be fomewhat lefs than 'that of der to attain this end, propofes to inclofe one balloon
the machine. On each fide of the fcaffold are. erefted filled with common air in another filled with inflam-
two mafts HI, KL, each of which has a pulley at the
top, and .rendered firm by means of ropes KG, KP,
HP, PIG. The machine to be filled is to be placed
mable air: as the balloon afcends, the inflammable air
is dilated, and of courfe compreffes the internal balloon
containing the common air; and by diminiihing its
on the fcaffold, with its neck round the aperture of quantity, leffens its weight. If it ftiould be neceffary
the well. The rope palling over the pullies of the
two mafts, ferves, by pulling its two ends, to lift the
balloon about 15 feet or more above the fcaffold ; and
the reft of the machine is reprefented by the dotted
lines in the figure MNO. The machine is kept fteady,
and held down, whilft filling, by ropes palling through
loops or holes about its equator; and thefe ropes may
eafily be di^ngaged from the machine, by flipping
them through the loops when it is able to fuftain it-
felf. The proper combuftibles to be lighted in the
to fupply this lofs, he fays it may be eafily done by a
pair of bellows fixed in the gallery. Others have pro-
pofed to annex a fmall machine with rarefied air to an
inflammable-air balloon by ropes, at fuch a diftance that
the fire of the former might not affeft the inflammable
air of the latter: the whole apparatus, thus combined,
of balloons formed on the two principles of heated and
inflammable air, might be raifed or lowered by merely
increafing or diminifhing the fire in the lower balloon.
Wings or oars are the only means of this fort that have
well, are thofe which burn quick and clear, rather than been ufed with fome fuccefs; and, as Mr Cavallo ob-
fuch as produce much fmoke ; becaufe it is hot air, ferves, they feem to be capable of confiderable improve-
and not fmoke, that is required to be introduced into ment. Although great effedls are not to be expected
the machine. Small wood and ftraw have been found from them, when the machine goes at a great fate, the
to be very fit for this purpofe. Mr Cavallo obferves, as beft methods of moving thofe wings are by the hu¬
man ftrength applied fimilarly to the oars of a water¬
man. They may be made in general of filk ftretched
between wires, tubes, or flicks ; and when ufed, mull
be turned edgewife when they are moved in the direc¬
tion in which the machine is intended to be impelled,
but flat in the oppofite direftion. Fig. 9. 2d Plate II.
the refult of many experiments with fmall machines, that
fpirits of wine are upon the whole the beft combuftible;
but its price maypreventitsbeingufedfor large machines.
As the current of h°t air afcends, the machine will foon
dilate, and lift itfelf above the fcaffold and gallery
which was covered by it. The paffengers, fuel, inftru-
ments, &c. are then placed in the gallery. When the is the reprefentation of one of Mr Blanchard’s wings,
machine makes efforts to afcend, its aperture muft be Fig. 10. is one of thofe ufed by Mr Lunardi,
brought, by means of the ropes annexed to it, towards which confifts of many filk fhutters or valves, ABCD,
the fide of the well a little above the fcaffold ; the fire¬
place is then fufpended in it, the fire lighted in the
DECF, &c. every one of which opens on one fide
only, viz. ADBC opens upon the line AB, DECF
grate, and the lateral ropes being flipped off the ma- opens upon the line DC, &c. In confequence of this
chine is abandoned to the air. (See Montgolfier'’s bal-
' loon, Plate II.) It has been determined by accurate ex¬
periments, that only one-third of the common air can
be expelled from thefe large machines ; .and therefore
conltruftion, this fort of oars do not need being turn¬
ed edgewife. Fig. 11. reprefents one of the wings u-
fed by the brothers Roberts in the aerial voyage of the
9th September 1784; and fig. 12. reprefents one of
the afcending power of the rarefied airjn them can be the wings conftrufted by Count Zambeccari, which a
eftimated as only equal to half an ounce averdupoife fifts of a piece of filk ftretched between two tin tubes
for every cubic foot.
fet at an angle ; but thefe wings are fo contrived as to
The conduct of balloons, when conftrufted, filled, turn edgewife by themfelves when they go on one di-
and actually afcending in the atmofphere, is an object
of great importance in the practice of aeroftation. The
method generally ufed for elevating or lowering the
balloons with rarefied air, has been the increafe or di¬
rection. Other contrivances have been made to direCt
aeroftatic machines, but they have moftly been invent¬
ed to effect a power upon them as upon a fhip. It ap¬
pears, however, that they can have no effeCt when a ma-
minution of the fire ; and this is entirely at the com- chine is only moved by the wind alone, becaufe the cir-
mand of the aeronaut, as long as he has any fuel in the
gallery. The inflammable-air balloons have been ge¬
nerally raifed or lowered by diminifhing the weight ii
cumambient air is at reft in refpeft to the machine. The
cafe is quite different with a veffel at fea, becaufe the
water on which it floats ftands ftill whilft the veffel goes
the. boat, or by letting out fome of the gas through on; but it muft be time and experience that can realize
the valve,: but the alternate efcape of the air in de-
the expectations fuggefted by thefe contrivances.
D d 2 AERSHOT,
211
iE S C [ 212 ] jE S C
Aerfliot AERSHOT, a town in the Netherlands, in the duchy
„r jf. of Brabant, and capital of the duchy of Aerfhot. It is
r c^mew', feated on the river Demur, ten miles eaft of Malines or
Mechlin, and eight north of Louvaim E. Long. 5. 4.
N. Lat. 51. 15.
-ZERUGINOUS, an epithet given to fuch things a§
refemlde or partake of the nature of the ruft of copper.,
AiRUGO, in natural hiftory, properly fignifies the
ruft of copper, whether natural or artificial. The for¬
mer is found about copper mines, and'the latter, called
verdegris, made by corroding copper-plates with acids.
See Verdegris.
jERUSCATORES> in antiquity, a kind of ftrol-
ling beggars, not unlike gypfies, who drew money from
the credulous by fortune-telling, &c. It was alfo a de¬
nomination given to griping exactors, or collettors of
the revenue. The Galli, or priefts of Cybele, were
called eerufeatdres magnx matris; and ffirfx-yvgUi, on
account of their begging or colledting alms in the
ftreets 5 to, which end they had little bells whereby
to draw peoples attention to them, much like fome or¬
ders of mendicants abroad.
AERY, or Airy, among fportfment. See Airy.
.32S uxorium, in antiquity, a fum paid by bache¬
lors, as a penalty for living fingle to old age. Thi?
tax for not marrying feems to have been firft impofed
in the year of Rome 350, under the cenforfhip of M.
Furius Camillus and M. Pofthumus. At the. cenfus,
or review of the people, each perfon was allied, Et tu
ex anima fententia uxorem hahes liberum quarendorum
caufa? He who had no wife was hereupon fined after
a certain rate, called as uxorium.
Ms per et libram was a formula in the Roman
law, whereby purchafes and fales are ratified. Ori¬
ginally the phrafe feems to have been only ufed in
fpeaking of things fold by weight, or by the feales ;
but it afterwards was ufed on other occafions. Hence
even in adoptions, as there was a kind of imaginary
purchafe ; the formula whereof exprefted,, that the
perfon adopted was bought per as et tilravu
Ms Flavutn, yellow copper, among the Romans, an
appellation given to the coarfer kinds of brafs.
Ms Caldarium, a term ufed by the German minera-
lifts, for a fubftance which fometimes occurs to thofe
who work upon cobalt, and is ufed for the making the
fine blue colour cdS&d fmalfc.
Ms UJlum, a chemical preparation, made of thin
leaves of copper,, fulphur, and nitre, placed Jlratum
fupsr Jlratum in a crucible, and fet in a charcoal fire
till all the fulphur is confumed; after which, the cop¬
per is taken out of the crucible, and reduced to powder.
Some quench the leaves of copper in vinegar, and re¬
peat the calcination.-—Its principal ufe is in colouring
glafs, to which it gives a beautiful tinfture. The fur-
geons ufe it as a deterfive, and fome have given it in-
* ternally; but it is certainly a very dangerous medicine,
and fhould be avoided.
fESCHINES, a Socratic philofopher, the fon of
Gharinus a faufage-maker. He was continually with
Socrates; which oceafioned this philofopher to fay, that
the faufage-maker’s fon was the only perfon who knew
how to pay a due regard to him. It is find that po¬
verty obliged him to go to Sicily to Dionyfius the Ty¬
rant ; and that he met with great contempt from Plato,
but was extremely well received by Ariftippus; to whom
he fhowed fome of his dialogues, and received from him -®fchylu
a handfome reward. He would not venture to profefs
philofophy at Athens, Plato and Ariftippus being in
fuch high efteem ; but he fet up a fchool to maintain
hirafelf. He afterwards wrote orations for the Forum.
Phrynicus, in Photius, ranks him amongft the beft ora¬
tors, and mentions his orations as the ftandard of the
pure Attic ftyle. Hermogenes has alfofpoken very high¬
ly of him.—He alfo wrote feveral dialogues, of which
there are only three extant: 1. Concerning Virtue, whe¬
ther it can be taught. 2. Eryxias, or Erafiftratus; con¬
cerning riches, whether they are good. 3. Axiochus ;
concerning death, whether it is to be feared. Mr Le
Clerc has given a Latin tranflation of them, with'notes,
and feveral differtations intitled Sylva Pbilologica.
jESCHYLUS, the tragic poet, was born at Athens.
Authors differ in regard to the time of his birth, fome
placing it in the 65th, others in the 70th Olympiad;
but according to Stanley, who relies on the Arunde-
lian marbles, he was born in the 63d Olympiad. He
was the fon of Euphorion, and brother to Cynegirus
and Aminias, who diftinguiftied themfelves in the battle
of Marathon, and the fea-fight of Salamis, at which en¬
gagements jEfchylus was likewife -wefent. In this laft
aftion, according to Diodorus Siculus, Aminias, the
younger of the three brothers, commanded a fquadronr
of (hips, and behaved with fo much conducl and bra¬
very, that he funk the admiral of the PerSin fleet, and-
fignalized himfelf above all the Athenians. To this
brother our poet Was, upon a particular occafion, obli¬
ged for faving his life : ./Elian relates, that zEfchylus
being charged by the Athenians with certain blafphe-
mous expreffions in fome of his pieces, was accufed of
impiety, and condemned to be ftoned to death : they
were juft going to put the fentence in execution, when
Aminias, with a happy prefence of mind, throwing afide
his cloak, fliowed his arm without a hand, which he had
loft at the battle of Salamis in defence of his country.
This fight made fuch an impreffion on the judges, that,,
touched with the remembrance of his valour, and with
the friendftiip he (bowed for his brother, they pardoned
jEfchylus. Our poet, however, refented the indignity
of this profecution, and refolved to leave a place where
his life had been in danger. He became more deter¬
mined in this refolution when he found his pieces lefs
pleafing to the Athenians than thofe of Sophocles, tho’
a much younger writer. Some affirm, that iEfchylus ne¬
ver fat down to compofe butwhen he had drank liberally-
He wrote a great number of tragedies, of which there
are but feven remaining; and notwithftanding the (harp.
cenfures of fome critics, he muft be allowed to have
been the father of the tragic art. In the time of Thefpis,,
there was no public theatre to aft upon ; the ftrollers.
driving about from place to place in a cart. ^Efchylus
furnifhed his aftorS with malks, and dreffed them
fuitably to their charafters. He likewife introduced the •
buflein, to make them appear more like heroes.—The
ancients gave JEfchylus alfo the praife of having been
the firft who removed murders and (hocking fights from,
the eyes of the fpeftators. He is faid likewife to have
leffened the number of the chorus. M. Le Fevre
has obferved, that iEfchylus never reprefented women
in love in his tragedies; which, he fays, was not fuited
to his genius; but, in reprefenting a woman tranfported
with fur)’, he was Incomparable. Longius fays, that
JEfchylue
JE S C [2
Jifchyno- jEfchylus has a noble boldnefs of expreffion; and that
—-ne- . his imagination is lofty and heroic. It muft be owned,
v however, that he affedbed pompous words, and that his
fenfe is too often obfcured by figures : this gave Sal-
mafius occafion to fay, that he was more difficult to
b.e underftood than the fcripture itfelf. But notwith-
ftanding thefe imperfeftions, this poet was held in great
veneration by the Athenians, who made a public de¬
cree that his tragedies ffiould be played after his death.
He was killed in the 69th year of his age, by an eagle
letting fall a tortoife upon his head as he was walking in
the fields. He had the honour of a pompous funeral
from the Sicilians, who buried him near the river Ge-
la ; and the tragedians of the country performed plays
and theatrical exercifes at his tomb. —The belt edition
of his plays is that of London, 1663, fob with a La¬
tin tranflation and a learned commentary by Thomas
Stanly.
jESCHYNOMENE, Bastard sensitive-plant:
• A genus of the decandria order, belonging to the dia-
delphia clafs of plants ; the characters of which are r
The'cafyx is a one-leav’d eampanulated bilabiated pe-
rianthiurn ; the lips equal, but the fuperior one two-
cleft, the inferior tridentate. The arolla is papillio-
naceous; the banner cordated and fubringent; the alee
ovate, obtufe, and fnorter than the banner; and the
carina lunated, pointed, and the length of the alas.
The Jlamina confift of 10 fimple 9-cleft filaments;
the antherse fmall. The pijhllum is an oblong villous
columnar germen ; the llylus fubulated and afeending,
the Itigma fimple and fomewhat obtufe. The pericar-
pium is a long comprelfed, unilocular jointed pod.
The feeds are kidney-lhaped, and folitary within each
joint. Of this genus they are reckoned fix
Species. 1. The afpera (as well as the reft of this ge¬
nus) is a native of warm countries. It rifes to the height
cf four or five feet, having a Angle herbaceous Italic,
which is rough- in fome parts. The leaves come out on
every fide towards the top, forming a fort of head ;
the flowers come out between the leaves, two or three,
together upon long footftalks; they are yellow, and
fhaped like thofe of peas : after the flower is paft, the
germen becomes a flat jointed pod, which, when ripe,
parts at the joints, and in each divifion is lodged a Angle
kidney-ftiaped feed. 2. The Americana, fcldom rifes-
more than two feet in height. The flowers come out.
from the leaves on branching footftalks, five or fix to¬
gether; thefe are much lefs than the former, and of a
paler yellow colour. The feed is lodged in pods like the
other. 3. The arborea, grows to the height of fix or
feven feet, with a Angle Item; the flowers come out two
or three together, of a copper colour, and as large as
thofe of the afpera. 4. The felban hath woodyitems, and
branches garnifhed with fmooth leaves. The flowers
are fmall, of a deep yellow colour, and come out on
long fpikes hanging downward. The feed is contain¬
ed in a fmooth pod not jointed. 5. The pumila, rifes
” to the height of about three feet; has flowers of a pale
yellow colour, which come out fometimes Angle, at o-
ther times two or three upon each footftalk. The feeds
are contained in a long falcated pod having 13 or 14
divifions, each of which lodges a Angle feed. 6. The
grandiflora, rifes fix or eight feet high, with a woody
ftem, fending out branches towards the top, garnifhed
with obtufe leaves. The flowers are large, yellow, and
13 ] JE S C
fucceeded by large pods containing kidney-fhaped feeds. ^Efculapius.
Culture. Thefe plants are propagated by feeds,
which fhould be fown early in the fpring, on a hot¬
bed ; and when the plants have ftrength enough to be
removed, they ffiould each be put into a feparate pot
filled with light earth, and plunged into a hot-bed.
As they -increafe in fize, they muft be removed into
larger pots; but if thefe are too large, the plants will
not thrive. They muft be brought forward early in
the year, otherwife the fecond kind will not perfect its
feed.
AESCULAPIUS, in the Heathen mythology, the
god of phyfic,. was the fon of Apollo and the nymph
Coronis. He was educated by the centaur Chiron,
vdro taught him phyfic ; by which means difculapius
cured the moft defperate difeafes. But Jupiter, enraged
at his reftoring to life Hippolitus, who had been torn
in pieces by his own hories, killed him with a thunder¬
bolt. According to Cicero, there were three deities
of this name : the firft, the fon of Apollo, worffiipped
in Arcadia, who invented the probe, and bandages for
wounds; the fecond, the brother of Mercury, killed
by lightning; and the third, the fon of Arifippus and
Arfinoe, who firft: taught the art of tooth-drawing
and purging. At Epidaurus, AEfculapius’s ftatue was
of gold and ivory', with a long beard, his head fur-
rounded with rays, holding in one hand a knotty flick,
and the other entwined with a ferpent; he was feated -
on a throne of tire fame materials as his ftatue, and
had a dog lying at his feet. The'Romans crowned him
with laurel, to reprefent his defeent from Apollo ; and
the Phaliafins reprefented him as beardlefs. The cock,
the raven, and the goat, were facred to this deity. His
chief temples were at Pergamus, Smyrna, Trica a ci¬
ty in Ionia, and the ifle of Coos ; in all which, votive
tablets were hung up, ffiowing the difeafes cured by his
afliftance. But his moft famous ftirine was at Epidau¬
rus ; where, every five years, games were inftituted to
him, nine days after the Ifthmian games at Corinth.
aESCULUS, the Horse-chestnut": Agenu'sof
the monogynia order, belonging to the heptandria
clafs of plants;; and ranking, in the natural method,
under the 39th order, Trihilata.—The characters are :
The calyx is a fmall, fingle-leaved, bellied perianthium,
divided into five fegments.j The corolla (except in the
pavia, where it is four-petal’d and clofe) confifts of
five roundith, flat, expanding petals, unequally co¬
loured, and with narrow claws inferted into the calyx.
The fiamina have feven fubulated declining filaments,
the length of the corolla; the antherse afeending. The
pijlillum is a roundiffi germen, ending in a fubulated
ftylus; the ftigma pointed. , The pericarpium is a
leathery, roundiffi, trilocular, three-valved capfule,
The feeds are two, and fubglobular.—In this genus
Van Rozen and Miller obferve both male and herma¬
phrodite flowers. There are two
Species. \. The hippocaftanum, or common horfe-
chefthut. It was brought from the northern parts of
Afia about the year 1550, and fent to Vienna about
1588. This tree makes a 1 noble appearance all the
month of May, the extremities of the branches being
terminated by fine fpikes of flowers fpotted with rofe
colours, fo that the whole tree feems covered with them,
It is quick in its growth ; fo that in a few years it ar¬
rives at a fize large enough to afford a good (hade in
famine r.
j£SC [214] iESC
^5fculus. fummer, as alfo to produce plenty of flowers. They
‘-“‘"'i'"" have, however, this great inconvenience, that their
wood is of no ufe, being unfit even for burning ; and
their leaves beginning to fall in July, foon deprive the
trees of their beauty. There is fomething very fingu-
lar in the growth' of thefe trees; which is, that the
whole (hoot is performed in lefs than three weeks after
the buds are opened.—The .nuts are reckoned good
food for horfes. In Turkey, they are ground, and
mixed with the provender of thefe animals, efpecially
thofe which are troubled with coughs or broken-wind-
ed. Deer are alfo very fond of the fruit; and at the
time of their ripening keep much about the trees, but
efpecialiy, in ftrong winds, when the nuts are blown
down, which they carefully watch, and greedily de¬
vour as they fall.
2. The pavia, or fcarlet-flowering horfe-cheftnut, a
native of Carolina, the Brafils, and the Eall. It grows
to about fifteen or fixteen feet high; and there is a
delicacy in this tree that makes it definable. The bark
of the young (hoots is quite fmooth, and the growing
(hoots in fiimmer are of a reddifli hue. The leaves
are palmated, being pretty much like thofe of the
horfe-chefnut, only much (mailer, and the indentures
at the edges are deeper and more acute. The
lobes of which they are compofed are fpear-lhaped;
they are five in number, are united at their bafe, and
(land on a long red footftalk. The leaves grow oppo-
fite by pairs on the branches, which are fpread abroad
on every fide. The flowers come out from the ends
of the branches. The firft appearance of the buds is
in May ; though they will not be in full blow till the
middle of June. They are of a bright red colour, and
confequently have a pleafing effect among the vaft tribe
of yellow-flowering forts which (how themfelves in
bloom at that feafon. They continue in fuccefiion for
upwards of fix weeks; and fometimes are fucceeded by
ripe feeds in our gardens.
Propagation and culture. The firfl; fpecies is pro¬
pagated from the nuts. In autumn, therefore, when
they' fall, a fuflicient quantity (hould be gathered.
Thefe (hould be fown foon afterwards in drills, about
two inches afunder. If the nuts are kept till fpring,
• many of them will be faulty ; but where the femin ary-
ground cannot be got ready before, and they' are kept
fo long, it may be proper to put them in water, to try
their goodnefs. The good nuts will fink, whilft thofe
which are faulty will fwim; fo that by proving them
this way you may be fure of good nuts, and have more
promifing hopes of a crop. In the fpring the plants
will come up ; and when they have flood one year,
they may be taken up, their tap-roots (hortened, and
afterwards planted in the nurfery. When they are of
fuflicient fize to be planted -out finally, they muft be
taken out of the nurfery with care, the great fide-ihoots
and the bruifed parts of the roots (hould be taken off,
and then planted in large holes level with the furface
of the ground, at the top of their roots; the fibres be¬
ing all fpread and lapped in the fine mold, and the
turf alfo worked to the bottom. A flake (hould be
placed to keep them fafe from the winds; and they
4 muft be fenced from the cattle till they are of a fuffi-
cient fize to defend themfelves. The bed feafon for all
this work is O&ober. After the trees are planted,
sreither knife nor hatchet (hould come near them; but
• they (hould be left to Nature to form their beautiful -Sfculus
parabolic heads, and affiime their utmoft beauty.—The
horfe-chefnut, like moft other trees, delights moft in
good fat land ; but it will grow exceedingly well on
clayey and marley grounds.
Miller fays, “ When thefe trees are tranfplanted,
their roots (hould be preferved as entire as poffible, for
they do not fucceed well when torn or cut: nor (hould
any of the branches be (hortened, for there is fcarce
any tree that will not bear amputation better than this;
fo that when any branches are by accident broken, they
(liquid be cut off clofe to the Item, that the wound
may heal over.”
The fecond fpecies is propagated, i. By budding
it upon the young plants of the horfe-chefnut. Thefe
flocks (hould be raifed as was directed in that article.
They (hould be planted in the nurfery way, one foot
afunder, and two feet diftant in the rows, which
(hould be kept clean of weeds, and muft be dug be¬
tween every winter till the operation is to be pterform-
ed. After they have flood in the nurfery-ground
about two years, and have made at lead one good
fummer’s (hoot, the fummer following is the time for
the operation. Then, having your cuttings ready foon
after midfummer, the evenings and cloudy weather
(hould be made choice of for the work. Whoever has
a great number of trees to inoculate, muft regard ho
weather, but keep working on, to get his bnfinefs over
before the feafon ends ; and, indeed, a good hand will
be always pretty fure of fuccefs be the weather what
it will. If the flocks were healthy, the fummer fol¬
lowing they will make pretty good (hoots; and in a
year or two after that will flower. This is one me¬
thod of propagating this tree; and thofe plants that
are propagated this way will grow' to a larger fize than
thofe raifed immediately from feeds.—2. This tree
alfo may be propagated by feeds; wbich will fome¬
times ripen with us, and may be obtained out of our
own gardens. The manner of raifing them this way
is as follows: Let a warm border be prepared ; and if
it is not naturally fandy, let drift-fand be mixed with
the foil; and in this border let the feeds be fown in
the month of March, about half an inch deep. After
this, conftant weeding muft be obferved; and when
the plants are come up, if they could be (haded in the
heat of the day, it would be much better. Thefe,
with now and then a gentle watering in a dry feafon,
w’ill be all the precautions they will require the firft;
fummer. The winter following, if the fituation is not
extremely well fheltered, protedtion muft be given them
from the hard black frofts, which will otherwife often
deftroy them ; fo that it will be the fafeft way to have
the bed hooped, to cover them wfith mats in fuch
weather, if the fituation is not well defended: if it is,
this trouble may be faved; for, even wdien young,
they are tolerably hardy. In about twro or three years
they may be removed into the nurfery, or planted
where they are to remain, and they will flower in three -
or four years after. The ufual nurfery-care muft be
taken of them when planted in that way; and the bed
time for planting them there, or where they are. to re¬
main, is October ; though they will grow exceeding
well if removed in any of the winter months ; but, if
planted late in the fpring, they will require more
watering, as the ground will not be fo regularly
fettled
SO [ 2
as if they had been planted ear-
JE
fettled to the roots
' lier.
^diSOP, the Phrygian, lived in the time of Solon,
about the 50th Olympiad, under the reign of Croefus
the laft king of Lydia. As to genius and abilities, he
was greatly indebted tp nature ; but in other refpefts
not fo fortunate, being born a Have and extremely de¬
formed. St Jerom, fpeaking of him, fays he was un¬
fortunate in his birth, condition in life, and death;
hinting thereby at his deformity, fervile Hate, and
tragical end. His great genius, however, enabled him
to fupport his misfortunes; and in order to alleviate the
hardlhips of fervitude, he compofed thofe entertaining
and inftrudtive fables which have acquired him fo much
reputation. He is generally fuppofed to have been the
inventor of that kind of writing; but this is contefted
by feveral, particularly Quintilian, who feems to think
that Hefiod was the firft author of fables, -difop, how¬
ever, certainly improved this art to a very great degree;
and hence it is that he has been recounted the'author
of this fort of produ&ions :
JEfopus auftor quam materam reperit,
Hanc ego poltivi verfibus fenariis.
P/W Prol. ad. lib. i.
If any thoughts in-thefe iambics f ine,
Th’ invention’s iEfop’s, and the verfe is mine.”
The firft matter whom rEfop ferved, was one Cara-
fius Demarchus, an inhabitant of Athens; and there
in all probability he acquired his purity in the Greek
tongue. After him he had feveral mafters; and at length
came under a philofopher named Idmon or ladmon, who
enfranchifed him. After he had recovered his liberty,
he foon acquired a great reputation amongft the Greeks;
fo that, according to Meziriac, the report of his wif-
dom having reached Crcefus, he fent to inquire after
him, and engaged him in his fervice. He travelled
through Greece, according to the fame author; whe¬
ther for his own pleafure, or upon the affairs of Croefus,
is uncertain; and pafiing by Athens foon. after Pifi-
ftratus had ufurped the fovereign power, and finding
that the Athenians bore the yoke very impatiently, he
told them the fable of the frogs who petitioned Jupiter
for a king. The images made ufe of by iEfcp are cer¬
tainly very happy inventions to inftrudt, mankind; they
poffefs all that is neceffary to perfeft a precept, having
a mixture of the ufeful with the agreeable. “ At fop
the fabulift (fays Aulus Gellius) was defervedly e-
fteemed wife, fince he did not, after the manner of the
philofophers, rigidly and imperioufly dictate fuch things
as were proper to be advifed and perfuaded ; but, fra-'
ming entertaining and agreeable apologues, he thereby
charms and captivates the human mind.”—At fop was
put to death at Delphi. Plutarch tells us, that he came
there with a great quantity of gold and filver, being
ordered by Croefus to offer a facrifice to Apollo, and
to give a confiderable fum to each inhabitant: but a
quarrel arifing betwixt him and the Delphians, he fent
back the money to Crcefus; for he thought thofe for
whom the prince defigned it, had rendered themfelves
unworthy of it. The inhabitants of Delphi contrived
an accufation of facrilege againft him; and pretending
they had convifted him, threw him headlong from a
rock. For this cruelty and injuftice, we are told they
were vifited with famine and peftilence; and confulting
the oracle, they received for anfwer, that the god de-
15 ] JE T H
figned this as a puniftiment for their treatment of rFfop: -®fop
they endeavoured to make an atonement, by raifing a
pyramid to his honour. . "
A2SOP (Clodius), a celebrated adtor, who flourifhed
about the 670th year of Rome. He and Rofcius were
cotemporaries, and the beft performers who ever appear¬
ed upon the Roman ftage, the former excelling in tra¬
gedy, the latter in comedy. Cicero put himfelf under
their diredtion to perfedt his adtion. Alfop lived in a
moft expenfive manner, and at one entertainment is
faid to have had a dilh which coft above eight hundred
pounds; this dilh, we are told, was filled with finging
and fpeaking birds, fame of which coft near 50/. The
delight which Aifop took in this fart of birds proceed¬
ed, as Mr Bayle obferves; from the expence. He did
not make a difh of them becaufe they could fpeak, ac¬
cording to the refinement of Pliny upon this circum-
ftance, this motive being only by accident; but becaufe
of their extraordinary price. If there had been any
birds that could not fpeak, and yet more fcarce and
dear than thefe, he would have procured fuch for his
table. ALfop’s fan was no lefs luxurious than his fa¬
ther, for he diffolved pearls for his guefts to fwallow.
Some fpeak of this as a common pra&ice of his; but
others mention his falling into this excefs only on a
particular day, when he was treating his friends. Ho¬
race* fpeaks only of one pearl of great value, which »Sat. ii.
he diffolved in vinegar, and drank. ALfop, notwith-hh.ii. 239,-
ftanding his expences, is faid to have died worth above
160,000 /. When he was upon the ftage, he entered
into his part to fuch a degree, as fometimes to be feized
with a* perfeft ecftafy: Plutarch mentions it as report¬
ed of him, that whilft he was reprefenting Atreus de¬
liberating how he fliould revenge himfelf on Thyeftes,
he was fo tranfported beyond himfelf in the heat of
action, that with his truncheon he fmote one of the
farvants crofting the ftage, and laid him dead on the fpot.
AiSTIMATIO capitis, a term met with in old
law-books far a fine anciently ordained to be paid for
offences committed againft perfons- of quality, accord¬
ing to their faveral degrees.
AiSTIVAL, in a general fenfe, denotes fomething
connected with, dr belonging to, fummer. Hence1
aeftival fign, asftival folftice, &c.
ASTUARIA, in geography, denotes an arm of the
fea, which runs a good way within land. Such is the.
Briftol channel, and many of the friths of Scotland.
AiSTUARIES, in ancient baths, were fecret paf-
fages from the hypocauftum into the chambers.
AiSTUARY, among phyficians, a vapour-bath,
or any other, inftrument, for conveying heat to the
body..
AiSYMNIUM, in antiquity, a monument ere&ed to
the memory of the heroes, by Aifymnus the Megarean.
He confulting the oracle in what manner the Megare-
ans might be moft happily governed, was anfwered, 7/
they held confultation 'With the more numerous: whom he
taking for the dead, built the faid monument, and a
fenaterhoufe that , took within its compafs the monu¬
ment; imagining,, that thus. the dead, would aflift at
their confiiltations. (Paufanias.)
ALETH, or Ath, a ftrong little town in the Auftrian
Netherlands and province-of' Hainault, fituated on the '
river Dender, about twenty miles S. W. of Bruffels.
ASTHALIA, or Ilua (anc. geog.) now Elba; an
illand i
t
an Hundred
Stephanas
s called Ar-
3-reek,
R T H
i» ifland on the coaft of Etruria, sn ■: rmpafs
miles, abounding in iron, as r i , :
calls it Aethale. The port ox uiha wn
gous, (Died. Sicul.)
iETHELSTAN, fee Athelst >
AlTHER, is ufuaily underftaod of a i
matter, or medium, much finer and rarer tha
commencing from the limits of our atmo
feffes the whole heavenly fpace.—-The mo:
atGnp, fuppofed to be formed from the verb « "0 ,, *» to
burn, to flamefome of the ancients, particularly
Anaxagoras, fuppofing it of the nature of fire. See
Fire.
The philofophers cannot conceive that the largefb
part of the creation fhould be perfe£Uy void; and there*
fore they fill it with a fpecies of matter under the de¬
nomination of aiher. But they vary extremely as to the
nature and charafter of this aether. Some conceive it as a
body_/«/ generis, appointed only to fill up the vacuities
between the heavenly bodies; and therefore confined
to the regions above our atmofpherc. Others fuppofe
it of fo fubtile and penetrating a nature, as to pervade
the air, and other bodies, and poflefs the pores and
intervals thereof. Others deny the exiftence of any
fuch fpecific matter ; and think the air itfelf, by that
immenfe tenuity and expanfion it is found capable of,
may diffufe itfelf through the interilellar fpaces, and
be the only matter found therein.
In effeft, aether, being'no objeft of our fenfe, but
the mere work of imagination, brought only upon the
if age for the fake of hypothefis, or to folve fome phe¬
nomenon, real or imaginary ; authors take the liberty
to modify it how they pleafe. Some fuppofe it of an
elementary nature, like other bodies ; and only diilin-
guiflied by its tenuity, and the other affeftions confe-
quent thereon : which is the philofophical aether. O-
thers will have it of another fpecies, and not elemen¬
tary ; but rather a fort of fifth element, of a purer,
more refined, and fpirituous nature, than the fubltances
about our earth: and void of the-common afledtions
thereof, as gravity, &e. The heavenly fpaces being
the fuppofed region or refidence of a more exalted clafs
of beings, the medium muft be more exalted in pro¬
portion. Such is the ancient and popular idea of aether,
or aetherial matter.
The term if/Ar being thus embarraffed with a va¬
riety of ideas, and arbitrarily applied to fo many dif-
ferent things, the later and feverer philofophers choofe
to fet it afide, and in lieu thereof fubftitute other more
determinate ones. Thus, the Cartefians ufe the term
materia fubtilis ; which is 'their aether : and Sir Ifaac
Newton, fometimes a fubtile fpirit, as in the clofe of
his Principia ; and fometimes a fubtile or cetherial me¬
dium, as in his Optics.
The truth is, there are abundance of confiderations,
which feem to evince the exiftence of fome matter in
the air, much finer than the air itfelf. There is an un¬
known fomething, which remains behind when the air
is taken away ; as appears from certain eifedls which
we fee produced in vacuo. Heat, Sir Ifaac Newton
obferves, is communicated through a vacuum almoft as
readily-as through air : but fuch communication can¬
not be without fome interjacent body, to a£l as a me¬
dium. And fuch body may be fubtile enough to pe¬
netrate the pores of glafs; and may be very well con-
N° 6.
6 1 iE T H
eluded to permeate thofe of all other bodies, and con- JEthee
fcquently be diffufed through all the parts of fpace
which anfwers to the full charadler of an sether. See , { u s .
Heat.
The exiftence of fuch an setherial medium being fet¬
tled, that author proceeds to its properties; inferring .
it to be not only- rarer and more fluid than air, but ex¬
ceedingly more elaftic and aftive: in virtue of which
properties, he fhows, that a great part of the phenome¬
na of nature may be produced by it. To the weight,
e. g. of this medium, he attributes gravitation, or ,the
weight of all other bodies ; and to its elafticity, the
elaftic force of the air and of nervous fibres, and the
emiffion, refra&ion, refleftion, and other phenomena
of light; as alfo, fenfation, mufcular motion, &c. In
fine, this fame matter feems the primum mobile, the
firft fource or fpring of phyfical aiStion in the modem
fyftem.
The Cartefian aether is fuppofed not only'to pervade,
but adequately to fill, all the vacuities of bodies ; and
thus to make an abfolute plenum in the tmiverfe.
But Sir Ifaac Newton overturns this opinion, from
divers confiderations by ihowing, that the celeftial
fpaces are void of all fenfible refiftance : for, hence it
follows, that the matteV contained therein muft be im-
menfely rare, in regard the refiftance of bodies is chief¬
ly as their denfity; fo that if the heavens were thus
adequately'filled with a medium or matter, how fubtile
foever, they would refift the motion of the planets and
comets much more than quickfilver or gold.
The late difeoveries in electricity have thrown great
light upon this fubjeft, and rendered it extremely pro¬
bable that the aether fo often talked of is no other than
-the ele&ric fluid, or folar light, which difFufes itfelf
throughout the whole fyftem of nature. See Elec¬
tricity, Fire, Heat, Light, &c.
./Ether, in chemiftry, the lighteft, moil volatile,
and moft inflammable of all liquids, is produced by
diftillation of acids with redtified fpirit of wine. See
Chemistry and Pharmacy (the Indexes').
vETHERIAL, Etherius, fomething that belongs
to, or partakes of, the nature of JEther. Thus we
fay, the atherial fpace, eetherial regions, 8cc.
Some of the ancients divided the univerfe, with re-
fpecl to the matter contained therein, into elementary
and aetherial
Under the aetherial world was included all that fpace
above the uppermoft element, viz. fire. This, they
fuppofed to be perfeftly homogeneous, incorruptible,
unchangeable, &c. See Corruption. The Chaldees
placed an aetherial world between the empyreum and
the region of the fixed ftars. Befide which, they
fometimes alfo fpeak of a fecond aetherial world, mean¬
ing by it the ftarry orb ; and a third aetherial world,
by which is meant the planetary region.
^ETHIOPIA- See Ethiopia.
jETHIOPS, Mineral, Martial, Antimonial.
See Pharmacy [Index).
yETHUSA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
digynia clafs ; and, in the natural method, ranking
under the 45tl1 order, UmbollaUe. The characters are :
The calyx is an univerfal umbel expanding, the interior
rays fhorter by degrees; with a partial umbel, final],
and expanding. There is no univerfal involucrum ;
the partial one is dimidiated, with three or five leaf¬
lets,
A E T
•Aetiafts let's, and pendulous ; the proper perianthium fcarcely
Aetius dil'cernible. The univerf?! corolla is uniform, with
S-. ^ ‘ . Fertile florets $ the partial one has five heart-inflected
unequal petals. The ftamina confiil of five Ample fila*
[ ii7 1
JE T N
tnents, with roundilh anthene. The pijlillum is a ger- were called Aetians.
whom he leaned grammar and logic, he Was ordained
deacon, and at length bifnop, by Eudoxus patriarch
bf Cortftantinople. St Epiphanius has preferved 47 of
his propofitions againft the Trinity. His followers
tnen beneath ; with two reflected ftyli; the ftigmati
obtufe. There is no pericarpium ; the fruit is ovate,
ftriated, and tripartite. The feeds are two, roundilh
and ftriated. There is but one fpecies, viz. the sethufa
fynapium, fools-parfley, or lefler hemlock (a native of ding to Dr Freind, at the end of the 51
Britain), which grows in corn-fields and gardens. This ning of the 6th cehtury.
plant, from its refemblance to common parfley, hath
fometimes been miftaken for it; and when eaten, it oc-
AetIus, a famous phyficxan, born at Amida in Me*
fopotamia, and the author of a work intitled TetrabU
bios, which is a colleftion from the writings of tliofe
phyficians who went before him. He lived, Sccor-
~ ~ ‘ ’ ’ * 'I or the begin*
cafions ficknefs. If the curled-leaved parfley only was
cultivated in our gardens, no fuch miftakes would hap¬
pen in future. Cows, horfes, flieep, goats, and fwine,
eat it. It is noxious to geefe.
AETIANS, in church-hiftory, a branch of ArianS
who maintained, that the Son and Holy Ghoft are in
all things diffimilar to the Father. See Aetius.
AETIOLOGY, is that part of Pathology which is
employed in exploring the caufes of difeafes.
AETION, a celebrated painter, who has left us ah
Excellent picture of Roxana and Alexander, which he
exhibited at the Olympic Games: it reptefents a mag*
hificeht chamber, where Roxana is fitting on a bed of
a moft fplendid appearance, which is rendered ftill
more brilliant by her beauty. She looks downwards,
in a kind of confufion, being ftruck with the pretence
Aetius, governor of Gallia Narbonenfis in the reign
of Valentinian IIL forced the Franks who were paf-
fing into Gaul to repafs the Rhine. He defeated the
Goths; and routed Attila king of the Huns, who in¬
vaded Gaul With an army of 700,000 men. But. the
emperor, jealous of the merit of this great man, killed
him in 454 with his own hand, under the pretence
that he had permitted the invafion of the Huns, aftci*
Attila’s defeat t
iETNA, (in the itineraries JEihoa, fuppofed from
t( to bum” ; according to Bochart, from Athunat
a furnace, or JEluna, darknefs), now Monte Gibello: a
vulcano or burning mountain of Sicily, fituated in
lat. 38N. long. 15°. E.-
This mountain, famous from the femoteft antiquity,
both for its bulk and terrible eruptions, frauds in the
eaftern part of the ifland, in a very extenfive plain,
called Fal Demoni, from the notion of its being inha-
of Alexander {landing before hen A number of little bited by devils, who torment thfc fpirits of the damned
Cupids flutter about, fome holding up the curtain, aS in the bowels of this Vulcano.
if to fhow Roxana to the prince, whilft others are
bnfied in undreffing the lady ; fome pull Alexander by
the cloak, who appears like a yotmg baflilul bride*
groom, and prefent him to his miftrefs 1 he lays his
crown at her feet, being accompanied by Epheftion,
who holds a torch in his hand, and leans Upon a youth,
who reprefents Hymen. Several other little Cupids
are reprefented playing with his arms ; fome carry his
lance, {looping under fo heavy a Weight; others bear
along his buckler, upon which one of them is feated,
whom the reft carry in triumph; another lies in am*
bufli in his armour, waiting to frighten the reft as they
pafs by. This picture gained Action fo much repu¬
tation, that the prefident of the games gave him his
daughter in marriage.
iETITES, Or Eagle*stose, in natural hiftory, A
flinty or cruftated ftone, hollow within, and contain*
Concerning the dimenfions of moUnt ^Etna, we can fneonfifcnt
fCarce extract any thing confident, even from the ac- accounts
Counts of the lateft and moft ingenious travellers. - Pin- concerning
dar, who lived about 435 years before Chrift, calls
the Pillar of heaven, on account of its great height. na>
All modern writers likewife agree, that this mountain
is very high, and very large; but differ excefiively both
as to its height and magnitude; fome making it no lefs
than twelve miles high, others eight, others fix, fome
four, while Mr Brydone, and Sir William Hamilton,
who lately afeended to its higheft fummit, reduce its
height to little more than two miles; nay, by fome
it is reduced to 10,036 feet, fomewhat lefs than two
miles. 'No lefs remarkable are the differences concern¬
ing its circumference: fome making it only 60 miles
round, others too; and Signior Recupero, from whom
Mr Brydone had his information in this refpeft, affirms
ing a nucleus, which, on (baking, rattles within. -It it to be no lefs than 183 miles in circuit.
was formerly in repute For feveral extraordinary magi¬
cal as well as medical powers 5 fuch as preventing abor¬
tion, difeovering thieves, ahd other ridiculous proper*
ties. The word is formed from atT©-, “ eagle the
popular tradition being, that it is found in the eagle’s
neft, W’hither it is fuppofed to be earned while the fe*
male fits, to prevent her eggs from being rotten. It
is found in feveral parts : near Trevoux in France, one
can fcarce dig a few feet, without finding Confiderable
ftrata or beds of the coarfer or ferruginous kind. They
are originally foft, and of the colour of yellow oaker.
But the fineft and moft valued of all the eagle-ftones,
are accidental Hates of One or other of our common
pebbles.
We are forry to detract from the merit of Mr Bry¬
done, 6r to involve in obfeurity what he hath been at
fo much pains to elucidate; but every perfon who com¬
pares the account of mount .Etna’s circumference, gi¬
ven by Signior Recupero, and to which Mr Brydone
feems to have affented, with its apparent circumference
on the map prefixed to that gentleman’s toUr through
Sicily and Malta, muft at once be (truck with the pro¬
digious difparity. Indeed, it is plain, that, in the map,
the geographer hath not left room for any fuch moun¬
tain ; nor can we help thinking, that, by comparing
the diftances of fome of the Sicilian towns from one a-
n at her, Signior Recupero’s dimenfions will be found
enormoufly egaggerated.—Certain it is, that there the
AETIUS, one of the moft zealous defenders of geographer hath placed Catania, which {lands at the
Arianiftn, was born in Syria, and ftourifhed about the foot of mount Etna, on one fide, no more than 28
year 336. After being fervant to a grammarian, of miles from the taoft diftant point of the rivet Alcan*
Vo*., I. Part I. E e tara,
JE T N [ 218 ] T N
j®tna. tara, which forms the boundary on the oppofite fide ;
"r v ' fo that a circle, whofe radius is J 4 or 15 miles, muft
encompafs as much fpace as we can poffibly think is
occupied by the bafis of mount ^Etna. Thus we will
reduce the circumference of this famous mountain to
between 80 and 90 miles ; and even when we do fo,
it muft ftill be acknowledged to be very great.
But if we are embarrafled with the circumference of
JEtna, we are much more fo with the accounts relating
to its height; and one circumftance, particularly, cre¬
ates almoft infurmountable difficulties. It is agreed
upon by all travellers, and among the reft by Sir William
Hamilton, that from Catania, where the afcent firft be¬
gins, to the fummit, is not lefs than 30 miles. The
defcent on the other fide we have no account of; but,
whatever fuppofition we make, the height of the moun¬
tain muft "be prodigious. If we fuppofe it likewife to be
30 miles, and that mount -Etna can be reprefented by
an equilateral triangle, each of whofe fides is 30 miles,
we will have an amazing elevation indeed, no lefs than
26 miles perpendicular !—Such a height being beyond
all credibility, we muft contra£1 the fides of our tri¬
angle, in proportion to its bafis. We fhall begin with
allowing 1 o miles for the difference between a ftraight
line from Catania to the fummit, and the length of
the road, occafioned by the inequalities of the moun¬
tain and fuppofing the defcent on the other fide to
be fomewhat ffiorter, we may call it 15 miles. Mount
iEtna will now be reprefented by a fcalene triangle,
whofe bafe is 30 miles, its longeft fide 20, and its
ffiorteft 15 ; from which proportions we will ftill find
Dimer,fions its height to be betwixt eight and nine miles.—This
uncertain. Js {till incredible ; and when all the various relations
concerning the height of iEtna are compared, we hope
it will not be thought prefumptuous in us to give it as
our opinion, that the true dimeufions of this mountain
are as yet unknown. The following meafures are given
by different authors:
Height above the furface of the fea, 10,036 feet.
One hundred and eighty miles circumference at the
bafe.—Faujas de S. Fon in his Volcans du Vivarais.
Height 12,000 feet.— Brydone. Tour to Sicily.
Height 2500 toifes.—La Platriere, faid as from
Recupero. ,
Height 1950 toifes.—Diameter 30 miles.—Men-
telle Geogr. comp.
Others make its height only 2000 toifes, and its
fuperfices 300 fquare miles.
General ap- Concerning the produfts and general appearance of
pearance, {his vukano, authors are much better agreed.—The
^ journey from Catania to its fummit has been lately
defcribed by three travellers, M. D’Orville, Mr Bry¬
done, and Sir William Hamilton. AH thefe agree,
that this fingle mountain affords an epitome of the dif¬
ferent climates throughout the whole world: towards
the foot, it is very hot; farther up, more temperate ;
and grows gradually more and more cold the higher we
afcend. At the very top, it is perpetually covered with
fnow : from thence the whole ifiand is fupplied with that
article, fo neceffary in a hot climate, and without which
the natives fay Sicily could not be inhabited. So great
is the demand for this commodity, that the biftiop’s re¬
venues, which are confiderable, arife from the fale of
mount ^Etna’s fnow ; and he is faid to draw 1000 /. a-
year from one fmall portion lying on the north fide of the
mountain. Great quantities of fnow and ice are like¬
wife exported to Malta and Italy, making a eonfiderable -ffitna,,
branch of commerce. On the north fide of this fnowy ' v "
region, Mr Brydone was affured, that there are feveral
fmall lakes which never thaw; and that the fnow mixed
with the afhes and fait of the mountain are accumulated
to a vaft depth. The quantity of falts contained in this
mountain, he, with great probability, conjedtures to be
one reafon of the prefervation of its fnows; for fait in-
creafes the coldnefs of fnow to a furprifing degree *. * See Cold,, -
In the middle of the fnowy regions Hands the great '
crater, or mouth of ./Etna ; from which, though con-
trary to the ufual method of travellers, we ffiall begin
our particular account of this mountain. Sir William
Hamilton defcribes the mater as a little mountain,
about a quarter of a mile perpendicular^ and very fteep,
fituated in the middle of a gently inclining plain,, of Crater de- I
about nine miles in circumference. It is entirely form- bribed,
ed of ftones and affies; and, as Mr Hamilton was in¬
formed by feveral people of Catania, had been thrown
up about 25 or 30 years before the time (1769) he vi*
filed mount ./Etna. Before this mountain was thrown
up, there was, only a prodigious large chafm, or gulph,
in the middle of the above-mentioned plain; and it
has been remarked, that about once in 100 years the
top of jEtna falls in ; which undoubtedly muft be the
cafe at certain periods, or the mountain behoved conti*
nually to increafe in height. As this little mountain,
though emitting fmoke from every pore, appeared fo-
lid and firm, Mr Hamilton and his companions went up
to the very top. In the middle is a hollow, about two
miles and a half in circumference, according to Mr
Hamilton; three miles and a half, according to Mr
Brydone ; and three or four, according to Mr D’Or-
ville. The infide is crufted over with falts and fulphur
of different colours. It goes /helving down, from the
top, like an inverted cone ; the depth, in Mr Hamil¬
ton’s opinion,, nearly correfponding to the height of
the little mountain. From many places of this fpace
iffue volumes of fulphureous fmoke, which being much
heavier than the circumambient air, inftead of amend¬
ing in it, roll down the fide of the mountain, till, co¬
ming to a more denfe atmofphere, it/hoots off horizon-
tally, and forms a large tra£t in the air, according to the
direction of the wind; which, happily for our tra¬
vellers, carried it exa&ly to the fide oppofite to which
they were placed. In the middle of this funnel is the
tremenduous and unfathomable gulph, fo much cele¬
brated in all ages, both as the terror of this life, and
the place of puniihment in the next. From this gulph
continually iffue terrible and confufed noifes, which in
eruptions are increafed to fuch a degree as to be heard
at a prodigious diftance. Its diameter is probably very
different at different times: for Mr Hamilton obfer-
ved, by the wind clearing away the fmoke from time
to time, that the inverted hollow cone was contra£ted
almoft to a point; while Mr D’Orville and Mr Bry¬
done found the opening very large. Both Mr Bry¬
done and Mr Hamilton found the crater too hot to
defcend into it; but Mr D’Orville was bolder : and
accordingly he and his fellow-traveller, faftened to
ropes which two or three men held at a diftance for
fear of accidents, defcended as near as poffible to the
brink of the gulph ; but the fmall flames and fmoke
which iffued from it on every fide, and a greeni/h ful¬
phur, and pumice-ftones, quite black, which covered
the margin, would not permit them to come fo near
iE T N
as to have a full view. They only faw diftinftly in
J the middle, a mafs of matter which rofe, in the ftiape
of a cone, to the height of above 60 feet, and which
towards the bafe, as far as their fight could reach, might
be 600 or 800. While they were obferving this fub-
llance, fome motion was perceived on the north fide,
oppofite to that whereon they flood ; and immediately
the mountain began to fend forth fmoke and afhes.
[ 219 ]
^ T N
This eruption was preceded by a fenfible increafe of nothing.
whole ifland, and far into the fea on the other fide, form¬
ing a vifible traft in the air, which, as the fun rifes a- L
bove the horizon, is fhortened, and at laft confined to
the neighbourhood of -/Etna. The moft beautiful part
of the fcene, however, in Mr Brydone’s opinion, is the
mountain itfelf, the ifland of Sicily, and the numerous
iflands lying round it. Thefe laft feem to be clofe to
the fkirts of ^Etna; the diftances appearing reduced to
its internal roarings; which, however, did not conti¬
nue ; but after a moment’s dilatation, as if to give it
vent, the vulca-no refumed its former tranquillity ; but
as it was by no means proper to make a long flay in
fuch a place, our travellers immediately returned to
their attendants.
On the fummit of mount iEtna, Mr Hamilton ob-
ferves, that he was fenfible of a difficulty in refpiration
This mountain is divided into three zones, which Dlvifion in¬
might properly enough be diftinguifhed by the names to three
of torrid, temperate, and frigid: they are, however,zones*
known by the names of the Piedmontefe, or Regione cul-
ta, the cultivated, or fertile region; the Sylvbfa, woody,
or temperate zone; and the Region; deferta, the frigid,
or defert zone, or region. All thefe are plainly diftin¬
guifhed from the fummit. The Regione deferta is mark- Re^ione
from the too great fubtilty of the air, independent of ed out by a circle offnow and ice, which extends on alldeferta.
what arofe from the fulphureous fmoke of the moun- fides to the diftance of about eight miles, beginning at
tain. Mr Brydone takes no notice of this; which pro- the foot of the crater. Greateft part of this region is
bably arofe from the air being in a more rarefied ftate fmooth and even. This is immediately fucceeded by
at the time of Mr Hamilton’s obfervation than of Mr the Sylvofa, or woody region ; which forms a circle of
Brydbne’s; the barometer, as obferved by the former,
(landing at 18 inches and 1 o lines, by the latter at 19
inches 64- lines.
Tn thefe high regions there is generally a very vio-
lend wind, which, as all our travellers found it conftantly
blowing from the fouth, may poffibly be commonly di-
redled from that point. Here Mr Brydone’s thermo¬
meter fell to 2 70.
Splendor of The top of iEtna being above the common region
the ftars 0f vapours, the heavens appear with exceeding great
the'to °of fplendor.— Mr Brydone and his company obferved, as
the mqft beautiful green, furrounding the mountain on
all fides. This region is variegated with a vail number
of mountains of a conical form, thrown up by v??tna in
thofe eruptions which burft out from its fides. Mr Ha¬
milton counted 44 on the Catania fide, each having its
crater, many with large trees flourilhing both within
and without the crater. All thefe, except a few of late
date, have acquired a wonderful degree of fertility. The
circumference of this zone, or great circle, according to
Recupero, is not lefs than 70 or 80 miles. It is every¬
one . _ where fucceeded by the Regione culta ; which is much
JEtnaf 01 they afeended in the night, that the number of ftars broader than the reft, and extends on all fides to the
feemed to be infinitely increafed, and the light of each foot of the mountain. Here terrible devaftations are
of them appeared brighter than ufual; the whitenefs of fometimes committed by the eruptions; and the whole
the milky-way was like a pure flame which (hot acrofs
the heavens; and, with the naked eye, they could ob-
ferve clufters of ftars that were invifible from below.
region is likewife full of conical mountains thrown up
by them. The circumference of this region, is, by Re¬
cupero, reckoned 183 miles; but we have already gi-
Had Jupiter been vifible, he is of opinion that fome of ven our reafons for rejecting thefe dimenfions.—This
his fattellites might have been difeovered with the naked
eye, or at leaft with a very fmall pocket-glafs. He like¬
wife took notice of feveral of thofe meteors called fall¬
ing fi* s : which appeared as much elevated as when
region is bounded by the fea to the fouth and fouth-
eaft ; and on all other fides, by the river Semetus and
Alcantara, which form the boundaries of mount iEtna.
About a mile below the foot of the great crater, arc
viewed from the plain : a proof, according to Mr Bry- found the ruins of an ancient ftrutture, called II TorreUTorre del
■ ; Hxtenfive
J .profpeit.
done, that “ thefe bodies move in regions much be-
“ yond the bounds that fome philofophers have affign-
“ ed to our atmofphere.”
To have a full and clear prpfpedl from the fummit
of mount iEtna, it is neceflary to be there before fun-
vife ; as the vapours' railed by the fun, in the day-time,
•will obfeure every objedl: accordingly, our travellers
took care to arrive there early enough ; and all agree,
that the beauty of the profpeCl from thence cannot be
exprefled.—Here Mr Brydone and Mr Hamilton had a
view of Calabria in Italy, with the fea beyond it; the
Lipari iflands, and Stromboli a vulcano at about 70
miles diftance, appeared juft under their feet; the whole
ifland of Sicily, with its rivers, towns, harbours, &c.
appeared diftin£l, as if feen on a map. Mafia, a Sici¬
lian author, affirms, that the African coaft, as well as
that of Naples, with many of its iflands, have been dif¬
eovered from the top of iEtna. The vifible horizon
here is not lefs than 8 or 900 miles in diameter. The
pyramidal ftiadow of the mountain reaches acrofs the
del Filolofo, by fome fuppofed to have been built by the Fdofofo.
philofopher Empedocles, who took up his habitation
here, the better to ftudy the nature of mount iEtna.
By others they are fuppofed to be ruins of a temple of
Vulcan. They are of brick, and feem to have been or¬
namented with marble. Somewhere in this region alfo,
Mr D’Orville found a great oblong block of poliflied
marble, eight or ten feet high, and three or four thick;
though how it came there, was quite unaccountable to
him. From Mr D’Orville’s and Mr Brydone’s accounts,
we muft reckon this part of the mountain pretty fteep:
but Mr Hamilton fays, that the afeent was fo gradual,
as not to be in the leaft fatiguing; and had it not been
for the fnows, they might have rode on their mules to
the very foot of the crater.
The woody region defeends eight or nine miles be- Regionc
low the Regione deferta, but differs greatly in the tem-sy'v°fa*
perature of its climate. Mr Hamilton obferved a gra¬
dual decreafe of the vegetation as he advanced; the
under part being covered with large timber trees, which
E e 3 grew
:
^ T N r 22Q T iE T N
Mtm. grtvr gradually lefs as he approached the third region,
at laft they degenerated into the fmall plants of the
northern climates. He alfo obferved quantities of ju¬
niper and tanfey; and was informed by his guide, that
later in the feafon (he vifited ^Etnain June 1769) there
are a great many curious plants, and in fome places
rhubarb and faffron in great plenty. In Carrera’s hi-
ftory of Catania, there is a lift of all the plants and
herbs of ./Etna, in alphabetical order.
This region is extolled by Mr Brydone as one of the
moft delightful fpots on earth. He lodged for a night
in a large cave near .the middle, formed by one of the
moft ancient lavas. It is called La Spelonca del Capri-
ds, or the goats cavern ; becaufe it is frequented by
thofe animals, which take refuge there in bad weather.
Here his reft was difturbed by a mountain thrown up
in the eruption 1766. It difcharged great quantities
of fmoke, and made feveral explofions like heavy can¬
non fired at a diftance; but they could obfcrve no ap¬
pearance of fire.
This gentleman likewife vifited the eaftern fide of
the Rcgione fylvofa, intending to have afcended that way
to the fummit, and defcended again on the fouth fide
to Catania; but found it impracticable; though what
the infurmountable difficulties were, he does not men-
Pruption eftion. On this fide, part of the woody region was de-
boiling wa- ftroyed, in 1755, by an immenfe torrent of boiling wa-
t£r* ter, which iffued from the great crater. Its traces were
ftill very vifible, about a mile and an half broad, and
in fome places more. The foil was then only begin¬
ning to recover its vegetative power, which it feems this
torrent had deftroyed for 14 years.—Near this place are
fome beautiful woods of cork, and evergreen oak, grow¬
ing abfolutely out of the lava,, the foil having hardly
filled the crevices; and not far off, our traveller obfer¬
ved feven little mountains that feemed to have been form¬
ed by a late eruption. Each of theft had a regular cup,
or crater, on the top; and, in fome, the middle gulph,
or Voragine^ as the Sicilians call it, was ftill open.
Into thefe gulphs Mr Brydone tumbled down ftones,
and heard the noife for a long time after. All the
fields round, to a confiderable diftance,. were covered
with large burnt ftones difcharged from thefe little vol¬
canoes.
©vergrown The woody region,, efpecially the eaft fide, called
ehefinut- Carpinetto, abounds with very large cheftnut-trees; the
trees. moft remarkable of which has been called, from its fize,
Caftagno de Cento Cavalli, or cheftnut-tree of an. hun¬
dred horfe. Mr Brydone was greatly difapppointed at
the fight of this tree, as. it is only a bufh of five large
ones growing together: but his guides affured him, that
all thefe five were once united into one ftem; and Sig-
nior Recupero told him, that he himfelf had been at
the expence of carrying up peafants with tools to dig
round this bufh of trees, and found all the ftems united
below ground in one root. The circumference, as mea-
fured by Mefirs Brydone and Glover who accompanied
him, amounted to 204 feet. Another of thefe, about a
mile and a half higher on the mountain, is called Cajlag-
na del Galea: it rifes from one folid ftem to a confide-
rablc height; after which it branches out, and is a much
finer obieft than the other: this was meafured two feet
above the ground, and found to be 76 feet in circum¬
ference. A third, called Cajtagna del Nave, is pretty
nearly of the lame fixe; and Mafia, one of the moft
efteemed Sicilian authors, affirms that he has feen folid /Etna.
oaks there upwards of 40 feet round All thefe grow 1 v—
on a thick rich foil, which feems originally to have
been formed of afhes thrown out by the mountain. Here
the barometer ftood at 26 inches 5 lines and an halfj,
indicating an elevation of near 4000 feet.
The Piedmontefe diftrict is covered with towns, vU- Region*
lages, monafteries, &c. and is well peopled, notwith- Cufu.* !
ftanding the danger of fuch a fituation: but the ferti¬
lity of the foil tempts people to inhabit that country;
and their fuperftitious confidence in their faints, with
the propenfity mankind have to defpife danger which
they do not fee, render them as fecure there as in any o-
ther place. Here, Sir William Hamilton obferyes, they
keep their vines low, contrary to the cuftom of thofe
who inhabit mount Vefuvius; and they produce a
ftronger wine, but not in fuch abundance: here alfo
many terrible eruptions have burft forth; particularly
one in 1669. At the foot of the mountain raifed by Subterraoei
that eruption, is a hole, through which Sir Wiftiamouscaverns* J
Hamilton defcended, by means of a rope, into feveral
fubterraneous caverns, branching out, and extending
much farther than he chofe to venture, the cold there
being exceffive, and a violent wind extinguifliing fomc
of the torches. Many other caverns are known in this,
and the other regions of .Etna; particularly one near
this place called La Sptlonca della Paloviba, (from the
wild pigeons building their nefts there.) Here Mr
Brydone was told that fome people had loft.their fenfes,
from having advanced too far, imagining-they faw de¬
vils and damned fpirits.—Some of. thefe caverns are
made ufe of as magazines for fnow ; , which they are
well adapted for, on account of their extreme cold..
Thefe are with great probability fuppofed by Sir Wil-
Eam Hamilton to be the hollows made by the iffuing
of the lava in eruptions.
In this region the river Jdj, fo much celebrated by River Adj.ll
the poets, in the fable of Acis and Galatea, takes its ~ [i
rife. It burfts out of the earth at once in a large Itream,
runs with great rapidity, and about, a mile from its
fource throws itfelf into the fea. Its water is remark¬
ably clear; and fo extremely cold, that it is reckoned
dangerous to drink it: it is faid,, however,. to have a
poifonous quality, from being impregnated with vitriol;
in confequence of which cattle have been killed by it.
It never freezes,.but is faid often to contract a greater
degree of cold than ice.
Having thus given an account of this mountain in Appearan-
its quiet and peaceable ftate, we muft now defcribe the ces dui l®S
appearance it puts on during the time of an eruption,anerUi>tl0B’
when it fpreads deftruttion for many miles round, and
is capable of ftriking the boldeft with terror.
Sir William Hamilton, who has examined both Ve¬
fuvius and .Etna in a very accurate manner, never had
an opportunity of feeing an eruption of the latter; but
as he is of opinion that the two vulcanoes agree per—
feftly in all refpefts, only that the latter is on a much
larger feale than the former, we hope it will not be un¬
acceptable to our readers to give an account of fome
of the general appearances of Vefuvius when in a ftate
of eruption, the better to help their ideas concerning
-Etna.
It has been already obferved, that a fmoke con-
ftantly iffues from the top of /Etna, and that; its inter¬
nal aoifes never ceafe. The cafe is the fame with Vefu.
iE T N [ 221 ] iE T N
-ffitna. viiis : and Sir William Hamilton obferved, that in bad
weather the fmoke was more confiderable, as well as
the noifes much louder, than when it was fair; fo that
in bad weather he had frequently heard the inward ex-
plofions of the mountain at Naples fix miles diftant from
Vefuvius. He alfo obferved the fmoke that ifiued
from the mountain in bad weather to be very white,
moift, and not near fo offenfive as the fulphureous fteams
from various cracks in the fide of the mountain.
Signs of an The firft fymptom of an approaching eruption is an
approach- increafe of the fmoke in fair weather: after fome time,
ing erup- a pUff 0f black fmoke is frequently feen to (hoot up in
tion. tjie of the white, to a confiderable height. Thefe
puffs are attended with confiderable explofions: for
Hamilton’s while Vefuvius was in this ftate, Sir William Hamilton
Obferva- went up to its top, which was covered with fnow; and
tions, p. 4- perceiving a little hillock of fulphur, about fix feet
high, which had been lately thrown up, and burnt with
a blue flame at the top, he was examining this pheno¬
menon, when fuddenly a violent report was heard, a
column of black fmoke fhot up with violence, and was
followed by a reddifh. flame. Immediately a fhowcr of
ftones fell; upon which he thought proper to retire.
Phenomena of this kind, in all probability, precede the
eruptions of ^Etna in a much greater degree.—The
fmoke at length appears wholly black in the day-time,
and in the night has the appearance of flame ; fhowers
of afhes are fent forth, earthquakes are produced, the
mountain difcharges volleys of red-hot ftones to a great
height in the air. The force by which thefe ftones
are projected, as well as their magnitudes, feems to be
in proportion to the bulk of the mountain. Signior
Recupero affured Mr Brydone, that he had feen im-
menfely large ones thrown perpendicularly upwards
to the height of 7000 feet, as he calculated from the
time they took to arrive at the earth after beginning
to defcend from their greateft elevation. The largeft
ftone, or rather rock, that was ever known to be emit¬
ted by Vefuvius, was 12 feet long and 45 in circum¬
ference. This was thrown a quarter of a mile ; but
much larger ones have been thrown out by mount J£.t-
«a, almoft in the proportion in which the latter exceeds
Vefuvius in bulk. Along with thefe terrible fymp-
toms, the fmoke that iftiies from the crater is fome-
times in a highly electrified ftate. In this cafe, the
imall allies which are continually emitted from the cra¬
ter, are attracted by the fmoke, and rife with it to a
great height, forming a vaft black, and to appearance
denfe, column; from this column continual flafties of
Thunder & forked or zig-zag lightning ifiue, fometimes attended
ftorndie thunder, and fometimes not, but equally powerful
fmoke. with ordinary lightning. This phenomenon was ob¬
ferved by Sir William Hamilton in the fmoke of Vefu¬
vius, and has alfo been taken notice of in that of ./Et¬
na ; and where this eleCtrified fmoke hath fpread over
a trad of land, much mifchief hath been done by the
lightning proceeding from it.
When thefe dreadful appearances have continued
fometimes four or five months, the lava begins to make
its appearance. This is a ftream of melted mineral
matters, which in Vefuvius commonly boils over the
top, but very feldom does, fo in ./Etna; owing to the
great weight of the lava, which long before it can be
raifed to the vaft height of mount ./Etna, burfts out
through fome weak place in its fide. Upon the ap¬
pearance of the lava, the violent eruptions of the moun- -®tna.
tain generally, though not always, ceafe; for if this v
burning matter gets not fufficient vent, the commo¬
tions increafe to a prodigious degree.—-In the night¬
time the lava appears like a ftream of fire, accompanied
with flame: but in the day-time it has no fuch appear¬
ance; its progrefs is marked by a white fmoke, which
by the refledion of the red-hot matter in the night af-
fumes the appearance of flame.
All the abovementioned fymptoms preceded the great Eruption 111
eruption of .ditna in 1669. For feveral months before1 ^
the lava broke forth, the old mouth, or great crater on
the fummit, was obferved to fend forth great quantities
of fmoke and flame; the top had fallen in, fo that the
mountain was much lowered; the iflands alfo of Volcan
and Stromboli, twro volcanoes to the weftward of Sicily,
were obferved to rage more than ufual.—Eighteen days
before the eruption, the Sky was very thick and dark,
with thunder, lightning, frequent concuflions of the
earth, and dreadful fubterraneous bellowings. On
the 1 ith of March, fome time before the lava got vent,
a rent was opened in the mountain twelve miles in
length, into which, when ftones were thrown down,
they could not bejreard to ftrike the bottom. Burning
rocks, 60 palms (15 of our feet) in length, were thrown
to the diftance of a mile; others of a lefier fize were
carried three miles off; the internal noifes of the moun¬
tain were exceedingly dreadful, and the thunder and
lightning from the fmoke fcarce lefs terrible than
they. When the lava at laft got vent, it burft out of
a vineyard, 20 miles below the great crater, and fprung
up into the air to a confiderable height. Here it formed
a mountain of ftones and allies, not lefs, as Sir Wm
Hamilton conjectures, than half a mile perpendicular
in height, and three miles in circumference. For 54
days neither fun nor ftars had appeared : but foon af¬
ter the lava got vent, the mountain became very quiet.
The terrible effefts of this fiery ftream may be imagined
from its amazing extent; being, as Sir Wm Hamilton
obferves, no lefs than 14 miles long, and in many pla¬
ces fix in breadth. In its courfe, it deftroyed the ha¬
bitations of near 30,000 perfons ; and meeting with a
lake four miles in compafs, it not only filled it up,
though feveral' fathom deep, but made a mountain in
the place of it. Having reached Catanea, it deftroyed
part of its walls, and ran for a confiderable length into
the fea, forming a fafe and beautiful harbour ; which,
however, was foon filled up by a frefh torrent of the
fame inflamed matter.
It is not eafy for thofe who have never been prefent Phenome-
at thofe terrible operations of nature, to reprefent to na at ,the
their minds the horror which muft attend the breaking
forth of the lava ; for though the giving vent to this java<
burning matter generally produces a ceffation of the
violent efforts of the internal fire, yet at the very in-
ftant of its explofion fcarce any thing can be conceived
fo dreadful. See Vesuvius.
When the lava firft iffues, it appears very fluid, and Hamilton’s
runs with the rapidity of a fwift river; but even then it obierva-
furprifingly refills the impreffion of folid bodies: for SirtIons’ 1’’I0*
Wm Hamilton could not pierce that of Vefuvius with a
flick driven againft it with all his force ; nor did the
largeft ftone he was able to throw upon it fink, but made
a flight impreffion, and then floated along. This hap¬
pened almoft at the very mouth, when the lava appear-
E e 3 ed
iE T N [ 222 ] iE T
JEtna. ed liquid as water, and when he faw it running with a
1 v 1 rapidity equal to the river Severn at the panage near
Briftol.—A defcription'of the lava iffuing from mount
iEtna in 1669 was fent to the court of England by-
Lord Winchelfea, who at that time happened to be at
Catania in his way home from an embaffy at Conftanti-
nople. His account is not now to be procured ; but
Mr Hamilton found a copy in Sicily, and hath given
Lava of an extraft, part of which follows. “ When it was
i669defcri-night, I went upon two towers in divers places; and I
hed. could plainly fee, at ten miles diftance, as we judged,
the fire begin to run from the mountain in a direft line,
the flame to afcend as high and as big as one of the
greateft fteeples in your Majefty?s kingdoms, and to
throw up great ftones into the air; I could difcern the
river of fire to defcend the mountain of a terrible fiery
or red colour, and ftones of a paler red to fwim there¬
on, and to be fome as big as an ordinary table. We
could fee this fire to move in feveral other places, and
all the country covered with fire, afcending with great
flames in many places, fmoking like to a violent fur¬
nace of iron melted, making a noife with the great
pieces that fell, efpecially thofe that fell into the fea.
A cavalier of Malta, who lives there, and attended me,
told me, that the river was as liquid, where it iflues
out of the mountain, as water, and came out like a
torrent with great violence, and is five or fix fathom
deep, and as broad, and that no ftones fink therein.
The account given in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions
is to the fame purpofe. We are there told, that the
lava is “ nothing elfe than diverfe kinds of metals and
minerals, rendered liquid by the fiercenefs of the fire
in the bowels of the earth, boiling up and gufhing
forth as the water doth at the head of fome great ri¬
ver ; and having run in a full body for a Hone’s caft
or more, began to cruft or curdle, becoming, when
cold, thofe hard porous ftones which the people call
Sciarri” Thofe, though cold in comparifon of v/hat
firft iflues from the mountain, yet retained fo much heat
as to refemble huge cakes of fea-coal ftrongly ignited,
and came tumbling over one another, ’nearing down or
burning whatever was in their way. — In this manner
the lava proceeded (lowly on till it came to the fea,
when a moft extraordinary conflidt enfued betwixt the
two adverfe elements. The noife was vaftly more
dreadful than the loudeft thunder, being heard thro’
the whole country to an immenfe diftance ; the water
feemed to retire and diminiftr before the lava, while
clouds of vapour darkened the fun. The whole fifti on
the coaft were deftroyed, the colour of the fea itfelf
was changed, and the tranfparency of its waters loft for
many months.
While this lava was ifiuing in fuch prodigious quan¬
tity, the merchants, whofe account is recorded in the
Philofophical Tranfadtions, attempted to go up to the
mouth itfelf; but durft not come nearer than a furlong,
left they (hould have been overwhelmed by a vaft pil¬
lar of aflies, which to their apprehenfion exceeded twice
the bignefs of St Paul’s fteeple in London, and went
up into the air to a far greater height; at the mouth
itfelf was a continual noife, like the beating of great
waves of the fea againft rocks, or like diftant thunder,
which fometimes wns fo violent as to be heard 60, or
even 100 miles off; to which diftance alfo part of the
afttes were carried. Some time after, having gone up,
they found the mouth from whence this terrible deluge -®ma.
iflued to be only a hole about 1 o feet diameter. This
is alfo confirmed by Mr Brydone; and is probably the ofth^holfr
fame through which Sir W™ Hamilton defcended into whence the
the fubterranean caverns already mentioned. lava iffued.
Mount iEtna, as we have already remarked, has Antiquity
been a celebrated volcano from the remoteft antiquity, of the erup*
Diodorus Siculus mentions eruptions of it as happening ti0115*
500 years before the Trojan war, or 1693 years before
the Chriftian sera. From Homer’s filence with regard
to the phenomenon of iEtna, it is to be prefumed that
the volcano had been many-ages in a ftate of inadtivity,
and that no tradition of its burning remained among
the inhabitants at the time he compoied his Odyffey ;
perhaps it never had emitted flames fince the country
wjfs peopled. The firft eruption taken notice of by an¬
cient, but by no means cotemporary authors, happened
before the Greeks landed on the illand, and is fuppofed
to have feared the Sicani from the eaft part of Sicily.
Pindar, quoted above, is the oldeft writer extant who
fpeakg of ./Etna as a volcano. The firft recorded erup¬
tion was in the time of Pythagoras. Plato was invited
by the younger Dyonifius to examine the ftate of the
mountain after the fixth. It threw up flames and lava
near an hundred times between that period and the
battle of Pharfalia; it was particularly furious while
Sextus Pompeius was adding the horrors of war to its
devaftations. Charlemagne happened to be at Catania
during one of the eruptions ; and from his reign the
chronicles mention fifteen down to that of the year
1669, the moft terrible of them all. Since 1669 there
have been feveral eruptions, but none of them compa¬
rable to it. In that which happened in 1766, the lava
fprung up into the air to a confiderable height, twelve
miles below the fummit; but formed a ftream only fix
miles in length and one mile in breadth.
The laft eruption happened in 1787. From the ift Account of
to the 10th of July, there were figns of its approach, the late e-
On the 1 ith, after a little calm, there was a fubterra- ruP'Ion>
neous noife, like the found of a drum in a clofe place,17 ^
and it was followed by a copious burft of black fmoke.
It was then calm till the 15th, when the fame progno-
ftics recurred. On the 17th, the fubterraneous noife
was heard again; the fmoke was more abundant, flight
(hocks of an earthquake followed, and the lava flowed
from behind one of the two little mountains which form
the double head of /Etna. On the 18th, while the
fpedtators were in anxious expectation of a more fevers
eruption, all was quiet, and continued fo more than.
12 hours : foon after they perceived fome new (hocks,
accompanied with much noife; and the mountain threw
out a thick fmoke, which, as the wind.was wefterly,
foon darkened the eaftern horizon: two hours after¬
wards a (hower of fine black brilliant fand defcended 1
on the eaft fide it was a ftorm of ftones; and, at the
foot of the mountain, a deluge of flaflres of fire, of:
fcoria and lava.
Thefe appearances continued the whole day; at the
fetting of the fun the feene changed. A number oF
conical flames rofe from the volcano; one on the north,
another on the fouth,, were very confpicuous, and rofe
and fell alternately. At three in the morning, the
mountain appeared cleft, and the fummit feemed a burn¬
ing mafs. The cones of light which arofe from the
crater were of an inunenfe extent, particularly the two
^ T N L 223 ] A F F
JEtna. juft mentioned. The two heads feemed to be cut away;
^tnafalr. an(j at thejr feparation was a cone of flame, feemingly
v compofed of many leffer cones. The flame feemed of
the height of the mountain placed on the mountain ;
fo that it was probably two miles high, on a bafe of a
mile and a half in diameter. This cone was ftill co¬
vered with a very thick fmoke, in which there appear¬
ed very brilliant flafhes of lightning, a phenomenon
which JEtna had not before aflbrded. At times, founds
like thofe from the explofion of a large cannon were
heard feemingly at a lefs diftance than the mountain.
From the cone, as from a fountain, a jet of many fla¬
ming volcanic matters were thrown, which were car¬
ried to the diftance of fix or feven miles : from the
bafe of the cone a thick fmoke arofe, which, for a mo¬
ment, obfcured fome parts of the flame, at the time
when the rivers of lava broke out. This beautiful ap¬
pearance continued three quarters of an hour. It be¬
gan the next night with more force; but continued
only half an hour. In the intervals, however, iEtna
continued to throw out flames, fmoke, Hones ignited,
and ftiowers of fand. From the 20th to the 22d, the
appearances gradually ceafed. The ftream of lava was
carried towards Bronte and the plain of Lago.
After the eruption, the top of the mountain on the
weftefn fide was found covered with hardened lava,
fcoria, and ftones.' The travellers were annoyed by
fmoke, by ftiowers of fand, mephitic vapours, and ex-
ceflive heat. They faw that the lava which came from
the weftern point divided into two branches, one of
which was directed towards Libeccio; the other, as we
have already faid, towards the plain of Lago. The lava
on the weftern head of the mountain, had from its va¬
rious fliapes been evidently in a ftate of fufion : from
one of the fpiracula, the odour was ftrongly that of li¬
ver of fulphur. The thermometer, in defcending, was
at 40 degrees of Farenheit’s fcale; while near the
lava, in the plain of Lago, it was 140 degrees. The
lava extended two miles; its width was from 13^ to
21 feet, and its depth 13-! feet.
Thefe are the moft remarkable circumftances we have
been able to collect, that might ferve to give an ade¬
quate idea of this famous mountain.—Many things,
however, concerning the extent, antiquity, fffc. of the
- lavas, remain to be difcufled, as well as the opinions of
philofophers concerning the origin of the internal fire
which produces fo much mifchief: but the confideration
of thefe belongs to the general article Volcano,' to
which the reader is referred.—The fate of Catania and
Hybla, which have often been deftroyed by eruptions,
will be mentioned under thefe two words.
JEtna fait, Sal JEt/ te, a name given by fome au¬
thors to the fal ammoniac, which is found on the fur-
face and fides of the openings of JEtna, and other
burning mountains after their eruptions ; and fome-
times on the furface of the ferruginous matter which
they throw out. This fait makes a very various ap¬
pearance in many cafes; it is fometimes found in large
and thick cakes, fometimes only in form of a thin
powder, fcattered over the furface of the earth and
ftones. Some of this fait is yellow, fome white, and
fome greenifti. This fait is a concrete of nitre, fulphur,
and vitriol, burnt and fublimed together; Borelli found
oace a vaft quantity of this fait on mount JEtna, and
tried many experiments on it; from whence he con- /Etolarcha
eluded, that this fait is fo far from occafioning the ,ex- ^g-e|!j.ion
plofions of that mountain, as fome have fuppofed, that
it does not exift in it, but is formed during the burn¬
ing. Phil. Tranf. N' 100.
iETOLARCHA, in Grecian antiquity, the prin¬
cipal magiftrate or governor of the ^Etolians.
AFER (Domitius), a famous orator, born at Nif-
mes, flourilhed under Tiberius and the three fucceed-
ing emperors. Quintilian makes frequent mention of
him, and commends his pleadings. But he difgraced
his talents, by turning informer againft fome of the moft
diftinguiftied perfonages in Rome. Quintilian, in his
youth, cultivated the friendfhip of Domitius very afti-
duoufly. He tells us that his pleadings abounded with
pleafant ftories, and that there were public colleftions
of his witty fayings, fome of which he quotes. He
alfo mentions two books of his “ On Witneffes.” Do¬
mitius was once in great danger from an infeription he
put upon a ftatue erefted by him in honour of Cali¬
gula, wherein he declared that this prince was a fecond
time a conful at the age of 27. This he intended as
an encomium, but Caligula taking it as a farcafm up¬
on his youth, and his infringement of the laws, raifed
a procefs againft him, and pleaded himfelf in perfqn,
Domitius, inftead of making a defence, repeated part
of the emperor’s fpeech with the higheft marks of ad¬
miration; after which he fell upon his knees, and, beg¬
ging pardon, declared, that he dreaded more the elo¬
quence of Caligula than his imperial power. This
piece of flattery fucceeded fo well, that the emperor
not only pardoned, but alfo raifed him to the conful-
ftiip. Afer died in the reign of Nero, A. D. 59.
AFFA, a weight ufed on the Gold Coaft of Gui¬
nea. It is equal to an ounce, and the half of it is cal¬
led eggeba. Moft of the blacks on the Gold Coaft give
thefe names to thofe weights.
AFFECTION, in a general fenfe, implies an at¬
tribute infeparable from its fubjedL Thus magnitude,
figure, weight, &c. are affections of all bodies ; and
love, fear, hatred, &c. are affedtions of the mind *. * ^tMorat
Affection, fignifying a fettled bent tf mind to<ward^lofiPh\
a particular being or thing,, occupies a middle fpace iyar ‘ ec'u
between difpofition on the one hand, and pajfwn on the
other f. It is diftinguilhable from Difpofition, which t See Difpo-
being a branch of one’s nature, originally, muft exiftA0”> aIlc^
before there can be an opportunity to exerffit upon any *'aff10n'
particular objedt; whereas Affedtion can never be ori¬
ginal, becaufe, having a fpecial relation to a particular
objedt, it cannot exift till the objedt have once at leaft
been prefented. It is alfo diftinguifhable from Pafiion,
which, depending on the real or ideal prefence of its
objedt, vanifhes with its objedt: whereas Affedtion is a
lafting connexion; and, like other connedtions, fubfifts
even when we do not think of the perfon. A familiar
example will illuftrate this. There may be in one per-
fon’s mind a difpolition to gratitude, which,, through
want of an objedt, happens neVer to be exerted ; and’ *
which therefore is never difeovered even by the perfon-
himfelf. Another, who has the fame difpofition, meets
with a kindly office that makes him grateful to his bene-
fadtor: An intimate connedtion is formed between them,,
termed affeftion : which, like other connedtions, has a
permanent exiftence, though not always in. view. The
A F F [ 224 ] A F F
Affection afFeftion, for the moft part, lies dormant, till an cppor-
iAffinit' tunity °^er ^or e^erting ^ : in circumilance, it is
t ‘ ^ ' converted into paflion of gratitude ; and the opportu¬
nity is eagerly feized of teftifying gratitude in the
warmeft manner.
Affection, among phyficians, fignifies the fame
as"difeafe. Thus the hyfteric affettwn is the fame with
the hylleric difeafe.
AFFERERS, or Afferors, in law, perfons ap¬
pointed in court-leets, courts-baron, &c. to fettle, upon
oath, the fines to be impofed upon thofe who have been
guilty of faults arbitrarily puniihable.
AFFETUOSO, or Con Affetto, in the Italian
mufic, intimates that the part to which it is added ought
to be played in a tender moving way, and confequently
rather flow than faft.
AFFIANCE, in law, denotes the mutual plight¬
ing of troth between a man and woman to marry each
other.
AFFIDAVIT, fignifies an oath in writing, fworn
before fome perfon who is authorifed to take the fame.
AFFINITY,among civilians, implies a relation con-
trafted by marriage ; in contradiftin&ion to confangui-
nity, or relation by blood.—Affinity does not found any
real kinffiip; it is no more than akindof fi£tion, intro¬
duced on account of the clofe relation between hufband
and wife. It is even faid to ceafe when the caufe of it
ceafes : hence a woman who is not capable of being a
witnefs for her hufband’s brother during his lifetime,
is allowed for a witnefs when a widow, by reafon the
affinity is diffolved. Yet with regard to the contract¬
ing marriage, affinity is not difiblved by death, though
it be in every thing elfe.
There are feveral degrees of affinity, wherein mar¬
riage was prohibited by the law of Mofes : thus, the
fon could not marry his mother, nor his father’s wife
(Lev. xviii. 7. et feq.) : the brother could not marry
his After, whether fhe were fo by the father only or
by the mother only, and much lefs if ffie was his After
both by the fame father and mother: the grandfather
could not marry his grand-daughter, either by his fon
or daughter. No one could marry the daughter of his
father’s wife; nor the lifter of his father or mother.
Nor the uncle his niece ; nor the aunt her nephew.
Nor the nephew the wife of his uncle by the father’s
fide. The father-in-law could not marry his daugh¬
ter-in-law : nor the brother the wife of his bro¬
ther, while living; nor even after the death of his
brother, if he left children. If he left no children,
the furviving brother was to raife up children to his
deceafed brother, by marrying his widow. It was for¬
bidden to marry the mother and the daughter at one
time, or the daughter of the mother’s fon, or the
daughter of her daughter, or two filters together. It
is true the patriarchs before the law married their
filters, as Abraham married Sarah, who was his father’s
daughter by another mother; and two filters together,
as J^cob married Rachel and Leah; and their own
fillers by both father and mother, as Seth and Cain.
But thefe cafes are not to be propofed as examples :
becaufe in fome they were authoiifed by neceffity ; in
others by cuftom; and the law as yet was not in being.
If fome other examples may be found, either before
or fince the law, the fcripture exprefsly difapproves of
them, as Reuben’s inceft with Balah his father’s con-
N® 6. 5
cubine, and the aCtion of Ammon with his After Ta- Affinity'
mar; and that of Herod-Antipas, who married He- il
rodias his filler-in-law, his brother Philip’s wife, while . ^ loa‘
her hulband was yet living.
Affinity is alfo ufed to denote conformity or agree¬
ment : Thus we fay, the affinity of languages, the af¬
finity of words, the affinity of founds, &c.
Affinity, or Elective Attraction, are terms
ufed by modern chemifts to exprefs that peculiar pro-
penfity which different fpecies of matter have to unite
and combine with certain other bodies exclufively, or
in preference to any other connection.
AFFIRMATION, in logic, the afferting the truth
of any propolition.
Affirmation, in law, denotes an indulgence allow¬
ed to the people called Quakers ; who, in cafes where
an oath is required from others, may make a folemn af¬
firmation that what they fay is true; and if they make
a falfe affirmation, they are fubjeCt to the penalties of
perjury. But this relates only to oaths taken to the
government, and on civil occafions; for Quakers are
not permitted to give their teftimony in any criminal
cafe, &c.
Affirmation is alfo ufed for the ratifying or con¬
firming the fentence or decree of fome inferior court:
Thus we fay, the houfe of lords affirmed the decree of
the lord chancellor, or the decree of the lords of feffion.
AFFIRMATIVE, in grammar. Authors diftin-
guilh affirmative particles ; fuch is, yes.—The term
affirmative is fometimes alfo ufed fubftantively. Thus
we fay, the affirmative is the more probable fide of fhe
queftion : there were fo many votes, or voices, for the
affirmative.
AFFIX, in grammar, a particle added at the clofe
of a word, either to diverfify its form or alter its figni-
fication. We meet with affixes in the Saxon, the Ger¬
man, and other northern languages; but more efpecially
in the Hebrew, and other oriental tongues. The He¬
brew affixes are Angle fyllables, frequently Angle-letters,
fubjoined to nouns and verbs; and contribute not a little
to the brevity of that language. The oriental languages
are much the fame as to the radicals, and differ chiefly
from each other as to affixes and prefixes.
AFFLATUS, literally denotes a blaft of wind,
breath, or vapour, ftriking with force againft another
body. The word is Latin, formed from ad “ to,” and
flare “ to blow.” Naturalifts fometimes fpeak of the
afflatus of ferpents. Tully ufes the word figuratively,
for a divine infpiration ; in which fenfe, he aferibes all
great and eminent accomplilhments to a divine afflatus.
The Pythian prieftefs being placed on a tripod or per¬
forated ftool, over a holy cave, received the divine
afflatus, as a late author expreffes it, in her belly ; and
being thus infpired, fell into agitations, like a phrene¬
tic ; during which ffie pronounced, in hollow groans
and broken fentences, the will of the deity. This af¬
flatus is fuppofed, by fome, to have been a fubterra-
neous fume, or exhalation, wherewith the prieftefs was
literally infpired. Accordingly, it had the effedts of
a real phyfical difeafe ; the paroxyfm of which was fo
vehement, that Plutarch obferves it fometimes proved
mortal. Van Dale fuppofes the pretended enthufiafm
of the Pythia to have arifen from the fumes of aro¬
matics.
AFFLICTION, is not itfelf, in propriety of medi¬
cal
1
A F R [ 225 ] A F R
Afforage cal fpeech, a difeafe, but it produces many : for what-
U ever excites envy, anger, or hatred, produces difeafes
l ic:i‘ , from 'tenfe fibres ; as whatever excites fear, grief, joy,
or deKght, begets difeafes from relaxation.
AFFORAGE, in the French cuftoms, a duty paid
to the lord of a diftrift, for permilfion to fell wine, ox-
other liquors, within his feignory. Afforage is alfo
ufed for the rate or price of provifions laid and fixed by
the provoft or fheriffs of Paris.
AFFORESTING, Afforestatio, the turning
ground into foreft. The Conqueror, and his fuccel-
fors, continued afforefting the lands of the fubjedt for
many reigns ; till the grievance became fo notorious,
that the people of all degrees and denominations were
brought to fue for relief; which was at length obtain¬
ed, and coinmiffions were granted to furvey and pe¬
rambulate the foreft, and feparate all the new afforefted
lands, and re-convert them to the ufes of their proprie¬
tors, under the name and quality of purlieu, or pcuralle
land.
AFFRAY, or Affrayment, in law, formerly fig-
nified the crime of affrighting other perfons, by ap¬
pearing in unufual armour, bi-andiftxing a weapon, &c.
but, at prefent, affray denotes a fkirmifh or fight be¬
tween two or more.
AFFRONTEE, in heraldry, an appellation given
to animals facing one another on an efcutcheon ; a kind
of bearing which is otherwife called confrontee, and
ftands oppofed to adoffee.
AFFUSION, the ad of pouring fome fluid fub-
ftance on another body. Dr Grew gives feveral expe¬
riments of the ludation arifing from the affufion of
divers menftruums on all forts of bodies. Divines and
church hiftorians fpeak of baptifm by affufion ; which
amounts to much the fame with what we now call
fprinkling.
AFRANIUS, a Latin poet, who wrote comedies
in imitation of Menander, commended by Tully and
Quintilian: he lived in the 170th olympiad.
AFRICA (according to Bochart, from a Punic
word, fignifying Ears of Corn); one of the four great
divifions, by the moderns called quarters, of the world,
and one of the three called by the Greeks or
■continents. By them it was alfo called Libya.
Africa lies fouth of Europe, and weft of Afia. It is
bounded on the north by the Mediterranean, which fe-
parates it from the former ; on the north-eatt, by the
Red Sea, which divides it from Afia, and to which it is
attached by a neck of land called the IJlhmus of Suez,
about 60 miles over, feparating the Mediterranean from
the Red Sea. On the weft, fouth, and eaft, it is bound¬
ed by the main ocean : fo that it is properly a vaft
peninfula, bearing fome faint refemblance of a pyra¬
mid, the bafe of which is the northex-n part, running a-
long the fliores of the Mediterranean; and the top of
the pyramid is the moft foutherly point, called the Cape
of Good Hope. Its greateft length from north to fouth is
4300 miles, and its greateft breadth from eaft to weft
is 3500 miles; reaching from Lat. 37° N. to35°S.
and from Long. 170 W. to 50° E.
Though the greateft part of this continent hath been
in all ages unknown both to the Europeans and Afia-
tics, its fituation is more favourable than either Europe
or Afia for maintaining an intex-courfe with other na¬
tions. It ftand, as it were, in the centre of the three
Von. I. Part I.
other quarters of the globe ; and has thereby a much
nearer communication with Europe, Afia, and Ame¬
rica, than any one of thefe has with another. For,( 1.)
It is oppofite to Europe in the Mediterranean, for al-
moft 1000 miles in a line from eaft to weft ; the dis¬
tance feldom too miles, never too leagues, and fome-
times not above 20 leagues. (2.) It is oppofite to
Afia for all the length of the Red Sea, the diftance fome-
timee not exceeding five leagues, feldcm fifty. (3.) Its
coaft for the length of about 2O00 miles lies oppofite
to America at the diftance of from 500 to 700 leagues,
including the iflands : whereas America, unlefs where
it may be a terra incognita, is no where nearer Europe
than 1000 leagues ; and Afia, than 2500.
As the equator divides this continent almoft in the
middle, the far greateft part of it is within the tro-.
pics; and of confequence the heat in fome places is al¬
moft infupportable by Europeans, it being there great¬
ly increafed by vaft deferts of burning fand.—It can¬
not be doubted, however, that, were the country well
cultivated, it would be extremely fertile ; and would
produce in great abundance not only the neceflaries,
but alfo the luxuries, of life. It has been aflerted, that
the fugars of Barbadoes and Jamaica, as alfo the gin¬
ger, cotton, rice, pepper, pimento, cocoa, indigo,
&c. of thefe illands, would thrive in Africa to as much
perfe&ion as where they ax-e now produced. Nor can
it be doubted, that the Eaft Indian fpices, the tea of
China and Japan, the coffee of Mocha, &c. would all
thrive in fome parts of the African coaift; as this con¬
tinent has the advantage of feeling no cold, the climate
being either very warm or very temperate.
Whatever may be the cafe with the internal parts of
Africa, it is certain that its coafts are well watered
with many very confiderable rivers. The Nile and the
Niger may be reckoned among the largeft in any part
of the world, America excepted. The firft difeharges
itfelf into the Mediterranean, after a prodigious courfe
from its fource in Abyffinia. The origin neither of
the Nile, nor of the Niger, is certainly known ; but that
of the latter is fuppofed to run through a tra& of land
little lefs than 3000 miles. Both thefe rivers annually
•overflow their banks, fertilizing by that means the
coxintries through which they pafs. The Gambia and
Senegal rivers are only branches of the Niger. Many
vaft ridges of mountains alfo run through different parts
of this continent; but their extent is very little known.
Some of the moft remarkable are, (1.) Thofe called
Atlas, lying between the 20th and 25th degree of north
latitude, and fuppofed almoft to divide the continent
from eaft to weft. (2.) The mountains of the moon, fo
called on account of their great height ; fuppofed to
be the boundaries between Abyffinia and fome of the
interior kingdoms. (3.) The mountains of Sierra
Leona, fo called on account of their abounding with
lions, and likewife fuppofed to be the boundaries of
fome of the nations. (4.) Thofe called by the ancients
the mountains of God, on account of their being fub-
jedt to perpetual thunder and lightning. Of all thefe,
however, little more is known than their names.
To what we have already faid concerning the pro¬
duce of Africa, we may add, that no part of the world
abounds with gold and filver in a greater degree. Here
alfo are a prodigious number of elephants; and it is
furprifing, that neither the ancient nor modern Euro-
F f peans,
A F R r 226 1 A F R
peans, notwithftanding their extravagant and infatiable
thirft after gold and filver, Ihould have endeavoured to
eftablifli themfelves effe&ually in a country much nearer
to them than either America or the Eaft Indies ; and
where the objefts of their defire are found in equal, if
not greater, plenty.
Next to gold and filver, copper is the moft valuable
metal; and on this continent is found in great plenty,
infomuch that the mountains of Atlas above mentioned
are faid all to be compofed of copper ore. In fhort,
Africa, though a full quarter of the globe, ftored with
-an inexhauftible treafure, and capable of producing al-
moft every neceffary, conveniency, and luxury of life,
within itfelf, feems to be utterly negle&ed both by its
own inhabitants and all other nations: the former,
being in a favage ftate, are incapable of enjoying the
bleffings offered them by nature ; and the latter taking
no farther notice of the inhabitants, or their land, than
to obtain at the eafieft rate what they procure with as
little trouble as poffible, or to carry them off for flaves
to their plantations in America.
Only a fmall part of this continent was known to
the ancients, viz. the kingdom of Egypt, and the nor¬
thern coaft, comprehending little more than what is
now known by the name of Barb ary. It was divided
into Africa Propria, and Africa Anterior. Africa Pro¬
pria comprehended only the Carthaginian territories.
Africa Interior comprehended all other nations to the
fouthward of thefe territories, or thofe at a greater di-
ftance from Rome. The only kingdoms, however,
with which the Romans had any connexion, were the
Numidians, the Mauritanians, and the Gartuli. All
thefe, as well as Egypt, were fwallowed up by that
enormous power, and reduced to the condition of Ro¬
man provinces. But the Romans never feem to have
penetrated beyond the tropic of cancer. There appears,
indeed, to have been fome intercourfe between them
and the Ethiopians: but the latter always preferred
their liberty; and we find their queen Candace men¬
tioned in the times of the apoftles, when the Roman
power was at its higheft pitch.
Between the tropic of cancer and the equinoftial
line, a multitude of favage nations were fuppofed to
have their refidence, known by the names of Melano-
gaetuli, Nigritse, Blemmyes, Dolopes, Aftacuri, Lo-
tophagi, Ichthyophagi, Elephantophagi, &c. (which
are taken notice of, as well as the others already men¬
tioned, under their proper names); but that Africa
was a peninfula, feems to have been totally unknown
both to the Europeans and Afiatics for many ages.—
It is probable indeed, that fome of the Phenicians, and
their offspring the Carthaginians, were not fa ignorant;
as they carried navigation to a much greater height
than either the Greeks or Romans : but their difcove-
ries were all concealed with the greateft care, left other
nations ftiould reap the benefit of them ; and accord¬
ingly we can now find no authentic accounts concern¬
ing them. The navigation round Africa, in particular,
is recorded by the Greek and Roman writers rather as
a ftrange amufing tale than as. a real tranfa&ion ; and
as neither the progrefs of the Phenician and Carthagi¬
nian difcoveries, nor the extent of their navigation, were
communicated to the reft of mankind, all memorials of
their extraordinary fkill in naval affairs feem in a great
aieafure to have periffied, when the maritime power of
the former was annihilated by Alexander’s eonqueft of Africa.
Tyre, and the empire of the latter was overturned by -v””*-
the Romans.
That the peninfula of Africa, however, was in
reality failed round by the Phenicians, we have oh
indifputable authority ; for fome of that nation un¬
dertook the voyage, at the command of Necho king
of Egypt, about 604 years before the Chriftian sera.
They failed from a port in the Red-fea, and after
three years returned by the Mediterranean : and the
very obje&ions that were made to the veracity of their
accounts at that time, are unanfwerable proofs to us
that this voyage was really accomplifhed. They pre¬
tended, that, having failed for fome time, the fun be¬
came more and more vertical, after which he appeared
in the north, and feemed to recede from them : that
as they returned, the fun gradually feemed to move
fouthwards; and, after becoming vertical once more,
appeared then in the fouth fide of them as before they
fet out. This, which we know muft certainly have been
the cafe, was deemed incredible at that time, and uni-
verfal ignorance concerning the extent of this continent
prevailed till the 15th century. The firft attempts to¬
wards attaining a knowledge of Africa was made by
the Portuguefe in 1412. Notwithftanding their vici¬
nity, they had never ventured beyond Cape Non, fituated
in about N. lat. 270. : it had received its name from a
fuppofed impoffibility of paffing it. This year they
proceeded 160 miles farther, to Cape Bojador; which
ftretching a confiderable way into the Atlantic ocean,
with rocky clifts, appeared fo dreadful to the naviga¬
tors, that they returned without any attempt to pafs
it. In an attempt to double this formidable cape,
they difcovered the Madeira iflands in 1419 : but Cape
Bojador continued to be the boundary of their conti¬
nental difcoveries till 1433 ; when they penetrated
within the tropics, and in a few years difcovered the
river Senegal, Cape de Verd, and the ifiands which lie
off that promontory. In '449, the weftern iflands,
called the Azores, were difcovered : and in 1471, they
firft penetrated beyond the line ; and were furprifed to
find, that the torrid zone, contrary to the opinion of
the ancients, who imagined it to be burnt up with
heat, was not only habitable, but fertile and populous.
In 1484, they proceeded 1500 miles beyond the line ;
fo that they began to entertain hopes of finding that
way a paffage to the Eaft Indies : and two years after¬
wards, the Cape of Good Hope was difcovered by Bar¬
tholomew de Diaz ; but it was not till the year 1497,
that the Portuguefe, under Vafquez de Gama, actually
doubled this cape, and difcovered the true fliape of the
continent. Thus the coafts of Africa were made per-
fedfly known ; and probably the knowledge concerning
its interior parts would have been much greater than it
is, had not the general attention been called off from
this continent by the difcovery of America in 1492.
The Romans for a long time maintained their power.
in Africa: but in the year 426, Bonifacius,. fupreme
governor of all the Roman dominions in this quarter,
being compelled to revolt by the treachery of another
general called Aetius, and finding himfelf unable to
contend with the whole ftrength of the Roman em¬
pire, carted in Genferic king of the Vandals to his aid;-
who thereupon abandoned the provinces he had feized
in Europe, and paffed over into Africa. Bonifacius,
however J;
A F R L 227 ] A F R
Africa, however, being foon after reconciled to his emprefs
-'-v ' placidia, endeavoured in vain to perfuade the Vandals
to retire. Hereupon a war enfued, in which the bar¬
barians proved vidtorious, and quickly over-ran all the
Roman provinces in Africa. In the year 435, a peace
was concluded; when Numidia and fome other coun¬
tries were ceded to the Vandals, who foon after feized
all the reft. Thefe barbarians did not long enjoy their
ill-gotten jaoflefiiens: for, about the year 533, Be-
lifarius drove them out, annexing the provinces to
the eaftern empire ; and in 647, the Saracens, having
conquered Mefopotamia, Egypt (which anciently was
not included in the meaning of the word Africa),
Phenicia, Arabia, and Paleftine, broke like a torrent
into Africa, which they quickly fubdued. Their vaft
empire being in 936 divided into feven kingdoms, the
African ftates retained their independency long after
the others were fubdued by the Turks: but in the be¬
ginning of the 16th century, being afraid of falling un¬
der the yoke of Spain, they invited the Turks to their
afliftance; who firft protefted, and then enflaved, them.
They ftill continue in a kind of dependence on the Ot¬
toman empire. They are not, however, properly fpeak-
,ing, the fubjefts of the grand Signior, but call him their
protettor, paying him an annual tribute. On the coafts,
the natives are almoft all addicted to piracy; and with
fuch fuccefs have they carried on their employment,
that the greateft powers in Europe are become their
tributaries, in order to procure liberty to trade on the
. Mediterranean.
Concerning even thofe ftates which are neareft to
Europe, very little is known : but the interior nations
are fcarce known by name ; nor do almoft any two of
the moft learned moderns agree in their divifion of A-
frica into kingdoms; and the reafon is, that fcarcely
any traveller hath ever penetrated into thefe inhofpi-
table regions, According to the beft accounts, con¬
cerning thofe regions of Africa lying beyond Egypt
and Barbary, they are divided in the following man¬
ner. On the weftern coaft, to the fouth of Barbary,
lie the kingdoms of Bildulgerid, Zaara, Negroland,
Loango, Congo, Angola, Benguela, and Terra de
Natal. On the eaftern coaft beyond Egypt, are thofe
of Nubia, Adel, Ajan, Zanguebar (between thefe two
a huge defart is interpofed), Monomatapa, and Sofola.
In the interior parts, the kingdoms of Lower Ethiopia,
Abex, Monemuge, and Matanan, are made mention
of. The fouthermoft part, called Cafraria, is well
known for the habitation of the Hottentots.
In many material circumftances, the inhabitants of
this extenlive continent agree with each other. If we
except the people of Abyflinia, who are tawny, and
profefs a mixture of Chriftianity, Judaifm, and Pagan-
ifm, they are all of a black complexion. In their re¬
ligion, except on the fea-coafts, which have been vifi-
ted and fettled by ftrangers, they are pagans; and the
form of government is every where monarchical. Few
princes, however, poflefs a very extenfive jurifdi&ion;
for as the natives of this part of Africa are grofsly ig¬
norant in all the arts of utility or refinement, they
are little acquainted with one another; and generally
united in fmall focieties, each governed by its own
prince. IntAbyfiinia, indeed, as well as in Congo,
Loango, and Angola, we are told of powerful mo-
narchs ^ but on examination, it is found that the au¬
thority of thefe princes Hands on a precarious foot- Afnw
ing, each tribe or feparate body of their fubjedts being ' ' ~ v
under the influence of a petty chieftain of their own,
ftyled Negus, to whofe commands, however contrary
to thofe of the Negafcha Negafcht, or king of kings,
they are always ready to fubmit.
The fertility of a country fo prodigioufly extenfive,
might be fuppofed more various than we find it is : in
fa6t, there is no medium in this part of Africa with
regard to the advantages of foil; it is either perfectly
barren or extremely fertile. This arifes from the in-
tenfe heat of the fun ; which, where it meets with fuf-
ficient moifture, produces the utmoft luxuriancy ; and
in thofe countries where there are few rivers, reduces
the furface of the earth to a barren fand. Of this fort
are the countries of Anian and Zaara ; which, for
want of water, and confequently of all other necefla-
ries, are reduced to perfeft deferts, as the name of the
latter denotes. In thofe countries, on the other hand,
where there is plenty of water, and particularly where
the rivers overflow the land part of the year, as in A-
byffinia, the productions of nature, both of the animal
and vegetable kinds, are found in the higheft perfec¬
tion and greateft abundance. The countries of Man-
dmgo, Ethiopia, Congo, Angola, Batua, Truticui,
Monomotapa, Cafati, and Mehenemugi, are extreme¬
ly rich in gold and filver. The bafer metals, likewife,
are found in thefe and many other parts of Africa.
But the perfons of the natives make the moft confider-
able article in the produce and traffic of this miferable
quarter of the globe.
On the Guinea or weftern coaft, the Englifh trade
to James Fort, and other fettlements near and up the
river Gambia; where they exchange their woollen and
linen manufactures, their hardware, and fpirituous li¬
quors, for the perfons of the natives. By the treaty
of peace in 1783, the river of Senegal, with its de¬
pendencies, were given up to France. Gold and ivory,
next to the flave trade, form the principal branches of
African commerce. Thefe are carried on from the
fame coaft, where the Dutch and French, as well as
Englilh, have their fettlements for this purpofe.
The Portuguefe are in pofleffion of the eaft and weft
coaft of Afriba, from the Tropic of Capricorn to the
Equator; which immenfe trad they became matters
of by their fucceffive attempts and happy difeovery and
navigation of the Cape of Good Hope. From the
poaft of Zanguebar, on the eaftern fide, they trade not
only for the articles abovementioned, but likewife for
feveral others ; as fena, aloes, civet, ambergris, and
frankincenfe. The Dutch have fettlements towards
the fouthern part of the continent, in the country
called Caffraria, or the land of the Hottentots, parti¬
cularly Cape Town, which is well fettled and fortified;
where their Ihips bound for India ufually put in, and
trade with the natives for their cattle, in exchange for
which they give them fpirituous liquors.
The Portuguefe being fovereigns of the greateft part
of the coaft, have a number of black princes their tri¬
butaries. There arc fome independent princes who
have extenfive dominions; particularly the kings of
Dahome and Widah, the moft noted of any for the
infamous flave trade. Upwards of 200 years have the
European nations traded with Africa in human flelh ;
and encouraged in the Negro countries, wars, rapine,
F f 3 defolation.
A G A [ 228 ] A G A
defolation, and murder, that the Weft India iflands the commander in chief of that corps; as the general Agatfw
might be fupplied with that commodity. The annual of horfe is denominated fpahiclar aga. The aga of H
j exportation of poor creatures from Africa for Haves the Janiffaries is an officer of great importance. He is . AgaFe' ,
hath exceeded x 00,000 ; numbers of whom are driven the only perfon who is allowed to appear before the “
down like fheep, perhaps a 1000 miles from the fea- Grand Signior without his arms acrofs his breaft in the
coaft, who are generally inhabitants of villages that pofture of a Have. Eunuchs at Conftantinople are in
have been furrounded in the night by armed force, and poffeffion of molt of the principal polls of the fera^lio:
carried off to be fold to our traders.—Nor do our plan- The title aga is given to them all, whether in employ-
ters, who purchafe them, ufe any pains to inftruft ment or out. This title is alfo given to all fuch men
them in religion, to make them amends for the op- without employ, and especially to wealthy landholders,
prelfion thus exercifed on them. It is faid they are We find alfo agas in other countries.. The chief
unnaturally averfe to every thing that tends to it; yet officers under the Khan of Tartary are called by this
the Portuguefe, French, and Spaniards, in their fet- name. And among the Algerines, we read of agaf
tlements, fucceed in their attempts to inftrudV them, chofen from among the boluk bajhis (the firft rank of
as much to the advantage of the commerce as of reli- military officers), and fentto govern in chief the towns
gion. It is for the fake of Chriftianity,. and the ad- and garrifons of that Hate. The aga of Algiers is the
vantages accompanying it, that Englilh Haves embrace prefident of the divan, or fenate. For fome years, the
every occafion of deferting to the fettlements of thefe. aga was the fupreme officer; and governed the ftate in
nations.—But upon this , fubjeft the feelings and re- the place of bafliaw, whofe power dwindled to a Iha-
fledtion of the nation have of late been abundantly dow. But the foldiery rifing againft the boluk bajhhy
roufed, and in the inveftigation of it; the wifdom of or agas, maffacred moft of them, and transferred the
the legiflature is foon to be employed. fovereign power to the calif, with the title of Dty or
AFRICAN Company, a fociety of merchants, efta- King.
bliHied by King Charles II. for trading to Africa ; AGADES, a kingdom and city of Negroland in A-
which trade is now laid open to all his Majefty’s fub- frica. It lies nearly under the tropic of Cancer, be-
je&s, paying 10 per cent, for maintaining the forts. tween Gubur and Cano. The town Hands on a river
AFRICANUS( Julius),an excellent hiftorian of the that falls into the Niger; it is walled, and the king’s
third century, the author of a chronicle which was palace is in the midft of it. The king has a retinue,
greatly efteemed, and in which he reckons 5500 years who ferve as a guard. The inhabitants are not fo
from the creation of the world to Julius Caefar. This black as other negroes, and eonfift of merchants and
work, of which we have now no more than what is to artificers. Thofe that inhabit the fields are fliepherds
be found in Eufebius, ended at the 221ft year of the or herdfinen, whofe cottages are made of boughs, and
vulgar sera., Africanus. alfo wrote a letter to Origen are carried about from place to place on the back of
on the hiftory of Sufanna, which he reckoned fuppo- oxen. They are fixed on the fpot of ground where
fititious ;" and we-have ftill a letter of his to Ariftides, they intend to feed their cattle. The houfes in the
in which he reconciles the feeming contradictions in city are ftately, and built after the Barbary faffiion.
the two genealogies of Chrift recorded by St Matthew This kingdom was, and may be ftill, tributary to the
and St Luke. king of Tombut. It is well watered; and there is great
AFSLAGERS, perfons appointed by the burgo- plenty of grafs, cattle, fenna, and manna. The pre-
mafters of Amfterdam to prefide over the public fales vailing religion is the Mahometan, but very loofely
made in that city.. They mull always have a clerk of profeffed. N. Lat. 26. 10. E. Long. 9. 10.
the fecretary’s office with them, to take an account of AGALLOCHUM. See Xylo Aloes.
the fale. They correfpond to our brokers, or auc¬
tioneers.
AFT, in the fea language, the fame with abaft.
AFTERBIRTH, in midwifery, fignifies the mem¬
branes which furround the infant in the womb,generally
called the fecundines. See Midwifery.
AGALMATA, in antiquity, a term originally
ufed to fignify any kind of ornaments in a temple
but afterwards for the ftatutes only, as being moft eon-
' fpicuous.
AGAMEMNON, the fon of Atreus by Erope, was
captain-general of the Trojan expedition. It was fore-
AFTERMATH, in hulbandry, fignifies the grafs told to him by Caffandra, that his wife Clytemneftra
which fprings or grows up after mowing. would be his death: yet he returned to her; and ac-
AFTERNOON, the latter half of the artificial day, cordingly was flain by iEgifthus, who had gained up-
or that fpace between noon and night. on his wife in his abfence, and by her means got the
AFTER-PAINS, in midwifery, exceffive pains felt government into his own hands.
In the groin, loins, &c. after the woman is delivered. AGANIPPIDES, in ancient poetry, a defignation
AFTER-SWARMS, in the management of bees, given to the mules, from a fountain of mount Helicon,,
are thofe which leave the hive fome time after the firft called Aganippe.
hasfwarmed. See Bee. AGANIPPE, in antiquity, a fountain of Boeotia
AFWESTAD, a large copper-work belonging to at mount Helicon, on the borders between Phocis and
the crown of Sweden, which lies on the Dala, in the Bceotia, facred to the mufes, and running into the river-
province of Dalecarlia, in Sweden. It looks like a Permeffeus; (Pliny, Paufanias.) Ovid feems to make
town, and has its own church. Here they make cop- Aganippe and Hippocrene the fame. Solinus more tru-
per-plates; and have a mint for fmall filver coin, as well ly diftinguiflies them, and afcribes the blending them
as a royal poft-houfe. W. Long. 14. 10. N. Lat. 58. 10. to poetical licenfe.
AGA, in the turkifti language, fignifies a great lord AGAPE, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, the love-feaft, or
or commander. Hence the aga of the Janiffaries is feaft of charity, in ufe among the primitive Chriftans;
3 when.
A O A [ 229 ] A G A
Agapetas, when a liberal contribution was made by the rich to AGARIC. See Agaricus.
, Agar^’ , feed the poor. The word is Greek, and fignifies love. Female Agaric. See Boletus.
v St Chryfoftom gives the following account of this feaft, Mineral Agaric, a marley earth refembling the
which he derives from the apoitolical pra&ice. He vegetable of that name in colour and texture. It is
fays,the firft Chriftians had all things in common, found in the fiffures of rocks, and on the roofs of ca¬
ns we read in the A&s of the Apoftles; but when that verns; and is fometimes ufed as an aftringent in fluxes,,
equality of poffeffions ceafed, as it did even in the A- hemorrhagies, &c.
poftles time, the agape, or loVe-feaft, was fubftituted AGARICUS, or Mushroom, a genus of the order
in the room of it. Upon certain days, after partaking of fungi, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of plants,
of the Lord’s fupper, they met at a common feaft; the Species and ufes. Botanical writers enumerate 55 fpe-
rich bringing provifions, and the poor who had nothing cies belonging to this genus ; of which the moft re¬
being invited.” It was always attended with receiving markable are the following.
the holy facrament; but there is fome difference between 1. The campeftris, or common mufhroom, has the
the ancient and modern interpreters as to the circum- top or cap firft of a dirty cream colour, convex, and,
ftance of time, viz. Whether this feaft was held before if but juft expanding, the under part, or what is called
or after the communion. St Chryfoftom is of the lat- the gills, is of a bright flelh red : this colour lafts but
ter opinion; the learned Dr Gave of the former.—Thefe a little time before it turns darker ; and when the '
love-feafts, during the three firft .centuries, were held plant is old, or has been fome time expanded, the gills
in the church without fcandel or offence; but, in after become of a dark brown, the cap almoft flat, of a
times, the heathens began to tax them with impurity, dirty colour, and often a little fealy. It differs much
This gave occafion to a reformation of thefe agapee. in fize in different plants, it being from an inch to
The kifs of charity, with which the ceremony ufed to feven inches broad. The general ufe of it is well
end, was no longer given between different fexes; and known. It is found in woods, old paftures, and by
it was exprefsly forbidden to have any beds or couches, road-fides, and is in the greateft perfe&ion in Sep-
for the conveniency of thofe who Ihould be difpofed to tember. There is a variety of this with a yellowifh
eat more at their eafe. Notwithftanding thefe precau- white cap and white gills ; this is very firm, but feldom
tions, the abufes committed in them became fo noto- expands fo freely as the true fort, and when broiled
rious, that the holding of them (in churches at leaft) will exude a yellowiflr juice. It is probable this fort
was folemnly condemned, at the council of Carthage, is not pernicious, though it is always rejected by fuch
in the year 397. as can diftinguifti it.
AGAPETiE, in ecclefiafticalhiftory, a name given 2. The pratenfis, or champignion, is very common
to certain virgins and widows, who, in the ancient upon heaths and dry paftures. A number of them ge-
church, affociated themfelves with, and attended on, neraUy come up in a place, ranged in curved lines or
ecclefiaftics, out of a motive of piety and charity. circles. The cap is fmall, almoft flat, from one to
In the primitive days there were women inftituted two or three inches diameter, of a pale buff colour.
Deaconesses; who, devotingthemfelves tothefervice of often crimpled at the edges, and, when dry, tough
the church, took up their abode with the minifters, and like leather or a thin piece of fine cork. The gills
affifted them in their fun&ions. In the fervour of the are of the colour of the cap ; are thinly placed; with
primitive piety, there was nothing fcandalous in thefe a ftiort one, and fometimes two, coming from the edge
focieties: but they afterwards degenerated into liber- of the cap between each. The ftalk or pillar is alfo
tinifm; infomuch, that St JerorA alks, with indigna- of the colour of the cap ; it is long, flender, and all
tion, unde agapetarum pejlis in eccleftas introiit ? This the way of a thicknefs. This plant has but little fmell;
gave occafion to councils to fupprefs them.—St Atha- is rather dry ; and yet, when broiled or ftewed, it
nafius mentions a prieft, named Leontius, who, to re- communicates a good flavour. . In perfection at the
move all occafion of fufpicion, offered to mutilate him- fame time with the former.
felf, to preferve his beloved companion. 3. The chantarellus, or chantarelle agaric, is rather
AGARD (Arthur), a learned Englilh antiquarian, a fmaller fungus than the former. The cap is yellow,
born at Tofton in Derbylhire in the year 1540. His of different hues in different plants, fome being of a
fondnefs for Englifh antiquities induced him to make pale yellow, and others of an orange colour. It is gene-
many large colleftions; and his office as deputy cham- rally funk in the middle, fomewhat refembling a tunnel,.
berlain of the exchequer, which he held 45 years, gave and its edges are often twifted and contorted fo as to
him great opportunities of acquiring flcill in that ftudy. form finufes or angles. The gills are of a deeper colour
Similarity of tafte brought him acquainted with Sir than the outfide, are very fine, even, numerous, and ,
Robert Cotton, and other learned men, who affociated beautifully branched. The ramifications begin at the
themfelves under the name of The Society of Antiquarians, ftalk, and are variaufly extended towards the edge of
of which fociety Mr Agard was a confpicuous member, the cap. The pillar is of the fame colour as the cap.
He made the doomfday-book his peculiar ftudy ; and is feldom inferted in the centre, but rather fideways ;
Compofed a work purpofely to explain it,, under the title it is fhort, thickilh at the root, and the gills moftly
of Frattains de ufu et obfeurioribus verbis libride Domef~ run down the top, which make it appear fmalleft in
day: he alfo compiled a book for the fervice of his fuc- the middle. This plant broiled with fait and pepper
ceffors in office, which he depofited with the officers has much the flavour of a roafted cockle ; and is efteem-
of the king’s receipt, as a proper index for fucceeding ed a delicacy by the French, as is the former. It is
officers. All the reft of his collections, containing at found in woods and high paftures, and is in perfection
leaft twenty volumes, he bequeathed to Sir Robert about the end of September.
Cotton; and died in 1615. 4, The deliciofus, or orange agaric. The general
fize
Agar,',
A G A [ 230 ] A G A
Agaricus. fize 0f the cap of this fpecies is from two to four prey to worms, flies, and other infefts. The common Agaricm.
 1 inches broad. Its form is circular, with the edges muihroom, whkji is in general efteem (though we have ' v—
bent inwards ; convex on the upper furface, except in feveral others better) is not fafely eaten when produced
the centre, where it is a little depreffed, fo as nearly upon a moifl: foil. Thofe who gather mulhrooms for
to refemble the apex of a fmooth apple. The colour file (hould therefore have particular regard to the lands
is a fordid .yellow, ftreaked with aih and yellowiih they colleft them from, efpecially if they know they
brown, from the centre to the edge, and when it is are to broiled;. but if they be intended for catchup,
broken it emits a gold-colour juice. The gills are of perhaps they may be lefs cautious, as the fait and fpices
a deep yellow, and a few of them come out by pairs with which the juice is boiled may corretl any evil
at the ftalk, but divide immediately, and run llraight difpofition in the plants. But, even in this cafe, catch-
to the edge of the cap. The ftalk or pillar is thinneft up made of muftirooms taken from a dry foil has a
near the middle, thickeft at the root, and when cut more aromatic and pleafant flavour than that which is
tranfverfely, it is quite white in the centre, with a made of thofe taken from a moift one, and it will al-
fine yellow ring that goes to the edge. This fungus, ways keep a great deal better.
well feafoned and then broiled, has the exa£t flavour Of the poifonous forts, the two following are the
of a roafted mufcle. Its prime time is September, and moft Angular :
it is to be found in high dry woods. 7. The mufcarius, or reddifh mufhroom, has a large
5. The cinnamomeus, or brown muftiroom, has a hat almoft flat, either white, red, or crimfon, fometimes
cap the colour of frefh-tanned hides. At firft it is befet with angular red warts; the gills are white, flat, and
hemifpherical, firm, even, and flefliy, with moftly a inverfely fpear-fhaped; the pillar is hollow, the cap fixed
fmall rifing in the centre; but when old it is quite flat, to the middle of the pillar, limber, and hanging down.
The gills are of a yellowifli brown, not very diftant This fpecies grows in paftures, and is faid to deftroy
from each other, bent like a knee at the pillar, and bugs effectually if the juice is rubbed upon the walls and
have a fliort one or two run from the edge of the cape bed-pofts. The inhabitants of the north of Europe,
between each. The pillar is near the length of a fin- whofe houfes are greatly infefted with flies at the de-
ger, firm, rather thick, brown at the bafe, of a for- cline of fummer, infufe it in milk, and fet it in their
did yellow upward, and, when cut tranfverfely, of a windows, and the flies upon tailing the leaft drop are
fine white grain. The cap in different plants is from inftantly poifoned. An infufion of common pepper in
two to five inches broad. The whole plant has a plea- milk anfwers the fame purpofe : but the flies through
fant fmell, and when broiled gives a good flavour. It time become wife enough not to tafte it; and though
is found in woods in September and Odlober. vaft numbers are at firft deftroyed, it is impofiible to
6. The violaceus, or violet mulhroom. Its cap, clear a houfe of thefe infe&s by this means.—This is
when firft expanded, is fmooth, hemifpherical, the the moucho-nwre of the Ruffians, Kamtfchadales, and
main furface of a livid colour, but towards the margin Koriacs, who ufe it as an inftrument of intoxication,
it is of a better blue. When full grown or old, it be- They fometimes eat it dry, fometimes immerfed in a
comes corrugated, and of a rufty brown. The gills fermented liquor made with the epilobium, which they
of a young plant are of a beautiful violet colour, and drink notwithftanding the dreadful effefts. They are
regularly placed. The pillar is of the colour of the firft feized with convulfions in all their limbs, then
gills, ftiort, of a conical form, but fwelled at the bafe with a raving luch as attends a burning fever. Athou-
into a fort of bulb. Its upper part is furrounded with fand phantoms, gay or gloomy (according to their
an iron-coloured wool, which, in a plant juft expand- conftitutions), prefent themfelves to their imaginations:
ing, ftretches crofs to the edge of the cap like a web. fome dance, others are feized with unfpeakable hor-
This fpecies requires much broiling; but when fufficient- rors. They perfonify this mufhroom ; and, if its ef-
ly done and feafoned, it is as delicious as an oyfter. It fetts urge them to filicide, or any dreadful crime, they
is found in woods in Oftober. Hudfon’s bulbofus is fay they obey its commands. To fit themfelves for
only a variety of this plant. premeditated affaffinations, they take the moucho-
The above are the only fpecies that can be fafely more. Such is the fafcination of drunkennefs among
recommended as edible : though there are fome o- thefe people, that nothing can induce them to forbear
ther forts which are frequently eaten by the country this dreadful potion !
people; and it is probable the greateft part of thofe 8. The clypeatus, or long-ftalked mufhroom, has
with* firm flefhy caps might be eaten with fafety, pro- an hemifpherical hat tapering to a point, and clammy;
vided they were chofen from dry grounds. It is the pillar is long, cylindrical, and white; the gills are
well known that foil and fituation have a great in- white, and not concave, dufted with a fine powdery
fiuence upon the properties of plants; and thefe be- fubftance on each fide ; the root is bulbous, long, and
ing of a Angular nature, and ab^lutely between that hooked at the end. It is found in September, in
of an animal and vegetable, may be more powerfully woodlands and paftures. This fpecies is thought to
affected than a complete fpecies of either, by reafon be poifonous ; and we have the following account of
they have neither leaves nor branches to carry off the the fymptoms produced by eating it, in Dr Percival’s
noxious damps and vapours of a ftagnant foil, as a per- Effays. “ Robert Ufherwood, of Middleton, near
fedt vegetable has ; nor have they any grofs excremen- Manchefter, a ftrong healthy man, aged 50 years, ear-
tal difcharges, like thofe of a living animal. The gills ly in the morning gathered and eat what he fuppofed
no doubt do exhale fome of their fuperfluous moifture ; to be a mufhroom. He felt no fymptoms of indifpo-
but their fituation is fuch, that any thick fleam from fition, till five o’clock in the evening; when, being
the earth may lodge in them, and hy clogging their very thirfty, he drank near a quart of table-beer,
excretory dudls, render the plants morbid. Thus they Soon afterwards he became univerfally fwoln, was fick,
fbon run into a ftate of putrefaftion, and become a and in great agonies. A fevere vomiting and purging
fucceeded,
A G A [ 231 ] A G A
Ag%ricus fuccccdcd, with violent cramps in his legs and thighs.
He difcharged feveral pieces of the fungus, but with
little or no relief. His pains and evacuations continued,
almoft without intermiffion, till the next night; when
he fell into a found deep, and awaked in the morning
perfectly eafy, and free from complaint.”
Many of the different fpecies of this genus grow on
cows or horfes dung, on dunghills, on rotten wood, in
cellars, or on the trunks of trees ; of which the mofl
remarkable is,
9. The quercinus, or agaric of the oak. This is
of various fizes, fometimes not exceeding the bignefs
of the fift, fometimes as large as a man’s head. It
takes at leaft an year or two to grow to its full fize.
It is dark coloured, hard, heavy, and woody; it is
fometimes ufed by the dyers, as an ingredient in the
black dye: It taftes at firft fweetifh in the mouth, but
prefently becomes very bitter and naufeous. It was
formerly an article in the Materia Medica; but is
now defervedly reje&ed from our pharmacopseias.
Culture. Only the efculent kinds of mufhrooms are
cultivated ; and the following method is ufed by the
gardeners who raife them for fale.—If the young mufh-
i-ooms cannot be procured from gardens, they muft be
looked for in rich paflures during the months of Au-
guft and September : the ground muft be opened about
their roots, where it is frequently found Tull of fmall
white knots ; which are the off-fets, or young mufh-
raoms.. Thefe muft be carefully gathered in lumps,
with the earth about them : but as this fpawn cannot
be found in the pafture, except at that feafon when the
mufhroo’ms are naturally produced, it may be fearched
for at any time in old dung-hills, efpecially where there
has been much litter, and it hath not been penetrated
by wet fo as to rot: it may alfo be found very often
in old hot-beds ; or it may be procured by mixing
fome long dung from the liable, whiclvhas not been
thrown on a heap to ferment, with ftrong earth, and
put under cover to prevent wet getting to it. The
fpawn commonly appears in about two months after
the mixture is made ; but proportionably fooner the
more effectually the air is excluded, provided the mix¬
ture is not kept fo clofe as to heat. Old thatch, or
litter which has lain long abroad fo as not to ferment,
is the bell covering. The fpawn has the appearance
of white mould Ihooting out into long ftrings, by which
it may be eafily known wherever it is met with.—The
beds for receiving the fpawn are now to be prepared,
Thefe Ihould be made of dung in which there is plenty
of litter, but which Ihould not be thrown on a heap to
ferment: that dung which has lain fpread abroad for a
month or longer is bell. The beds Ihould be made on
dry ground, and the dung laid on the furface; the
' width at the bottom Ihould be two and a half or three
feet, the length in proportion to the quantity of mulh-
roottis defired ; then lay the dung about a foot thick,
covering it with ftrong earth about four inches deep.
Upon this lay more dung, about xo inches thick; then
another layer of earth. Hill drawing in the fides of the
bed, fo as to form it like the roof of a houfe; which may
/ be done by three layers of dung, and as many of earth.
When the bed is finilhed, it muft be covered with litter
or old thatch, both to prevent its drying too fall and
to keep out wet. In this fituation it ought to remain
eight or ten. days, when it wall be in a proper tempe¬
rature to receive the fpawn ; for this is deftroyed byi Agancss,
too much heat; though, before planting, it may be kept' v
very dry, not only without detriment, but with confi-
derable advantage.—The bed being in a proper tem¬
perature for the fpawn, the covering of litter Ihould be
taken off, and the fides of the bed fmoothed ; then a
covering of light rich earth, about an inch thick,
Ihould be laid all over the bed ; but this Ihould not be
wet. Upon this the fpawn muft be thruft, laying the
lumps two or three inches afunder: then gently cover
this with the fame light earth, above half an inch
thick; and put the covering of litter over the bed, lay¬
ing it fo thick as to keep out wet, and prevent the bed
from drying. In fpring or autumn the muihrooms
will begin to appear, perhaps in a month after making ;
but when the beds are made in fummer or winter, they
are much longer before they produce. In any feafon,
however, they ought not to be haftily deftroyed ; fince
mufhroom-beds have been known to produce very
plentifully, even after the fpawn has lain in them five
or fix months. When the beds are deftroyed, the
fpawn fhould be carefully preferred,, and laid up in a
dry place, at leaft five or fix weeks before it is again
planted.—The difficulty of managing mufhrom-beds
is, to keep them always in a proper degree of moifture.
In the fummer feafon they may be uncovered to re¬
ceive gentle ffiowem of rain at proper times; and in
long dry feafons the beds ffiould now and then be
watered, but much wet ought by no means to be fuf-
fered to come to them. During the winter feafon they
muft be kept as dry as poffible, and fo clofely covered
as to keep out cold. In frofty, or very cold weather,
if fome warm litter, fhaken out of a dung-heap, is laid
on, the growth of the muffirooms will be promoted :
but betwixt this and the bed, a covering of dry litter
muft be interpofed ; which Ihould be renewed as it de¬
cays ; and, as the cold increafes, the covering muft be
thickened. By attending to thefe diredlions, plenty of
muftirooms may be produced all the year round. One
bed will continue good for many months. For a pe¬
culiar, perhaps fabulous, method of producing muffi¬
rooms, fee the article Lyncurius.
Phyficians have difputed much about the qualities
of muffirooms ; fome confidering them as a rich nou-
riffiment, and perfectly innocent, when properly cho-
fen ; and others afferting them to be extremely dele¬
terious. Moil of the fungi are indeed of a hurtful
quality; and, with refpeft to the whole tribe, the ef¬
culent are very few. Efculent muffirooms are very
nutritive, very readily alkalefcent, and more fo with¬
out intermediate acefcency than any other vegetable :
they are therefore a, rich nouriffiment, and much akin
to animal food; on which account they may be in¬
dulged in confiderable quantity to ftrong perfons. It
requires, however, ikill to diftinguiih this efculent kind ;
and very few, efpecially of thofe who are commonly
employed to gather them, viz. the fervants, have ftu-
died Clufius, or other authors who have been at the
pains to diftinguiffi them. Perhaps our efculent muffi¬
rooms, if old, acquire a dangerous acrimony ; and for
thefe reafons Dr Cullen is of opinion that it is for the
moft part prudent to avoid them. In the warmer cli¬
mates they may be ufed as light food ; but here it is
prepofterous to ufe them along with animal food, as
they do not correct its alkaline tendency.
AGATE,. f
A G A [ 232 ] A G A
;Ag«e. AGATE, or Achat, (among the Greeks and La-
tins, A^ar»c, and Achates, from a river in Sicily, on the
banks of which it was firft found), a very extenlive ge¬
nus of the femipellucid gems.
Thefe ftones are variegated with veins and clouds,
but have no zones like thofe of the onyx. They are
compofed of chryftal debafed by a large quantity of
earth, and pot formed, either by repeated incruftations
round a central nucleus, or made up of plates laid even¬
ly on one another; but are merely the effeft of one iim-
ple concretion, and variegated only by the difpoiition
given, by the fluid they were formed in, to their differ¬
ently coloured veins or matters.
Agates are arranged according to the different co¬
lours of their ground. Of thofe with a •white ground
there are three fpecies. (1.) The dendrachates, mocca
jlone, or aborefcent a gat. This feems to be the fame
with what fome authors call the achates with rofemary
in the middle, and others achates with little branches
of black leaves. (2.) The dull, milky-looking^ agate.
This, though greatly inferior to the former, is yet a
•very beautiful ftone. It is common on the fhores of
rivers in the Eali Indies, and alfo in Germany and
fome other parts of Europe. Our lapidaries cut it in¬
to counters for card-playing, and other toys of fmall
value. (3.) The lead-coloured agate, called the phajfa-
chates by the ancients.
Of the agates with a reddijh ground there are four
fpecies. (1.) An impure one of a flefli-coloured white,
which is but of little beauty in comparifon with other
agates. The admixture of flefli-colour is but very
flight; and it is often found without any clouds, veins,
or other variegations ; but fometimes it is prettily vein¬
ed or variegated with fpots of irregular figures, ha¬
ving fimbriated edges. It is found in Germany, Italy,
and fome other parts of Europe ; and is wrought into
' toys of fmall value, and often into the German gun-
flints. It has been fometimes found with evident fpeci-
mens of the perfeft moffes bedded deep in it. (2.)
That of a pure blood colour, called hcesnachates, or
\dxe. bloody agate, by the ancients. (3.) The clouded
and fpotted agate, of a pale flefli colour, called by the
ancients the carnelian agate, or fardachates. 4. The
red-lead-coloured one, variegated with yellow, called
. the coral agate, or coraila-uchates, by the ancients.
Of the agates with a yellonuijb ground there are on¬
ly two known fpecies; the one of the colour of yel¬
low wax, .called cerachates by the ancients ; the other
a very elegant ftone, of a yellow ground, variegated
with white, black, and green, called the leonina, and
leonteferes by‘the ancients.
Laftly, Of the agates with a greenijh ground, there
is only one known fpecies, called by the ancients jaf~
'pachates.
Of all thefe fpecies there are a great many varieties ;
fome-of them having upon them natural reprefentations
of men and different kinds of animals, &c. Thefe
reprefentations are not confined to the agates whofe
ground is of any particular colour, but are occafional-
ly found on all the different fpecies. Velfchius had in
his culledy'a flefh-coloured agate, on one fide of which
appeared a half-moon in great perfection, reprefented
by a milky femicircle ; on the other fide, the phafes of
vefper, or the evening-ftar; whence he denominated it
an aphrod:Jian agate. An agate is mentioned by Kir-
N3 6.
cher *, on which was the reprefentation of a heroine Agate,
armed; and one in the church of St "Mark in Venice " 1
has the reprefentation of a king’s head adorned with a German1* ^
diadem. On another, in the mufseum of the prince dec. i. an", r.
of Gonzaga, was reprefented the body of a man with obf. 151,
all his clothes in a running pofture. A ftift more cu¬
rious one is mentioned by de Boot f, wherein appears a | De Gem. i
circle ftruck in brown, as exaftly as if done with a pairl. ii. c. 95.
of compaffes, and in the middle of the circle the exaCt
figure of a bifliop with a mitre on : but inverting the
ftone a little, another figure appears ; and if it is turn¬
ed yet further, two others appear, the one of a man,
and the other of a woman. But the moft celebrated
agate of this kind is that of Pyrrhus, wherein were re¬
prefented the nine mufes, each with their proper attri¬
butes, and Apollo in the middle playing on the harp J;-. j pjjny.
In the emperor’s cabinet is an oriental agate of a fur-!, xxxvii. ]
prifing bignefs, being fafliioned into a cup, whofe dia-c- 3*
meter is an ell, abating two inches. In the cavity is
found delineated in black fpecks, b. xrtstor. s. xxx.
Other agates have .alfo been found, reprefenting the
numbers 4191, 191 ; whence they were called arithme¬
tical agates, as thofe reprefenting men or women have
obtained the name of anthropomorphous.
Great medicinal virtues were formerly attributed to
the agate, fuch as “refifting poifons, efpecially thofe of
the viper, fcorpion, and fpider ; but they are now very
juftiy rejeCted from medicinal praClice. The oriental
ones are all faid to be brought from the river Gambay.
A mine of agates was fome time ago difeovered in
Tranfylvania, of divers colours ; and fome of a large
fize, weighing feveral pounds.
Agates may be ftained artificially with folution of
filver in fpirit of nitre, and afterwards expofing the
part to the fun; and though thefe artificial colours
difappear on laying the ftone for a night in aquafortis,
yet a knowledge of the practicability of thus ftaining
agates, muft render thofe curious figures above-men¬
tioned ftrongly fufpeCted of being the work not of na¬
ture, but of art. Some account for thefe phenome¬
na from natural caufes. Thus, Kircher, who had feen
a ftone of this kind in which were depicted the four
letters ufually inferibed on crucifixes, I. N. R. I. ap¬
prehends that fome real crucifix had been buried un¬
der-ground, amnog ftones and other rubbifti, where the
infeription happening to be parted from the crofs, and
to be received among a foft mould or clay fufceptible
of the imprelfion of the letters, came afterwards to be
petrified. In the fame manner he fuppofes the agate
of Pyrrhus to have been formed. Others refolve much
of the wonder into fancy, and fuppofe thofe ftones
formed in the fame manner with the camieux * or Flo- • See Cc» j
rentine ftones. mieux.
The agate is ufed for making cups, rings, feals, han¬
dles for knives and forks, hilts for fwords and hangers,
beads to pray with, fmelling boxes, patch-boxes, See.
being cut or fawed with no great difficulty. At Paris,
none have a right to deal in this commodity except the
wholefale mercers and goldfmiths. The fword-cutlers
are allowed to fell it, but only when made into handles
for couteaux de chaffe, and ready fet in. The cutlers
have the fame privilege for their knives and forks.
Confiderable quantities of thefe ftones are ftill found
near the river Achates in Sicily. There are found in
fome of thefe the furprifing reprefentations above-
men-
A G A L 233 ] A G A
Agate mentioned, or others fimilar to them. By a dexterous
II management of thefe natural ftains, medals have been
. ^at ias', produced, which feem mafter-pieces of nature: for this
done bears the graver well; and as pieces of all mag¬
nitudes are found of it, they make all forts of work of
it. The high altar of the cathedral of Meffina is all over
encrutled with it. The lapidaries pretend that the In¬
dian agates are finer than the Sicilian; but Father La-
’ Voyage bat * informs us, that in the fame quarries, and even in
<5 ItaL tom. tjje fam€ block, there are found pieces much finer than
1 v. p. 15 . ot}ierS) ancl thefe fine pieces are fold for Indian agates
in order to enhance their price.
Agate, among antiquaries, denotes a Hone of this
kind engraven by art. In this fenfe, agates make a fpe-
ciesof antique gems ; in the workmanfhip whereof we
find eminent proofs of the great Ikill and dexterity of
the fculptors. Several agates of exquifite beauty are
preferved in the cabinets of the curious ; but the fadts
or hiftories reprefented on thefe antique agates, however
well executed, are now become fo obfeure, and their
explications fo difficult, that feveral diverting miftakes
and difputes have arifen among thofe who undertook
to give their true meaning.
1 he great agate of the apotheofis of Auguftus, in
the treafury of the holy chapel, when fent from Con-
ftantinople to St Lewis, paffed for a triumph of Jofeph.
An agate, now in the French king’s cabinet, had been
IHift. Acad, kept yco years with great devotion, in the BenedidHne
R.. Infcript, abbey of St Evre at Toul, where it paffed for St John
' :t0:: *_!_P the EVangelilt carried away by an eagle, and crowned
■335> by an angel; but the Heathenifm of it having been
lately detefted, the religious would no longer give it
a place among their relifts, but prefented it in 1684
to the king. The antiquaries found it to be the apo¬
theofis of Germanicus. In like manner the triumph
of Jofeph was found to be a reprefentation of Germa¬
nicus and Agrippina, under the figures of Ceres and
Triptolemus. Another was preferved, from time im¬
memorial, in one of the moft ancient churches of
France, where it had paffed for a reprefentation of pa-
radife and the fall of man ; there being found on it two
figures reprefenting Adam and Eve, with a tree, a fer-
pent, and a Hebrew infeription round it, taken from
the third chapter of Genefis, “ The woman faw that
the tree was good,” &c. The French academifts, in-
ftead of our firft parents, found Jupiter and Minerva
reprefented by the two figures: the infeription was of
a modern date, written in a Rabbinical charafter, very
incorreft, and poorly engraven. The prevailing opi¬
nion was,sthat this agate reprefented fimply the worlhip
ef Jupiter and Minerva at Athens.
.Agate, is alfo a name of an inftrument ufed by gold-
v/irc-drawers; fo called from the agate in the middle of
it, which forms its principal part.
AGATHIAS, or, as he calls himfelf in his epi-
grams, Agathius, diftinguifhed by the title of Scls-
lajlicus, a Greek hiftorian in the 6th century under Ju-
ftinian. He was born at Myrina, a colony of the an¬
cient JEolians, in Afia the lefs, at the mouth of the ri¬
ver Phythicus. He was an advocate at Smyrna. Tho’
he had a tafte for poetry, he was yet more famous for
his hiftory, which begins with the 26th year of Jufti-
nian’s reign, where Procopius ends. It was printed in
Greek and Latin, with Bonaventure Vulcanius’s, at
Vol. I. Part I.
Leyden, 1594, in 4to; and in Paris at the king’s print- Agatho
ing-houfe, 1660, in folio. II
AGATHO, a tragic and comic poet, difciple to ■ g*ve'
Prodicus and Socrates, applauded in Plato’s Dialogues
for his virtue and beauty. His firft tragedy obtained
the prize; and he was crowned in the prefence of
upwards of 30,000 men, the 4th year of the 90th
Olympiad. There is nothing now extant of his, ex¬
cept a few quotations in Ariftotle, Athenseus, and
others.
AGATHOCLES, the famous tyrant of Sicily, was
fon of a potter at Reggio. He was a thief, a common
foldier, a centurion, a general, and a pirate, all in a
regular fucceffion. He defeated the Carthaginians fe¬
veral times in Sicily, and was once defeated himfelf.
He firft made himfelf tyrant of Syracufe, and then of
all Sicily; after which, he vanquifhed the Carthagi¬
nians again both in Sicily and Africa. But at length
having ill fuccefs, and being in arrears with his foldiers,
they mutinied, forced him to fly his camp, and cut
the throats of his children, whom he left behind. Re¬
covering himfelf again, he relieved Corfou, befieged by
Caffander; burnt the Macedonian fleet; returned to Si¬
cily; murdered the wives and children of thofe who had
murdered his ; afterwards meeting with the foldiers
themfelves, he put them all to the fword; and ravaging
the fea-coaft of Italy, took the city of Hipponium.
He was at length poifoned by his grandfon Archaga-
thus, in the 72d year of his age, 290 years before Chrift,
having reigned 28 years.
AGATHYRNA, or Agathyrnum, Agathyr-
sa, or Agathyrsum, (anc. geog.), a town of Sicily.;
now 5 Marco; as old as the war of Troy, being built
by Agathyrnus, fon of JEolus, on an eminence. The
gentilitious name is Agathyrnxus; or, according to the
Roman idiom, Agathyrnenjis.
AGAVE, the common American aloe: A genus
of the monogynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs
of plants; and in the natural method ranking under
the xoth order, Corot;aria. The characters are : There
is no calyx : The corolla is monopetalous and funnel-
fliaped ; the border fix-parted, with lanced ereft divi-
fions; The Jlamina confift of fix ereft filaments, longer
than the corolla ; the antherae are linear, fliorter than
the filaments, and verfatile : The piftillum is an oblong
germen; the ftylus is filifonn, the length of the ftami-
na, and triangular; the ftigma headed and triangular:
The pericarpimn is an oblong triangular capfule, tri-
locular and three-valved: The feeds are numerous. Of
this genus, botanical writers enumerate eight fpecies.
Of the Americana, or great American aloe, the ftems
generally rife upwards of 20 feet high, and branch out
on every fide towards the top, fo as to form a kind of py¬
ramid: the flender (hoots being garniftied with greenifh
yellow flowers, which ftand ereft, and come out in thick
clufters at every joint: thefe make a fine appearance,
and continue long in beauty; a fucceffion of new flowers
being produced for near three months in favourable
feafons, if the plant is protefted from the autumnal
colds. The feeds do not ripen in England. It has
been generally thought, that thefe plants do not flower
till they are 100 years old : but this is a miftake; for
the time of their flowering depends on their growth :
fo that in hot countries, where they grow fall, and ex-
Gg pand
AGE [
Adge, pand many leaves every feafon, they will flower
, , few years ; but in colder climates, where their growth
* 11 is flow, it will be much longer before they fhoot up
their ftem. There is a variety of this fpecies with
ftriped leaves, which are pretty common in the Englifh
gardens. The other forts are fb tender, that they mull
conilantly remain in the ftove.
ADGE, a city of France, in Lower Languedoc,
in the territory of Agadez, with a bifliop’s fee. The
diocefe-is final!, but is one of the richeft countries in
the kingdom.. It produces fine wool, wine, oil, corn,
and filk. It is feated on the river Eraut, a mile and a _
quarter from'its mouth, where it falls into the gulph more properly denominated an iron than a golden age..
of Lyons, and where there is a fort built to guard its. When cities and ftates were founded, the fiber age
entrance. It is well peopled; the houfes are built of commenced? and fince arts and fciences, navigation,
black ftone, and there is an entrance into the city by and commerce, have been cultivated, the gulden age has.
four gates. The greateft part of the inhabitants are taken place.
merchants or feamen. The public, buildings are but In feme ancient'northern-monuments, the rocky or
mean : the cathedral is fmall, and not very handfome : fony age correfponds to the brazen age of the Greelcs..
the bifhop’s. palace is an old building,, but conve- Lt is called rocky, on account of Noah’s ark, which
234 J AGE
yielded her produ£lions without culture ; men held all
things in common, and lived in perfect friendlhip.
This period is fnppofed to have lafted till the expulfion
of Saturn from his kingdom. The fiver age commen¬
ced when men began to deviate from the paths of vir¬
tue ;■ and in confequenee of this deviation, their lives -
became lefs happy.. The brazen age commenced on a.
farther deviation, and the iron age took place in confe--
quence of one Hill greater.—A late author, however,
reflefting on the barbarifm of the firft ages, will have
the order which the poets aflign to the four ages invert¬
ed ; the firft being a time of rudenefs and ignorance,,
nient. The city is extended along the river, where
it forms a little port, wherein fmall craft: may enter.-
There is a great concourfe of pilgrims and other devout
people to the chapel of Notre Dame de Grace. It is
a little without the city, between which and the chapel
there are about 13 or 14 oratories, which they vifit
with naked feet. The convent of the Capuchins is well
refted, on mount Ararat; whence men were faid to be
defeended or fprung from mountains: or from Deu¬
calion and Pyrrha reftoring the -race of mankind, by
throwing ftones .over thei-r heads. The northern poeta.
alfo ftyle the fourth age of the world the ajhen-z'g^, from
a Gothic king Madenis, or Mannus, who on account
cf his great ftrehgth was-faid to be made of alh, or be-
built, and on the outfide are lodgings and apartments caufe in his time people began to make ufe of weapons;
for the pilgrims who come to perform their neuvaine made of that wood.
or nine days devotion.. The chapel, which contains
the image of the Vigin Mary, is diftin<St. from the. con¬
vent. E. Long.-j. 2<3i Lat. 43. 19.
AGE, in the moil general fenfe of the word, figni-
fies the duratiomof any being, from its firft-coming in¬
to exiftencs to the time of fpeaking of it, if it ftill con¬
tinues ; or: to its deftru£lion, if it has. ceafed to exift.
fome time before we happen to mention it.
Among, the ancient poets, this word was ufed for the
fpace of thirty- years; in which fenfe, age amounts to
much the fame with generation*. Thus,. Neftor is laid
to have lived three ages when he was ,90 years old.—
By ancient Greek hiftorians, the time elapfed fince the
beginning of the world is divided into three periods,
which they called ages. The firft reaches from the <
Among the. Jews, the duration of the world is alfo
divided into three ages. 1. The feadum inane, or
void age, was the fpace of time from the creation to
Mofes. 2. The p> efent age, denotes all the fpace of
time from Mofes to the coming of the Meffiah and, _
3. The age to conte, denotes the time from the co¬
ming of the Meffiah to the. end of the world.
Various other, divifions of the duration of the world
into ages have been made by hiftorians.—The Sibyl¬
line oracles, wrote, according to fome, by Jews ac¬
quainted with the prophecies of the Old Teftament,
divide the duration, of the world into ten ages; and ac •
cording to Jofephus, each age contained fix hundred
years. It appears, by Virgil’s fourth. eclogue, and
other teftimonies,. that the age of Auguftus was repu-
tion to the deluge which happened in . Greece during ted the end of thofe ten ages, confequentlyas the period
the reign of Ogyges; this they called the obfeura
uncertain age, becaufe the hiftory of mankind is alto¬
gether uncertain during that period. The fecond they
call the fabulous or heroic age, becaufe it is the pe¬
riod in which the fabulous exploits of their gods and
heroes are faid to have been performed. It began with
the Ogygian deluge, and continued to the firft Olym¬
piad; where the third or hiftorical age commenced.—
This divifion, however, it muft be obferved,,holds good
only with regard to the Greeks and Romans, who had
no hiftories. earlier than the firft Olympiad ; the Jews,
of the world’s duration.
By fome, the fpace of time commencing from Con-
ftantine, and ending with the taking of Conftantinople
by the Turks in the 15th century, is called the mid¬
dle, age: but others choofe rather to date the middle
age from the divifion of the empire made by Theodo--
fins at the clofe of the 4th century, and extend it to
the time of the emperor Maximilian I. in the begin- -
ning of the 16th century, when tire empire was firft di¬
vided into circles.—The middle is by feme denoted
the barbarous age, and the latter part of it the loivfl
Some divide it into the non-academical zodL aca-
Egyptians, Phenicians, and Chaldees,. not to mention age.
the Indians and Chiriefe, who pretend to much higher, demical ages. The firft includes the fpace of time from.
antiquity, are not included
The interval fince the firft formation of man has been
divided by the poets into four ages, diftinguiihed by the
epithets of golden, fiver, brazen, and iron. During
dot golden age, Saturn reigned in heaven, and juftice
and innocence in this ..lower world. The, earth then
the 6th to the 9th centuries, during which fchools o
academies were loft in Europe. The fecond from the
9th century, when fchools were reftored, and univer ■
fities eftabliihed, chiefly by the care of Charlemagne.
The feveral ages of the world may be reduced to three
grand epochas, viz. the age of the law of nature, called
b-y;
AGE [ 235 1 AG E
Age by tlie lews the void ape, from Adam to Mofes; the AGEMOGLANS, Agiamoglans, or At.amo- Agyt
” aSe the Jewifh law, from Mofes to Chrifl:; and
the age of grace, from Chrift to the prefent year.
Age is alfo frequently ufed in the fame fenfe with
century, to denominate a duration of too years.
Age likewife fignifies a certain period of the du»
ration of human life : by fome divided into four ftages,
namely, infancy, youth, manhood, and old age; the
firft extending , to the 14th year, the fecond to the
25th, the third to the 50th, and the fourth to the end
of lifeby others divided into infancy, childhood,
youth, manhood, and old age.
Age, in law, fignifies a certain period of life, when
perfons of both fexes are enabled to do certain a&s.
Thus, one at twelve years of age ought to take the
oath of allegiance to the king in a leet; at fourteen
he may marry, chufe his guardian, and claim his lands
held in foccage. Twenty-one is called full age, a man
or woman being then capable of afting for themfelves,
of managing their affairs, making contradls, difpofing
of their eftates, and the like.
sIgf. of a Hsrfe. See Horse.
jIge of Trees. Thefe after a certain age wafle.
An oak at an hundred years old ceafes to grow. The
tifual rule for judging of the age of wood, is by the
number of circles which appear in the fubftance of a
trunk or flock cut perpendicularly, each circle being
fuppofed the growth of a year: though fome reject
this method as precarious, alleging, that a fimple cir¬
cle is fometimes the produce of feveral years ; befides
that, after a certain age, no new circles are formed.
AaE-prler, in law, is when an adlion being brought
againfl a perfon under age, for lands defcended to him,
he, by motion or petition, fiiews the matter to the
court, praying the adlion may be flaid till his full age,
which the court generally agrees to.
AGELNOTH, EgElnoth, or ^.thelnoth, in
Latin Achelnotus, archbifhop of Canterbury, in the
feign of Canute the Great, fucceeded Livingus in that
fee in the year 1020. This prelate, firnamed the God,
, was fon of earl Agilmer, and, at the time of his elec¬
tron, dean of Canterbury. After his promotion lie
went to Rome, and received his pall from Pope Bene-
dift VIII. In his way thither, as he paffed through
Pavia, he purchafed, for an hundred talents of filver
and one of gold, St Auguftin’s arm, which was kept
there as a relic ; and fent it over to England as a pre¬
fent to Leofric earl of Coventry. Upon his return, he
is faid to have raifed the fee of Canterbury to its for¬
mer In fire. He was much in favour with king Ca¬
nute, and employed his intereft with that monarch to
good purpofes. It was by his advice the king fent
over large fums of money for the fupport of the foreign
churches’; and Mahnibury obfcrves, that this prince
was prompted to afts of piety, and reftrained from ex-
ceffes, by the regard he had for the archbifhop. Agel-
hoth, after he had fat 17 years in the fee of Can-
terbury, departed this life the 29th of October 1038,
and was fucceeded by Eadfius, -king Harold's chap¬
lain.—This archbifhop was an author, having written,
•i. A Panegyric on the blefled Virgin Maiy. 2. A
Letter to Earl Leofric concerning St Auguftin. 3.
Letters to federal perfons.
AGEMA, in Macedonian antiquity, was a body of
foldiery, not unlike the Roman legion.
clans, in the Turkifh polity, are children purchafed ^jl11
from the Tartars, or raifed every third year, by way ^,r£1
of tribute, from the Chriflians tolerated in the Turkifh ’—-v-
empire. Thefe, after being circumcifed and inilrudled
in the religion and language of their tyrannical mailers,
are learrit the exercifes of war, till they are of a pro¬
per age for carrying arms ; and from this corps the Ju-
niffanes are recruited. With regard to thofe who are
thought unfit for the army, they are employed in the
lowell offices of the feraglio. Their appointments alfo
are very fmall, not exceeding feven afpers and a half
per day, which amount to about threepence-halfpenny
of our money.
AGEN, a city of France, on the river Garonne, the
capital of Agenois in Guienne, and the fee of a bifhop.
The gates and old walls, which are yet remaining, fhow
that this city is very ancient, and that its former cir¬
cuit was not fo great as the prefent. The palace,
wherein the prefidial holds his feffions at this day, was
heretofore called the caftle of Montravel, and is feated
without the walls of the old city, and on the fide of
the fofle. There are likewife the ruins of another
cattle called La Sagne, which was without the walls clofe
by a brook.' Though the fituation of Agen is very
convenient for trade and commerce, the inhabitants
are fo very indolent that there is very little ; of which
the neighbouring cities take the advantage. It is feat¬
ed on the bank of the river Garonne, in a pleafant
country; but is itfelf a very mean and difagreeable place,
the houfes being ill built, and the ftreets narrow, crook¬
ed, and dirty. E. Long. 0.30. N. Lat. 44. 12.
AGENDA, among philofophers and divines, figni¬
fies the duties which a man lies under an obligation to
perform: thus, we meet with the agenda of a Chri-
ftian, or the duties he ought to perform ; in oppofition
to the credenda, or tilings he is to believe.
Agenda, among merchants, a term lometimes ufed
for a memorandum-book, in which is fet down all the
bufinefs to be tranfacled during the day, either at home
or abroad.
Agenda, among ecclefiaftical writers, denotes the
.fervice or office of the church. We meet with agenda
matutina cS5 vefpertina, “ morning and evening pray¬
er's ;” agenda diet, “ the office of the day,” whether
feaft or fail day ; agenda mortuorum, called alfo limply
agenda, “ the fervice of the dead.”
Agenda is alfo applied to certain church-books,
compiled by public authority, preferibing the order
and manner to be obferved by the minitters and peo¬
ple in the principal ceremonies and devotions of the
church. In which fenfe, agenda amounts to the fame
with what is otherwife called ritual, liturgy, acalou-
thia, mijfal, formulary, directory. See.
AGENHINE, in our old writers, fignifies a gueft
that has lodged at an inn for three nights, after which
time he was accounted one of the family; and if he
offended the king’s peace, his hoft was anfwerable
for him. It is alfo written hogenhine and hogen-
HYNE.
AGENORIA, in mythology, the goddefs of cou¬
rage and induftry, as Vacuna was of indolence,
AGENT, in a general fenfe, denotes any aftive
power or caufe. Agents are either natural or moral.
■Natural agents are fucb inanimate bodies as have a
G g 2 power
AGE
[ 236 ]
AGE
Agent power to aft upon other bodies in a certain and deter- as he came to the throne, he advifed the Lacedaemo- Agefikns,.
jj minate manner; as, gravity, fire, &c. Moral agents, on mans to be beforehand with the king of Perfia, who -y—
t aus', the contrary, are rational creatures, capable of regula- was making great preparations for war, and to attack
ting their aftions by a certain rule.
him in his own dominions. He was himfelf chofen for
Agent, is alfo ufed to denote a perfon intrufled with this expedition y and gained fo many advantages
the management of an affair, whether belonging to a the enemy, that if the league which the Athenians and
fociety, company, or private perfon.
jIgentes in rebus, one of the ranks of officers in the
court of the Conftantinopolitan emperors, whofe bu-
finefs was to colleft and convey the corn both for the
army and houfehold; to carry letters and meffages from
court to all parts of the empire; to regulate couriers, and
their vehicles ; to make frequent journeys and expedi¬
tions through the provinces, in order to infpeft any mo¬
tions, difturbances, or machinations tending that way,
and to give early notice thereof to the emperor.
The agentes in rebus, are by fome made fynonymous
with our poft-mafters, but their funftions were of great
extent. They correfpond to what the Greeks call
■nrvpvpopoi, and the Latins veredarii.
There were various orders or degrees of agentes in
rebus ; as, tribuni, pritnicerii, fenaieres, ducenarii, hi-
archi, circitores, equites, tyrones, &c. through all which
they rofe gradatim. Their chief, who refided at Con-
ftantinople, was denominated princeps; which was a
poll of great dignity, being reckoned on a level with
the Thebans formed againft the Lacedaemonians had
not obliged him to return home, he would have car¬
ried his victorious arms into the very heart of the Per-
fian empire. He gave up, however, all thefe triumphs
readily, to come to the fuccour of his country, which
he happily relieved by his viftory over the allies in Bce-
otia. He obtained another near Corinth ; but to his
great mortification, the Thebans afterward gained fe-
veral over the Lacedaemonians. Thefe misfortunes at
firft raifed fomewhat of a clamour againil him. He had
been fick during the firft advantages which the enemy
gained ; but as foon as he was able to aft in perfon,
by his valour and prudence he prevented the Thebans
from reaping the advantages of their viftories; infomuch
that it was generally believed, had he been in health at
the beginning, the Lacedremonians would have fuftained
no Ioffes, and that all would have been loft had it not
been for his affiftance. It cannot be denied but he loved
war more than the intereft of his country required; for
if he could have lived in peace, he had faved the Lace-
that of procunful. They were fettled in every part of daemonians feveral Ioffes, and they would not have been
the empin
preters.
; and are alfo faid to have ferved as inter¬
engaged in many enterprifes which in the end contri¬
buted much to weaken their power. He died in the
AGER, in Roman antiquity, a certain portion of third year of the 104thOlympiad, being the 84th year
land allowed to each citizen. See Agrarian Law.
AGER picenus, or Picenum, (anc. geog.) a ter¬
ritory of Italy to the fouth-eaft of Umbria, reaching
from the Apennine to the Adriatic. The people ;
of his age, and 41ft year of his reign. Agefilaus would
never fuffer any pifture or fculpture to be made of him,
and prohibited it alfo by his will: this he is fuppofed
to have done from a confcioufnefs of his own deformity;
called Picentes (Cicero, Livy), diftinft from the Picen- for he was of a fhort ftature, and lame of one foot, fo
tini on the Tufcan fea, though called by Greek writers
nntsvTiMi. This name is faid to be from the bird Ficus,
under whofe conduft they removed from the Sabines,
of whom they were a colony.
AGERATUM, bastard hemp-agrimony: Age-
nus of the polygamia sequalis order, belonging to the
fyngenefia clafs of plants; and in the natural method
ranking under the 49th order, Compqfita difcoides. The
charafters are : The common calyx is oblong, with ma¬
ny fcales. The compound corolla is uniform ; the co-
rollets hermaphrodite, tubular, and numerous: the
proper corolla is funnel-fhaped; the border 4-cleft, and
expanded. The Jiamina confift of 5 capillary very Ihort
filaments ; the anthera is cylindric and tubular. The
pijiillum is an oblong germen ; with a filiform ftylus,
and two flender ereft ftigmata. There is no pericar-
pium; the calyx unchanged. The feeds are folitary,
oblong, and angular. The receptaculum is naked, con¬
vex, and very fmall. Of this genus there are three
Species / the conyzoides, the houftonianum, and the
altiffimum. All thefe are natives of warm climates.
The two firft are annual plants, and confequently can
fee propagated only by feeds; which, however, come
to perfeftion in this country. The third fpecies will
that ftrapgers ufed to defpife him at the firft fight. His
fame went before him into Egypt, and there they had
formed the higheft idea of Agefilaus. When he landed
in that country, the people ran in crowds to fee him
but great was their furprife when they faw an ill-dreffed,
flovenly, mean-looking little fellow lying upon the
grafs; they could not forbear laughing, and applied to
him the fable of the mountain in labour. He was,
however, the firft to jeft upon his own perfon; and fuch
was the gaiety of his temper, and the ftrength with
which he bore the rougheft exereifes, that thefe qua¬
lities made amends for his corporal defefts. He was
extremely remarkable for plainnefs and frugality in his
drefsand way of living. “This ({ays Cornelius Nepos)
is efpecially to be admired in Agefilaus: when very
great prefents were fent him by kings, governors, and
ftates, he never brought any of them to his own houfe ;
he changed nothing of the diet, nothing of the apparel
of the Lacedaemonians. He was contented with the
fame houfe in which Eurifthenes, the founder of his fa¬
mily, had lived: and whoever entered there, could fee no
fign of debauchery, none of luxury; but on the contrary,
many of moderation and abftinence; for it was furn idl¬
ed in fuch a manner, that it differed in nothing from
bear the fevereft cold of this country, but its feeds do that of any poor or private perfon.” Upon his arrival
•4' into Egypt, all kind of provifions were fent to him
but he chofe only the moft common, leaving the per¬
fumes, the confeftions, and all that was efteemed moft
delicious, to his fervants. Agefilaus was extremely
fond of his children, and would often amufe himfelf by-
joining
not ripen
Ageratum, or Maudlin. See Achillea.
AGESILAUS, king of the Lacedasmonians, the
fon of Archidamus, was raifed to the throne notwith-
ftanding the fuperior claim of Leotychides. As foon
*1
A G G [ 237 ] A G H
Agga, joining in their diverfions : one day when he was fur-
Agger- prifed riding upon a ftick with them, he faid to the
; perfon who had feen him in this pofture, “ Forbear
talking of it till you are a father.”
AGGA, or Aggonna, a Britifh fettlement on the
gold-coaft of Guinea. It is fituated under the meri¬
dian of London, in 6 degrees of N. lat.
AGGER, in the ancient military art, a work of for¬
tification, ufed both for the defence and the attack of
towns, camps, &c. In which fenfe it is the fame with
what was otherwife called vallum, and in later times ag-
gejlum; and among the moderns lines, fometimes cava¬
liers, terrajfes. See. The agger was ufually a bank, or
elevation of earth or other matter, bound and fupport-
ed with timber ; having fometimes turrets on the top,
wherein the workmen, engineers, and foldiery, were
placed. It was alfo accompanied with a ditch, which
ferved as its chief defence. The ufual materials of
which it was made were earth, boughs, fafeines, flakes,
and even trunks of trees, ropes, &c. varioufly crofied,
and interwoven fomewhat in the figure of ftars ; whence
they were calledJle/lati axes. Where thefe were want¬
ing, ftones, bricks, tiles, fupplied the office : on fome
occafions, arms, utenfils, pack-faddles, were thrown in
to fill it up. We even read of aggers formed of the
carcafes of the flain ; fometimes of dead bones mixed
with lime ; and even with the heads of flaughtered ci¬
tizens. For want of due binding, or folid materials,
aggers have fometimes tumbled down, with infinite
mifehief to the men. The befiegers ufed to carry on
a work of this kind nearer and nearer towards the
place, till at length they reached the very wall. The
methods taken, on the other fide, to defeat them, were
by fire, efpecially if the agger were of wood ; by fap-
ping and undermining, if of earth ; and, in fome cafes,
by erecting a counter agger.
The height of the agger was frequently equal to that
©f the wall of the place. Caefar tells us of one he made,
which was 30 feet high and 330 feet broad. Befides
the ufe of aggers before towns, the generals ufed to
fortify their camps with fuch works ; for want of this
precaution, armies have often been furprifed and
ruined.
There were vaft aggers made in towns and places on
the fea-fide, fortified with towers, cattles, &c. Thofe
made by Caefar and Pompey at Brundufium, are fa¬
mous. Sometimes aggers were even built acrofs arms
of the fea, lakes, and morattes; as was done by Alex-
der before Tyre, and by M. Antony and Caffius.—
The wall of Severus, in the north of England, may be
confidered as a grand agger, to which belong feveral
letter ones. See SerERue’s Wall.
Agger, in ancient writers, likewife denotes the
middle part of a military road, raifed into a ridge, with
a gentle flope on either fide, to make a drain for the
water, and keep the way dry.
The term is-alfo ufed for the whole road, or military
way. Where highways were to be made in low grounds,
as between two hills,, the Romans ufed to raife them
above the adjacent land, fo as to make them of a level
with the hills., Thefe banks they called aggeres. Ber-
gier mentions feveral in Gallia Belgica, which were
thus raifed ten, fifteen, or twenty feet above ground.
—They are fometimes alfo called aggeres calceati; and
now generally known by the name ebaujees, or caufe- Aggerhuys
ways. - • H.
AGGERHUYS, a city of Norway, capital of the , Ag^rim,i
province of the fame name. It is fubjeft to Denmark,
and fituated in E. Long. 28. 35. and N. Lat. 59. 30.
AGGERS-HERRED, a diftrhtt of Chriftianfand
and a diocefe of Norway. It eonfifts of three juridical
places; namely, Afcher, Weft Barum, and Ager.
AGGLUTINANTS, in pharmacy, a general name
for all medicines of a glutinous or vifeid nature; which,
by adhering to the folids, contribute greatly to repair
their lofs.
AGGLUTINATION, in a general fenfe, denotes
the joining two or more things together, by means of a
proper glue or cement.
Agglutination, among phyficians,. implies the
action of reuniting the parts of a body, feparated by a
wound, cut, See. It is alfo applied to the aftion of
fuch internal medicines as are of an agglutinating qua¬
lity, and which, by giving a glutinous confiftence to
the animal-fluids, render them more proper for nourifti-
ing the body.
AGGREGATE, in a general fenfe, denotes the fum
of feveral things added together, or the collection of
them into one whole. Thus, a houfe is an aggregate
of ftones, wood, mortar, &c. It differs from a mixed
or compound, inafmuch as the union of thefe laft is more
intimate than between the parts of an aggregate.
Aggregate, in botany, is a term ufed to exprefs
thofe flowers, which are compofed of parts or florets;
fo united by means either of the receptacle or calyx,
that no one of them can be taken away without de-
ftroying the form of the whole. They are oppofed to
Ample flowers, which have no fuch common part, and
are ufually divided into feven kinds, viz. the aggregate,
properly fo called, whofe receptacle is dilated, and
whofe florets are fupported by foot-ftalks ; fuch are
the blue daify, thrift, or fea-pink, &c.; the compound;
the umbellati ; the cymofe ; the amentaceous ; the glu*
mofe ; and the fpadheous.
AGGREGATION, in phyfics, a fpecies of union
whereby feveral things which have no natural depen¬
dence or connection with one another are collected to¬
gether, fo as in fome fenfe to eonftitute one. Thus, a
heap of fand, or a mafs of ruins, are bodies by aggre¬
gation.
AGHER, a town of Ireland, which fends two mem¬
bers to parliament. It is fituated in- the fouthern part
of Ulfter, not far from Clogher.
AGHRIM, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Wicklow, and province of Leiutter, fituated about 13
miles fouth-wett of Wicklow.
Aghrim, in Galway ; a fmall village, diftant.about
32 miles from Dublin, and rendered memorable by a
decifive battle fought there, and at Kilcommodon-hili,
the 1 2th of July 1691, between general Ginckle and
Monfieur St Ruth, the commanders under king Wil ¬
liam III. and James II. when St Ruth, the general of
the Irifli army, with 7000 of his men, were flain ; but
of the Engliffi only 600. The vi&ory was the more
confiderable, as the Englifli army, confifted of no more
than 18,000 men ; whereas the Irifli were computed at
20,000 foot and 5000 horfe and dragoons. They loft
likevvife nine pieces of brafs cannon ; all their ammuni-
A G I
Agiades ti'on, teats, and baggage; moft of their fmall armsj
A incourt they threw away to expedite their flight; with
  -- i x i ftandards, and 3 2 pair of colours.
AGIADES, in the Turkifti armies, a kind of pio¬
neers employed in fortifying camps, fmoothing of
roads, and the like offices.
AGILITY, an aptitude of the feveral parts of the
body to motion.—The improving of agility was one of
the chief objefts of the inftitution of games and exer-
cifes. The athletse made particular profeffion of the fci-
ence of cultivating and improving agility. Agility of
body is often fuppofed peculiar to fome people; yet it
feems lefs owing to any thing peculiar, in their frame
and ftru&ure, than to practice.
AGINCOURT, a village of the French Nether¬
lands, fituated in E. Long. 2. 10. N. Lat. 50. 35.; fa¬
mous on account of the vi&ory obtained by Henry V.
of England over the French, in 1415.
The army of Henry, after landing in France, was
by various accidents reduced to 10,000 men, of whom
not a few were fick, orflowly recovering fromficknefs;
—they had to traverfe a long trail of country, inha¬
bited by exafperated enemies, from whom they were
to procure provifions, lodgings, guides, intelligence,
and every thing they wanted;—that country was de¬
fended by many ftrong towns, interfeiled by deep ri¬
vers, and guarded by an army of 100,000, or (accord¬
ing to fome contemporary writers) 140,000 men.
Henry, undaunted by all thefe dangers and difficul¬
ties, departed from Harfleur, marching his army in
three lines, with bodies of cavalry on the wings. He
proceeded by very eafy journeys, that he might not fa-
[ 238 1
A G I
tigue his troops, or difcourage them by the appearance or ufc their arms ; and, in a -word, was the chief caufe
Henry, with fdme of his bed officers, Carefully ex»- ^
mined the ground, and pitched upon a field of battle,
admirably calculated to preferve a fmall army from be¬
ing furrounded by a great one. It was a gentle de¬
clivity from the village of Agrncourt, of fufficient ex¬
tent for his fmall army, defended on each fide by hedges,
trees, and brulh-wood. Having placed guards and
kindled fires on all fides, the king and his army betook
themfelves to reft; except fuch as were of a more fe-
rious turn of mind, and, confidering that as the laft
night of their lives, fpent it in devotion.
The French, exulting in their numbers, confident of
' victory, and abounding in provifions, fpent the night
in noify feftivity, and in forming fanciful fchemes a-
bout the difpofal of their prifoners and their booty.
It was in general refolved to put all the Englifli to the
fword, except the king and the chief nobility, who
were to be taken prifoners for the fake of their ran-
foms.
On the morning oi Friday, the memorable 25th of
OCtober, A. D. 14x5, the day of Crifpin and Crifpia-
nus, the Englilh and French armies were ranged in or¬
der of battle, each in three lines, with bodies of cavalry
on each wing. The Conftable D’Albert, who com¬
manded the French army, fell into the fnare that was
laid for him, by drawing up his army in the narrow
plain between the two woods. This deprived him, in
a great meafure, of the advantage he fhould have de¬
rived from the prodigious fuperiority of his numbers ;
obliged him to make his lines unneceflarily deep, about
30 men in file ; to crowd his troops, particularly his
cavalry, fo clofe together, that they could hardly move
of a flight; obferving the ftriCleft difcipline, and pay¬
ing generoufly for every thing he received'^ which in¬
duced the country people to bring provifions to his
camp, in fpite of all the commands they had received
to the contrary. To keep his men in fpirits, and from
repining, the king fared as ill as the meaneft foldier,
always appearing with a cheerful countenance, and ad-
dreffing them in the me ft friendly and encouraging
language. They arrived at the village of Agincourt,
in the county of St Pol, on the evening of OClober
of all the difafters that followed. The French, it i
faid, had a confiderable number of cannon of different
fixes in the field; but we do not hear that they did
any execution, probably for want of room. The ftrft
line of the French army, which confifted of 8000 men-
at-arms on foot mixed with 4000 archers, with 500
men-at-arms mounted on each wing, was commanded
by the Conftable D’Albert, the dukes of Orleans and
Bourbon, and many other nobles ; the dukes of Alen-
$on, Brabant, and Bar, &c. conduced the fecond line;
24th; and there beheld the whole French army, at a and the earls of Marie, Damartine, Fauconberg, &c.
fmall diftance, diredtly in their route. The king took
an attentive view of it from an eminence ; and being
■fully convinced that it was impoffible to proceed any
further on his way to Calais without a battle, and e-
qually impoffible to return-to Harfleur with fo great an
mrmy in his rear, he refolved to hazard an aftion next
were at the head of the third line. The king of Eng¬
land employed various arts to fupply his defeft of num¬
bers. He placed 200 of his heft archers in ambufh, in
a low meadow, on the flank of the firft line of the
French. His own firft line confifted wholly of archers,
four in file ; each of whom, befides his how and ar-
morning, as the only means of preferving himfelf and rows, had a battle-axe, a fword, and a ftake pointed
ibis little army from deftruftion,
The Englifh army lodged that night in the villages
■of Agincourt, Maifoncelle, and fome others; where
sthey met with better accommodation than they had
been accuftomed to for fome time part, and fpent part
of their time in mutual exhortations to fight bravely in
with iron at hot’ll ends, which he fixed before him in
the ground, the point inclining outwards, to protect
him from cavalry; which was a new invention, and had
a happy effect. That he might not be encumbered, he
difmuTed all his prifoners, on their word of honour to
furrender themfelves at Calais, if he obtained the vio
the approaching battle. The king, overhearing fome tory; and lodged all his baggage in the village of A-
of bis nobles expreffing a wifh that the many brave ginCourt, in his rear, under a flender guard. The
men who were idle in England were prefent to affift. command of the firft line was, at his earneft requeft,
them, is faid to have cried out—“ No! I would not committed to Edward duke of York, a {lifted by the
have one man more:—if we are defeated, we are too lords Beaumont, Willbughhy, and Fanhope; the fecond
many—if it ftiall pleafe God to give us the victory, as was conduced by the king, with his youngeft brother
I truft he will, the fmaller our number the greater our Humphry duke of Gloucefter, the earls of Oxford,
glory.” The moon happening to fliine very bright, Marftial, and Suffolk ; and the third was led by the
duke
A G I [ 219 ] A G I
Agincourt. duke of Exeter, the king’s uncle. The lines being
1 formed, the king, in fhining armour, with a crown of
gold adorned with precious ftones on his helmet, mount-
ed on a fine white hor-fc, rode along them,, and addref-
fed each corps with a cheerful countenance and ^ani¬
mating fpeeches. To inflame their refentment againit
their enemies, he told them, that the French had de¬
termined. to cut off three fingers of the right hand of
every prifoner ; and to roufe their love of honour, he
declared, that every foldier in that army who behaved
well, fhou'ld from henceforth be deemed a gentleman,
and intitled to bear coat-armour.
When the two armies were drawn up in this man*
ner, they flood a coniiderable time gazing at one ano¬
ther in folemn filence. But the king, dreading that
the French would diicover the danger of their iituation
and decline a battle, commanded the charge to be
founded, about ten o’clock in the forenoon. At that
inflant, the firfl line of the Englifh kneeled down,,
and killed the ground ; and then flailing up, difehar-
ged a flight of arrows,, which did great execution a-
along the crowded ranks of the French- Immediate¬
ly after, upon a fignal being given, the archers in am-
bulh a role, andMifcharged their arrows on the flank of
the French line, and threw it into fome diforder. The
battle now became general, and raged with uncommon
fury. The Engliflt archers, having expended all their
arrows, threw away their bows, and, rulhing forward,
made dreadful havoc with their fwords and battle-axes.
The firll line of the enemy was, by thefe means, de¬
feated ; its leaders being either killed or taken prifon-
ers. The fecond line, commanded by the duke D’A-
len5on, (who had made a vow either to kill or take the
king of England, or to periih in the attempt), now
advanced to the charge, and was encountered by the.
fecond line of the Ehglilh, conduced by the king-
This conflict was more clofe and furious than the for¬
mer. Tire duke of Gloucefter, wounded and unhorfed,
was protected by his royal brother till he was earned’
off the field. The duke D’Alen$on forced his way to
the king, and aflaulted him with great fury ;. but that,
prince brought him to the ground, where he was in*
ftantly difpatcbed. Difcouraged by this difafter, the
fecond line made-no more refiflance; and the third fled
without ttrikmg a blow; yielding a complete and glo¬
rious victory to the Eugliih, after a violent ftruggle of
three hours duration..
The king did not permit his men to purfue the fu-*
gitivesvto a great diftance, but encouraged them to take
as many pi ifoners as they could on or near the field ;
in which they were fo fuccefsful, that, in a little time, ,
Kis captives were more numerous than his foldiers. A
great proportion of thefe prifoners-were men of rank
and fortune ; for many of the French nobleffe being-
on foot, and loaded with their heavy armour, could not
make their efcape. Among thefe were the dukes of
©rleans and Bourbon, the marflial Boueicaut, the counts
D’Eu, Vendome, Richemont, and Harcourt, and 7000
barons, knights, and gentlemen. The French left dead
on the field of battle, the conftable D’Albert, the three
dukes of Alenpon, Brabant, and Bar, the arehbifhop of
Sens, one marftial, 13 earls, 92 barons, 1500 knights,
and a far greater number of gentlemen, befides feveral
thoufands of common foldiers. Even the French hi-
ftorians acknowledge, that, the lofs of the Engliffi
1r
was inconfiderable: thofe of our own contemporary Agio
writers who make it the greateft, affirm, that it did not
exceed 100, and that the duke of York and the earl, y '
of ‘Suffolk were the only great men who fell on that
fide in this memorable action.
AGIO, in commerce, is a term chiefly ufed in Hol¬
land, and at Venice, to fignify the difference between
the value of bank-flock and the current coin. The
agio in Holland is generally three or four per cent.
and at Rome it is from 15 to 25 jkr cent, but at Venice
the agio is fixed at 20 per cent.
AGIOSYMANDRUM, a wooden inftrument ufed
by the Greek and other churches under the dominion
of the Turks, to call together affemblies of the people.
The agiofymatidrnm was introduced in the place of bells,,
which the , Turks prohibited their Chriftian fubjedta.
the ufe of, left they fhould make them fubfervient to
fedition.
AGIS, king of Lacedaemon, was defeended from.
Agefilaus II. in a right line, fie projefted the re¬
formation of ~his kingdom, by the rettoring of the laws
of Lycurgus ; but he fell under the weight of an en-
terprife that could not but be difagreeable to all thofe
who had great poffeffions, and had been long accuftom-
ed to the iweets of a voluptuous life. Agis being in.
the flower of his age, and having a very refined defire
of glory, praffifed the ancient difeipline firft in his
own perfon: his clothes, and his table were accord¬
ing to the manners of former times which is fa
much the more to be admired, becaufe Agefiftrata
his mother and Archidamia his grandmother had
brought him up voluptuoufly. When he founded
his peoples minds, he found the younger fort oppo-
fed his project lefs than thofe who had enjoyed a
relaxation, of difeipline feveral years. The greateft:
difficulty was expedted to arife from the women. They
had at that time more credit than ever ; for their
power is never greater than when luxury is in faflrion*.
Agefilaus’s. mother did not at all relilh the propo-
fed reformation. She muft'have loft her riches, which,
gave her a ihare in a thoufand forts of intrigues ; fo
ftie oppofed the defign at once, and treated it as a
chimera. But her brother Agefilaus, whom Agis had
engaged in his interefts, knew how to manage her in
fucli a manner that flie promifed to fecond the enter-
prife. She endeavoured to gain the women : but in—
ftead of fuffering thcmfelves to be perfuaded, they ap¬
plied to Leonidas the other king of Lacedaemon, and;
humbly befought him to fruftrate the defigns of his-
colleague. Leonidas durft'not oppofe it openly, for-
fear of irritating the people ; to whom the reforma¬
tion was agreeable, beeaufe they found their account
in it. He contented himfelf'with countermining it by
intrigues, and fowing fufpicions as if Agis had afpired
to tyranny, by pulling down the rich and raifing the
poor. . Agis did not fail to propofe his new laws to -
the fenate, relating to the difeharge of debts, and a.
new divifion of the lands. Leonidas, being fupported1
by the rich, oppofed this projetft fo ftrongly, that there,
was one voice more againft it than for it. He paid:
dear for the fuccefs in this affair. Lyfander, - one of
the Ephori, who had been the grand promoter of the
reformation, called him to account; alleged the celeftiaF
figns; and put to death Cleombrotus,a princeof the royal:
blood and fon-in-law to Leonidas, to make fure of the
kingdom.
A G I
» kingdom. Leonidas being frightened at this, took re¬
fuge in a temple ; whither his daughter, the wife of
Cleombrotus, followed him. He was fummoned ; and
becaufe he did not appear, he was degraded of his dig¬
nity, which was conferred on Cleombrotus. He ob¬
tained leave to retire to Tegsea. The new Ephori had
Lyfander and Mandroclidas tried for innovation : thefe
perfuaded the two kings to unite and turn out thefe
Ephori. The thing was brought about; but not with¬
out a great uproar in the city. Agefilaus, one of the
Ephori that Succeeded thofe who were juft turned out,
would have caufed Leonidas to be killed on the way
to Tegsea, if Agis had not fcnt him a ftrong guard,
[ 240 ]
A G M
The reformation might then have been eftablifhed, if tation of the particles.
and are created by letters-patent. Each royal foreft Agifymba
has four agiftors. . JjLn
AGISYMBA (anc. geog.), a diftridt of Libya In- "
terior, according to Agathemerus, fituated to the fouth-
eaft of the JEthiopes Anthropophagi; the parallel paf-
fmg through which, at 16° to the fouth of the equator,
was the utmoft extent of the knowledge of the ancients
to the fouth (Ptolemy).
AG ITATION, the aft of fhaking a body, or tolling
it backwards and forwards.
Agitation, in phyfics, is often ufedforan inteftine
commotion of the parts of a natural body. Fermen¬
tation and effervefcence are attended with a brilk agi-
Agefilaus had not found means to elude the good in¬
tentions of the two kings. Whilft this was tranfaft-
ing, the Achaians alked affiftance; which was given
them, and Agis had the command of the troops. He
acquired a good deal of reputation in this campaign.
At his return, he found his affairs fo embroiled by
the ill conduft of Ag'efilaus, that it was impoffible
for him to maintain himfelf. Leonidas was recalled
to Lacedaemon : Agis retired into one temple and
Cleomenes into another. The wife of the latter be¬
haved herfelf in fuch a manner that Ihe became the ad¬
miration of ever)r body. Leonidas was contented with
Agitation is one of the chief caufes or inftruments
of mixtion : by the agitation of the parts of the blood
and chyle, in their continual circulation, fanguification
is in a good meafure effefted. Butter is made out of
milk by the fame means : in which operation, a fepa-
ration is made of the oleous parts from the ferous, and
a conjunftion of the oleous together. Digeftion itfelf
is only fuppofed to be an infenftble kind of agitation.
Agitation is reputed one of the fymptons of in-
fpiration. Petit informs us*, that, in the laft century,* petit, de
there arofe in a church in Italy, for the fpace of a year, Sybillafl. i.
a vapour of an extraordinary kind, which put all the Nouv. Rep.
K . ... . J . . . r . _ . Lett. tom.
banilhing his fon-in-law; after which he applied him- people into trembling and agitations, and unlefs they ^
felf entirely to the ruin of Agis. One of the Epk
who had no mind to return what Agefiftrata had lent
him, was the principal inftrument of the misfortune
of this family. Agis never went out of his fanftuary
but to bathe. One day, as he was returning from
thence to the temple, he was feized by that Ephorus
and carried to prifon. Then he was brought to his
got away betimes, fet them a dancing, with ftrange
contortions and gefticulations. This leems to verify
what has been related of the temple of Delphi.
Agitation is alfo ufed in medicine for a fpecies
of exercife popularly calledfwinging. Maurice prince
of Orange found this method a relief againft the fevere
pains of the gout and ftone. Bartholine mentions fits
trial and condemned to death, and delivered to the of the toothach, deafnefs, &c. removed by vehement
executioner. His mother and grandmother ufed all agitations of the body.
the intreaty and importunity imaginable, that, as he
was king of Lacedsemon, he might at leaft be permit¬
ted to, plead his caufe before the people. But they
were apprehenfive left his words would make too great
an impreffion, and therefore they ordered him to be
ftrangled that very Four. The Ephorus who was in
debt to Agefiftrata permitted that princefs to go into
th« prifon ; which he granted likewife to Agis’s grand¬
mother^ but he gave orders to ftrangle them one after
another. Agefiftrata died in a manner that was ex¬
tremely to her honour. The wife of Agis, who was
a princefs of great fortune and prudence, and one of
the fineft ladies in Greece, was forced away from her
apartment by king Leonidas, and obliged to marry his
fon, who was then very young, and hardly fit for mar¬
riage.
AGISTMENT, Agistage, or Agistation, in
law, the taking in other people’s cattle to graze at fo
much per week. The term is peculiarly ufed for the
Liking cattle to feed in the king’s forefts, as well as
for the profits arifing from that praftice.—It is alfo
ufed, in a metaphorical fenfe, for any tax, burden, or
AGITATOR, in antiquity, a term fometimes ufed
for a charioteer, efpecially thofe who drove in the cir¬
cus at the curule games.
Agitators, in the Englifii hiftory, certain officers
fet up by the army in 1647, to take care of its inte-
refts.—Cromwell joined the agitators, only with a view
to ferve his own ends; which being once accompliftied,
he found means to get them aholiftied.
AGLAIA, the name of the youngeft of the three
Graces, efpoufed to Vulcan.
AGLIONBY (John), an Englilh divine, chaplain
in ordinary to king James I. a man of univerfal learn¬
ing, who had a very confiderable hand in the tranfla-
tion of the NewTeftament appointed by king James I.
in 1604.
AGMEN, in antiquity, properly denotes a Roman
army in march: in which fenfe, it Hands contradi-
ftinguiftied from acies, which denoted the army in bat¬
tle array; though, on fome occafions, we find the two
words ufed indifferently for each other. The Roman
armies, in their marches, were divided into prirnum ag-
men, anfwering to our vanguard ; medium agmen, our
change ; thus, the tax levied for repairing the banks of main-battle ; and poftremum agmen, the rear-guard.
Romney-marfn was called agiftamentum.
The order of their march was thus : After the firft fig-
AGISTOR, or Agistator, an officer belonging fial with the trumpets, &c. the tents were taken down,
to forefts, who has the care of cattle taken in to be and the baggage packed up ; at the fecond fignal, the
grazed, and levies the moneys due on that account, baggage was to be loaden on the horfes and carriages ;
The -, are generally called quejl-taken or gift-takers, and at the third fignal, they were to begin their march.
.N° 6. - 3 Fir.it
A G N [ 241 ] AGO
Agrate Flrfl; came the extras din aril; then the auxiliaries of
If the firft wing, with their baggage ; thefe were follow-
.^nils' , ed by the legions. The cavalry marched either on
each fide or behind.
AGNATE, in law, any male relation by the fa¬
ther’s fide.
AGNEL, an ancient French gold Coin, firft ftruck
Under the reign of St Louis, worth about twelve fols
fix deniers. The agnel is alfo called fometimes mouton
d’nr, and agnel d’or. The denomination is fuppofed
to have arifen from the figure of a lamb, agnus, or
Iheep, ftruck on one fide.
AGNO, a river of Naples, which, taking its rife
in the mountainous parts of Terra di Lavoro, wafhes
the town of Acerra ; and, palling between Capua and
Averfa, falls into the Mediterranean, about feven miles
north of Puzzuoli.
AGNOETiE (from to be ignorant of), in
church-hiftory, a feet of ancient heretics, who main¬
tained that Chrift, confidered as to his human nature,
was ignorant of certain things, and particularly of the
time of the day of judgment. Eulogius, patriarch of
Alexandria, aferibes this herefy to certain folitaries in
the neighbourhood of Jerufalem, who built their opi¬
nion upon the text Mark xiii. 32. “Of that day and
“ hour knoweth no man, no not the angels who are
“ in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father only.”—
The fame palfage was made ufe of by the Arians; and
hence the orthodox divines of thofe days were induced
to give various explications thereof. Some allege, that'
our Saviour here had no regard to his divine nature,
but only fpoke of his human. Others underftand -it
thus, That the knowledge of the day of judgment
does not concern our Saviour confidered in his quality
of Meffiah, but God only: which is the molt natural
folution.
AGNOMEN, in Roman antiquity, a kind of fourth
or honorary name, given to a perfon on account of
fome extraordinary adlion, virtue, or other accomplifti-
ment. Thus the agnomen jdfricamu was bellowed
upon Publius Cornelius Scipio, on account of his great
atchievements in Africa.—The agnomen was the third
in order of the three Roman names : thus, in Marcus
Tullius Cicero, Marcus is the prosnomen, Tullius the
nomen, and Cicero the agnomen.
AGNUS, or Lan(b, in zoology, the young of the
ovis or Iheep. See Ovis.
jdaNvs Cajlus, in botany, the trivial name of a fpe-
oies of the vitex. See Vitbx. The Greeks call it
«>'v©q chafle; to which has fince been added the re¬
duplicative cajlus, q. -d. chafte chafte. It was famous
among the ancients as a fpecific for the prefervation of
chaftity. The Athenian ladies, who made profeffion
of chaftity, lay upon leaves of agnus cajlus during the
feafts of Ceres.—Being reputed a cooler, and parti¬
cularly of the genital parts, it was anciently ufed in
phyfic to allay thofe inordinate motions arifing from
feminai turgefcences: but it is out of the prefent
praTice.
Avkus Dei, in the church of Rome, a cake of wax
ftamped with the figure of a lamb fupporting the ban¬
ner of the crofs. Thefe being confecrated by the
pope with great folemnity, and diftributed among the
people, are fuppofed to have great virtues ; as, to pre-
ferve thofe who carry them worthily, and with faith,
Vol.L Part I.
from all manner of accidents ; to expel evil fpirits, 8cc. Agnus •
The name literally fignifies Lamb of God; this being II
fuppofed an image or reprefentation of the Lamb of. g"na s*.
God who took away the fins of the world. They co¬
ver it up with a piece of ftuff cut in form of a heart,
and carry it very devoutly in their proceffions.—The
Romilh priefts and religious derive confiderable pecu¬
niary advantage from felling thefe Agnus Dei's to fome,
and prefenting them to others. The pope provides a
regular fupply, by confecrating once in feven years;
they are diftributed by the mafter of the wardrobe,
and received by the cardinals and other prelates, with
great reverence, in their caps and mitres.—This cere¬
mony they pretend to derive from an ancient cuftom
of the church, wherein part of the pafchal taper con¬
fecrated on Holy Thurfday was diftributed among the
people, to perfume their houfes, fields, See. in order to
drive away devils, and to preferve them from ftorms
and tempefts. The Agnus Dei is forbidden to be
brought into England under pain of incurring a pre-
munire; 13 Eliz. cap. 2.
Agnus Dei is alfo a popular name for that part of
the mafs wherein the prieft, ftriking his breaft three,
times, rehearfes, with a loud voice, a prayer beginning
with the words Agnus Dei.—The Agnus Dei is faid
to have been firft brought into the miffal by pope Ser¬
gius I.
Agnus Scythicus. See Scythian Lams.
AGOGE, among ancient muficians, a fpecies of
modulation, wherein the notes proceed by contiguous
degrees.
AGON, among the ancients, implied any difpute
or conteft, whether it had regard to bodily exercifes
or the accomplifhments of -the mind; and therefore
poets, muficians, painters, Sec. had their agones, as
well as the athletae. Games of this kind were celebra¬
ted at moft of the heathen feftivals, with great folemnity,
either annually, or at certain periods of years. Among
the latter were celebrated at Athens, the agongymnicus,
the agon nemeus inftituted by the Argives in the 53d
Olympiad, and the agon Olympias inftituted by Her¬
cules 430 years before the firft Olympiad.—The Ro¬
mans alfo, in imitation of the Greeks, inftituted contefts
of this kind. The emperor Aurelian eftablifhed one
under the name of agon folis, the conteft of the fun ;
Dioclefian another, which he called agon capitolinus,
which was celebrated every fourth year, after the man¬
ner of the Olympic games. Hence the years, inftead
of lujlra, are fometimes numbered by agones.
Agon alfo fignified one of the minifters employed in
the Heathen facrifices, and whofebufinefs it was to ftrike
the viftim. The name is fuppofed to have been derived
from hence, that Handing ready to give the ftroke he
allied, Agon' ? or A gone? Shall I ftrike?
AGONALES, an epithet given to the Salii.
AGONALIA, in Roman antiquity, feftivals ce¬
lebrated in honour of Janus, or the god Agonius,
whom the Romans invoked before undertaking any
affair of importance.
AGONALIS circus, now La Piazza Navona,
a long, large, beautiful ftreet in the heart of Rome,
adorned with fountains, and the obelilk of Caracalla,
ft ill retaining the form of that circus. The reafon of
the name Agonalis is either unknown or doubtful. Ovid
feems to derive it from the agones, or folemn games,
H h there
AGO [ 242 ] A G R
Agonifma there celebrated; fuppofed to have been the Ludi Apol-
II tinarss, or Aftiaci, inftituted by Auguftus : whence
the circus was called Ap Alinaris ; alfo Alexandrinus,
W—y—from the emperor Alexander Severus, who either en-
clofed or repaired the circus.
AGONISMA, in antiquity, denotes the prize given
to the viftor in anv combat or difpute.
AGONISTARCHA, from combat,” and
“ chief,” in antiquity, feems to have been much
the fame with agomtheta; though fome fuggeft a dif¬
ference, making it the office of the former to prefide
at and direft the private exercifes of the athletic, which
they went through by way of practice, before they
made their appearance on the public theatres or am¬
phitheatres.
AGONISTICI, in church-hiftory, a name given by
Donatus to fueh of his difciples as he fent to fairs,
markets, and other public places, to propagate his
do&rine ; for which reafon they were alfo called Cir-
cuitores, Circelliones, Catropitte, Coropitce, and at Rome
Montenfcs. They were called Agonijfici, from the Greek
eyov, “ combat,” in regard they were fent as it were
to fight and fobdue the people to their opinions.
AGONIUM, in Roman antiquity, was ufed for the
day on which the rex facromm facrificed a victim, as
well as for the place where the games were celebrated,
otherwife called agon.
AGONOTHETA, or Agonothetes, in Grecian
antiquity, was the prefident or fuperintendant of the
facred games; who not only defrayed the expences at¬
tending them, but infpe&ed the manners and difcipline
of the athletse, and adjudged the prizes to the victors.
AGONY, any extreme pain. It is alfo ufed for
the pangs of death. Much of the terror of death con-
fifts in the pangs and convulfions wherewith the agony
feems attended; tho’ we have reafon to believe that
the pain in fuch cafes is ordinarily not extremely acute;
a courfe of pain and ficknefs having ufually ftupified
and indifpofed the nerves for any quick fenfations.
However, various means have been thought of for mi¬
tigating the agony of death. Lord Bacon confiders
this as part of the province of a phyfician; and that
not only when fuch a mitigation may tend to a reco~
very, but alfo when, there being no further hopes of a
recovery, it can only tend to make the paflage out of
life more calm and eafy. Complacency in death, which
Auguftus fo much defired, is certainly no fmall part of
happinefs. Accordingly the author laft cited ranks
euthanajia, or the art of dying eafily, among the de-
fiderata of fcience ; and does not even feem to difap-
prove of the courfe Epicurus took fur that end,
 Hinc Jtygias ebrius haujit aquas.
Opium has been applied for this purpofe, with the ap-
plaufe of fome, but the condemnation of more.
AGONYCLITzE, or Agonyclites, in church-
hiftory, a fefl of Chriftians, in the 7th century, who
prayed always ftanding, as thinking it unlawful to
kneel.
AGORzEUS, in heathen antiquity, an appellation
given to fuch dieties as had ftatues in the market¬
places ; particularly Mercury, whofe ftatue was to be
£een in almoft every public place.
AGORANOMUS, in Grecian antiquity, a magi-
ftrate of Athens, who had the regulation of weights
and meafures, the prices of provifions, &c.—-The aoo-
ranomi, at Athens, were ten in number, five belong- Ageuti
ing to the city, and as many to the Piraeus ; though (I
others make them fifteen in all, of whom they affign . gr‘cna,i
ten to the city. To thefe a certain toll or tribute was
paid, by all who brought any thing to fell in the
market.
AGOUTI, or Agutj. See Mus.
AGRA, the capital town-of a province of the fame
name, in Indoftan, and in the dominions of the Great
Mogul. It is looked upon as the largeft eity in thefe
parts, and is in the form of a half-moon. A man on j
horfeback can hardly ride round it in a day. It is fur-
rounded with a wall of red ftone, and with a ditch roo
feet wide. The palace isprodigioufiy large, and the fera-
glio commonly contains above 1000 women. There are
upwards of 8oo baths in this town ; but that which
travellers moft admire, is the maufoleum of one of the
Mogul’s wives, which was 20 years in building. The
indigo of Agra is the moft valuable of all that comes
from the Eaft Indies. This town is feated on the river
Jemma, about 50 miles above its confluence with the
Tehemel, and is 300 miles N. E. of Surat. E. Long.
79. 12. N. Lat. 26. 29.
AGRARIAN laws, among the Romans, thofe
relating to the divifion and diftribution of lands ; of
which there were a great number; but that called the
Agrarian Law, by way of eminence, was publifhed by
Spurius Caffius, about the year of Rome 268, for di¬
viding the conquered lands equally among all the citi¬
zens, and limiting the number of acres which each
citizen might enjoy.—The Roman lands were of feve-
ral kinds ; fome conquered from the enemies, and not
yet brought to the public account; others brought in¬
deed to the public, but clandeftinely ufurped by pri¬
vate great men; laftly, others purchafed with the
public money, in order to be divided. Agrarian laws,
either for dividing lands taken from the enemy, or the
public lands, or thofe purchafed with the public mo¬
ney, were eafily palled without difturbance ; but thofe
whereby private rich men were to be deprived of their
lands, and the common people put in poffeffion of
what had been held by the nobility, were never at¬
tempted without great difturbances.
Several have pleaded for the neceffity of agrarian
laws among us: but no author has entered fo deeply
into the fubjedt as Mr Harrington in his Oceana; which
the reader who choofes may confult.
AGREDA, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile, near
the frontiers of Arragon, and about three leagues
fouth-weft of Taracon. ,
AGRIA, called by the Germans Eger, is a fmall
but ftrong town in Upper Hungary, and is a bilhop’s
fee. It is fituated on a river of the fame name, and
has a citadel called Eriaw. It was befieged by the
Turks in 1552, with 70,000 men: but they loft 800a
in one day; and were obliged to raife the fiege, though
the garrifon confifted only of 2000 Hungarians, affift-
ed by the women,, who performed wonders on this
occafion. However, it was afterwards taken by Ma¬
homet III. in 1596 ; but was retaken by the emperor
in 1687 ; fince which time it has continued under the
dominion of the houfe of Auftria. It is 47 miles north-
eaft of Buda, and 55 fouth-weft of Caflbvia. E. Long.
20. 10. N. Lat. 48. 10.
AGRICOLA (Cneus Junius), born at Frejus in
I. Pjro-
A G R [ 243 ] A G R
Agricola. Provence, was, in Vefpafian’s time, made lieutenant to
■' Vettius Bolanus in Britain; and, upon his return, was
ranked by that emperor among the patricians, and
made governor of Aquitnoia. This poll he held three
years; and upon his return was chofen counfel, and after¬
ward appointed governor of Britain, where he greatly
riiitinguifhed himfelf. He reformed many abufes oc-
caiioned by the avarice or negligence of former gover¬
nors, put a flop to extortion, and caufed juftice to be
impartially adminiftered. Vefpafian dying about this
time, his fon Titus, knowing the great merit of Agri¬
cola, continued him in the government. In the
fpring, he marched towards the north, where he made
fome new conquefts, and ordered forts to be built for
the Romans to winter in. He fpent the following win¬
ter in concerting fchemes to bring the Britons to con¬
form to the Roman cuftoms. He thought the belt way
of diverting them from rifing and taking arms, was to
foften their rough manners, by propofmg to them new
kinds of pleafure, and infpiring them with a cklke of
imitating the Roman manners. Sopn after this, the
country was adorned with magnificent temples, porti¬
cos, baths, and many other fine buildings. The Britifli
nobles had at length their fons educated in learning; and
they who before had the utmoft averfion to the Roman
language, now began to ftudy it with great affiduity:
they wore likewife the Roman habit; and, as Tacitus
obferves, they were brought to confider thofe things as
marks of politenefs, which were only fo many badges
of flavery. Agricola, in his third campaign, advan¬
ced as far as the Tweed; and in his fourth, he fub-
dued the nations betwixt the Tweed and the friths of
Edinburgh and Dumbritton, into which the rivers
Glotta and Bodotria difcharge themfelves; and here he
built fortrefles to ftiut up the nations yet unconquered.
In his fifth, he marched beyond the friths; where he
made fome new acquifitions, and fixed garrifons along
the weftern coafts, over againft Ireland. In his fixth
campaign he palled the river Bodotria, ordering his
fleet, the firfl which the Romans ever had in thofe
parts, to row along the coalts, and take a view of the
northern parts. In the following fpring, the Britains
raifed an army of 30,000 men; and the command, was
given to Galgacus, who, according to Tacitus, made
an excellent Ipeech to his countrymen on this occafion.
Agricola likewife addrelfed his men in very ftrong and
eloquent terms. The Romans gained the vidtory, and
16,000 of the Britains are faid to have been killed.
This happened in the reign of the emperor Domitian;
who, growing jealous of the glory of Agricola, recal¬
led him, under pretence of making him governor of
Syria. Agricola died foon after; and his death is
fufpefted to have been occafioned by poifon given him
by that emperor. Tacitus the hiilorian married his
daughter, wrote his life, and laments his death in the
molt pathetic manner.
Agricola (George), a German phyfician, famous Agricola,
for his Ikill in metals. He was born at Glaucha, 1—
in Mifnia, the 24th of March 1494. The difcoveries
which he made in the mountains of Bohemia, gave
him fo great a defire of examining accurately into e-
very thing relating to metals, that though he had en¬
gaged in the practice of phyfic at Joachimltal by ad¬
vice of his friends, he Hill profecuted his Itudy of fof-
fils with great affiduity; and at length removed to
Chemnitz, where he entirely devoted himfelf to this
Itudy. He fpent in purfuit of it the penfion he had of
Maurice duke of Saxony, and part of his own eftate ;
fo that he reaped more reputation than profit from his
labours. He wrote feveral pieces upon this and other
fubjedts; and died at Chemnitz the 2 ill of November
1555, a very firm Papill. In his younger years he
feemed not averfe to the Protellant dodtrine ; and he
highly difapproved of the fcandalous traffic of indul¬
gences, and feveral other things in the church of
Rome. The following lines of his were polled up in
the llreets of Zwickaw, in the year 1719 :
Si nos inje&o fal-oebit ciftula nummo,
Heu mmium iifdix tu mihi, pauper, eris !
Si not, Chrijlt, tua feruatos morte beafti,
T:m nihil infelix tu mihi, pauper, eris.
If wealth alone falvation can procure,
How fad a (late for ever waits the poo." !
But if thou, Chrift, our only faviour be,
Thy merits Hill may blefs ev’n poverty !
In the latter part of his life, however, he had
attacked the Protellant religion : which rendered him
fo odious to the Lutherans, that they fuffered his
body to remain unburied for five days together;
fo that it was obliged to be removed from Chem¬
nitz to Zeits, where it was interred in the principal
church.
Agricola (John), a Saxon divine born at Mebe
in 1492. He went as chaplain to count Mansfield, when
that nobleman attended the Eledlor of Saxony to the
diet of Spire in 1526, and that of Aulburg in 1530.
He was of a reltlefs ambitious temper, rivalled and
wrote againll Melandllion, and gave count Mansfield
occafion to reproach him feverely. He obtained a pro-
felforlhip at Wittemberg, where he taught particular
dodlrines, and became founder of the fedt of Antino-
mians; which ©ccafioned warm difputes between him
and Luther, who had before been his very good friend.
But though he was never able to recover the favour ei¬
ther of the eledlor of Saxony or of Luther, he recei¬
ved fome confolation from the fame he acquired at Ber¬
lin ; where he became preacher at court; and was cho¬
fen in 1548, in conjundlion with Julius Phlug and
Michael Heldingus, to compofe the famous Interim,
which made fo much noife in the world. He died at
Berlin in 1566.
AGRICULTURE
Definition. /T AY be defined, The art of difpofing the earth in by this definition, agriculture, llriclly fpeaking, includes
J_VJl Inch a manner as to produce whatever vegetables in it the cultivation of every fpecies of vegetable what-
we defire, in large quantity, and in the greatell perfec- ever, and confequently comprehends all that is under-
tion of which their natures are capable.—But though, Hood of gardening and. planting, we mean here to con-
H h 2 fine
fine ourfelves to the cultivation of thofe fpecies of grain,
grafs, See. which, in this country, are generally ne-
ceffary as food for men and beafts.
History. The antiquity of this art is undoubtedly beyond
that of all others; for we are informed by Scrip¬
ture, that Adam was feat from the garden of Eden
to till the ground; and, this being the cafe, he certain¬
ly muft have known how to do fo.—It would be ridi¬
culous, however, to imagine that he was acquainted
with all the methods of ploughing, harrowing, fallow¬
ing, &c. which are now made ufe of; and it would be
equally fo to fuppofe, that he ufed fuch clumfy and
unartful inftruments as wooden hooks, horns of oxen,
&c. to dig the ground, which were afterwards employ¬
ed for this purpofe by certain favages: but as we know
nothing of the particular circumftances in which he was
fituated, we can know as little Concerning his method
of agriculture.
The prodigious length of life which the antedilu¬
vians enjoyed, muft have been very favourable to the
advancement of arts and fciences, efpecially agriculture,
to which it behoved them to apply themfelves in a parti¬
cular manner, in order to procure their fubfiftence. It
is probable, therefore, that, even in the antediluvian
world, arts and fciences had made great progrefs, nay,
might be farther advanced in fome refpeftsthan they are
at prefent. Of this, however, we can form no judg¬
ment, as there are no hiftories of thofe times, and the
fenpture gives us but very flight hints concerning thefe
matters.
No doubt, by the terrible cataftrophe of the flood,
which overwhelmed the whole world, many fciences
would be entirely loft, and agriculture would fuffer ; as
it was impoflible that Noah or his children could put
in pradlice, or perhaps know, all the different methods
of cultivating the ground that were formerly ufed. The
common methods, however, we cannot but fuppofe to
have been known to him and his children, and by them
tranfmitted to their pofterity : fo that as long as man¬
kind continued in one body without being difperfed in¬
to different nations, the arts, agriculture efpecially, would
neceffarily advance; and that they did fo, is evident from
the undertaking of the tower of Babel. It is from the
difperfion of mankind confequent upon the confufion
of tongues, that we muft date the origin of favage na¬
tions. In all focieties where different arts are cultiva¬
ted, there are fome perfons who have a kind of gene¬
ral knowledge of moft of thofe praftifed through the
whole fociety, while others are in a manner ignorant
of every one of them. If we fuppofe a few people of
underftanding to feparate from the reft, and become
the founders of a nation, it will probably be a civilized
one, and the arts will begin to flourifh from its very
origin ; but, if a nation is founded by others whofe in-
tellects are in a manner callous to every human fcience
(and of this kind there are many in the moft learned
countries), the little knowledge or memory of arts that
were among the original founders will be loft, and fuch
a people will continue in a ftate of barharifm for many
ages, unlefs the arts be brought to them from other
nations.
From this, or fimilar caufes, all nations of equal an¬
tiquity have not been equally favage, nor is there any
folid reafoa for concluding that all nations were origi-
4
nally uncalled in agriculture ; though as we know not
the original inftruments of hufbandry ufed by mankind
when living in one fociety, we cannot fix the date of
the improvements in this art. different nations have
always been in a different ftate of civilization ; and agri¬
culture, as well as other arts, has always been in diffe¬
rent degrees of improvement among different nations at
the fame time.
From the earlieft accounts of the eaftern nations, we
have reafon to think, that agriculture has at all times
been underftood by them in confiderable perfection;
feeing they were always fupplied not only with the ne-
ceffaries, but the greateft luxuries of life.
As foon as the defeendants of Abraham were fettled
in Paleftine, they generally became huibandmen, from
the chiefs of the tribe of Judah to the loweft branch
of the family of Benjamin. High birth or rank did
not at that time make any diftimftion, for agriculture
was confidered as the moft honourable of all employ¬
ments ; witnefs the illuftrious examples of Gideon,
Saul, and David.
The Chaldeans, who inhabited the country where
agriculture had its birth, carried that valuable art to a.
degree of excellence unknown in former times. They
cultivated their lands with great afliduity, and feem to
have found out fome means of reftoring fertility to an
exhaufted foil, by having plentiful harvefts in fucceffion ;
on which account they were not obliged, as their prede -
ceffors had been, to change their fituations,.in order to
obtain a fufficiency for themfelves and their numerous -
flocks and herds.
The Egyptians, who, from the natural fertility of
their country by the overflowing of the Nile, raifed
every year vaft quantities of corn, were, fo fenfible of
the bleflings refulting from agriculture, that they aferi-
bed the invention of that art to Ofiris. They alfo re¬
garded Ifis, their fecond deity, as the difeoverer of
the ufe of wheat and barley, which before grew wild in
the fields, and were not applied by that people to the
purpofes of food.. Their fuperftitious gratitude was
carried fo far, as to worihip thofe animals which were
employed in tillage ; and even to the produce of their
lands, as leeks, onions, &c..
The divine honours paid to Bacchus in India were
derived from the fame fource, he being coniidered in
that country as the inventor of planting vineyards, and
the other arts attendant upon agriculture..
It is alfo related of the ancient Perfians, on the moft
refpeftable authority, that their kings laid afide their
grandeur once every month to eat with hufbandmen.-
This is a ftriking inftance of the high eftimation in
which they held agriculture; for at that time arts were
praftifed among that people in great perfeftion, parti¬
cularly thofe of weaving, needle-work, and embroidery.
The precepts of the religion taught by their ancien j
magi, or priefts, included the practice of agriculture*
The faint among them was obliged to work out his
falvation by purfuing all the labours of agriculture:
And it was a maxim of the Zendavefta, that he who
fows the ground with care and diligence, acquires a
greater degree of religious merit, than he could have
gained by the repetition of ten thoufand prayers.
The Phenicians, fo well known in feripture by the
name of Philijlines, were alfo remarkable for their at¬
tention to, and ikill in agriculture. But finding them¬
felves
Hi ft or y. A G R I C U
felves too much ciifturbed and confined by the incur-
fions and conquefts of the Ifraelites, they fpread them-
felves throughout the greateft part of the Mediterra¬
nean iflands, and carried with them their knowledge
in the arts of cultivation.
Mago, a famous general of the Carthaginians, is faid
to have written no lefs than 28 books on the fubjedt;
which Columella tells us were tranflated into Latin by
the exprefs order of the Roman fenate. We are in¬
formed by the ancient writers, that Ceres was born in
Sicily, where fhe firft invented the arts of tillage and
of fowing corn. For this eflential fervice, fhe was,
agreeably to the fuperftition of thofe ages, deified,
and worfhipped as the goddefs- of plenty. The truth
of this is, that in the time of Ceres, the ifland, through
her endeavdurs and the induftry of the people, became
very fruitful in corn; and agriculture was there efteem-
ed fo honourable an employment, that even their kings
did not difdain to praftife it with their own hands.
But time,., which at firft gave birth to arts, often
caufed them to be forgotten when they were removed
from the place of their origin.. The defcendants of
Noah, who fettled in Europe, doubtlefs carried their
knowledge of agriculture with them into the regions
which they fucceffively occupied. But *thofe who took
poffeffion of Greece were fuch an uncivilized race, that
they fed on roots, herbs, and acorns, after the man¬
ner of beafts. Pelafgus had taught them the culture
of the oak, and the ufe of acorns as food ; for which
fervice, we are told, divine honours were paid Inm by
the people.
The Athenians, who were the firft people that ac¬
quired any tinfture of politenefs, taught the ufe of corn
to the reft of the Greeks. They alfo inftrufted them
how to cultivate the ground, and to prepare it for the
reception of the feed. This art, we are told, was
taught them by Triptolemus. The Greeks foon per¬
ceived that bread was more wholefomej and its tafte
more delicate, than that of acorns and the wild roots
of the fields; accordingly they thanked the gods for
fuch an unexpected and beneficial prefent, and honour¬
ed their benefactor.
As the arts of cultivation increafed,. and the blef-
fings they afforded became generally experienced, the
people foon preferred them to whatever the ravages of
conqueft, and the cruel depredations of favage life,
could procure. And accordingly we find, that the A-
thenian kings, thinking it more glorious to govern a
fmall ftate wifely,. than to aggrandize themfelves, and
enlarge the extent of their dominions by foreign con¬
quefts, withdrew their fubjefts from war, and moftly
employed them in cultivating the earth. Thus, by
continued application, they brought agriculture to a
confiderable degree of perfection, and foon reduced it
to an art..
Hefiod was the firft we know of among the Greeks
who wrote on this interefting fubjeCt. According to
the cuftom of the Oriental authors, he wrote in poetry,
and embelHfhed his poem with luxuriant defcription
and fubli-me imagery. He calls his poem Weeks and
Days, becaufe-agriculture requires exaft obfervations on
times and feafons.
Xenophon has alfo, in his Oeconomics, remarked,
that agriculture is the nurfing mother of the arts. For,
fays he, “ where. agriculture fucceeds profperoufly,
L T U R E. 245
there the arts thrive ; but where the earth neceffarily
lies uncultivated, there the other arts are deftroyed.”
Other eminent Greek writers upon agriculture
were, Democritus of Abdera, Socraticus, Archytas,
Tarentinus, Ariftotle, and Theophraftus, from whom
the art received confiderable improvements.
The ancient Romans efteemed agriculture fo honour¬
able an employment, that the moft illuftrious fenators
of the empire, in the intervals of public concerns, ap¬
plied themfelvcs to this profeffion; and fuch was the
fimplicity of thofe ages, that they affumed no appear¬
ance of magnificence and fplendor, or of majefty, but
when they appeared in public. At their return from
the toils of war, the taking of cities, and the fubduing
of hoftile nations, their greateft generals were impatient
till they were again employed in the arts of cultiva-
Regulus, when in Africa,. requefted of the fenate to
be recalled, left his farm might fuffer, for want of pro¬
per cultivation, in his abfence ; and the fenate wrote
him foranfwer, that it ihould be taken care of at the
public expence, while‘he continued to lead their ar¬
mies.
Cato the ccnfor, after having governed extenfive
provinces, and fubdued many warlike nations, did not
think it below his dignity to write a Treatife on Agri¬
culture. This work (as we are told by Servius) he
dedicated to his own fon, it being the firft Latin trea¬
tife written on this important fubjeft ; and it has been
handed down to us in all its purity,. in the manner
that Cato wrote it.
Varro compofed a treatife on the fame fubjeft, and
on a more regular plan. This work is embellilhed
with all the Greek and Latin erudition of that learned
author, who died 28 years before the commencement '
of the Chriftian; sera. Virgil, who- lived about the
fame time, has,, in his Georgies, adorned this fubjeft
with the language of the Mufes, and finely illuftrated
the precepts and' rules of huibandry left by Hefiod,
Mago, and Varro..
Columella, who flourifhed in the reign of the em¬
peror Claudius, wrote 12 books on huibandry, replete
with important inftruftion.
From this period to that of the reign of Conftantine
Poganatus, huibandry continued in a declining ftate ;
but that wife emperor caufed a large colleftion of the
moft ufeful precepts relating to agriculture to be ex-
.trafted from the belt writers, and publilhed them un¬
der the title of Geoponics. It has been afferted, that he
made this colleftion with his own hand; and the truth .
of the affertion is not improbable, as it is well known,
that after he had conquered the Saracens and the Ar
rabians, he not only praftifed and encouraged, but Hu-
died the arts of peace, fixing his principal attention on .
agriculture, as their belt foundation.'
After the death of Conftantine, however, the in-
creaiing attention of the people to commerce, and the
ignorance and grofs fuperftition of the ages which fuc-
ceeded, feems to have rendered agriculture an almoft ne-
glefted feience. The irruptions of the northern na¬
tions foon abolifhed any improved fyftem. Thefe innu¬
merable and enterprifing barbarians, who over-ran all
Europe, were originally Ihepherds or hunters, like the
prefent Tartars and the favages of America. They con-
tented themfdves with poffeffing thofe vaft deferts made
246
* Cafar de
Bell Gall,
lib. 5. c. 12,
+ Plin. Nar
Hift.lrb.i;
xap.6.
A G R I C I
by their own ravages, without labour or trouble, cul¬
tivating only a very fmall fpot near their habitations;
and in this trifling hulbandry only the meanelt flavea
were employed : fo that the art itfelf, which formerly
was thought worthy of the ftudy of kings, was now
looked upon as mean and ignoble ; a prejudice which
is fcarcely effaced at prefent, or at leaft but very lately.
— During this period, therefore, we find no veitiges
•of any thing tolerably written on the fubjedl. No new
attempts were made to revive it, or to improve it, till
the year 1478, when Crefcenzio publiihed an excellent
performance on the fubjeft at Florence. This rouzed
the flumbering attention of his countrymen, feveral of
whom foon followed his example. Among thefe, Tat-
ti, Steffano Auguftino Gallo, Sanfovino, Lauro, and
Tarello, deferve particular notice.
At what time agriculture was introduced into Bri¬
tain, is uncertain. When Julius Casfar firft invaded this
ifland, it was not wholly unknown. That conqueror
was of opinion, that agriculture was firft introduced by
fome of thofe colonies from Gaul which had fettled in
the fouthern parts of Britain, about 100 years before
the Roman invafion *.
It is not to be expected that we can now be acquaint¬
ed with many of the practices of thefe ancient huf-
bandmen. It appears, however, that they were not
unacquainted, with the ufe of manures, particularly
marie. This we have on the authority of Plinyf, who
tells us, that it was peculiar to the people of Gaul and
of Britain; that its effe&s continued 80 years; and
that no man was ever known to marie his field twice,
&c.—It is highly probable, too, that lime was at this
time alfo ufed as a manure in Britain, it being certain¬
ly made ufe of in Gaul for this purpofe at the time of
Julius Casfar’s invafion.
The eftabliflrment of the Romans in Britain produ¬
ced great improvements in agriculture, infomuch that
prodigious quantities of corn were annually exported
from the ifland ; but when the Roman power began to
decline, this, like all the other arts, declined alfo, and
was almoft totally deftroyed by the departure of that
people. The unhappy Britons were now expoied to
frequent incurfions of the Scots and Pi<fts, who deftroy¬
ed the fruits of their labours, and interrupted them in
the exercii'e of their art. After the arrival of the Sax¬
ons in the year 449, they were involved in fuch long
wars, and underwent fo many calamities, that the hui-
bandmen gradually loft much of their /kill, and were at
laft driven from thofe parts of their country which were
moft proper for cultivation.
After the Britons retired into Wales, though it ap¬
pears from the laws made relative to this art, that agri¬
culture was thought worthy of the attention of the le-
giflatnre, yet their inftruments appear to have been very
unartful. It was enabled that no man (hculd undertake
to guide a plough who could not make one ; and that
the driver fliould make the ropes of twilled willows,
with which it was drawn. It was ufual for fix or eight
p>erfons to form themfelves into a fociety for fitting out
one of thefe ploughs, providing it with oxen and every
thing neceffary for ploughing ; and many minute and
curious laws were made for the regulation of fuch fo-
cieries. If any peribn laid dung on a field with the
confent of the proprietor, he was by law allowed the
ufe of that land for one year. If the dung was carried
F L T U R E. Hi ilory.
out in a cart in great abundance, he was to have the
ufe of the land for three years. Whoever cut down a
wood, and converted the ground into arable, with the
confent of the owner, was to have the ufe of it for five
years. If any one folded his cattle, for one year, up¬
on a piece of ground belonging to another, with the
owner’s confent, he was allowed the ufe of that field
for four years.
Thus, though the Britons had in a great meafure
loft the know ledge of agriculture, they appear to have
been very affiduous in giving encouragement to fuch as
would attempt a revival of it; but, among the Anglo-
Saxons, things were not at prefent in fo good a ftate.
Thefe reftlefs and haughty warriors, having contrac¬
ted a diftafte and contempt for agriculture, were at
pains to enact laws to prevent its being followed by any
other than women and flaves. When they firft arri¬
ved in Britain, they had no occafion for this art, being
fupplied by the natives with all the neceffaries of life.
After the commencement of hoftilities, the Saxons
fubfifted chiefly by plunder: but having driven out or
extirpated moft of the ancient Britons, and divided
their lands among themfelves, they found themfelves in
danger of ftarving, there being now no enemy to plun¬
der ; and therefore they were obliged to apply to agri¬
culture.
The Saxon princes and great men, who, in the divi-
fion of the lands, had received the greateft (hares, are faid
to have fubdivided their eftates into two parts, which
were called the in-lands and the out-lands. The in¬
lands were thofe which lay moft contiguous to the
manfion-houfe of their, owner, which he kept in his
own poffeffion, and cultivated by his (laves, uuder the
direftion of a bailiff, for the purpofe of raifing provi-
fions for the family. The out-lands were thofe at a
greater diftance from the houfe, and were let to the
cciorls, or farmers of thofe times, at very moderate
rents. By the laws of Ina kmg of the weft Saxons,
who reigned in the end of the feventh and beginning
of the eighth century, a farm confiding of ten hides,
or plough-lands, was to pay the following rent: “ Ten
cades of honey; three hundred loaves of bread; twelve
cades of (bong ale; thirty cades of fmall ale; two
oxen ; ten wedders; ten geefe; twenty hens ; ten
cheefes; one cafle of butter; five falmon; twenty pounds
of forage ; and one hundred eels.” From this low
rent, the imperfection of agriculture at that time is
eafily difcoverable ; but it is (till more fo from the low
prices at which land was then fold. In the ancient
hiftory of the church of Ely, publiihed by Dr Gale,
there are accounts of many purchafes of lands by jEdel-
wold the founder of that church, and by other bene-
fadtors, in the reign of Edgar the Peaceable, in the
tenth century. By a comparifon of thefe accounts it
appears, that the ordinary price of an acre of the beft
land in that part of England, in thofe times, was no
more than 16 Saxon pennies, or about four (hillings of
pur money: a very trifling price, even in comparifon
with that of other commodities at the fame time: for, by
comparing other accounts, it appears, that four (beep
were then equal in value to an acre of the beft land,
and one horfe of the fame value with three acres. The
frequent and deplorable famines which alflidted England
about this time, are further inftances of the wretched
ftate of agriculture. In 1043, a quarter of wheat fold
iftory. AGRICULTURE.
for^6o Saxon pennies (15 of our (hillings), and at that About the yeay 1600, France made feme confider-
time equal in value to feven or eight pounds of our able efforts to revive the arts of hulbandry, as appears
money now. from feveral large works, particularly Les Moyens da
The invafion of the Normans, in 1066, contributed devenir Riche; and the Cofmopolite, by Bernard de
very much to the improvement of agriculture; for, by Paliffy, a poor porter, who feems to have been placed
that event, many thoufands of huftandmen from Flan- by fortune in a llation for which nature never intended,
ders, France, and Nortnandy, fettled in Britain, ob- him; Lc Theatre d'Agriculture, by Deferres; and.
tained eftates or farms, and cultivated them after the L'Agriculture et Maifon Rujlique, by Meffrs Etienne,
•manner of their country. The implements of hufban- Liebault, &c.
dry, ufed at this time, were of the fame kind with thofe Nearly in the fame period; the praftice of hufbandrv
employed at prefent; but fome of them were lefs per- became more prevalent among this people and the Fic-
feft in their conftruftion. The plough, for example, mings than the publifhing of books on the fubject,
had but one Hilt or handle, which the ploughman Their intention feemed to be that of carrying on a pri-
guided with one hand, having in his other hand an in- vate lucrative employment, without initrueding their
ttrument which ferved both for cleaning and mending neighbours. Whoever therefore became defirous of
the plough, as well as for breaking the clods. The copying their method of agriculture, was obliged to
Norman plough had two wheels; and in the light foil vifxt that country, and make his own remarks on their
of Normandy was commonly drawn by one or two pradtice.
oxen ; but, in England, a greater number was often The principle idea they had of hufbandry was, by
neceffary. In Wales, the perfon who conduced the keeping the lands clean and in fine tilth, to make a
oxen in the plough walked backwards. Their carts, farm refemble a garden as nearly as pofiible.
harrows, feythes, fickles, and flails, from the figures Such an excellent principle, at fir it fetting out, led
of them ftill remaining, appear to have been nearly of them of courfe to undertake the culture of fraall farms
the fame conftrudlion with thofe that are now ufed. In only, which they kept free from weeds, continually
Wales, they did not life a fickle for reaping their corns, turning the ground, and manuring it plentifully and
but an inlirument like the blade of a knife, with a judicioufly. When they had by this method brought,
wooden handle at each end.—Their chief manure, next the foil to a proper degree of cleanlinefs, health, and
to dung, feems ftill to have been marie. Summer fal- fweetnefs, they chiefly cultivated the more delicate
lowing of lands defigned for wheat, and ploughing graffes, as the fureft means of obtaining a certain pro-
them'feveral times, appear to have been frequent prac- fit upon a fmall eftate, without the expence of keep-
tices of the Englifh farmers in this period. i»g many draught horfes and fervants. A few years
We are, after all, very much in the dark with refpedt experience was fuflicient to convince them, that ten
to the ftate and progrefs of agriculture in Great Bri- acres of the beft vegetables for feeding cattle, properly
tain previous to the fourteenth century. That it was cultivated, would maintain a. larger ftock of grazing
pretty generally practifed, efpecially in the eaftern, animals than forty acres of common farm grafs on
fouth, and midland parts of England, is certain ; but land badly cultivated. They alfo found, that the beft
of the mode, and the fuccefs, we are left almcft totally vegetables for this purpofe were lucerne, faintfoin, tre-
ignorant. In the latter end of the fifteenth century, foil of moft kinds, field turnips, &c.
however, it feems to have been cultivated as a fcience, The grand political fecret of their hulbandry, there*
and received very great improvement. fore, confifted in letting farms on improvement. They
At this time our countryman, Fitzherbert, Judge are faid alfo to have difeovered nine forts of manure;
of the Common-Pleas, fhone forth with diftinguilhed but what they all were, we are not particularly in¬
eminence in the practical parts of hulbandry. Heap- formed. We find, however, that marie was one of
pears to have been the firft Englilhman who ftudied the them; the ufe and virtues of which appear alfo to have
nature of foils, and the laws of vegetation, with philo- been well known in this kingdom two hundred years
fophical attention. On thefe he formed a theory con- ago, although it was afterwards much neglected. They
firmed by experiments, and rendered the ftudy pleafing were the firft people among the moderns who plough-
as well as profitable, by realizing the principles of the ed in green crops for the fake of fertilizing the foil;
ancients, to the honour and advantage of his country, and who confined their Iheep at night in large Iheds
Accordingly, he publifhed two treatifes on this fubjedf: built on purpofe, the floors of which were covered
the firft, intitled appeared 1534.; with fand or virgin earth, &c. which the Ihepherd
and the fecond, called The Book of Surveying and Im- carted-away each morning to the compoft dunghill.
provements, in 1.539. Thefe books, being written at In England, during the civil wars, though the ope-
a time when philofophy and fcience were but juft rations and improvements in hulbandry fuffered fome
emerging from that gloom in which they had long temporary checks, there flourilhed feveral excellent
been buried, were doubtlefs replete with many errors ; writers on the fubjeft, and the art itfelf received con-
but they contained the rudiments of true knowledge, fiderable encouragement. Sir Hugh Platt was one of
mid revived the ftudy and love of an art, the advantages the moft ingenious hulbandmen of the age in which he
of which were obvious to men of the leaft reflexion, lived ; yet fo great was his modefty, that all his works.
We therefore find that Fitzherbert’s books on Agri- except his Paradife of Flora, feem to be pofthumous.
culture foon raifed a fpirit of emulation in his country- He held a correfpondence with moft of the lovers and
men, and many treatifes of the fame kind fucceflively patrons of agriculture and gardening in England; and
appeared, which time has however deprived us of, or fuch was the juftice and modefty of his temper, that he
at leaft they are become fo very fcarce as only to be always named the author of every difeovery communica-
found in the libraries of the curious.. ted to Him. Perhaps no man in any age difeovered, or at
H7
248
A G R I C U
leaH brought into ufe, fo many new kinds of manure.
This will be evident to thofe who read his account of
the compoft and covered dung-hills, and his judicious
obfervations on the fertilizing qualities lodged in fait,
ftreet-dirt, and the fullage of ftreets in great cities,
clay, fuller’s earth, moorifh earths, dung-hills made in
layers, fern, hair, calcination of all vegetables, malt-
duft, willow-tree earth, foaper’s alhes, urine, marie,
and broken pilchards.
Gabriel Plattes may be faid to have been an origi¬
nal genius in hufbandry. He began his obfervations
at an earlier period, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth,
and continued them down to the Commonwealth. But
notwithftanding the great merit of this writer, and the
effential fervice he had rendered his country by his wri¬
tings, the public ungratefully fuffered him to ftarve
and perilh in the ftreets of London; nor had he a fhirt
on his back when he died.
Samuel Hartlib, a celebrated writer on agriculture
in the laft century, was highly efteemed and beloved
by Milton, and other great men of his time. In the
preface to his work intitled His Legacy, he laments
that no public director of hufbandry was eftablifhed in
England by authority ; and that we had not adopted
the Flemifh method of letting farms upon improvement.
This remark of Hartlib’s procured him a penfion of
L. 100 a-year from Cromwell; and the writer after¬
wards, the better to fulfil the intention bf his bene-
faftor, procured Dr Beatti’s excellent annotation on
the Legacy, with other valuable papers from his nu¬
merous correfpondents..
The time in which Hartlih flourifhed feems to have
been ari sera when the Englifh hufbandry rofe to great
perfection, compared with that of former ages’; for
the preceding wars had impoverifhed the country gen¬
tlemen, and of courfe made them induftrious. They
found the cultivation of their own landslo be the moft
profitable ftation they could fill. But this wife turn
was not bf long continuance. At the Reftoration,
they generally became inftcled with that intoxication
and love of pleafure which fucceeded. Ali their in*
duftry and knowledge were exchanged for negleft and
diffipation; and hufbandry defcended almoft entirely
into the hands of common farmers*
Evelyn was the firft writer who infpired his Country¬
men with a defire of reviving the ftudy of agriculture;
and he was followed by the famous Jethro Tull. The
former, by his admirable treatifes on earth and on
planting, and the latter, by {bowing the fuperior advan¬
tages of the drill-hufbandry, excited numbers to bring
■their theory to the teft of fair experiment.
Many-valuable and capital improvements have, fince
'that period, been -made in Englifh hufbandry: and
•thefe great men haye been fucceeded by a variety of
writers, many of whom have done effential fervice, by
enlightening the minds of their countrymen, and ex¬
citing them to emulation.
About the middle of the laft century, Ireland be¬
gan to make a confiderable figure in the art of huf¬
bandry. It muft indeed be confefled, that the Irifh
had very ftrong prejudices in favour of a wretched me¬
thod of agriculture, till Blyth opened their eyes by his
excellent writings. Since that time, a fpirit of im¬
provement has more or lefs been promoted, and in
many inftances carried on with great zeal, by the
N° 7.
L T U R E. H
nobility, clergy, and gentry of that kingdom. In
proof of this, it will be fufficient to obferve, that
the Tranfaftions of the Dublin Society for encourage-
ing Hufbandry are now cited by all foreigners in their
memoirs relating to that fubjech And the obferva¬
tions of that difcerning and judicious writer, Arthur
Young, Efq; in his late Tour through that kingdom,
fhow, that in many refpefts improvements there have
of late years made a progrefs nearly as rapid as in
England.
After the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, moft of the na¬
tions of Europe, by a fort of tacit confent, applied
themfelves to the ftudy of agriculture, and continued
to do fo, more or lefs, amidft the univerfal confufion
that fucceeded.
The French found, by repeated experience, that
they could never maintain a long war, or procure a to¬
lerable peace, unlefs they could raife corn enough to
fupport themfelves in fuch a manner as not to be ob¬
liged to harfh terms on the one hand, or to perifh by
famine on the other. This occafioned the King to give
public encouragement to agriculture, and even to be
prefent at the making of feveral experiments. The
great, and the rich of various ranks and ftations, fol¬
lowed his example-; and even the ladies were candi¬
dates for a fhare of fame in this public-fpirited and
commendable undertaking.
During the hurry and diftreffeS of France in the war
of 1756, confiderable attention was paid to agricul¬
ture. Frize-queftions were annually propofed in their
rural academies, particularly thofe of Lyons and Bdur-
deaux ; and many judicious obfervations were made by
the Society for improving agriculture in Brittany.
■Since the conclufion of that war in 1760, matters
have been carried on there with great vigour. The
univerfity of Amiens made various propofals for the
advancement of hulbandry ; and the Marquis de Tour-
billy (a writer who proceeded chiefly on experience)
had the principal direction of a Georgical fociety efta-
bliihed at Tours.
The fociety at Rouen alfo deferves notice; nor have
the King and his minifters thought it unworthy their
attention. There are at prefent about fifteen focieties
exifting in France, eftablifhed by royal approbation,
for the promoting of agriculture; and thefe have twen¬
ty co-operating focieties belonging to them.
About this time vigorous exertions began to be
made in Ruffia to introduce the moft approved fyftem
of hulbandry which had taken place in other parts of
Europe. The prefent Emprefs has fent feveral gentle¬
men into Britain and other countries to ftudy agricul¬
ture, and is giving it all poffible encouragement in her
own dominions.
The art of agriculture has alfo been for near 30
years publicly taught in the Swedifh, Danifh, and
German univerfities, where the profeflbrs may render
effedtual fervice to their refpeftive countries, if they
underftand the practical as well as the fpeculative part,
and can converfe with as much advantage with the far¬
mer as with Virgil and Columella.
Even Italy has not been totally inaftive. The Nea¬
politans of this age have condefcended to recur to the
firft rudiments of revived hiiibandry, and begun to ftu¬
dy anew the Agricultural Syftem of Crefcenzio, firft
publilhed in 1478. The people of Bergamo have our-
fued
!Hiilory. A G R I C U
fued the fame plan, and given a new edition of the Ri-
■ ' cordo d’Agriculturae de Tarello, firftpublirtied in 1577.
The dutchy of Tufcany have imbibed the fam& fpirit
for improvement. A private gentleman, above 40 years
lince, left his whole fortune to endow an academy of
agriculture. The firft ecclefiaftic in the dutchy is pre-
fident of this fociety, and many of the chief nobility
are members.
His SardinianMajefty has alfo fent perfons to learn the
different modes of praftice in foreign countries ; and
made fome fpirited attempts to ellablifh a better me-
f thod of agriculture among his fubje&s.
In Poland, alfo, M. De Bielufki, grand marfhal of
the crown, has made many fuccefsful attempts to in¬
troduce the new hufbandry among his countrymen ;
and prdcured the befl; inttruments for that purpofe from
France, England, and other parts of Europe.
The Hollanders are the only people now in Europe
jh who feem to look upon agriculture with indifference.
Except the Angle collateral inftance of draining their
fens and moraffes, they have fcarcely paid any atten¬
tion to it; and even this feems to have proceeded more
from the motive of felf-prefervation than any love of,
or difpofition to, hufbandry.
In the year 1759, a few ingenious and public-
fpirited men at Berne in Switzerland eflablifhed a fo¬
ciety for the advancement of agriculture and rural
ceconomics. In that fociety were many men of great
weight in the republic, and moft of them perfons of a
true call: for making improvements in hufbandry, being
enabled to join the practice with the theory.
Nor muff we here omit to mention, that the juftly cele-
j brated Linnaeus and his difciples have performed great
things in the north of Europe, particularly in difeover-
ing new kinds of profitable and well-tafted food for cat¬
tle. About the fame time, Sweden bellowed fuccefsful
labours on a foil which had before been looked upon as
cold, barren, and incapable of melioration. Of this
the Stockholm Memoirs will be a lafling monument.
Denmark, and many of the courts in Germany, fol¬
lowed the fame example. Woollen manufactures were
encouraged, and his Danifh Majefty fent three perfons
into Arabia Felix to make remarks, and bring over
fuch plants and trees as would be ufeful in hufbandry,
building, and rural affairs.
The duchy of Wirtemburgh, alfo, a country by
no means unfertile, but even friendly to corn and paf-
turage, has contributed its afliftance towards the im¬
provement of agriculture, having more than 30 years
fince publifhed 14 ceconomical relations.at Stutgard.
Neither muft we forget the very affiduous attention
L T U R E.
of the learned in Leipfic and Hanover to this im¬
portant object. During the rage and devaftation of a
long war, they cultivated the arts of peace; witnefs
the Journal dr Agriculture printed at Leipfic, and the
Recueils d' Hanover printed in that city.
Even Spain, conftitutionally and habitually inaftive
on fuch occafions, in fpite of all their natural indo¬
lence, and the prejudices of bigotry, invited Linnaeus,
with the offer of a large penfion, to fuperintend a col¬
lege founded for the purpofe of making new enqui¬
ries into the hiftory of Nature and the art of agriculture.
Among the Japanefe, agriculture is in great repute;
and among the Chinefe it is diftinguifhed and encou¬
raged by the court beyond all other fciences. The
Emperor of China yearly, at the beginning of fpring,
goes to plough in perfon, attended by all the princes and
grandees of the empire. The ceremony is performed
with great folemnity ; and is accompanied with a fa-
crifice, which the emperor, as high-prieft, offers to
Chang-Ti, to enfure a plentiful crop in favour of his
people.
But, without any improper partiality to pur own
country, we are fully juftified in afferting, that Bri¬
tain alone exceeds all modern nations in hulbandry;
and from the fpirit which for the laft twenty years
has animated many of our nobility and gentry, to
become the liberal patrons of improvement, there
is reafon to hope that this moft ufeful of arts will,
in a few years, be carried to a greater pitch of per¬
fection than it has ever yet attained in any age or
country.—The Royal Society, the Bath Society, and
the Society of Arts, &c. in particular, have been fig-
nally ufeful in this refpeft ; and the other affociations,
which are now eftablilhed in many parts of the kingdom,
co-operate with them in forwarding their laudable de-
fign. _
It is not, however, to the exertion of public focie-
ties, excellent and honourable as they are, that all our
modern improvements in agriculture owe their origin.
To the natural genius of the people have been added
the theory and praClice of all nations in ancient and
modern times. This accumulated mafs of knowledge
has been arranged, divided, and fubdivided ; and after
paffrng the teft of practical experiments, the effential
and moft valuable parts of it have been preferved, im¬
proved, and amply diffufed in the works of Lord
Karnes, Mr Young, Stillingfleet, Dr Hunter, Ander-
fon, Dickfon, Ellis, Randal, Lifle, Marlhal, Mortimer,
Duhamel, Bradley, Kent, Mills, and a few other wri¬
ters upon this great art of rendering mankind happy;
wealthy, and powerful.
PartI. THEORY of AGRICULTURE.
IN an art fo extenfively ufeful to mankind, and which
has been fo univerfally pra&ifed fince the creation
of the world, it is natural to expedl the moft exaft and
perfect theory. But in this we are totally difap-
Ignorance pointed.
i of the food One reafon of this want of a diftinCt theory of agri-
jf of vege* culture is, the ignorance of what is properly the food
reafon of6 vegetables; for as the art of agriculture coniifts
imperfec- principally in fupplying them with a proper quaptity of
j tion in the food, in the moft favourable circumftances, it is evi-
theory of a- dent, we might proceed upon a much furer foun-
: griculture. y0L< L part p
dation if we could afcertain what their proper nou-
rifliment is, than we can do without this knowledge.
—The reafon of the great differences regarding the
pra&ice, probably, is the difficulty of making experi¬
ments in agriculture. It is not in this art as in Me¬
chanics, Chemiftry, &c. where an experiment can be
made in an hour, or a day or two at fartheft : an ex¬
periment in agriculture cannot be properly made in lefs
than feveral years.: Some favourable unobferved cir¬
cumftances, quite foreign to the experiment itfelf, may
concur to produce plentiful crops for a year or two :
I i and
25Q
AGRIC ULTURE. Parti.
Theory. and thus the farmer may be induced to publifh his
fancied improvements ; which failing in the hands of o-
thers, or perhaps even in his own on a repetition of the
experiment, the new improvements are totally neglect¬
ed, and things continue in their old way. Were he,
however, capable of feeing and handling-the food of
vegetables, as well as he can . do that of a horfe or an
ox, and procuring it in any imaginable quantity, it is
plain, that he would be able to caufe vegetables grow
in their utmoft luxuriancy,, or, if we may be allowed
the expreffion, fatten them, with as great certainty as
he can fatten a horfe or an ox, when he hath plenty-of
proper food to give them.—To afcertain what this food
is, therefore, muft. be a ftep towards the perfection of
agriculture.;, and to this we fliall .contribute our endea¬
vour. .
^ Sect. I. Of the proper Food of Plants-
Various
fuppofitions not fpen(j t;me ;n refuting the theories
the^oo^of t^°fe who imagined the vegetable food to confxft
plants. of oily and faline fubftances. A more probable fuppo-
fition has been, That Water and Air are the proper
vegetable food, to which alone they owe their increafe
in bulk and weight.—That plants cannot be fupported
without both thefe, is very certain : but we know, that
air is a compound fluid; and water is never without
feme impurities, fo may alfo be confidered as a com¬
pound.— Is it then the aqueous, the earthy, the acid, or
the phlogiftic part of the air, which nourilhes plants? In-
like manner, is it the pure elementary part of water
which nouriflies them ? or does it contribute to their
growth only by the heterogeneous fubftanees which it
3 contains ?
Vegetables From Dr Prieftley’s experiments on different kinds
thrive in Df ai'r> Jt appears that the pureft kind of that fluid is
putrid air. not ^ for the purpofes of vegetation. On the
contrary, vegetables flouriflied in a furprifing degree
when confined in a fmall quantity of air made perfeClly
noxious by the putrid effluvia of animal bodies.—
Hence it appears probable, that fuch effluvia, or, in
other words, the effence of corrupted matter, conftitute
at leaft one fpecies of vegetable food ; and when vege¬
tables are put into fuch circumftances that the fteams
of putrefying bodies can have accefs to them, we are
4 fare they will thrive the better.
Water ca- The DoCtor alfo found, that by agitating putrid air
hibin 'n water> Part of which was expofed to the atmofphere,
tridcfflu-' t^ie water acquired a very putrid noxious fmell; which
via. ftiows, that water, as well as air, is capable of abforbing
thofe effluvia which are found proper food for vegetables.
We cannot help concluding, therefore, that in the con¬
tinual afcent of water in vapour, and its defcent again
in rain, which is a much, more effeftual agitation than
could be made by Dr Prieftley, the water muff be very
intimately combined, with the phlogiftic or putrid efflu¬
via which are contained in the air. To this union we
are led ftrongly' to fufpett that rain-water owes its fer¬
tilizing qualities ; for the pureft fpring waters, though
j moft wholefome for animals, are not found to be fitteft
Putrid ef- for promoting the growth of vegetables.—As, there-
fiuvia the fore, vegetables evidently receive nouriflunent both by
proper food their kaves and
roots, and increafe remarkably in bulk
* P *n 5* Jiy abforbing the putrid effluvia from the air ; and as
they like wife increafe in bulk by admitting water to Theory.
their roots, and more fo when the water contains much 1 r-—*
of that kind of effluvium than when it contains lefs:
fo we would conclude, that the nouriihment recei¬
ved by the roots of plants is of the fame kind with
that received by their leaves; and that this food may be
given them in greater plenty than they naturally re¬
ceive it, by impregnating the air which furrounds them,
or the water which moiftens them, with a greater quan¬
tity of putrid matter than what they contain in a natu¬
ral ftate.
Sect. II. The foregoing Theory confirmed from con-
fidcrations on the nature of vegetable Mouldy and
the different kinds of Manure found proper for
fertilizing the Soil. ^
Though plants will grow on any kind of earth, and kinds of |
ftourilh vigoroufly, if plentiffflly fupplied with water ;
yet fome kinds of foil are found much more proper for per for nou.. |
fupplying them with nourifhment than others.—Werifliingve- |
cannot, indeed, allow the inferences to be quite fair getables.
which fqme would draw from experiments on plants
fet in mere fand, &c.; viz. that the earth is of no other
ufe to vegetation than to afford a proper fupport to the
plant, that it be not eafily moved out of its place ; be-
caufe the experiments made on fingle vegetables are al¬
ways performed in or very near houfes, where the air
is by no means fo pure as in the open fields, and con-
fequently where they have an opportunity of receiving
as much nourifhment from the air as may compenfate
the want of what they would have derived from the
earth if planted in a rich foil. Lord Karnes, in the
Gentleman Farmer, mentions an experiment wherein a
pea was planted on fome cotton fpread on water, in a
phial. It fprung, and puftied roots through the cotton
into the water. The plant grew vigoroufly, and, at
the time of his writing the experiment, carried large
pods full of ripe feed.—From this experiment, or
others of a fimilar kind, however, a farmer would not
be thought to aft very judicioufly, who fhould conclude
that nothing more was requifite to produce a plentiful
crop, than to keep his fields conftantly foaking with
water, and apply his labour only for that purpofe, with¬
out regarding either tillage, manure, or the difference
of foils. Experience has abundantly fliown, that by
certain operations performed on the earth itfelf, it is
rendered much more capable of fupplying vegetables >1
with plenty of nourifhment than if fuch operations were
omitted ; and that fome kinds of foils cannot without
certain additions be rendered fo fit for this purpofe as
others ; and this is what conftitutes the difference be¬
tween a rich and a poor foil. ^
That fpecies of earth which is capable of fupply- of the tnn t
ing the vegetable kingdom with nourifhment in the vegetable j i
greateft plenty, is found beft in well cultivated gar- earth*
dens. It is not, however, even in thefe, found in per-
feft purity ; being conftantly mixed with greater or lefs
proportions of fand, fmall ftones, &c. It can be had.
by itfelf, and entirely feparated from all other fubftances,
only by fuffering vegetable or animal bodies to putrefy.
By undergoing this operation, they are at laft refolved
into a kind of earth, which appears perfeftly the fame,
from whatever fubftance it is produced. Of this earth
Dr Lewis gives us the following charafters. It is in-
diffoluble
li Part T. AGRICULTURE.
251
''I'l Theory, diflbluble in acids, fomewhat tenacious when moiftened
' with water, friable when dry, and acquires no addition¬
al hardnefs in the fire.—The chemiftry of nature, and
that of art, however, are fo very difiimilar, that an ac¬
count of the chemical properties of this earth can be but
of very little fervice to the practice of agriculture ; how¬
ever, to thofe above mentioned we may add, that when
it is difiilled with a violent fire, a volatile alkaline fpi-
rit, and foetid oil, fimilar to thofe of hartfhorn or other
animal fubftances, are obtained.
As the volatile alkali is known to be produced in
great plenty by diftilling putrid fubftances either ani¬
mal or vegetable, the obtaining aa alkaline fpirit from
this kind of earth is a ftrong argument of its being
much impregnated with the putrid effluvium, wrhich we
have already mentioned as the proper vegetable food
contained in the air and water. Indeed, confidering
that this kind of earth is produced by putrefa&ion, it
is next to an impofiibiiity that it ftiould not be impreg¬
nated with putrid fleams, as much as earth can be; and
if the earth which is moft impregnated with thefe fleams
is found to afford the greateft quantity of nouriftiment
to vegetables, we have from thence an additional proof
that they live on. the putrid matter emitted from dead
^ . animals and vegetables like themfelves.
’ Earth is ca- That we may be the more afeertained of this, it
pable of ab- mull be confidered, that the earth, which undoubtedly
l0-a *>U" *s t^e great Source of nourifhment to vegetables, is ca-
I; in prochgi- Pable of abforbing putrid effluvia more powerfully, or
I cus quanti- at leaft in much greater quantity, before it is faturated,
' ties. than either the air or water. The pradlice of bury¬
ing dead bodies is an undeniable proof of this. They
are laid but a fmall depth under ground ; yet the abo¬
minable1 flench emitted by the carcafe is retained in
the earth, fo that it never penetrates in fuch a man¬
ner as to be offenfive. That earth may be faturated
with this putrid matter, as well as air or water, is very
I certain; and, in cafe of fuch a faturation, no doubt
either of thefe will take up the fuperfluous quantity,
and become noxious : but unlefs the earth is fully fa¬
turated, both of them will depofite part of what they
themfelves contain in the earth, and by that means be-
I0 come more falutary than they were before.
Agreeable That earth is capable of attracting putrid effluvia from
odour emit- the air, perhaps, may not be fo readily granted; and in-
1 te,l bymoift ({eeci we know Gf no experiment whereby it can be
j eanh' fhown that putrid air is made falutary by having any
kind of earth agitated in it: but if we confider the ex¬
ceeding great falubrity of the air in the country, and
the healthinefs of thofe who follow the plough or are
employed in digging the ground, we mull at leaft al¬
low, that when the ground is turned up, it communi¬
cates no kind of noxious quality to the air; which it
would certainly do, if it emitted A putrid effluvium.
So far from this, the fmell of moift earth is always a-
greeable and wholefome; and here we have the fatisfac-
tion to find our theory fomewhat confirmed by the ce¬
lebrated Baron van Swieten, late phyfician to the em-
* prefs of Hungary.
“ Phyficians,” fays he, “ ufually advife their patients
to ruftication, not only that they may enjoy a pure and
freely circulating air; but that, as their ftrength in-
creafes, they may, difengaged from all care, exercife
their body by the /lighter labours of agriculture, and
other country amufements.
8
This earth
, impregna¬
ted with
Iputrid ef¬
fluvia.
“ There may perhaps be another caufe why ruftica- Theory,
tion will be of benefit in confumptions. It is well ■ '
known, that, after fome days drought, on the falling
of rain that moiftens the earth, there arifes a grateful
fmell, which we all are fenfible of; and this is common¬
ly attributed to the vegetables, which before faplefs, but
now refrelhed by rain, perfpire more copioully. But
Reaumur obferved, that a like fragrancy is alfo per¬
ceptible after rain when the corn has been cut down in
the fields, where there only remains dry ftubble ; and
examining the matter more particularly, he found that
dry earth is without fmell, but as foon as it is moiften¬
ed to the degree of having the confiftence offoftilh pap,
it then diffufes a ftrong fmell; but if more water is
added, the fmell is diminifhed, nay even quite diffipated.
Neither does it feem an eafy matter to exhauft that power
of producing fmells which the earth is poffeffed of. E-
very day, during a fortnight, he made cakes of moiftened
earth; and having dried and wetted them over again, he
could not perceive that the earth was lefs fragrant after
all thefe repeated experiments, if it was again wetted.
He further obferved, that this fragrancy does not diffufe
itfdf to anything at a greatdiftance,without being much
diminilhed, and foon entirely gone.—It has been ob¬
ferved, that this exfpiration of the earth ceafes if thun¬
der and ftorms foon follow: while they continue, it be¬
gins to return ; and when over, the fame fragrancy of
the earth for fome hours affe&s the fmell of a man as
he walks along over a confiderable trad of ground.
There is no one, I believe, but has fometimes made
this obfervation ; and hence the earth, when moiftened
to a certain degree, feems to exhale fragrant odours,
and indeed various in various places, as we are fenfible
of from their diverfity. They are for the moft part of
a falubrious quality ; as fome perfons quite faint and
languid in the fummer-heats perceive themfelves won¬
derfully refrelhed, whilft, after rain, they fnuff up the
fragrant odour. In fome places thofe effluvia are per¬
haps bad, and may be the caufes of difeafes.”
This property of emitting a fragrant fmell is like-
wife taken notice of by Dr Home in his Principles of
Agriculture and Vegetation. Some phyficians have
preferibed a bath of earth for the cure of confump-
tive patients; and Dr Solano de Luque was of opinion,
that the earth had the property of abforbing conta¬
gious miafmata into it: but whether it can abforb thefe
miafmata from living bodies or not, it certainly can ab¬
forb them from dead ones ; for a piece of putrid meat
will be much fweetened by lying for a Ihort-time in the
ground. „
From all this we cannot indeed infer, that putrid Power of
air is fweetened by mere earth ; but we difeover what tranfmuta-
is perhaps more important, namely, that though earth tlon in the
is the common receptacle of all putrid matters both ^rt a ert*
animal and vegetable, there is a change made on them
when in it, which cannot be made either by air or win¬
ter. Thus, if the carc^fe of a fmall animal is left to
putrefy in the air, it becomes exceedingly offenfive,
and continues fo from firft to laft. The fame thing
happens if it is left to putrefy in water. But, in earth,
the cafe is quite different. After the carcafe is con-
fumed, the earth Vhich has imbibed all the putrid
fleams, inftead of exhaling an offenfive odour, diffufes
an agreeable one ; and thus we may fee that it is en¬
dued with a power no lefs remarkable than that of at-
I i 2 traftion
252 A G R I C U
[ Theory, traftion or repulfion, and which we may diftinguifh by
' v ' the name of tranfmutation. With regard to water,
the cafe is more evident; for the moft putrid water will
be fweetened by percolation through earth, or even
running in a channel for fome time on its furface ; but
if it contains any impurities of the faline kind, they
will not be feparated, or at lead: in very fmall quan-
tit5r*
Attraction The exiftence of fuch a power as that of tranfmuta-
infufficient tion we will be obliged to own, whatever we imagine
to folve the the vegetable food to confift of; for it is impoflible to
of veeeta-3 ^ve the Phenomena of vegetation by attractions and
Sion. repulfions. If we fuppofe the vegetable food to be
fait, let us attract and repel fait as we will, it remains
fait from firft to laft. Let us fuppofe it water, the
cafe is the fame ; and, by mere attraction, nothing but
mafles of fait, or pools of water, could be produced.
The cafe is the fame on our own hypothefis; for, fup-
pofing plants compofed of the putrid effluvia of others,
and of dead animals, if nature was endued with no
other power than attraction or repulfion, the vegetable
would neceffarily be a corrupted mafs like that of which
it was compofed.—This power, as we have already feen,
refides only in the earth, and in the vegetables them-
felves; air and water can- indeed act as powerful fol-
13 vents, but cannot transform or compound.
Confirma- We mud next confider the nature of thofe different
abovcftheo oPerat'0ns> which, from time immemorial, have been
ry from the Perf°rmed on the earth, in order to caufe it produce
different o- the greated crops of vegetables. If all of thefe (hall
perations ofbe found confpiring to one general purpofe, then the
agriculture, fhorted and mod eafy method of attaining that pur¬
pofe is undoubtedly the mod proper to be pra&ifed in
agriculture, whether it hath been as yet put in execu-
tion or not. Thefe. are,
Fallowing. Frequent ploughing, or fallowing. The imme¬
diate confequences of this is to expofe different quan¬
tities of the foil to the aedion of the air and fun, which
will not fail to exei;t their folvent powers upon it. In
confeqiience of this aedion, the earth is partly reduced
to powder; many of the roots of vegetables, with which
it always abounds, are diffolyed and putrefied ; and the
earth .produced from them mixes with the red, as well
as the effluyia they emit during their diffolution. The
earth foon begins again to exert its prolific powers,
and a crop of vegetables is produced. By a repetition
of the ploughing, thefe are turned with their roots up¬
wards, are expofed to the folvent powers of the air and
light yin confequence of which they die, are putrefied,
and more of the native foil is reduced to powder, and
mixed with them. By a frequent repetition of this
procefs, the foil becomes vadly more tender, and ap¬
proaches to the nature of garden-mould, and its ferti-
lity is confiderably increafed.
The capaci- Lord Kames is of opinion, that the reafon of the
ty of a foil fertility of any foil being increafed by fallowing, is,
to retain that its capacity of retaining water is increafed. But
irejeafedby cannot be admitted; for fo far from being more
fallowing, difpofed to retain water by its pulverifation, the foil is
evidently more difpofed to part with it, either by eva¬
poration, orby fuffering the moifture to percolate thro’
it. In this refpeft it is far inferior to clay; for though
dry garden-mould abforbs water much more quickly
than clay, it alfo dries much fooner, and thus all the
advantage is loft.
L T U R E. Parti.
To thofe who reckon the food of vegetables to con- | Theory.
fift of oils or falts, the operation of fallowing ground ^
muft appear an ufelefs one, as it can tend neither to 0;]s ancj
produce oils nor falts, but to deftroy them. As its falts not the
utility, however, cannot be denied, the favourers oftr^ vfeg
this theory imagine, that the ground, by repeated ope-ta e 00
rations' of this kind, is fitted for attrafting the nitrous
falts from the air: but it is found, that thefe falts can¬
not be attra&ed by earth, or any other fubftance, even
when Ckpofed for a great length of time to the air
with a view to produce falt-petre ; which gives a ftrong
fufpicion againft their exiftence; and even if nitre is
mixed with the foil, it is found to be detrimental, and
will kill or poifon plants inftead of nouriftiing them. 17
2. Overflowing the ground with water.—This is Overflow-
found prodigioufly to increafe the fertility of any foil.
It is well known how much Egypt owes to the annual
overflowing of the Nile ; and even in this country the
overflowing of any ground is found to be attended with
great advantage. This is practifed by Mr Bakewell
of Leicefterfhire, famous for his improvements in the
breed of cattle ; and he finds it fully to anfwer an an¬
nual manuring of any other fort. It is alfo recom¬
mended by Mr Anderfon of Monkfliill, in his Effays on
Agriculture. ,g
The fertilizing quality of water will eafily he ac- Reaf ns of
counted for on the fame principles. When grown ve- increafe
getables are covered with water, their growth, how-£yt^re“e5r_
ever vigorous before, is immediately ftopt, unlefs they flowing,
be of the aquatic kind: they die, are diffolved, and
putrefied; in which cafe, their finer parts are undoubt¬
edly abforbed by the earth : and thus, the floating, as
it is called, of fields with water, anfvvers the purpofe of
fallowing, with very little trouble. This is not all: for
ftagnating water always depofites a fediment, which
mixing'with the diffolved parts. of the vegetables all
over the field, forms an excellent manure ; and when
the water is allowed to run off, the heat of the fun foon
brings the higheft degree of putrefa&ion on the dead
vegetables; the effluvia of which, mixing with the mud
depofited from the water, makes it exceedingly rich.
Upon the fuppofition of oily and faline food for ve- oils ^ fa]ts
getables, this operation muft;. certainly be prejudicial; cannot be
for nothing can fo effeftually deprive any fubftance of the vegeta*
fait as fteeping it in water. Neither will water either ^0£**
depofite oilfrom itfelf, or fuffer it to mix with theground
if accidentally brought to it; nay, though a field were
previoufly impregnated with oil. upon overflowing it
with water great part of the oil would be feparated,
and rife to the top : fo that, in either cafe, this opera¬
tion could not fail to impoverilh land rather than enrich
it; and as vegetables are found to be fupplied with food
in plenty by an operation which muft undoubtedly
tend to take away both oils and falts from them, we
cannot help thinking this, a demonftration, that their.
food is compofed neither of oil nor fait. ao
3. Manuring, or mixing the foil with different fub- Ofmanures,
ftances.—We fa all here confine ourfelves to thofe which and their o-
are of undoubted efficacy, and have their credit efta- pemion*.
blilhed by long experience. Thefe are, 1. lime, chalk,
marie, ihells, or other earths, called by the chemifts
calcareous earths; 2. foot; 3. afhes : 4. dung of dif¬
ferent kinds.—(1.) The lime, chalk, marie, and ftiells,
are all found to be of the fame nature. The marie
differs from the reft, only in having a mixture of clay
along
"art I. AGRICULTURE.
253
Theory, along with its calcareous part. Thefe contain neither
falt nor oil of any kind ; they readily imbibe water,
and as readily part with it. Quicklime, indeed, retains
water very obftinately: but fuch lime as is laid upon
the ground foon returns to the fame ftate in which it
originally was; and powdered limeftone is found to
anfwer as well for the purpofes of manure as that which
has been burnt; fo that here we may conlider them
all as-fubftances of the fame clafs.—If any of thefe
fubftances are mixed with dead animal or vegetable
bodies, they remarkably quicken their diflblution and
corruption, as appears from Sir John Pringle’s expe¬
riments on putrefaftion. When mixed with the foil,
therefore, they mult undoubtedly exert their powers on
fuch fubftances as they find there, in the fame manner
as they do on others; that is, they muft haften their
diflblution and putrefaction, and give the pure vege¬
table mould an opportunity of abforbing their putrid
{teams, and confequently of being fertilized by it in
the fame manner as by putrid fubftances of any kind.
(2.) Thofe who contend for oily and faline principles
in the vegetable food, avail themfelves of the ufefulnefs
of foot as a manure ; which is not only oily of itfelf,
but affords a great quantity of volatile fait, along with
fome neutral fal-ammoniac. It muft be remembered,
however, that not an atom either of volatile fait or fal-
ammoniac can be extrafted from foot without a confi-
derable heat, which no foil can give, nor could any
vegetable bear. Neither doth its oil appear without
a great degree of heat: and though it feels fomewhat
unCtuous to the touch, this is but a mere deception ; for
no true oil, capable of floating on water, can be ob¬
tained from foot without diftillation. It is impoffible,
therefore, that foot can aft upon the foil either as an
oily or a faline fubftance; how far it is capable of dif-
folution by putrefaftion, or being otherwife converted
into an earth, hath not yet been determined by expe¬
riments*, but as it yields, on diftillation, the fame
principles which are obtained from animal or putrefied
vegetable fubftances, it is probable that foot enriches
the ground in the fame manner that they do. (3.) The
* ufe of aflies in manure is likewife. urged as an argument
for the food of vegetables being of a faline nature ; as
it is known, that the common alkaline falts are procured
by lixiviating the alhes of wood and other vegetables.
Experience, however, fhows us, that aflies are "no lefs
fit for manure after the fait is extrafted from them than
before. Indeed, if there be any difference, it is in fa¬
vour of the waftied aflies. The alkali itfelf, though in
Sir John Pringle’s experiments it was found to be an/i-
feptic, or a refifter of putrefaftion, is neverthelefs a
powerful diffolvent; and as it muft foon lofe its alkaline
properties when mixed with the earth, in confequence
of the univerfal exiftence of the vitriolic acid, thofe
fubftances which it has diffolved will be more difpofed
to putrefaftion than before, and confequently tend to
fertilize the ground in the manner we have already de-
fcribed. The waflied aflies are feptics, or promoters
• of putrefaftion, and confequently aft in the fame man¬
ner as chalk or limeftone. (4.) All kinds of dung are
fo much difpofed to putrefaftion, that it is difficult to
imagine any other way in which they can be ferviceable
to vegetation than by their putrid effluvia.—People in¬
deed may dream of imaginary falts in dung; but if
they knew or, confidered the difficulty of procuring
fait of any kind from dung, they would probably al- Theory. ^
ter their fentiments. The volatile falts procured from ^*
this as well as other animal matters, are mere creatures
of the fire: putrid urine produces them indeed w'ithout
heat, but fcarce any other animal fubftance. Never¬
thelefs, other putrid fubftances will fertilize the ground
as well as urine, and therefore muft aft in fome other
way than by their falts. Though Dr Prieftley’s experi¬
ments had never been made, we could have formed no
other rational fuppofition concerning the manner in
which putrid fubftances fertilize the earth, than what
we have already done ; but as he has fhown that vege¬
tables are prodigioufly increafed in bulk by the mere
contaft of thefe putrid {teams, where no faline fub¬
ftances could have accefs to them, we cannot help think¬
ing this a decifive experiment concerning the manner
in which the ground is fertilized by manuring with
dung or other putrid fubftances. 41
We ftiall conclude this part of the fubjeft with an ac- Efferts of
count of fome experiments concerning the effefts of fa- ^ine fe¬
line fubftances on the growth of vegetables. The fol- growing”
lowing are related by Lord Karnes, in his Gentleman vegetables.
Farmer.—“ A number of Jerufalem artichokes were fet
in pots filled with pure fand. One plant was kept as
a* ftandard, being nourifhed with W’ater only. Other
plants of the fame kind were nouriftied with water in
which fait of tartar, a fixed alkali, was diffolved.
Thefe grew more vigoroufly than the ftandard plant;
but, by reiterated waterings, there came to be fuch an
accumulation of the fixed alkali among the fand, as to
make the plants decay, and at laft to die. Some plants
were nouriftied with water in which fal-ammoniac, a
volatile alkali, was diffolved. Thefe grew alfo well
for fome time; but, like the former, were deftroyed by
frequent reiterations of it. Weak lime-water promo¬
ted the growth of its plants more than common water.
But water completely faturated with quicklime, pro¬
ved more noxious than that which contained a fixed al¬
kali, though lefs than that which contained a folution
of volatile alkali.—Urine promoted, for a long time,
the growth of its plants; and the mofi putrid appeared
to have the flrongeji effett; but at laft it totally deftroyed
them. Water impregnated with putrid animal and ve¬
getable fubjlances, did more effectually promote the growth '
of its plants than any other folution ; and in every ffage
of the procefs appeared to be falutary.,>
With regard to other faline fubftances, there are not Common
many experiments which can be depended upon con- - Se¬
cerning their qualities as a manure. Mr Anderfon re-tua ^ a
lates an experiment made with common fait; the fuccefsmanUre’
of which, we apprehend, may juftly enough be taken
as a fpecimen of what is to be expefted from manures
of a fimilar kind.—He marked out a circle of fix feet
diameter in the middle of a grafs-field, which he di-
ftinguiflied by driving a ftake in its centre. All over
this circle he ftrewed common fait, which, about the
ftake, lay near an inch thick on the ground. In this
ftate he left it to the operations of nature. The grafs
fprung up as ufual, neither better nor worfe about the
ftake than in the reft of the field, and the place where
the circle was could be diftinguifhed only by the ftake,
wdiich was left there for fome years.
Upon thefe experiments we need make very few ob-
fervations. They are fo much in favour of our theory,
that they feetn made on purpofe to confirm it. The-
fixed i
254 A G R I C U
Theory, fixed alkali employed in Lord Karnes’s experiments
would firft exert its folvent powers on fuch heteroge¬
neous fubftances as it met with among the fand; for no
fand can be fuppofed to be perfe&ly free of thefe. As
long as it exerted its ftrength on thefe only, the plant
would thrive, for the reafons we have already men¬
tioned ; but having exhaufted the fmall quantity of fub*
fiances contained in the fand, it would next attack the
plant itfelf,which confequentlywoulddecayanddie. The
fame effedls would neceffarily follow in a greater degree
from ftrong lime-water which contains lime in its cau-
flic date ; for this is a more powerful folvent than fix¬
ed alkali itfelf, and would not fail to deftroy every thing
it touched; nor is it at all improbable that the plant
would feem to grow vigoroufly by the diflblution of
part of its own roots, more nourilhment being by this
means given to thofe which remained found.—Volatile
alkali is likewife a powerful folvent: but, by reafon of
its volatility, would exert its cauflic power on the plant
fooner than either lime or fixed alkali; and according¬
ly it feems to have been the moft deftruclive of any
thing that was tried. It feems owing to this, that pu¬
trid urine at laft deftroyed the plants whofe growth it
fo long promoted; while water impregnated with other
putrid matters, which yield no volatile alkali without
heat, proved always falutary.
End to be From all this, we may draw the following general
kept In view conclufion, viz. That the principal end which a farmer
by a farmer, to keep in view, is to impregnate his ground as
much as poffible, with fubflances which either actually
contain putrid matter, or which are in their own na¬
ture feptic, or promoters of putrefaction. To impreg¬
nate the air with putrid effluvia is impoffible : and tho’
it could be done, would be highly dangerous; for how¬
ever falutary fuch effluvia may be to vegetables, nothing
can be more fatal to mankind. The putrid fubftances,
therefore, can only be ufed by mixing them with the
earth ; and in whatever manner they can be moft per¬
fectly, and in the greateft quantity, mixed with the
foil, there the beft crops may be expefted.
Sect.III. Of the different Soils, and the Ma¬
nures moft proper for each.
Ri theft foils According to the theory we have juft now laid
muft at laft down, the richett foil muft be that which contains the
be Impove- greateft quantity of putrid matter, either animal or ve-
j-fthed. getable ; and fuch is the earth into which animal and
vegetable fubftances refolve themfelves. Was this earth
to be had in perfection, it is evident it could not ftand
in need of manure of any kind, or be in the leaft enrich¬
ed by it; for containing an immenfe quantity of putrid
matter, it would freely communicate it to the vegetables
planted in it, which would grow in the moft luxuriant
manner, without requiring any other care than that of
keeping them conftantly fupplied with water. If we
fuppofe the crop left upon the ground to putrefy and
■.mix with the earth as before, the foil will contain the
fame quantity of putrid matter the fecond year that it
did the firft, and be equally prolific: but if the crop
is removed to another place, and nothing is brought
back to enrich the ground in its Head, it is evident,
that it will contain lefs of the true vegetable food the
fecond year than it did the firft, and confequently be
lefs prolific. For fome time, however, the difference
L T U R E. Parti.;
will not be perceptible ; and people who are in poffef- Theory,
fion of fuch ground may imagine that they enjoy a
foil which will be perpetually fertile ; but long expe¬
rience has taught us, that the richeft foils will at laft
be exhaufted by repeated cropping without manure, as
according to our theory they ought to be.
Where the ground has been fuffered to remain un¬
cultivated for many ages, producing all that time fuc-
culent plants which are eafily putrefied, and trees, the
leaves of which likewife contribute to enrich the ground
by their falling off and mixing with i.t, the foil will in
a manner be totally made up of pure vegetable earth,
and be the richeft, when cultivated, that can be ima¬
gined. This was the cafe with the lands of America.
They had remained uncultivated perhapsTince the Crea¬
tion, and were endowed with an extraordinary degree
. of fertility; neverthelefs we are affured by one who went
to America in order to purchafe lands there, that fuch
grounds as had been long cultivated, were fo much ex¬
haufted, as to be much worfe than the generality of cul- 25
tivated grounds in this country. Here, then, we have One fpecies
an example of one fpecies of poor foil; namely, one ^fS-oved01*1
that has been formerly very rich, but has been deprived, j,y ];mye>
by repeated cropping, of the greateft part of the vege¬
table food it contained. The farmer who is in poffef-
fion of fuch ground, would no doubt willingly reftore it
to its former ftate; the prefent queftion is, What muft
be done in order to obtain this end ? We have men¬
tioned feveral kinds of manures which long practice has
recommended as ferviceable for improving ground: we
fhall fuppofe the farmer tries lime, or chalk; for, as
we have already feen, their operations upon the foil
muft be precifely the fame. This fubftance, being of
a feptic nature, will aft upon fuch parts of the foil as
are not putrefied, or but imperfeftly fo; in confequence
1 of which, the farmer will reap a better crop than for¬
merly. The feptic nature of the lime is not altered by
any length of time. In ploughing the ground, the lime
is more and more perfeftly mixed with it, and gradually
exerts its power on every putrefcible matter it touches.
As long as any matter of this kind remains, the far¬
mer will reap good crops: but when the putrefcible
matter is all exhaufted, the ground then becomes per¬
feftly barren; and the cauftic qualities of the lime are
moft unjuftly blamed for burning the ground, and re¬
ducing it to a caput mortuuni; while it is plain, the
lime has only done its office, and made the foil yield
all that it was capable of yielding. ^
When ground has been long uncultivated, producing A'fpecies of
all the time plants, not fucculent, but fuch as are very poor foil
difficultly diffolved, and in a manner incapable of pu- meliorated
trefaftion; there the foil will be exceffively barren, and ^ imei
yield very fcanty crops, tho’ cultivated with the greateft
care. Of this kind are thofe lands covered with heath,
which are found to be the moft barren of any, and the
moft difficultly brought to yield good crops. In this
cafe lime will be as ferviceable, as it was detrimental
in the other: for by its feptic qualities, it will con¬
tinually reduce more and more of the foil to a putrid
ftate; and thus there will be a conftant fucceffion of
better and better crops, by the continued ufe of lime
when the quantity firft laid on has exerted all its force.
By a continued ufe of this manure, the ground will be
gradually brought nearer and nearer to the nature of gar¬
den-mould ; and, no doubt, by proper care, might be
2 made
*art I.
Theory.
*7.,
: ioiis,
low refto-
ed.
A G R I C U
made as good as any: but it will be as great a miftake
to imagine, that, by the ufe of lime, this kind of foil
may be rendered perpetually fertile, as to think that
the other was naturally fo; for though lime enriches
this foil, it does fo, not by adding vegetable food to it,
but by preparing what it already contains ; and when
all is properly prepared, it muft as certainly be exhauft-
ed as in the other cafe.
Here, then, we have examples of two kinds of poor
foils; one of which is totally deftroyed, the other
greatly improved, by lime, and which therefore require
very different manures; lime being more proper for the
laft than dung; while dung, being more proper to reftore
an exhaufled foil than lime, ought only to be ufed for
the firft. Befxdes dunging land which has been ex-
haufted by long cropping, it is of great fervice to let it
lie fallow for fome time : for to this it owed its ori¬
ginal fertility ; and what gave the fertility originally,
cannot fail to reftore it in fome degree.
By attending to the diftin&ion between the reafons
for the poverty of the two foils juft now mentioned, We
will always be able to judge with certainty in what cafes
lime is to be ufed, and when dung is proper. The
mere poverty of a foil is not a criterion whereby we can
judge ; we muft confider what hath made it poor. If
L T U R E.
255
that lime alone, upon a poor foil, will, in many cafes, Theory,
produce a much greater and more lafting degree of
fertility than dung alone.”
Thus far Mr Anderfon’s experience is exaftly con¬
formable to the theory we have laid down, and what
ought to happen according to our principles. He men¬
tions, however, fome fafts which feem very ftrongly to
militate againft it; and indeed he himfelf feems to
proceed upon a theory altogether different.
“ Calcareous matter alone (fays he) is not capable Query con-
of rearing plants to perfection ;—mould is necef- cerning the
fary to be mixed with it in certain proportions,nature a
before it can form a proper foil. It remains, ’ 01 *
however, to be determined, whaf is the due pro¬
portion of thefe ingredients for forming a proper
foil.
“ We know that neither chalk, nor marie, nor lime,
can be made to nourifh plants alone; and foils are
fometimes found that abound with the two firft of thefe
to a faulty degree. , But the proportion of calcareous
matter in thele is fo much larger than could ever be
produced by art, where the foil was naturally deftitute
of thefe fubftances, that there feems to be no danger of
erring on that fide. Probably it would be much eafier
to correft the defeCts of thofe foils in which calcareous
it is naturally fo, we may almoft infallibly conclude, that matters fuperabound, by driving earth upon them :
Mr Ander¬
fon’s opini-
ion concern-
iing lime.
it will become better by being manured with lime. If
it is artificially poor, or exhaufted by continual crop¬
ping, we may conclude that lime will entirely de-
ftroy it.—We apprehend, that it is this natural kind of
poverty only which Mr Anderfon fays, in his Effays on is
Agriculture, may be remedied by lime; for we can fcarce
think that experience would dire& any perfon to put
lime upon land already exhaufted. His words are,
“ Calcareous matters a61 as powerfully upon land
that is naturally poor, as upon land that is more
richly impregnated with thofe fubftances that tend
to produce a luxuriant vegetation.”
“ Writers on agriculture have long been in the cu~
ftom of dividing manures into two claffes, viz. Enriching^
manures, or thofe that tended direftly to render the
foil more prolific, hpwever fterile it may be; among the
foremoft of which was dung: Exciting manures, or thofe
that were fuppofed to have a tendency to render the
foil more prolific, merely by aCling upon thofe enrich¬
ing manures that had been formerly in the foil, and
giving them a new ftimulus, fo as to enable them to
operate anew upon that foil which they had formerly
fertilized. Ih which elafs of ftimulating manures, lime
was always allowed to hold the foremoft place.
“ In confequence of this theory, it would follow,
that lime could only be of ufe as a manure when ap¬
plied to rich foils—and when applied to p6or foils,
would produce hardly any, or even perhaps hurtful,
effe&s.
“ I will frankly acknowledge, that I myfelf was fo
far impofed upon by the beauty of this theory, as to
be hurried along with the general current of mankind,
in the firm perfuafion of the truth of this obfervation,
and for many years did not fufficiently advert to thofe
fads that were daily occurring to contradict this
theory.—I am now, however, firmly convinced, from
manure, than is generally imagined ; as a very fmall
proportion of it fometimes affords a very perfeft foil,
I fhall illuftrate my meaning by a few examples. 3o
" Near Sandfide, in the county of Caithnefs, there Examples
pretty extenfive plain on the fea-coaft, endowedol foil per*
with a moft Angular degree of fertility. In all feafons
it produces a moft luxuriant herbage, although it never
got any manure fince the creation; and has been for
time immemorial fubjeCted to the following courfe of
crops.
“ I. Bear, after once ploughing from grafs,.
ufually a good crop.
“ 2. Bear, after once ploughing, a better crop
than the firft.
“ 3. Bear, after once ploughing, a crop equal,,
to the firft.
“ 4. 5. and 6, Natural grafs, as clofe and rich
as could be imagined, might be cut, if
the poffeffor fo inclined, and would yield
an extraordinary crop of hay each year.
“ After this the fame courfe of cropping is renewed.
The foil that admits of this Angular mode of farming, ,
appears to be a pure incoherant fand, deftitute of the
fmalleft particle of vegetable mould; but, upon exa¬
mination, it is found to confift almoft entirely of broken
ftiells: the fine mould here bears fuch a fmall propor¬
tion to the calcareous matter, as to be fcarce percep¬
tible, and yet it forms the moft fertile foil that ever I
yet met with.
“ I have feen many other links (downs) upon the
fea-fhore, which produced the moft luxuriant herbage,
and the clofeft and fweeteft pile of grafs, where they
confifted of Ihelly fand ; which, without doubt, derive
their extraordinary fertility from that caufe.
“ A very remarkable plain is found in the ifiand of
Jir-eye, one of the Hebrides. It has been long em-
repeated obfervations, that lime, and other calcareous ployed as a common; fo that it has never been difturb-
manures, produce a much greater propdrtional improve¬
ment upon poor foils than fuch as are richer.—And
ed by the plough, and affords annually the moft luxu¬
riant crop of herbage, confifting of white clover, and
other
256
AGRICULTURE.
Part L
Theory, other valuable pafture-graffes, that can be met with
any where. The foil confifts of a very pure flielly fand.
“ From thefe examples, I think it is evident, that a
very fmall proportion of vegetable mould is fufficient to
render calcareous matter a very rich foil. Perhaps,
however, a larger proportion may be necdlary when it
is mixed with clay than with fand ; as poor chalky
foils feem to be of the nature of that compofition.
To thefe examples brought by Mr Anderfon, we
may add fome of the fame kind mentioned by Lord
Kames. His lordfhip having endeavoured to eltablilh
the theory of water being the only food of plants, tho*
he himfelf frequently deviates from that theory, yet
thinks it poffible, upon fuch a principle, to make a foil
.perpetually fertile.
“ To recruit (fays he) with vegetable food, a foil
impoverilhed by cropping, has hitherto been held the
only objeft of agriculture. But here opens a grander
objeft, worthy to employ our keeneft induftry, that of
making a foil perpetually fertile. Such- foils actually
exifl; and why Ihould it be thought, -that imitation
here is above the reach of art ? Many are the inftan-
ces of nature being imitated with fuccefs. Let us not
defpair, while any hope remains; for invention never
was exercifed upon a fubjeft of greater utility. The
attempt may fuggeft proper experiments : it may open
new views: and if we fail in equalling nature, may we
not, however, hope to approach it? A foil perpetually
fertile muft be endowed with a power to retain moilture
fufficient for its plants; and at the fame time muft be
of a nature that does not harden by moifture. Cal¬
careous earth promifes to anfwerboth ends: it prevents
a foil from being hardened by water; and it may pro¬
bably alfo' invigorate its retentive quality. A field
•that got a fufficient dofe of clay-marle, carried above
30 fucceffive rich crops, without either dung or fallow.
Doth not a foil fo meliorated draw near to one per¬
petually fertile ? Near the eaft fide of Fife, the coaft
for a mile inward is covered with fea-fand, a foot deep
or fo ; which is extremely fertile, by a mixture of fea-
ffiells reduced to powder by attrition. The powdered
ffiells, being the fame with fhell-marle, make the fand
retentive of moifture ; and yet no quantity of moifture
will unite the fand into a folid body. A foil fo mix¬
ed, feems to be not far diftant from one perpetually
fertile. Thefe, it is true, are but' faint effays ; but
what will not perfeverance accompliffi in a good caufe t”
Having thus, in a manner, pofitively determined
with Mr Anderfon, that no dofe of calcareous matter
can poffibly be too great, we cannot help owning our-
^ t felves furprifed on finding his Lordlhip expreffing him-
Inconfiften- feT as follows : “ An over-dofe of ffiell-marle, laid per-
cy in Lord haps an inch, and an inch and a half, or two inches
Kiinns s thick, produces, for a time, large crops ; but at laft it
renders the foil a caput mortuum, capable of neither
corn nor grafs; of which there are too many inftances
in Scotland ; the fame probably would follow from an
over-dofe of clay-marle, ftone-marle, or pounded lime-
ft°ne-”—To account for this, he is obliged to make a
fuppofition directly contrary to his former one ; name¬
ly, that calcareous matter renders the foil incapable of
retaining water. This phenomenon, however, we think
is folved upon the principles, above laid down, in a fa-
tisfa&ory manner, and without the leaft inconfiftency.
As to rendering foils perpetually fertile,, we cannot
help thinking the attempt altogether chimerical and Theory.,
vain. There is not one example in nature of a foil
perpetually fertile, where it
air, and the rain which falls „
cited examples can by no means be admitted as proofs foih chimel
of perpetual fertility. We know, that the grafs on the ricul. j
banks of a' river is. much more luxuriant than what
grows at a diftance : the reafon is, that the water is at¬
tracted by the earth, and communicates its fertilizing
qualities to it; but was the river to be dried up, the
grafs would foon become like the reft. Why Ihould
not the ocean have the fame power of fertilizing plains
near its ffiores, that rivers have of fertilizing fmall fpots
near their banks ? We fee, however, that it hath not;
for the fea-lhores are generally fandy and barren. The
reafon of this is, that the. waters of the ocean contain a
quantity of loofe acid *; and this acid is poifonous to *S&tWater^
plants; but abftrafting this acid part, we hefitate not
to affirm, that fea-water is more fertilizing than river-
water. It is impoffible to know how far the waters of
the ocean penetrate under ground through a fandy
foil. Where they meet with nothing to abforb their
acid, there the ground is quite barren ; but in palling
through an jmmenfe quantity of broken Ihells, the cal¬
careous matter, we are very certain, will abforb all the
acid; and thus the foil will be continually benefited by
its vicinity to the ocean. Ail the above fields, there¬
fore, are evidently fupplied with nourilhment from the
ocean': for if the falt-water has fufficient efficacy to
render fields which are in its neighbourhood barren,
why ffiould it not render them fertile when the caufe
of barrennefs is removed from its waters ?
After all, the field in Caithnefs, mentioned by Mr
Anderfon, feems to have been perpetually fertile only
in grafs; for though the fecond year it carried a better
crop of bear than it did the firft, yet the third year
the crop was worfe than the fecond, and only equal to
the firft. Had it been ploughed a fourth time, the crop
would probably have been worfe than the firft. Ground
is not near fo much exhaufted by grafs as corn, even
though the crop be cut, and carried off; and ftill lefs,
if it only feeds cattle, and is manured by their dung;
which appears to have been the cafe with this field.
Lord Kames, indeed, mentions fields in Scotland, that,
paft memory, have carried fucceffive crops of wheat,
peafe, barley, oats, without a fallow, and without a ma¬
nure; and particularifes one on the river Carron, of
nine or ten acres, which had carried 103 crops of oats
without intermiffion, and without manure : but as we
are not acquainted with any fuch fields, nor know any
thing about their particular fituation, we can form no
judgment concerning them. ^ f
Befides the two kinds of foils above mentioned, there Clay and t\
are others, the principal ingredient of which is clay orf.mdy foils!;
fand. The firft of thefe is apt to be hardened by the
heat of the fun, fo that the vegetables can fcarce pe- ,
netrate it in fuch a manner as to receive proper nou-
riffiment. The fecond, if it is not fituated fo as to re¬
ceive a great deal of moifture, is very apt to be parch-
ed up in fummer, and the crop deftroyed; nor has it
fufficient adhefion to fupport plants that have few roots
and grow high. From thefe oppofite qualities, it is
evident, that thefe two foils woul4 be a proper manure
for one another; the clay would give a fufficient de¬
gree of firmnefs to the fand, and the fand would break
tins
has no fupply but from the _ 3* >:
it. The above re-^u*S
Part. I. A G R I C U
Theory, the too great tenacity of the clay. According to Dr
Home’s experiments, however, fand is the worit manure
for clay that can be ufed. He recommends marie moft.
To reduce clay-ground as near as poffible to the form
of pure vegetable mould, it mufl. firll be pulverized.
This is moft effe&ually performed by ploughing and
harrowing; but care muft be taken not to plough it
whilft too wet, otherwife it will concrete into hard clots
which can fcarcely be broken. After it is pulverized,
however, fome means muft be taken to keep it from
concreting again into the fame hard maffes as before.
According to Lord Karnes, though clay, after pulve*
rization, will concrete into as hard a mafs as before, if
mixed with water $ yet if mixed with dunghill juice, it
will not concrete any more. Lime alfo breaks its tenaci*
ty, and is very ufeful as a manure for this kind of foil.
Fertility of The conclufion we wifh the practical farmer to draw
the earth li- from our theory is, That there is a certain limit to the
xnited. fertility of the earth, both as to duration and to de¬
gree, at any particular time : that the nearer any foil
approaches to the nature of pure garden-mould, the
nearer it is to the moft perfect degree of fertility ; but
that there are no hopes of keeping it perpetually in fuch
a ftate, or in any degree of approximation to it, but
by conftant and regular manuring with dung. Lime,
chalk, marie, &c. may be proper to bring it near to
I, this ftate, but are abfolutely unfit to keep it continu¬
ally fo. They may indeed for feveral years produce
large crops; but the more they increafe the fertility
for fome years, the fooner will they bring on an abfo*
lute barrennefs; while regular manuring with plenty of
dung will always enfure the keeping up-the foil in
good condition, without any occafion for fallow. What
we have faid concerning the ufe of lime, &c. applies
likewife to the practice of frequent ploughing, though
in a lefs degree. This tends to meliorate ground that
is naturally poor, by giving an opportunity to the ve¬
getable parts to putrefy; but when that is done, it
tends to exhauft, though not fo much as lime. A ju¬
dicious farmer will conftantly ftrive to keep his lands
always in good condition, rather than to make them
fuddenlymuch better; left a few years fhould convince
him that he was in reality doing almoft irreparable mif-
chief, while he fancied himfelf making improvements.
As for the ridiculous notions of ftimulating the ground
by faline manures, we hope they will never enter the
brain of any rational practitioner of agriculture.
Sect. IV. Of the different kinds of Vegetables
proper to be raifed with a view to the Meliora¬
tion of Soil.
Soil pulve- The methods of meliorating foils, which we have
fized by mentioned above, confifting of tedious and laborious
certain ve- operations that yield no return at firft, it is natural for
geta es. a farrner to wJfh for f0me method of meliorating his
ground, and reaping crops at the fame time. One very
confiderable ftep towards the melioration of ground is,
its pulverization. This is accomplifhed by repeated
ploughings (a), as already mentioned; efpecially ifper-
xormed in autumn, that the ground may be expofed to
Vql. I. Part I.
L T U R E. 257
the winter’s froft; but thefe ploughings yield no crop Theory.
as long as the field is not fown. By planting in the y J
field, however, thofe vegetables whofe roots fwell to a
confiderable bulk, the ground muft conftantly be afted
upon by the fwelling of their roots in all direftions; and
thus the growing of the crop itfelf may be equal, or fupe-
rior, in efficacy to feveral ploughings, at the fame time
that the farmer enjoys the benefit of it. The plant molt
remarkable for the {welling of its roots is the potato;
and by none is the ground meliorated more, or even fo
much. They are not, however, equally proper for all
foils. In clay they do not thrive, nor are palatable ;
but in hard gravelly or fandy foils, they grow to a large
fize, and are of an excellent quality. Turnips likewife
contribute to meliorate the ground, by the fwelling of
their roots, though not fo much as potatoes. They
have this advantage, however, that they will thrive in
almoft any foil. In clay ground, peafe and beans thrive
exceedingly well, and therefore are proper in this kind
of foil as a preparatory for other kinds of grain. Thefe
pufh their roots deep into the ground, and cover it
with their leaves more than other crops; fo that the
fun has not fo much accefs as when it is covered with
other kinds of grain. Wherever any of thefe kinds
of vegetables are raifed, it is obfervable, that more or
lefs blacknefs is communicated to the foil: an evident
fign of its melioration ; this being the colour of the
true vegetable mould, or loamy foil, as it is called.
Befides the above-mentioned plants, carrots, parfnips,
cabbages, and all thofe vegetables which fink their
roots deep in the ground, anfwer the fame purpofe of
loofening and pulverifing the earth; but as they will
not thrive but on ground already well cultivated, they
cannot be raifed to any advantage for the purpofe of
meliorating a poor foil.
It hath been cuftomary in many places, particular¬
ly in England, to fow turnip, peafe, buck-wheat, [&c.
and then to plough them down for manuring the land.
This being fimilar to that operation of nature by
which {he renders the uncultivated foils fo exceedingly
fertile, cannot fail of being attended with lingular ad¬
vantages ; and might be looked upon as preferable even
to driving dung on the land to fatten it, was it not
attended with the entire lofs of a crop for that year.
Sect. V. Of defraying Weeds.
What we have already faid regarding the cultivation
of the foil, refpedts only the fitting it for producing
all kinds of vegetables indiferiminately. Experience,
however, fliows, that the ground is naturally much
more difpofed to produce and nourilh fome kinds of
vegetables than others; and thofe which the earth
feems moft to delight in, are commonly fuch as are of
very little ufe to man; but if nfeglefted, will increafe to
fuch a degree, as entirely to deftroy the plants intended
to be raifed, or at leaft hinder them from coming to
perfection, by depriving them of nourilhment. The
clearing the ground of weeds, therefore, is an article
no lefs neceffary in agriculture, than the difpofing it to
produce vegetables of any kind in plenty.
K k The
(a) This, however, muft be underftood with fome limitation: for it appears from experience, that many
light and thin foils receive detriment rather than advantage from frequent ploughings; particularly in fummer,
when'the fun exhales the nutritive particles in great abundance,
A G
C U
Perennial
weeds,how
deftroyed.
38
Broom,
'furze, &c.
how de¬
ftroyed.
C I
The weeds may be divided, according to the time of
their duration, into annual, or fuch as fpring from a:
feed, and die the fame year;, and perennial, that is, fuch
as are propagated by the roots, and lail for a number
of years. The firft kind are the leaft noxious, and molb
eafily deftroyed. For this purpofe it will be fufficient
to let them fpring up till near the time of ripening their
feed, and then plough them down before it comes ttr
maturity. It is alfo of fervice to deftroy fuch weeds
as grow in borders, or neglefted corners,, and frequent¬
ly fcatter their feeds to a great diftance ; fuch as the
thiftle, dandelion, rag-weed, &c.. for thefe are fufficient
to propagate their fpecies through a deal of ground;
as their feeds are carried about with the wind to very
confiderable diftances. A farmer ought alfo to take
care, that the fmall feeds of weeds, feparated from corn
in winnowing, be not. fown again upon the ground;
for this certainly happens when they are thrown upon
a dunghill; becaufe, being the natural offspring of the
earth, they are not eafily deftroyed. The beft method
of preventing any mifchief from this caufe, would be
to burn them.
Perennial weeds cannot be effectually deftroyed, but
by removing the roots from the ground, which is often
a matter of ibme difficulty. Many of thefe roots ftrike
fo deep in the ground, that they can fcareely be got
out. The only method that can be depended upon in
this cafe, is frequent ploughing, to render the ground
as tender as- poffible ; and harrowing with a particular
kind of harrow, v/hich fhall hereafter be defcribed, in
order to colleft thefe pernicious roots. When collec¬
ted, they ought to be dried and burnt, as the only
effectual method of infuring their doing no further
mifchief.
There is a particular fpecies of weed, peculiar only
to grafs-lands, of a foft fpongy nature, called^S^, which
it is found very difficult to exterminate. Where the land
can be conveniently tilled, this weed may be deftroyed
by covering k with a crop of peafe, potatoes, &c. or,
paffing a heavy roller over the gound will be of great
fervice; for fog owes its origin to too great a laxity of
the foil, and wilLnot grow upon firm ground.
Befides thefe kinds of weeds which are of an herba¬
ceous- nature, there are others which are woody, and
grow to a very confiderable fize; fuch as broom, furze
or whins, and thorns. Broom is an evergreen fttrub,
that thrives beft in fandy foil; and there it grows fo vi-
goroufly, as fcarce to admit any grafs under it. It pro¬
pagates by feed which grows in pods; and thefe, when
fully ripe, break with violence, fcattering the feeds all
around. Thus, a field which is overgrown with
broom, befides the old plants, always contains an in¬
finite number of young ones; fo that though the old
plants die when cut over, a frefh crop conftantly fprings
up. It may, however, be deftroyed by frequent plough¬
ing and harrowing, in the fame manner as other peren¬
nial weeds are; for it does not for fome time carry any
feed, and the frequent ploughing encourages the vege¬
tation of all thofe that are already in the ground, which
cannot fail of being deftroyed by frequent repetitions of
the operation. Another method of deftroying broom,
is by pafturing the field where it grows with fheep. A
few of the old bullies may be left as a Ihelter, and thefe
will be in a good meafure prevented from fpreading by
the cropping of the Iheep. Thefe animals are very fond
L T U R E. Part. E
of broom, and greedily devour every young Ihoot; fo Theory. ,
that if any remain after the firft year, there will not be “
a veftige the fecond. If this method of extirpating
broom is equally effectual with that of frequent plough¬
ing, it is certainly much more profitable, as there is
no food more nourilhing to Iheep than young broom.
Broom, however, is faid to have a fingular effedf upon
fheep : it makes them drunk fo effectually, that when
heated with a little driving, they tumble over, and lie
without motion.
The ’whin is a fine evergreen Ihrub, carrying a fweet-
fmelling flower all the year round. It propagates both
by feed and by its roots, which fpread fometimes to the
diftance of 10 or 12 feet; and hence, when once efta-
blifhed, it is with difficulty extirpated. The beft me¬
thod is to fet fire to the whins in frofty weather; for
froft has the eftedt to wither whins, and make them
burn readily. The Humps muft then be cut over with
a hatchet; and when the ground is well foftened by
rain, it may be ploughed up, and the roots taken out
by a harrow adapted to that purpofe. If the field is
foon laid down to grafs, the whins will again fpring up
in great abundance, from the feeds, and fmall parts of
the roots left in the ground. In this cafe, pafturing
with flieep is an effectual remedy ; as they are no lei’s
fond of young whins than of young broom; and if
there are a fufficient number, they will not leave a
Angle plant above ground. But if grafs is not imme¬
diately wanted, the moft effectual method of clearing a
field of whins, .is by reiterated ploughings.
The thorn, or bramble, fpreads its roots very wide,
and at the fame time finks them deep in the earth.
Though cut in the winter, ft rifes, and comes to fuch
perfection as to carry fruit in fummer. It can only
be extirpated by ploughing up the ground, and collec¬
ting the roots.
Sect.VI. Of the mojl proper kinds of Vegetables to
be raifed for the purpofes of feeding Cattle.
Though this muft be an article of the utmoft con-
fequence to every farmer, we do not find that it has been
much confidered. Mr Anderfon feems to have been the
firft writer on agriculture who hath properly attended to
this fubjeft ; and what he hath wrote upon it, is rather
a catalogue of defiderata, than any thing elfe : and
indeed the defiderata on this fubjedt are fo many and fo
great, that we muft acknowledge ourfelves very un¬
able to fill them up.— To attain to a competent
knowledge in this refpeft, the following things muft beQyjj-^e, c.f ij
taken into confideration. ( i.) The wholefomenefs of the food re-
the food for cattle, with regard to health and ftrength, qoifite foi- |!
or fatnefs. (2.) The quantity that any extent,ofcaU*e‘
ground is capable of yielding. (3.) The quantity ne-
ceffary to feed the different kinds of cattle. (4.) The
labour of cultivation; and, (5.) The foil they require
to bring them to perfection, and the effedt they have
upon it.
With regard to the wholefomenefs, it is plain, that
as the natural food of wild cattle is the green fucculent
plants they meet with all the year round, food of this
kind, could it be had, muft be preferable to hay ; and
accordingly we find that cattle will always prefer fuc¬
culent vegetables where they can get them. To find
AGRICULTURE. 359
plants of tliis kind, and having proper qualities in o- giving putrefcent food to his cattle. It is well known, Theory.
J ther refpedts, we muft fearch among thofe which con- what a prodigious difference there is in the health of' 1 ~'
tinue green all the year round, or come to their great- the human fpecies when fed on putrid meats, in .conrw
eft perfeftion in the winter-time.—Of thefe, cabbages parifon of what they enjoy when fupplied with food of
bid fair for holding the firft place ; both as being very a contrary nature ; and why may there not be a dif-
fucculent, and a very large quantity of them growing ference in the health of beafts, as well as of men, when
upon a fmall fpace of ground. In Mr Young’s Six in fimilar circumftances ?—It is alfo very probable,,
Months Tour, we have an account of the produce of that as carrots are more folid than cabbages or tur-
cabbages in many different places, and on a variety of nips, they will go much farther in feeding cattle than
foils. The produce by Mr Crow at Keplin, on a clay either of them. The above-mentioned example of the
foil, was, on an average-of fix years, 35 tons per acre; hog feems fome kind of confirmation of this ; he being
by Mr Smelt at the Leafes, on a fandy gravel, 18 tons fed, for ten days together, with 21 lb. lefs weight of
per acre ; by Mr Scroop at Danby, on an average of carrots than what an ox devoured of cabbages and hay
fix years, 37 tons per acre: and the general average in one day. There is a great difproportion,' it muft
of all the accounts given by Mr Young, is 36 tons per be owned, between the bulk of an ox and that of a
acre. hog ; but we can fcarce think that an ox will eat as
Cabbages, however, have the great inconveniency much at a time as ten hogs. At Parlington in York-
of fometimes imparting a difagreeable flavour to the fhire, 20 work-horfes, four bullocks, and fix milk-cows,
milk of cows fed with them, and even to the fleftr of were fed on the carrots that grew on three acres, from
other cattle. This, it is faid, may be prevented by the end of September till the beginning of May; and
carefully picking off the decayed and withered leaves : the animals never tafted any other food but a little hay.
and very probably this is the cafe; for no vegetable The milk was excellent, and 30 hogs were fattened
inclines more to putrefaction than this; and therefore upon what was left by the other cattle. AS
particular care ought to be taken to pull off all the Potatoes likewife appear to be a very palatable food Potatoes,
r- leaves that have any fymptoms of decay. Dr Prieftley for all kinds of cattle ; and not only oxen, hogs, &c.
s found that air was rendered noxious by a cabbage-leaf are eafily fed by them, but even poultry. The cheap-
remaining in it for one night, though the leaf did not nefs of potatoes compared with other kinds of food for
fhow any fymptom of putrefaction.—For milk-cows, cattle, cannot well be known, as, befides the advantage
probably the cabbages might be rendered more proper of the crop, they improve the ground more than any
food by boiling them. other known vegetable. According to a correfpondent
The culture of the turnip-rooted cabbage has lately of the Bath Society *, “ roafting pork is never fo moift * Letters and
!)-been much pra&ifed, and greatly recommended, parti- and delicate as when fed with potatoes, and killed from Vapers on
cularly for the purpofe of a late fpring feed ; and feems the barn-doors without any confinement. For bacon dgrlculturr,
indeed to be a moft important article in the farming and hams, two bufhels of pea-meal fhould be well in- ar£‘ ^ * 1U‘
ceconomy, as will be fhown in its proper place.
corporated with four bufhels of boiled potatoes, which
Tun.ips. Turnips likewife produce very bulky crops, though quantity will fat a hog of twelve ftone {fourteen pounds
far inferior to thofe of cabbages. According to Mr to the ftone). Cows are particularly fond of them; ,
Young’s calculation, the fineft foil does not produce half a bufhel at night, and the fame proportion in the
v above five tons of turnips per acre ; which is indeed a morning, with a fmall quantity of hay, is fufficient to
very great difproportion : but pofiibly fuch a quantity keep three cows in full milk ; they wall yield as much
of turnips may not be confirmed by cattle as of cab- and as fweet butter as the beft grafs. In fattening
bages; an ox, of 80 ftone weight, eat 210 lb. of cab- cattle, I allow them all they will eat; a beaft of about
bages in 24 hours, befides feven pound of hay. 35 ftone will require a buftiel per day, but wall fatten
‘ Garrets. Carrots are found to be an excellent food for cattle one-third fooner than on turnips. The potatoes (hould
of all kinds, and are greatly relifhed by them. In a be clean wafhed, and not given until they are dry.
rich fand, according to Mr Young’s account, the pro- They do not require boiling for any purpofe but fat'
duce of this root was 200 bufnels per acre. In a finer tening hogs for bacon, or poultry ; the latter eat them
foil, it was 640 bufhels per acre. A lean hog was fat- greedily. I prefer the champion potato to any fort
ted by carrots in ten days time: he eat 196 lb.; and I ever cultivated. They do not anfwer fo well for
his fat was very fine, white, firm, and did not boil a- horfes and colts as I expedted (at leaft they have.not
way in the dreffing. They were preferred to turnips with me), though fome other gentlemen have approved
by the cattle ; which having tafted the carrots, foon ©f them as fubftitutes for oats.”
became fo fond of them, as difficultly to be made-to The above-mentioned vegetables have all of them the
eat the turnips at all. It is probable, indeed, that property of meliorating, rather than exhaufting the foil;
carrots will make a more wholefome food for cattle and this is certainly a very valuable qualification : but
than either cabbages or turnips, as they are ftrongly an- carrots and cabbages will not thrive except in foils that
tifeptic; infomuch as to be ufed in poultices for correc- are already well cultivated; while potatoes and tur-
ting the fanies of cancers. It is probably owing to nips may be ufed as the firft crops of a foil with great
this, that the milk of cows fed on carrots is never found advantage. In this refpeft, they are greatly fuperior
to have any bad tafte. Six horfes kept on them thro’ to the others; as it may be difagreeable to take up the
the winter without oats, performed their work as ufual, beft grounds of a farm with plants defigned only for
and looked equally well. This may be looked upon food to cattle.
as a proof of their falubrity as a food ; and it certain- Buck-wheat (Polygonum fogopyrum) has been late-1
ly can be no detriment to a farmer to be,fo much ver- ly recommended as an ufeful article in the prefent as wheat,
fant in medical matters, as to know the impropriety of well as other refpedts. It has been chiefly applied to the
, K k 2 feeding
46
26o
AGRICULTURE.
Part L
Theory.
Whins an
excellent
food for
48
Unmet,
mended by
Sir James
Caldwell,
feeding of hogs, and efteemed equal in value to barley ;
it is much more ealily ground than barley, as a malt-
mill will ground it completely. Horfes are very fond
of the grain ; poultry of all forts are fpeedily fattened
by it; and the bloffom of the plant affords food for
bees at a very opportune feafon of the year, when the
meadows and trees are moftly ftripped of their flowers.
Probably the grain may hereafter be even found a ma¬
terial article in diflillation, fhould a fufficient quantity
be raifed with that view. From the fuccefs of fome
experiments detailed in the Bath Society Papers, and
for which a premium was beftowed, it has been infer¬
red, that this article ought in numerous cafes to fuper-
fede the practice of fummer-fallowing.
Whins have lately been recommended as a very pro¬
per food for cattle, efpecially horfes ; and are recom¬
mended by Mr Anderfon in a particular manner.
They have this advantage, that they require no culture,
and grow on the very worfl: foil; but they are trouble-
fome to cut, and require to be bruifed in a mill con-
ftrutted for this purpofe ; neither is the ground at all
meliorated by letting whins grow upon it for any length
of time. Notwithftanding thefe difadvantages, how¬
ever, as whins "continue green all the year round, and
when bruifed will afford an excellent fucculent food,
which feems pofleffed of itrongly invigorating qualities,
they may be looked upon as the cheapeft winter-food
that can poffiblybe given to cattle.—According to the
calculations of Mr Eddifon of Gateford, a Angle acre,
well cropped with whins, will winter Ax horfes : at
three or four years growth, the whole crop fhould be
taken, cut clofe to the ground, and carried to the
mill; in which the whins are to be bruifed, and then
given to the horfes. Four acres ought to be planted,
that one may be ufed each year, at the proper age to
be cut; and he reckons the labour of one man fuffi¬
cient for providing food to this number of horfes. He
fays they all prefer the whins to hay, or even to corn.
The herb called burnet hath likewife been recom¬
mended as proper food for cattle, on account of its
being an evergreen ; and further recommended, by
growing almoft as faff in winter as in fummer. Of this
herb, however, we have very various accounts. In a
letter addrefled by Sir James Caldwell, F. R. S. to the
Dublin Society, the culture of this plant is ftrongly
recommended' on the authority of one Bartholomew
Rocque, farmer at Walham-Green, a village about three
miles fouth-weft of London.
What gave occaAon to the recommendation of this
plant, was, that about the year 1760., Mr Wych, chair¬
man of the committee of Agriculture of the London
Society for the encouragement of arts, manufaftures,
and commerce, came to Rocque ( who was become very
eminent by the premiums he had received from the fo-
ciety), and told him, he had been thinking, that as
there are many animals which fubflll wholly upon the
fruits of the earth, there muft certainly be fome plant
or herb At for them that naturally vegetates in winter;
otherwife we mull believe the Creator, inAnitely wife
and good,. to have made creatures without providing
for their fubfiftence : and that if there had been no
fuch plants or herbs, many fpecies ,of animals would
have perifhed before we took them out of the hands of
nature, and provided for them dry meat at a feafon,
when, indigenuous plants having been indifcriminately
4;
excluded, under the name of weeds, from cultivated Theory.
Aelds and places fet apart for natural grafs, green or ' v'~"’
freflr meat was no longer to be found.
Rocque allowed the force of this reafoning ; but faid,
the knowledge of a grafs, or artiflcial pallure, that
would vegetate in winter, and produce green fodder for
cattle, was loft ; at leaft, that he knew of no fuch
plant.—Mr Wych, however, knowing how very great
the advantage would be of difcovering a green fodder
for winter and early in the fpring, wrote to Bern, and
alfo to fome conftderable places in Sweden, ftating the
fame argument, and afliing the fame queftion. His an-
fwers to thefe letters were the fame that had been given
by Rocque. They owned there muft be fuch plant,
but declared they did not know it.
Mr Wych then applied again to Rocque ; and defl-
red him tofearch for the plant fo much deftred, and fo.
certainly exifting. Rocque fet about this fearch with
great afliduity; and ftnding that a pimpernel, called
burnet, was of very fpeedy growth, and grew near as
fall in winter as in fummer, he took a handful of it
and carried it into his liable, where there were five hor¬
fes ; every one of which eat of it with the greateft eager-
nefs, fnatching it even without firft fmelling it. Upon
the fuccefs of this experiment he went to London, and
bought all the burnet-feed he could get, amounting to
no more than eight pounds, it having been only ufed in
falads; and he paid for it at the rate of 4 s. a pound.
Six of the eight pounds of feed he fowed upon half an
acre of ground, in March, in the year 1761, with a
quarter of a peck of fpring-wheat, both by hand. The
feed being very bad, it came up but thin. However, he
fowed the other two pounds in the beginning of June,.
upon about Ax rood of ground : this he mowed in the
beginning of Auguft ; and at Michaelmas he planted
off the plants on about 20 rood of ground, giving each
plant a foot every way, and taking care not to bury
the heart. Thefe plants bore two crops of feed the
year following; the firft about the middle of June, the
fecond about the middle of September ; but the June
crop was the bell. The year after, it grew very rank,
and produced two crops of feed, both very good. As
it ought not to be cut after September, he let it Hand
till the next year; when it Iheltered itfelf, and grew
very well during all the winter, except when there was
a hard froft; and even during the froft it continued
green, though it was not perceived to grow. In the
March following it covered the ground very well, and ;
was fit to receive cattle.
If the winter is not remarkably fevere, the burnet,,
though cut in September, will be 18 inches long in .
March; and it may be fed from the beginning of Fe¬
bruary till May: if the cattle are taken, off in May,.
there will be a good crop of feed in the beginning of
July. Five weeks after the cattle are taken off, it may
be removed, if that is preferred to its Handing for feed; .
it grows at the rate of an inch a-day, and is made into .
hay like other grafs. It may be mown three times in
one fummer, and Ihould be cut juft before it begins to
flower. Six rood of ground has produced 1150 pounds
at the firft cutting of the third year after it was fowed ;
and, in autumn 1763, Rocque fold -no lefs than 300 ,
bulhels of the feed.
According to Rocque, the foil in which burnet flou-~
rifhes heft, is a dry gravel; the longeft drought never
hurts;. I
Fart I.
AGRICULTURE.
2.61
Theory, hurts it: and Sir James Caldwell afferts, that he faw a
u—"V ' very vigorous and exuberant plant of this kind, growing
from between two bricks in a wall in Rocque’s ground,
in fummer, which may be cut three or four times Theory,
without injuring the plant. The leaves are more pa-
latable to cattle than moft other garden plants, and are
without any communication with the foil; for he had found to be very wholefome. The farmers in thofe
cut away all the fibres of the root that had ftretched parts of Germany where it is chiefly cultivated, we are
downward, and penetrated the earth, long before.
Burnet was found equally fit for feeding cows, flieep,
and horfes; but the flieep mull not be fuffered to crop
it too clofe. Though no feed was left among the hay.
told, prefer this fpecies of beet, for feeding cattle, to
cabbages, principally becaufe they are not fo liable to
be hurt.by worms or infefts ; but they think they are
not fo nourifliing as turnips, potatoes, or carrots, and
yet it proved nourifhing food ; and Rocque kept a that cattle are not nearly fo foon fattened by this root
horfe upon nothing elfe, who, at the time of writing
the account, was in good heart, and looked well. He
affirmed alfo, that it cured horfes of the diftemper call¬
ed the greafe, and that by its means he cured one
which was thought incurable ; but fays,; it is only the
firft crop which has this effect.
as by carrots, parfnips, or cabbages. It has even been
afferted, that this root affords lefs nourifhment than
any of thofe that have been commonly employed for
feeding cattle. This does not correfpond with the
pompous accounts with which the public has been en¬
tertained. Upon the. whole,iiowrever, it is a plant which
Burnet sec- This is the fubftance of Sir James Caldwell’s letter feems to deferve the attention of our farmers; as on fome
feoned an to the Dublin Society, at leaft as to what regards the
•fondb^Mr cu^ture burnet;; and it might reafonably be expeft-
Mille/and ec^ that a plant* v/hofe ufe was recommended to the
Mr Ander-public with fo much parade, would foon have come into
foils, and in particular circumftances, it may prove a
very ufeful article for the above purpofes. ^
In Mr Anderfon’s effays, we find it recommended to Sheeps fefy-
make trial of fome kinds, of grafles, which probably cue-grafi.
univerfal efteem. We were furprifed, therefore, on look- would not only anfwer for freih fodder during the
ing into Mr Miller’s Didfionary, to find the following
words, under the article Poterium :—“ This plant has
ter, but might alfo be cut for hay in fummer. This
particularly the cafe with that fpecies called Jheep's
of late been recommended by perfons of little /kill, to be fifcue grafs. “ I had (fays he) a fmall patch of this
fown as a winter pabulum for cattle : but whoever will
give themfelves the trouble to examine the grounds
where it naturally grows, will find the plants left un¬
eaten by the cattle, when the grafs about them has been
cropped to the roots; befides, in wet winters, and in
w in winter 1773 ; which, having been cut in the
month of Auguft or September preceding, was faved
from that period, and had advanced before winter to
the length of five or fix inches; forming the clofeft
pile that could be imagined. And although we had
mended.
ilrong land, the plants are of ffiort duration, and there- about fix weeks of very intenfe frofly with fnow ; and
fore very unfit for that purpofe: nor is the produce about other fix weeks, immediately fucceeding that,
fufficient to tempt any perfon of fldll to engage in its of exceeding keen frofl every night, with frequent
—it -1 e— t -i-_r r__. - --i thaws in the day-time, without any fnow, during which
time ahnofl: every green thing was deftroyed ; yet this
little patch continued all along to retain as fine a ver¬
dure as any meadow in the month of May ; hardly a
point of a leaf having been withered by the uncommon
feverity of the weather... And as this grafs begins to
white beet is recommended as a moft excellent food vegetate very early in the fpring, I leave the reader to
culture ; therefore I wifh thofe perfons to make trial
of it in fmall quantities^ before they embark largely in
thefe new fchtmes.”—Mr Anderfon, too, in his Effays
on Agriculture, mentions the produce of burnet being
fo fmall, as not to be worth cultivating.
White beet Upon the authority of Mr Rocque, likewife, the
for cows; that it vegetates during the whole winter,
confequently is very forward in the fpring ; and that
the moft profitable way of feeding cows is, to mow this .
herb, and give it to them green, all the fummer. It
grew in Rocque’s-garden, during a very great drought,
no lefs than four feet high, from the 30th of May to
judge what might be the value of a field of . grafs of
this kind in thefe circumftances.” ^
Of another kind of grafs, called purple fefcue, Mr Purple f „ ..
Anderfon gives the following character. “ It retain- cue-
ed its verdure much better than rye-grafs during the
winter-feafon ; but it had more of its points killed by
the 3d of July; which is no more than one month and the weather than the former. It likewife rifes in the
Root of
Scarcity,
four days. In fummer it grows more than an inch a-
day,. and is beft fown in March : a buftiel is enough
for an acre, and will not coft more than ten {hillings.
It thrives beft in a rich, deep, light foil: the ftalks
are very thick and fucculent; the cows ftiould therefore
eat them green..
Another fpecies of beet (Beta cicla), the Mangel
Wurzel, or Root of Scarcity, as it has been called, has
fpring, at leaft as early as rye*grafs.”
This ingenious farmer has alfo made experiments
on the culture of thefe and feveral other kinds of graf-
fes; which being very well worthy of attention, we
{hall here infert.
1. Purple fefcue-grafs. “Although this grafs is very
often found in old paftures, yet as it has but few flower-
ftalks, and as it is greedily eat by all domeftic animals,
been lately extolled as food both for man and cattle ; thefe are feldom fuffered to appear ; ,fo that it ufually
but, after all, feems only to deferve attention in the
latter view. It is a biennial-plant; the root is large
and flefhy, fometimes a foot in diameter. It rifes above
the ground feveral inches, is thickeft at the top, taper¬
ing gradually downward. The roots are of various
colours, white, yellow, and red ; but thefe laft are al¬
ways of a much paler colour than beetrave. It is good
fodder for cows, and does not communicate any tafte
to the. milk. It produces great abundance of leaves
remains there unperceived. But it feems to be better
able to endure the peculiar, acrimony of the dung of
dogs than almoft any other plant; and is therefore of¬
ten to be met with in dog-hills, as I call the little hills
by road-fides where dogs ufually pifs and dung: and
as it is allowed to grow there undifturbed, the farmer
may have an opportunity of examining the plant, and ,
becoming acquainted with its appearance.
“ The leaves, are long and fmall, and appear to be
round!£h,.
J2<)2
AGRICULTURE. Parti.
Theory, roundifh, fometliing like a wire ; but, upon examina-
' v——' tion, they are found not to be tubulated like a reed or
ru(h ; the Tides of the leaf being only folded together
from the middle rib, exactly like the ftrong bent-grafs
on the fea-fhore. The flower-ftalk is fmall, and branches
out in the head, a little refembling the wild-oat; only
the grains are much fmaller, and the ear does not fpread
full open, but lies bending a little to one fide. The
ftalks are often fpotted with reddifh freckles, and the
tops of the roots are ufually tinged with the fame co¬
lour ; from whence it has probably obtained its diftinc-
tivename of Fefhica rubra, or red [purple) fefaie.
“ It is often to be met with in old garden-walks; and,
as its leaves advance very quickly after cutting, it may
ufually be difcovered above the other gralfes, about a
week or fortnight after the walks are cut. Nor do
they feem to advance only at one feafon, and then ftop
and decay, like the rye-grafs; but continue to advance
during the whole of the fummer, even where they are not
cut; fo that they fometimes attain a very great length.
Laft feafoni, (1774,)! meafured a leaf of this grafs, that
fprung up in a neglefted corner, which was four feet
and four inches in length, although not thicker than
a fmall wire. It is unnecelfary to add, that thefe leaves
naturally trail upon the ground, unlefs where they meet
with fome accidental fupport; and that if any quan¬
tity of it is fuffered to grow for a whole feafon, with¬
out being eat down or cut, the roots of the leaves are
almoft rotted, by the overfhadowing of the tops of the
other leaves, before the end of the feafon.
Appearance “ This is the appearance and condition of the plant
in its culti- in its native fituation : as it Is feldom that it is difco-
vated Hate, vered but in pretty old paftures, and as irt that ftate
it carries only a very few feed-ftalks, it was with fome
difficulty that I could celleft a fmall handful of the feed,
which I carefully fowed in a fmall patch of garden-
mould, to try if it could be eafily.cultivated. It came
up as quickly as any other kind of grafs, but was at
firft: as fmall as hairs: the leaves, however, advanced a-
pace ; and were, before autumn, when the grain with
which they had been fowed was cut down, about 16
or 18 inches in length: but having been fown very
thin, it was neceffary to pick out fome other kinds of
grafs that came up amongft it, left it might have
been choaked by them. Early next fpring it advanced
with prodigious A’igour, and the tufts that were form¬
ed from every .feed became exceeding large; fo that it
quickly filled the whole ground. But now the leaves
were almoft as broad as thofe of common rye-grafs,
and the two fides only inclined a little towards one
another from the mid-rib, without any appearance of
roundnefs. In due time a great many feed-ftalks fprung
out, which attained very nearly to the height of four
feet, and produced feeds in abundance ; v/hich may be
.as eafily faved as thofe of common rye-grafs.
“ The prodigious difference between this plant in its
native and cultivated ftate amazed me ; but it was with
a good deal of fatisfa&ion that I found there would be
no difficulty of procuring feeds from it, which I had
much doubted of at firft. It would feem, that nature
hath endowed this plant with a ftrong generative power
during its youth, which it gradually lofes as it advan¬
ces in age (for the difference perceived in this cafe
could not be attributed to the richnefs of the foil);
and.that, on the contrary, when it was old, the leaves
advanced with an additional vigour, in proportion to Theory,
the declining ftrength of the flower-ftalks: for the 'r—J.
leaves of the young plant feldom exceed two feet,
whereas numbers of the old leaves were near four feet
in length.
“ From thefe peculiarities in the growth of this plant,
it would feem to promife to be of great ufe to the far¬
mer; as he could reap from a field of it, for the firft two
or three years, as great a weight of hay as he could
obtain from any of the culmiferous graffes (thofe bearing
a long jointed ftalk) ; and, if he meant afterwards to
pafture it, he would fuffer no inconveniences from the
flower-ftalks; and the fucculent leaves that continue to
vegetate during the whole fummer, would at all times
furnilh his cattle with abundance of wholefome food.
It has alfo been remarked, that this grafs rifes as early
in the fpring as rye grafs; and continues green for the
greateft part of winter, which the other does not. It
is moreover an abiding plant, as it feems never to wear
out of the ground where it has once.been eftablifhed.
On all which accounts, it appears to me highly to me¬
rit the attention of the farmer; and well deferves to
have its feveral qualities, and the culture that beft agrees
with it, afeertained by accurate experiments. s$
2. “ Sheeps fefeue grafs, or fejluca ovina, is much Sheeps fef-
praifed by the Swedifh naturalifts for its Angular value as cue deferi-
a pafture-grafs for {keep ; this animal being reprefent- e *
ed as fonder of it than of any other grafs, and fatten¬
ing upon it more quickly than on any other kind of
food whatever. And indeed, the general appearance
of the plant, and its peculiar manner of growth, feems
very much to favour the accounts that have been given
•us of it.
“ This plant is of the fame family with the former,
and agrees with it in feveral refpefts; although they
may be eafily diftinguifhed from one another. Its
leaves, like the former, in its natural ftate, are always
rounded, but much fmaller; being little bigger than
large horfe-hairs, or fwines-briftles, and feldom exceed
fix or feven inches in length. But thefe fpring out of
the root in tufts, fo clofe upon one another, that they
refemble, in this refpeft, a clofe hair-brufh more than
any thing elfe I know : fo that it would feem natural¬
ly adapted to form that thick ftiort pile of grafs in
which ftieep are known chiefly to delight. Its flower-
ftalks are numerous, and fometimes attain the height
of two feet; but are more ufually about 12 or 15 inch-
es hi£h' . , . .57
“ Upon gathering the feeds of this plant, and fowingits appear-
them as the former, it was found that they fprung up ance when
as quickly as any other kind of grafs ; but the leaves cuhivated.
are at firft no bigger than a human hair. From each
fide fprings up one or two of thefe hair-like filaments,
that in a ftiort time fend out new off-fets, fo as quickly
to form a fort of tuft, which grows larger and larger,
till it at length attains a very large fize, or till all the
intervals are clofed up, and then it forms the clofeft
pile of grafs that it is poffible to imagine. In April
and May it pufhed forth an innumerable quantity of
flower-ftalks, that afforded an immenfe quantity of
hay; it being fo clofe throughout, that the feythe
could fcarcely penetrate it. This was allowed to ftand
till the feeds ripened; but the bottom of the ftalks
were quite blanched, and almoft rotted for want of air
before that time.
<< This
Part L
w
a
[ycr. P
AGRICULTURE.
26
“ This was the appearance that it made the firit year
after it was fowed ; but I have reafon to think, that, af¬
ter a few years, it likewife produces fewer feed-ftalks,
and a greater quantity of leaves than at fir ft. But
however that may be, it is certain, that if thefe are eat
down in the fpring, it does not, like rye-grafs, perfift
in a continued tendency to run to feed; but is at once
determined to pufti forth a quantity of leaves without
almoft any ftalks at all: and as all domeftic animals,
but more efpecially fheep, are extremely fond of this
grafs, if they have liberty to pafture where it grows,
they bite it fo clofe as never to fuffer almoft a Angle feed-
ftalk to efeape them; fo that the botanift will often
fearch in vain for it, when he is treading upon it with
his feet. The heft way to difeover it in any pafture,
is to fearch for it in winter, when the tufts of it may
be ealily diftinguifned from every other kind of grafs,
by their extraordinary clofenefs, and the deep green
colour of the leaves.
“ It feems to grow in almoft any foil; altho’ it is ima¬
gined that it would flourifti beft in a light fandy foil,
as it can evidently live with lefs moifture than almoft
any other kind of grafs; being often feen to remain in
the fods that have been employed in coping for ftone-
dykes, after all the other graffes that grew in them
have difappeared. It is likewife found in poor barren
foils, where hardly any other plant can be made to grow
at all; and on the furface of dry worn-out peat-mofs,
where no moifture remains fufficient to fupport any o-
ther plant whatever: but in neither of thefe fituations
does it thrive ; as it is there only a weak and unfxghtly
plant, very unlike what it is when it has the good for¬
tune to be eftabliftied upon a good foil; although it is
feldomer met with in this laft ftate than in the former.
“ I will not here repeat what has been already faid
about the particular property that this plant poflelfcs of
continuing all winter ; nor point out the benefits that
the farmer may reap from this valuable quality.— He
need not, however, expect to find any verdure in winr
ter on fuch plants as grow upon the loofe mofly foil
above-mentioned; for, as the froft. in winter always
hoves up the furface of this foil, the roots of the plants
are fo lacerated thereby, as to make it, for fome time
in the fpring, to all appearance dead. Nor will he of¬
ten perceive much verdure in winter upon thofe plants
that grow upon poor hungry foils, which cannot afford
abundant nourifhment to keep them in a proper ftate
of .vegetation at all times : but. fuch plants as grow
on earthen dykes, which ufually begin to vegetate with
vigour when the autumnal rains come on, for the moft
part retain their verdure at that feafon almoft as well as
if they were in good garden-mould.
“ I have been very particular in regard to this plant;
becaufe, in as far as my obfervations have yet gone, it
promifes on many accounts to make a moft valuable ac-
quifition to the farmer, and therefore juftly demands a
very particular {hare of his attention.”
3. The holcus lanatus> or creeping foft-grafs of Hud-
fon.—This is confidered by our author as one of the
moft valuable kinds of meadow-graffes; its pile being
exceedingly clofe, foft, and fucculeht. It delights
much in moifture, and is feldom found on dry ground,
unlefs the foil is exceeding rich. It is often found on
thofe patches near fprings, over which the water fre¬
quently flaw's; and may be known by the uncommon
2
foftnefs and fucculence of the blade, the lively light Theory,
green colour of the leaves,, and the matted intertexture v
of its roots. But, notwithftanding the foftnefs of its
firft leaves, when the feed-ftalks advance, they are rough
to the touch, fo that the plant then affumes a very dif¬
ferent appearance from what we would have expedled.
The ear is' branched out into a great number of fine ra¬
mifications fomewhat like the oat, but much fmaller.—
This kind of grafs, however, would not be eafily culti¬
vated, on account of a kind of foft membrane that
makes the feeds adhere to the ftalk, and to one another,
after they are feparated from it, as if they were inter¬
mixed with cobweb, fo that, it is difficult to ge.t them
feparated from the ftalk,'or tofpread readily in fowing.
It fpreads, however, fo faft by its running roots, that
a fmall quantity fowed very thin, would be fufficient t®
ftock a large field.in a ftiort time..
Thefe. are the kinds, of grajfes, properly fo called,
which have not as yet been cultivated, that Mr An-
derfon thinks the moft likely to be of value; but, be-
fides thefe,. he recommends the following, of tire pea-
tribe. (,0
I* Milk-vetch, liquorice-vetch, or milkwort. This Milk-vetcr
plant, in fome refpefts, very much refembles the com¬
mon white clover; from-the top of the root a great
number of ftioots come out in the fpring, fpreading a-
long the furface of the ground every way around it ;
from which arife a great many clutters of bright yel¬
low flowers, exaftly refembling thofe of the common
broom. Thefe are fueceeded by hard round pods, fil¬
led with fmall kidney-fhaped feeds. From a fuppofed
refemblance of a clufter of thefe pods to the fingers of
an open hand,, the plant has been fometimes called
ladies-fingers. By others it is called crow-toes, from a
fancied refemblance of the pods to the toes of a bird.
Others, from the appearance of the bloffom, and the
part where the plant is found, have called it feal, im- .
properly fell-broom. It is found plentifully almoft e-
very where in old grafs-fields ; -but as .every fpecies of
domeftic animals eat .it, almoft,in preference to any o-
ther plant, it is feldom allowed to come to the flower
in pafture-grounds, unlefs where they have been acci¬
dentally faved from the cattle for fome time ; fo that
it. is only about the borders of corn-fields, or the fides
of inclofures to which cattle have not accefs, that we
have an opportunity, of obferving. iu As it has been
imagined that the cows which feed on-thefe paftures,
where this plant abounds, yield a quantity of rich milk,
the plant has, from that circumftance, obtained its moft
proper Englifti name of milk-vetch. gr
One of the greateft recommendations of this, plant Its good
is, that it grows in poor barren ground, where almoft <lua“,^es•'
no other plant can live. It has been obferved in ground
fo poor, that even heath, or ling (erica communis^,
would fcarcely grow; and upon bare obdurate clays,
where no other plant could be made to vegetate ; in-
fomuch that the furface remained entirely uncovered,
unlefs where a. plant of this kind chanced to be efta-
bliftied ;. yet even in .thefe unfavourable circumftances,
it flouriftied with an uncommon degree of luxuriance,
and yielded as tender and .fucculent, though not fuch
abundant (hoots, as if . reared in the richeft manured
fields. In dry barren fands, alio, where almoft no o-
ther plant could be made to live, it has been found to
fend out fuch a number of healthy (hoots all round, as'
':t>4- AGRICU LTURE. Part I.t
, Theory- to cover the earth with the clofeft and mcft beautiful
'v carpet that can be defired.
The flalks of the milk-vetch are weak and flender,
To that they fpread upon the furface of the ground, nn-
lefs they are fupported by fome other vegetable. In
ordinary foils they do not grow to a great length, nor
produce many flowers; but in richer fields the Talks
grow to a much greater length, branch out a good
deal, but carry few or no flowers or feeds. From thefe
qualities our author did not attempt at firll to cultivate
it with any other view than that of pafture; and, with
this intention, fowed it with his ordinary hay feeds,
expefting no material benefit from it till he defifted
from cutting his field. In this, however, he was a-
greeably difappointed ; the milk-vetch growing, the
firft feafon, as tall as his great clover, and forming ex¬
ceeding fine hay; being fcarce diftinguilhable from lu¬
cerne, but by the flendernefs of the ftalk, and propor¬
tional fmallnefs of the leaf.
Another recommendation to this plant is, that it is
’perennial. It is feveral years after it is fowed before
it attains to its full perfe&ion ; but, when once efta-
blifiled, it probably remains for a great number of
years in full vigour, and produces annually a great
quantity of fodder. In autumn 1773, Mr Anderfon
cut the ftalk from an old plant that grew on a very in¬
different foil; and after having thoroughly dried it, he
found that it weighed 14 ounces and a half.
The ftalks of this plant die down entirely in winter,
and do not come up in the fpring till the fame time
’that clover begins to advance ; nor does it advance ve¬
ry faft, even in fummer, when once cut down or eat
over : fo that it feems much inferior to the abovemen-
tioned graffes; but might be of ufe to cover the worft
parts of a farm, on which no other vegetable could
62, thrive.
’Yellow 2. The commonyelhv) vetchling,(Lathyrus pratenjis')
vetchling. or everlajiing tare, grows with great luxuriance in
ftiff clay foils, and continues to yield annually a great
weight of fodder, of the very beft quality, for any
length of time. This is equally fit for pafture, or
hay; and grows with equal vigour in the end of fum¬
mer as in the beginning of it; fo would admit being
paftured upon in the fpring, till the middle, or even
the end of May, without endangering the lofs of the
crop of hay. This is an advantage which no other
plant except clover poffeffes ; but clover is equally un¬
fit for early pafture or for hay. Sain-foin is the only
plant whofe qualities approach to it in this refpeft, and
the yellow vetchling will grow in fuch foils as are ut¬
terly unfit for producing fain-foin.—It is alfo a peren¬
nial plant, and increafes fo faft by its running roots,
that a fmall quantity of the feed would produce a fuf-
ficient number of plants to fill a whole field in a very
ihort time. If a fmall patch of good ground is fowed
with the feeds of this plant in rows, about a foot di-
ftance from one another, and the intervals kept clear of
weeds for that feafon, the roots will fpread fo much as
to fill up the whole patch next year; when the ftalks
may be cut for green fodder or hay. And if that
patch were dug over in the fpring following, and the
roots taken out, it would furnifti a great quantity of
plants, which might be planted at two or three feet
diftance from one another, where they would probably
overfpread the whole field in a ftiort time.
No 7.
3. The common blue tare feems more likely than Theory. ;
the former to produce a more nourilhing kind of hay,'
as it abounds much more in feeds; but as the ftalks B;ue
come up more thinly from the root, and branch more
above, ifdoes not appear to be fo well adapted for a
pafture-grafs as the other'. The leaves of this plant
are much fmaller, and more divided, than thofe of the
other ; the ftalks are likewife fmaller, and grow to a
much greater length. Though it produces a great
quantity of feeds, yet the fmall birds are fo fond of
them, that, unlefs the field was carefully guarded, few ■ J
of them would be allowed to ripen. ^ II
4. The Vicia fepium, purple everlajiing, or bujh-vetch. Bulh-vetcMj
Our author gives the preference to this plant beyond
all others of the fame tribe for pafture. The roots
of it fpread on every fide a little below the furface
of the ground, from which, in the fpring, many ftems ;|]
arife quite clofe by one another 5 and as thefe have a
broad tufted top covered with many leaves, it forms as
clofe a pile as could be defired. It grows very quick¬
ly after being cut or cropt, but.does not arrive at any
great height; fo that it feems riiore proper for paftu-
rage than making hay; altho’, upon a good foil, it will
grow fufliciently high for that purpofe ; but the ftalks
grow fo clofe upon one another, that there is great dan¬
ger of having it rotted at the root, if the feafon ftiould
prove damp. It feems to thrive beft in a clay foil. , -
Befides thefe, there are a variety of others of the fame EvcrlaflinJir
clafs, which he thinks might be ufeful to the farmer, pea.
The common garden everlafting pea, cultivated as a
flowering-plant, he conje&ures, would yield a prodi¬
gious weight of hay upon an acre; as it grows to the
height of ten or twelve feet, having very ftrong ftalks,
that could fupport themfelves without rotting till they
attained a great height. ^ |i
One other plant, hitherto unnoticed, is recommend-Achillxa
ed by our author to the attention of the farmer; it millefolium
is the common yarrow, (Achillea millefolium), or hundred-
leaved grafs. Concerning this plant,' he remarks, that,
in almoft every fine old pafture, a great proportion of
the growing vegetables with which the field is covered,
confifts of it; but the animals which feed there are fo
fond of the yarrow, as never to allow one feed-ftalk of
it to come to perfection. Hence thefe feed-ftalks are
never found but in negleCted corners, or by the fides of
roads; and are fo difagreeable to cattle, that they are
never tafted ; and thus it has been erroneoufly thought
that the whole plant was refufed by them. — The leaves
of this plant have a great tendency to grow very thick
upon one another, and are therefore peculiarly adapted
for pafturage. It arrives at its greateft perfection in
rich fields that are naturally fit for producing a large
and fucculent crop of grafs. It grows alfo upon clays;
and is among the firft plants that ftrike root in any
barren clay that has been lately dug from any confi-
derable depth; fo that this plant, and thiftles, are ufual-
ly the firft that appear on the banks of deep ditches
formed in a clayey foil. All animals delight to eat it;
but, from the dry aromatic tafte it poffeffes, it would
feem peculiarly favourable to the conftitution of ftieep.
It feems altogether unfit for hay. ^
Befides thefe plants, which are natives of our own>iirUcerfiejh,
country, there are others, which, though natives of a
foreign climute, are found to thrive very well in Bri¬
tain ; and have been raifed with fuch fuccefs by indi- |
viduals, 11
A G R I c u
viduals, as highly to merit the attention of every fanner.
' Among thefe the fir it place is claimed by lucerne.
This is the plant called medica by the ancients, be-
Caufe it came originally from Media, and on the culture
of which they bellowed fuch great care and pains. It
hath a perennial root, and annual ftalks, which, in good
foil, rife to three feet, or fometimes more in height; its
leaves grow at a joint like thofe of clover ; the flowers
which appear in June, are purple, and its pods of a
ferew-like fhape, containing feeds which ripen in Sep¬
tember. All forts of domeilic cattle are fond of this
plant, efpecially when allowed to eat it green, and black
L T U R. E. 265
ces, it is very apt to rot; one part of it over/hadowing Theory,
another in fuch a manner as to prevent the accefs of
freih air; upon which putrefaction foon enfues,. as has
been already obferved with regard to the fefeue graffes. 70
In grafs, or any herbaceous plant, where the leaves Smat in
are only wanted, this over luxuriancy cannot be called Srain'
a difeafe, but is a very definable property; but in any
kind of grain, it is quite otherwife. Dr Home, in his
Principles of Agriculture and Vegetation,claflesthe/mui
in grain among the difeafes arifing from this caufe. He
is of opinion, that too great an abundance of juices in a
vegetable will produce difeafes fimilar to thofe occa-
cattle may be fed very well with the hay made from jt; fioned by repletion in animal-bodies; viz. ftagnations,
68
Timothy-
but an excefsof this food isfaid to be very dangerous.
Lucerne has the property of growing very quickly
after it is cut down, infomuch that Mr Rocque has
mowed it five times in a feafon, and Mr Anderfon af¬
firms he has cut it no lefs than fix times. It is, how¬
ever, not very eafily cultivated; in confequence of which
it fometimes does not fucqeed 5 and as it dies entirely
in the winter, it is perhaps inferior to the fefeue graffes
already mentioned, which, tho’ defpifed and neglefted,
might probably yield as rich a crop as lucerne, with¬
out any danger of a mifearriage.
Another grafs was brought from Virginia, where it
, is a native, and fown by Rocque in 1763. This grafs
is called Timothy, from its being brought from New-
York to Carolina by one Timothy Hanfon. It grows
heft in a wet foil; but will thrive in almofi: any. If it
is fown in Auguft, it will be fit for cutting in the latter
end of May or beginning of June. Horfes are very
fond of it, and will leave lucerne to eat it. It is alfo
preferred by black cattle and fheep; for a fquare piece
of land having been divided into four equal parts, and
; part fowed with lucerne, another with fain-foin, a
corruptions, varices, cariofities, See. along with the
too great luxuriancy we have juft now mentioned,
which he expreffesby “ too great an abundance of wa-
ter-flioots.” Hence he is induced to clafs the fmut a-
mong difeafes arifing from this caufe ; it being a cor¬
ruption happening moft in rainy; feafons, and to weak
grain.—Like other contagious difeafes, he tells us, the
fmut may be communicated from the infetted to health- yt
ful grain. As a preventative, he recommends fteeping How pro*
the grain in a ftrong pickle of fea-falt. Befides the ef- vcnted-
fedt which this has upon the grain itfelf, it is ufeful for
feparating the good from the bad; the beft feed falling
to the bottom, and the faulty'fwimming on the top of
the liquor.—For the fame purpofe, a ley of wood-aihes
and quicklime is recommended by fome; and, byothers,
a folution of faltpetre or copperas; after which the grain
is to be dried with flacked lime, or dry turf aihes. This
folution, however, we can by no means recommend, as
it feems moft likely to kill the grain entirely.
According to Dr Home, dung is a preventative ofAifeafes
difeafes arifing from too great moifture; in confirmation from to°.
of which, he relates the following experiment.
third with clover, and the fourth with timothy, fome acres of poor ground, which had never got any ma- prevented.
horfes, black cattle, and flreep, were turned into it.
when the plants were all in a condition for pafturage ;
and the timothy was eaten quite bare, before the clover,
lucern, or fain-foin, was touched.
One valuable property of this grafs is, that its roots
are fin ftrong and interwoven with one another, that
they render the wetteft and fofteft land, on which a
horfe could not find footing, firm enough to bear the
heavieft cart. With the view of. improving boggy lands,
therefore, fo as to-prevent their being poached with the
were fallowed with a defign to be fown with
wheat; but the fcheme being altered, fome dung was
laid on a fmall part of it, and the whole fowed, after it
had got five furrows, with barley. A great quantity
of rain fell. The barley on that part which was dung¬
ed was very good; but what was on the reft of the
field turned yellow after the rains, and when ripe was
not worth the reaping.” ^
• The want of nourifhment in plants may be eafily Difeafe pe-
known by their decay ; in which cafe, the only remedy culiart°fef*
feet of cattle, Mr Anderfon recommends the cultivation is, to fupply them with food, according to the methods ^ron'
of this kind of grafs, from which he has little expecta¬
tion in other refpedts.
Sect. VII. Of the Difeafes of Plants.
These are divided by Tournefort into the following
tlafies. 1. Thofe which arife from too great an abun-
we have already directed, or to remove from their neigh¬
bourhood fuch other plants as may draw off the nou-
rifliment from thofy we wifh to cultivate.^—In the Me¬
moirs of the Academy of Sciences for 1728, Mr Du
Hamel mentions a difeafe, which he calls le mart, that
attacks faffron in the fpring. It is owing to another
plant, a fpecies of trefoil, fixing fome violet-coloured
dance of juice; 2. From having too little; 3. From its threads, which are its roots, to the roots of the faffron,
_ 69
Erte6h of
too great an
abundance
'Of juices.
bad qualities; 4. From its unequal diftribution ; and
5. From external accidents.
Too great an abundance of juices caufes at firft a
and fucking out its juice. This difeafe is prevented
by digging a trench, vthich faves all the unaffected. ^
The bad qualities, or unequal diftributions, of the Vegetables
prodigious luxuriant growth of the vegetable ; fo that juices of plants, are the occafion of fo few of the difeafes 'leftroyed
it does not come to the requifite perfection in a due to which vegetables in this country are fubjedt, that
time. Wheat is fubjedt, in fome climates, to a difeafe we forbear to mention them at prefent. Moft of the
of this kind ; it vegetates exceflively, without ever car- difeafes of our plants are owing to external accidents,
rying ripe grain ; and the fame difeafe may be artifi- particularly to the depredations of infects.—The infedts
cially produced in any grain, by planting it in too rich by which the greateft devaftations are committed in
a foil. Too much rain is apt likewife to do the fame, this country are, fnails, caterpillars, grubs, and flies..
When a vegetable is fupplied too abundantly with jui- The fnails and caterpillars feed on the leaves and young
Vol. I. Part I. L l (hoots ^
266
Theory.
75
Infedts de-
ftroyed by
Jime-water.
A G R I C U
{boots ; 'by which means they often totally deftroy the
vegetable. Where the plants are of eafy accefs, thefe
vermin may be deftroyed by fprinkling the vegetable
with lime-water; for quick-lime is a mortal poifon to
creatures of this kind, and throws them into the great-
eft agonies the moment they are touched with it. On
trees, however, where this method cannot fo well be
followed, fumigation is the moft proper; and, for this
purpofe, nothing is better than the fmoke of vege¬
tables not perfectly dry. In fome cafes the eggs of
thofe deftroying creatures may be obferved, and ought
without doubt immediately to be taken away. On the
fruit trees, as apples, pears, medlars, on fome foreft-
trees, the oak and dwarf-maple efpecially, and the white
and black thorn in hedges, a kind of little tufts are to
be obferved, refembling, at firft fight, withered leaves
twifted, by a cobweb, about the uppermoft twigs or
branches. Thefe contain a vaft number of little black
eggs, that in the fpring produce fwarms of caterpillars
which devour every thing. To prevent this, all the
twigs on which thefe cobwebs appear fllould be taken
off and burnt as foon as poffible. This ought to be
done before the end of March, that none of the eggs
be allowed fufficient time for hatching.
The grubs are a kind of worms which deftroy the
corn by feeding upon its roots ; they are transformed
every fourth year into the beetles called cock-chaffers,
may-bugs. See. they are very deftructive when in their
vermicular ftate, and cannot then be deftroyed becaufe
they go deep in the ground. When become beetles,
they conceal themfelves under the leaves of trees, where
they feem afteep till near funfet, when they take their
flight. It is only now that they can be deftroyed, and
that by a very laborious method; namely, by fpreading
pack-(heets below the trees in the day-time when the
L T U R
E. Part L
turnips is, that all the feeds contained in the dung, and Theory,
which of courfe are carried on the land with it, vege- v——
tates almoft immediately, are moftly - killed by the fe-
verity of the winter, and the few that remain feldom,
avoid deftrudlion from the plough-fhare. ^
The following method i of fowing has alfo been re- Various re¬
commended as a preventative of the fly :—“ About medics a-
Midfummer, take the firft opportunity when it rains, yj*
or there is an apparent certainty of rain approaching, turnil>
to fow your turnip feed; if about the full moon, the
better. In this cafe, neither harrow, brufh, nor roll,
after fowing. The natural heat of the ground at that
feafon, and the confequent fermentation occafioned by
copious rain, will give an aftonifhingly quick vegeta¬
tion to the feed, which in a few days will be up and out
of all danger from the fly. At all events, fow not till it
rains ; it is better to wait a month, or even longer, for
rain, than to fow (merely for the fake of fowing about
the ufual time) when the ground is parched with heat.
By the fcorching of the fun, the oil and vegetative
quality of the feed are exhaufted; and the few weak
plants that come up will be deftroyed by the fly before
they can attain ftrength to put forth their rough leaves.
The fly infefts the ground abundantly in dry hot wea¬
ther, but do no injury in tain. The falling rain will
fufficiently wafh the turnip-feed into the ground with¬
out harrowung it in; which, inftead of merely cover¬
ing, too often buries this fmall feed at fo great a depth,
as never afterwards to get above ground.”
The following remedies are alfo recommended as
having often proved fuccefsful:—A fmall quantity of
foot fown over the land at their firft appearance. Bran¬
ches of elder with the leaves bruifed, drawn in a gate
over them. Mufk mixed with the feed before it is
fown. And fulphur burnt under it, after moiftening
beetles are in their torpid ftate, then {baking them off it with water in which tobacco has been fteeped.
77
Turnip-fly.
78
Prevented*
by fumiga-
wen, &c.
and burning them. Some time ago, they made fuch
devaftations in the county of Norfolk, that feveral far¬
mers were entirely ruined by them; one gathered 8o
buft.els of thefe infects from the trees which grew on
his farm. It is faid that, in 1574, there fell fuch a
multitude of thefe infefts into the river Severn, that
they ftopped and clogged the wheels of the water¬
mills.
Turnips, when young, are apt to be totally deftroyed
by a multitude of little black flies, from thence called
the turnip-fly. As a preveniative of thefe, fome ad-
vife the feed, to be mixed with brimftone but this is
improper, as brimftone is found to be poifonous to ve¬
getables. The beft method feems to be the fumiga¬
tion of the fields with fmoke of half-dried vegetables.
For this purpofe weeds will anfwer as well as any.
This fumigation muft no doubt be often- repeated, in
order to drive away the innumerable multitudes of thefe
But ftiowers on the plants as foon as they appear a-
bove ground, are efteemed the beft prefervatives. They
enfeeble and kill the fly, and haften the plants into the
rough leaf, in which ftate they are out of danger.
The fweet fmell ot the turnip has been thought to
attraft the fly ; upon which fuppofition, the remedy
appeared to confift in overpowering that fmell by one
which is ftrong, fetid, and difagreeable. Hence it has.
been recommended, that upon an acre of turnips fown
in the ufual way, a peck or more of dry foot be
thrown after the ground is finiftted, and in as regular a
way as he fows the feed. 8a
Some time ago an infeft, called the corn-lutterfly. Corn bi
committed fuch ravages while in its vermicular ftate, ter%*
in France, that upwards of 200 parilhes were ruined
by it; and the miniftry offered a reward to the difeo-
verer of an effeftual remedy againft this deftroying
worm. The cure which was at laft difeovered, was
infefts which are capable of deftroying a large field of to heat the corn, in an oven, fo much as not to de-
turnip.
Some have fuppofod that the fly’ is either engendered
in new dung, or enticed by it; and have therefore ad-
vifed the manure to be laid on in the autumn prece¬
ding, by which it lofes all its noxious qualities, while
its nutritive ones are retained, notwithftanding thefe
might be fuppofed liable in fome degree to be exhaled
B}r the fun. This method is faid to have been afeer-
tained by experiments; and it is added, that another
material advantage accruing from, autumn manuring for
ftroy its vegetative power, but fufficiently to deftroy
the fmall worms which made their neft in the fubftance
of the grain, and at laft eat out the fubftance fo com¬
pletely that nothing could be got from the hulk, even
by boiling it in water. It is certain, that though in¬
fefts can bear a great deal of cold, they are eafily de¬
ftroyed by a flight degree of heat; nor is the vegeta¬
tive power of corn eafily deftroyed, even when kept for
a long time in a pretty ftrong heat. This method muft
therefore be very effeftual for deftroying all kinds of
iaiefts
Parti. AGRICULTURE. 267
Theory, in.e&s with which grain is apt to be infefted: but care Hence he is convinced, that no fets ought to be ufed Theory.
* ' muft be taken not to apply too great a heat; and the from old-tilled or couch-grafs land; and that, in order—y—^
adjufting df the precife degree neceflary to deftroy the to have good fets, they ftiould be procured from land
infecft, without hurting the corn, will be attended with that was purpofely fallowed for them ; from ' frelh ley
fome difficulty. land, where they are not curled; or from ley land that
The curled difeafe in potatoes has long been a fub- was burnt laft fpring. He directs to plant them on
jedt of inveftigation and experiment among farmers ; virgin mould, and the potatoes will have no curled ones
and the knowledge of its caufe and cure feems yet to amongft them ; and toTteep them for winter, from any
remain a defideratum. The Agriculture Society at other kind.
Manchefter, a few years ago, offered a premium for To avoid the uncertainty of getting good fets, he
difcovering by aftual experiment the caufe of the dif- recommends crabs to be gathered from potatoes grow-
eafe in queftion ; and a great variety of letters were, ing this year on frefti land free from curl, and the next
in confequence,addreffed to them upon the fubjeft.—As fpring to fow them on frefti ley land ; and continue to
thefe contain many interefting obfervations both on the" plant their fets on frefli Iqy land yearly, which he is
The curled
difeafe ir
potatoes.
difeafe itfelf and the beft methods hitherto adopted for
preventing it, the following abftraft of them may not
improperly be introduced in this place..
I. According to the writer of. the firft letter, this
convinced will prevent the curl.
All the good potatoes he faw this year, either on
frefii ley land or on old-tilled land, were raifed from
fets that grew upon frefti ley land laft year; and where
I methods of (pfea{'e jg caufed by an iufedt produced by frdft or bad he has feen curled potatoes, he found, upon inquiry.
’ keeping before fetting ; and the neweft kinds, fuch as
have been raifed within thefe nine or ten years, are
moft apt to curl, beqmfe they will not ftand to be kept
in winter and fpring before fetting, as the old kinds
will. In autumn 1776, he got up a bed of potatoes
to lay by in winter, leaving plenty in the ground as
regular as poffible ; and, before the feverity of winter
came on, covered part of the bed with ftraw and peafe-
haulm, and left the other part of the bed uncovered.
the potato-fets grew upon old-tilled and worn-out land
laft year. He gives as a general reafon for the difor-
der, that the land is oftener cropt than it had ufed to
be, much more corn being now raifed than formerly.
V. In 1772, this writer planted fome potatoes by
accident full nine inches deep : when taken up, many
of the plants were rotted, and a few curled. He kept
the whole produce for feed, and planted two acres with
it in 1773, not quite fix inches deep. The crop v
That part of the bed which was covered was quite free amazingly great; and he did not obferve any curled
from curled ones ; but the uncovered part produced a
great many curled, owing, as the writer fays, to froft
and feverity of the weather.
plants among them. In 1774, many of thefe were
planted in different foils ; yet they were fo infe&ed
with the curled difeafe, that not one in twenty efcaped
II. This writer had about a quarter of an acre of In 1775, the complaint of this difeafe became general.
potatoes, well manured with cow and horfe dung, and
took the greateft care in picking the fine fmooth-lkinned
potatoes for fets; yet nine out of ten parts were curled.
He attributes the caufe of this difeafe to a white grub or
infeft, which he found near the root, about half an
inch long, with eight or ten legs, its head browm and
hard; as upon examining a number of the curled roots,
he found them all bitten, chiefly from the furface to
In' 1776, it occurred to him that the good crop of
1773 was owing to the accidental deep fetting of
1772 ; and that the reafon why the fame feed became
curled in I774> was their being fet fo near the furface
in 1773 ; and attributes the difeafe to the pra&ice of
ebb-fetting. In 1777, he took fome potatoes from a
crop that was curled the year before, and after cutting
the fets, left them in a dry robm for a month. Half
the root, which of courfe flopped the progrefs of the were planted in ground dug fourteen days before; the
fap, and threw the leaf into a curl. The uncurled
roots were not bitten. He tried a few experiments as
follow:—Firft, he put foot to the infefts in the rows
For two days; and after that, he put lime to them for
the fame time, but they ftill kept lively ; next he put
a little fait, which deftroyed them in a few hours.
From which he infers, that if coarfe fait were put into
the ground at the time the land is preparing for pota¬
toes, it would effetlually cure this diftemper.
III. In this letter, the caufe of the difeafe is attri¬
buted to the method of earthing the Items while in cul¬
tivation ; and the branch, ftriking root into the new
other half, having been fteeped in a brine made of
whitfter’s alhes for two hours, were alfo planted in the
fame land at the fame time. The fteeped ones came
up ten days before the others, and hardly any miffed
or were curled. The unfteeped ones generally failed,
and thofe few that came up were moftly curled.
He therefore advifed as a remedy, 1. That the po¬
tatoes intended for next year’s fets be planted nine in¬
ches deep. 2. That they remain in the ground as long
as the feafon will permit. 3. That thefe fets be well
defended from froft till the beginning of March. 4.
That the fets be cut a fortnight before planting. 5.
earthed-up foil, it is faid, produces potatoes of fuch a That they be fteeped, as above, two hours in brine or
nature as the year following to caufe the difeafe com¬
plained of.
To prevent the difeafe, it is recommended to take
the fets from thofe potatoes that have not bred any
from the branch covered; or otherwife, to dig the part
the fets are to be raifed from,
IV. According to this writer, the diforder proceeds
from potatoes being fet in old-tilled orworn-out ground:
ley. 6. That the dung be put over the fets. And
7. That frefli fets be got every year from fandy foils
near the coaft, or on the ftiore.
P. S. At planting, the hard dry fets ftiould be call
afide, for they will probably be curled. Curled pota¬
toes always proceed from fets which do not rot or pu¬
trefy in the ground.
VI. This writer had five drills of the old red pota-
for though thofe potatoes may look tolerably well, yet toes, and four of the winter whites, growing at the
their fets will moft, if not all, produce curled potatoes, fame time in the fame field. The drills were prepared
268
AGRICULTURE. Parti.
Theory, exaftly alike. Among the red not one was curled;
v""" the winter whites were nearly all curled. He fays he
has found by experience, that the red never curl.
VII. Two of the writer’s neighbours had their fets
out of one heap of potatoes. They both fet with the
plough, the one early, and the other late in the fea-
fon. Moft of thofe early fet proved curled, and moft
of thofe fet late fmooth ; the latter on clay land.
A few roods of land were alfo planted with fmall
potatoes, which had lain fpread on a chamber floor all
the winter and fpring, till the middle of May. They
were foft and withered ; they proved fmooth and a
good crop. Middle-fized potatoes, withered and foft,
which had been kept in a large dry cellar, and the
fprouts of which had been broken off three times, pro¬
duced alfo a fmooth good crop.
Hence he was led to think a fuperfluity of fap, oc-
cafioned by the feed being unripe, might caufe the dif-
eafe. To be fatisfied in this, he allied the farmer whe¬
ther he had fet any of the fame potatoes this year, and
what was the nature of his land ? He told him “ he
had; that they had been fet on his farm fourteen years,
without ever curling; that his foil was a poor whitilh
fand, of little depth ; that he let thofe he deligned for
keeping grow till they were fully ripe.”
Hence he concludes, the only fure way to prevent
the curl is, to let potatoes intended for feed Hand till
they are fully ripe, and to keep them dry all winter.
VIII. This writer fet a quantity of the red potatoes^
without having a curled one amongft them. His me¬
thod is, when the fets are cut, to pick out fuch as are
icddeft in the inlide. On digging them up at Mi¬
chaelmas, he mixes none of the curled feed among the
others. The curled are eafily diltinguilhed, by their
ftalks withering two months before the reft- of the
crop.
The caufe of the curled difeafe he attributes to po¬
tatoes being of late years produced from feed inftead
of roots, as formerly. Such will not Hand good more
than two or three years, ufe what method you pleafe.
Lalt fpring, he fet the old red and white ruffets, and
had not a curled potato among!! them.
On the lime-ftone. land about Denbigh, in North
Wales, they have no curled potatoes. If this be ow¬
ing to the nature of that land, perhaps lime might pre¬
vent the difeafe.,
IX. , According to this writer, all- forts of grain
wear out»and turn wild if fown too long -on the fame
land; the fame will hold good in all forts of pulfe,
peafe, beans, and (as he conceives) potatoes. It ge¬
nerally happens, that thofe who have moft curled po¬
tatoes plant very, fmall fets.
Eleven years ago he bought a parcel of frefh fets, of
the golden-dun kind, and has ufed them without change
to the prefent year, without- arty being curled. This
he principally attributes to his having always planted
good large fets.
About four years fince, he thought of changing hk
fets, as his potatoes were too fmooth, too round, and
much diminifhed in fi/.e. But the curl at that time
beginning to. be very, alarming, he continued his fets
till part of his crop miffing laft year, he was obliged to
buy new fets this fpring, which, being fmall,. were
curled like other peoples.,,,
He allows, that the curl has frequently happened to Theory,
perfons who have ufed large potatoes for fets ; for, as v—'
all roots are not equally affedted, fome curled ones may
be mixed with the reft.
To prevent the evil, cut your fets from clear and
middle-fized potatoes, gathered from places as clear of
the curl as poffible ; preferve them as ufual till fpring.
If any are harder, or grafli more in cutting than ufual, .
caft them afide. He would alfo recommend the railing
a frefh fort from the crab produced bn the forts leaft
affefted, which in Lancafhire are the long-duns..
X. Set potatoes with the fprits-broke off, .and they
will (fays the writer of this letter) be curled ones; if
fet with the fprits on, they will not be curled. Again,
take a potato which is fprit, and cut a fet off With two .
fights : break one fprit off, and let the other ftay on,
and fet it; the former will be curled, and the latter
will mot.
When you have holed your potatoes, take them out
before they are fprit, and lay them dry until you have
fet pr fown them, and you wilh have no curled po¬
tatoes.
XL This writer was at the expence of'procuring
fets at fifty miles diftance, and where this difeafe was
not known.- The firft year’s trial was fuccefsful; the
year following he procured fets from the fame place,,
but one-fifth of his crop was infe&ed. By way of ex¬
periment; he planted fets from roots which had been
infedfted the year before, and fome of thefe produced
healthy plants, free from all infection.
As. every effect muft have a caufe, he fuppofed it
might be fome infe£t, which, living on the leaves, gave
them that curled and lickly appearance, as is the cafe
in the leaves of many (hrubs and trees. But whether
the infeft is lodged in the old fets, and to be deftroyed
at the time of planting, or, proceeding from fome ex¬
ternal caufe, can only be deftroyed afterwards, he is
not yet certain, although he has made the following-
experiments.
On a piece of ground that had not been dug for 20 ,
years, he planted four rows of fets, which he knew to
he perfectly clear; the drills were two feet diftant, the
fets one foot diftant in each drill. He then planted '
on the fame ground four rows .with fets from curled ; ,
potatoes, at equal diftances; in each row were about.
20 fets.
Lot i ft, the curled ft ate..
N° I. Without manure, I N° 3. In foot,
2. In fait,' I 4. In quicklime...
Lot 2d, the clear fets..
N° 1. Without manure, I N° 3. In foot,
2. In fait, I 4. In quicklime.
Thofe planted in fait and foot in both lots were de¬
ftroyed. In lot 1. n° x. and 4. all curled. Lot 2. n° 1.
and 4. quite clear.
This experiment was-made on a fupp.pfition that tire
infe£t lodged in the fet, and muft be deftroyed on plant-
ing. But of that he is not fully fatisfied. He re¬
peated fait, foot, and quicklime, on the branches of
feverabcurled; potatoes. Salt deftroyed all he touched
with it. Lime and foot had, he thought, a partial
effeft on the plants. After fome time, they .appeared
almoft as healthy as the reft. Thus, although he had :
dpne little towards the cure, he flatters himfelf he has
Parti. AGRICULTURE.
Theoiy. pointed out the caufe, the infe&s on the curled plants potatoes are larger, the difeafe feems to be encreafed.
being not only very numerous, but vifible to the naked They alfo cut their fets out of the richeft and largefl
eye. potatoes, which is perhaps- another caufe of this evil.
XII. This writer afcribes the caufe of the difeafe to In cold countries, where they fet their own feed,
the froft, and bad keeping in winter and'fpring before which has grown on poor land, with lefs dung, they
fetting. They are liable to be damaged by froft after have no curled plants. On the contrary, when they
they are fet, but this may be prevented by covering, bought rich and large potatoes for feed, they have
If it be alked, why froft did not injure them formerly ? been curled in great quantities. He believes, the
he anfwers, it is only the new kinds which are apt to richnefs and largenefs of the feed to be the caufe of
curl. To this may be added, that lefs care is now ta- the evil; for he does not remember to have feen a
ken of the feed than formerly. To prevent the latter, curled ftem which did not fpring from a fet of a large
let them remain in the ground covered with haulm or potato.
litter, till the time they are wanted for fetting; and, XVI. This writer apprehends the curled difeafe in
in cafe no froft touches them afterwards, they will be potatoes to proceed from adefedt in thep/anta femina-
free from the difeafe. Its, or feed-plant; and from comparing curled ones
XIII. This writer fays, the red potato was as ge- with others, there appeared to be a want of, or ina-
nerally plantedas'the winter-white and the Lincolnmire bility in, the powers of expanding or unfolding the
kidney are now. The firft, being a later potato, did parts of the former; which, from this defedt, forms
not fprout fo fearly as the others. The white fprout ftiriveiled, ftarved, curled ftems. On examining fome
very early, and therefore fhould ftrft be moved out' of of the fets at the time of getting the crop, he found
the place where they have been preferved in the winter, them hard and undecayed ; fo hard, indeed, that fome
Inftead of that, they are often let remain till their of them would not be foft with long boiling. This
roots atid fprouts are matted together. On feparating led him to think, that fome manures might have the
them, thefe fprouts are generally rubbed off, and they fame effedf on them as tanners ooze has on leather,
are laid by till the ground is ready ; during which,in- and fo harden them, that the embryo plant could not
terval they fprout a fecond time : but thefe fecond come forth with eafe; but a clofer examination taught
% fprouts, being weak and languid, will ftirink, ficken, him otherwife, and that that they grow equally in all
and die; and the fruit at the roots will be fmall, hard, manures.,
ill ftiaped, and of a brown colour. Some have thought that the fermentation is occa-
Now, if putting off the fprouts once or more, be* fioned by too great quantities being heaped together;
fore the fets are put in the ground, be the caufe (as but the writer has feen an inftance, wherein a Angle
he verily believes it is) of the curled difeafe, an eafy potato, preferved by itfelf, when fet,- produced ftems
remedy is at hand. When the potatoes intended for of the cqrled kind. He thinks, the moft confident and
fets are dug up, lay them in a weft afpeft as dry as rational opinion is, that the difeafe is occafioned by
poflible: in fuch a fituation they will not .fprout fo foon. the potatoes being taken from the ground before the
Thebeft time for removing moft forts, is the firft fine ftamen, or., miniature-plant^ is, properly matured- and
day after the 24th of February. Cut them into fets ripened.
as foon as poffible, and let them, remain covered with < For let it be. obferved, that the potato, being a na-
dry fand till the ground i> prepared, which fhould be tive of a warmer climate, has there more fun, and a
a winter fallow. Lay the fets in without breaking off longer continuance in the ground, than in its prefent
any of the fprouts, for the fecond Vvill not be fo vigo- exotic Hate ; eonfequently, it has not the fame natu-
rous. This accounts for one fp'out out of three from ral caufes here to mature the feed-plant as in its na-
the fame fet being curled. . The two ftems not curled tive ftate. We ought, therefore, to give all the op*
rofe from two later eyes,, and were firft fprquts. The portunities our climate will admit for nature to com-
fprout curled was- a fecond, the, firft having been rub- . plete her work, and fit the ftamen for the next ftate
bed off. of vegetation, efpecially in thofe intended Lor feed.
XIV. This writer faysr that laft fpring one of his But if the potato be taken up before the feed-plant be
neighbours cut and fet, in the ufual way of drilling, fully matured, or the air and fap-veffels have acquired
fame loads of the largeft potatoes he could procure ; a proper degree of firmnefs or hardnefs, it muft, when
and more than half of • them proved curled. Being a thus robbed of further nutrition, fhrivel up; and when
few fets ftiort of the quantity wanted, he planted fome the veffels, in this immature ftate, come to a cl again
very fmall potatoes-which he had laid by'for the pigs, in the fecond ftate of vegetation, they may produce
Thefe being fully ripe and folid, there was not a cur- plants which:are curled.
led plant among them... He" apprehends, the others If it be allied, why are they more common now
b^ing curled was owing to their not being fully ripe, than formerly ? he anfwers, that before the prefent
A crop of potatoes, fet this year in rows on ground mode of fetting them took place, people covered them,
that had borne a crop of them laft year, were moftly while in the ground, with ftraw, to protedt them from
curled ; but many plants came up from feed left in the froft.:
ground laft feafon, and there was not a curled one If it be allied, why one fet produces both curled and
among them. fmooth ftems ?-he anfwers, we fuppofe every .eye to
XV. Of late years, this writer fays, great improve- contain a plant a femi-u alls; that all the embryos, or
ments have been made in fetting potatoes and cutting feed-plants, contained in one potato, are nourifhed by
the fets. The ground is dreffed cleaner and dunged one root; that, as in ears of corn, fome of thefe feed-
ftronger. Many people, in drilling, wrap up the fets plants may be nourilhed before others.
entirely.in the dung; by which means, though their One of his neighbours, laft.year, fet two rows of
. potatoes,
J70 A G R r C U
Theory, potatoes, which proving all curled, he did not take
them up; and this year there is not a curled one
among them. Such potatoes, therefore, as are defign-
ed for feed, fliould be preferved as long in the ground
as poffible.
XVII. This writer advifes fuch fets to be planted
as grow in mofs-land ; and, he fays, there will not be
a fingle curled one the firft year.. This is affirmed by
the inhabitants of two townihips, where they grow a-
mazing quantities.—A medical gentleman fowed fail
year two buihels of fets from one of the above places,
and had not one curled ; but on fowing them again
this year, lie had a few.
Notwithftanding there feems to be a diverfity of
opinions in the above writers, occafioned by the diffe¬
rent appearances of their crops, and the feemingly
contrary effefts of the means ufed to prevent or cure
the difeafe, we conceive that the following general
propofitions may be fairly draxvn from the whole,
i. That fome kinds of potatoes are {c&tcris paribus')
much more liable to be affe&ed by the difeafe than the
reft; and that the old-red, the golden-dun, and the
long-dun, are the moft free from it.—-2. That the
difeafe is occafioned by one or more of the following
caufes, either finglyor combined : I ft, By froft, either
before or after the fets are planted : 2d, From planting
fets out of large unripe potatoes: 3d, From planting too
near the furface, and in old wdrn-out ground: 4th, From
the firft ftioots of the fets being broken off before plant¬
ing; by which means there is an incapacity in the plan-
ta feminalis to fend forth others fufficiently vigorous to
expand fo fully as they ought.—3. That the moft fuc-
cefsful methods of preventing the difeafe, are cutting
the fets from fmcoth middle-fized potatoes, that were
fully ripe, and had been kept dry after they were taken
out of the ground; and without rubbing off their firft
L T U R E. Parti
fhoots, planting them pretty deep in frefn earth, with Theory,
a mixture of quicklime, or on lime-ftone land. v—
A correfponderit of the Bath Society is convinced
that, whatever maybe its caufe, the fault itfelf is inhe¬
rent in the feed ; and has communicated the following
method of avoiding it: “ I made a hot-bed in the fol¬
lowing manner: (which method I have ufed ever fince)
I laid horfe-dung, &c. (as is generally ufed in making
hot-beds) about 18 inches thick ; over which I fpread
a layer of fine rich mould about four or five inches
thick : upon* the top of this mould I laid, in different
divifions, a certain number of potatoes of various forts,
fome of my own growth, and others bought from dif¬
ferent parts, ante covered- thefe lightly over with more
mould; they foon came up. I then obferved which
was freeft from the blight or curl; for if there were not
more than one defective in forty ox fifty, I concluded 1
might fet of that fort with fafety. This method I
have now praftifed near twelve years, and never loft
my crop or any part thereof worth mentioning; whilft
my neighbours, who followed the old method, were
frequently difappointed in their crops ; and to the bell
of my knowledge, all thofe of my neighbours who have
of late been perfuaded to take the trouble of ufing the
fame means as myfelf, have never failed of fuccefs to
their utmoft wifhes in one inftance ; nor do I ever think
it will fail, if duly attended to ; the fault being fome
hidden feaufe in the feed unknown at prefent, and I be¬
lieve incurable by any means, at leaft which have yet
come to my knowledge. My reafon for planting my
hot-beds fo foon is," that if the froft hinders the firft
experiment, or they all prove bad, I may have time to
make a fecond or third if neceffary, with different forts
of feed, before the proper feafon arrives for planting in
the fields and grounds appointed for the great and ge¬
neral crop,”
Part II. PRACTICE of AGRICULTURE.
Sect. I. Injlruments of Hv/bandry-
nn HE inftruments employed in agriculture are vari-
JL ous; as the plough, the harrow, the roller, &c.
which are again greatly diverfified by various conftruc-
tions adapted to particular ufes.
1. Of Ploughs.
5cots
plough.
84
Defcription
of the Scots
plough.
Plate IV.
% I-
The plough conftrufted in the following manner is
Hill the moft common and the moft generally underftood
in Scotland ; and, if properly made, is the beft for an-
fwering all purpofes, when only one is ufed ; though
others are, perhaps, more proper on fome particular oe-
cafions.
The parts of which this plough is compofed, are, the
head, the beam, the fneath, the wreft, the mould-board,
the two handles, the two rungs, the fock, and the coul¬
ter; the two laft are made of iron, and all the reft ofwood,
The Head, is defigned for opening the ground be¬
low. The length of the head from A to B is about 20
inches, and the breadth from A to D about five inches;
C is the point upon which the fock is driven, and the
length from B to C is about fix inches; a is the mor-
toife into which the larger handle is fixed, and l is the
mortoife into which the fheath is fixed.
The head is that part of the plough which goes in
the ground; therefore the ihorter and narrower it is,
the friction will be the lefs, and the plough more eafily
drawn ; but the longer the head is, the plough goes
more fteadily, and is not fo eafily put out of its direc¬
tion by any obftru&ions that occur. Twenty inches is
confidered as a mean length; and five inches as the moft
convenient breadth.
The Sheath, E, is driven into the mortoife l, and Fig. 3,
thus fixed to the head A B. It is not perpendicular to
the head, but placed obliquely, fo as to make the angle
formed by the lines A B and E B about 60 degrees.
The (heath is about 13 inches long, befides what is dri¬
ven into the mortoife b (fig. 1.); about three inches
broad, and one inch thick.
The (heath is fixed to the mould-board, as in fig. 11.
E, in the fame manher as the wreft is fixed to the head
•in fig. 7-
The Mould-board, is defigned to turn, over thfFig. 3.
earth of the furrow made by the plough ; and it is ob¬
vious, that, according to the polition of the (heath, the
mould-board will turn over the earth of the furrow more
or lefs fuddenly. Befides, when it forms a lefs angle
with the head than 60 degrees, the plough is in great
danger of being choked, as the farmers term it.
The
V
“iPart IT. A G R I C U
MPraAice. ^ The Larger Handle, F A, is fixed to the head, by
ll' " v driving it into the mortoife « (fig. i.). It is placed in the
n fame plane with the head ; and its length from. A F is
about five feet four inches, and its diameter at the place
where it is fixed to the beam is about two inches and an
half, and tapers a little to the top F. About ten inches
from A, there is a curve in the handle,, which, when F
is raifed to its proper height, makes the lower part of
it nearly parallel to the (heath E B. This curve is de-
I iigned to ftrengthen the handle. The proper pofition
of the handle is, when the top F is about three feet two
inches higher than the bottom of the head A B;
The longer the handles, the plough is the more eafi-
ly managed, becaufe the levers are more dirtant from the
centre of motion. The higher the top of the handles,
the plough is more eafily raifed out of the ground, pro¬
vided they be no higher than the lower part of a man’s
breaft.
?3g-4- The Beam, is fixed to the larger handle and the
fheath, all of which are -placed in the fame plane with
the head. The length of it, from H to I, js about fix
feet; its diameter is about four inches. When the
plough is in the ground, the beam (hould be juft high
enough not to be incommoded by anything on the fur-
' face.
The pofition of the beam depends on the number of
cattle in the plough. When two horfes are yoked, the
beam fhould be placed in fuch a manner as to make the
perpendicular diftance betwixt the bolt-hole of the beam
and the plane of the head about ti inches.; when four
horfes are yoked, two a-breaft, this diftance {hould only
be about 18 inches.
I'Fig.J* The Sock, BP, is fixed to the end of the head, and
is about two feet Idng. In. fitting the fock to the head,
the point ought to be turned a little to the land or left
fide; becaufe otherwife it is apt to come out of the
land altogether. When turned1 to the left, it likewife
takes off more land ; when turned upwards, the plough:
goes fhallow; and when downwards, it goes deeper.
|Fig.-6. The Coulter,, is fixed to the beam, and is about
two feet ten inches-long, two inches and a half broad,
(harp at the point and before, and thick on the back,
like a knife. It is fixed and directed by wedges, fo as
to make the point of it equal to, or rather a little be¬
fore the point of the fock,.and upon aline with the left
fide of the head. This oblique pofition enables it to
throw roots, &c. out of the land, which requires lefs
force than cutting or puffing them forward.
: %•’ 7- The Wrest, BD, is fixed to the head, and is about
2(5 inches long, two broad, and one thick. It is fixed
to the head at B, in fuch a manner as to make the
angle contained between the lines AB and BD about
25 degrees^ The wreft is feldom or never placed in
the fame plane with the head, but gradually raifed from
the place where it is fixed to it; that is, from B to K,
It as in fig. 8. The pofition of the wreft determines the
nature of the furrow. When the wreft is wide and low
, fet, the furrow is wide; and when it is najTow and high
fet, the furrow, is narrow.
Fig. 9. reprefents the two Handles, fixed together
by the two rungs. The larger handle has already been
deferibed; the leffer one is a few inches fforter, and
does not require to be quite fo ftrong. The diftance of
the handles at the little rung depends on the pofition of
the wreft. Their diftance at M and P is about two
3 .
L T U R E. 271
feet fix inches. The leffer handle is fixed to the mould Practice,
board at M, fig. 10. and to the wreft K B, at L. 1—~-v—j
Fig. 11. reprefents the plough complete, by joining
together figures 6. and 10. in the ffeath E B. The
wreft B K is fuppofed to make an angle with the head
A B as in fig. 7. and the handles joined together as in
%• 9* . \ .
After having given fuch a particular defeription of
all the parts and proportions of the Scots plough, it
will eafily appear how it feparates, raifes, and turns over
the earth of the furrow. If it had no coulter, the earth
would open above the middle of the fock, and in a line
before the ffeath; but as the coulter opens the earth
in a line with the left fide of the head, if the foil has
anycohefion, the earth of the furrow will bewholly rai-
fed from the left fide, and, as the fock moves forward,
will be thrown on the right fide of the ffeath, and bv
the calling out of the mould-board, or the railing of
the wreft, will be turned oyer.
The Bridle, or Muzzle, is another article belong- Fig. 12.
ing to the plough. It is fixed to the end of the beam,
and the cattle are yoked by it. The muzzle commonly
ufed is a curved piece of iron, fixed to the beam by a
bolt through it. ABC is the muzzle, A C the bolt
by which it is fixed to the beam; D is the fwingle-tree
or crofs-tree, to which the.traces are fixed ; and B is a
hook, ox cleeky as it is commonly called, which joins ,
the muzzle and fwingle-tree.
Some ufe another kind of muzzle, A B C D. It is Fig. 13.
fixed to the beam by two bolts, and has notches by °
which the cleek of the fwingle-tree may be fixed ei¬
ther to the right or the left, of the beam. There are
alfo different holes for the hind-bolt to pafs thro’, by
which, the draught may be fixed either above or below
the beam. AD is the fore-bolt upon which the
muzzle turns ; on B C are four notches, betwixt any
two of which the cleek of the fwingle-tree may be fixed.
When the cleek is fixed at B, the plough is turned to-
wards the firm land, and takes off a broader furrow ;
and when fixed at C, it is turned towards the plough¬
ed land, and takes of a narrower furrow. E and F
are the holes on each fide thro’ which the hindmeft bolt,
panes. When the bolt is put thro’the higheft two, thefe
holes being thereby brought to the middle of the beam, ,
the fore-part of the muzzle is raifed above the beam,
and the plough is made to go deeper; and when put
through the loweft two, the fore-part of the muzzle is -
funk below the beam, and the plough is made to go
{hallOwer. This muzzle may be fo conftrudleu as to
have the fame play with the common one. A is thepig. zA
end of the beam ; B a plate of iron funk into it, and,
with a fimilar one in the other fide, is rivetted into it
by bolts; C is the muzzle fixed to thefe plates of iron *
by the bolt D, which bolt may be put through any of
the holes E E. From the con ft ruction of this muzzle -
it is plain,.that it has the fame play with the common .
one, and that by it the land of the plough .may be al-
tered at pleafure.
Of all forms, that of the Scotch plough is the fit- Properties -
teft for breaking up ftiff and rough land, efpecially t!;e Sccac
where ftones abound ; and no lefs fit for llrong clays Ploua^-
hardened by drought. The length of its head gives it
a firm hold of the ground ; its weight prevents it from
being thrown out by ftones; the length of the handles
gives the ploughman great command to dired its mo¬
tion* :
86
In what foil
improper.
87
Chain-
pi'ough.
Plate V.
% I-
A G R I C U L T U R E. Part II
tion ; and by tbe length of its head, and of its mould- plough go more eafily, beca'ufe the roofs of the grafs, Prafticeil
board, it lays the furrow-flice cleverly oven This which go beyond the reaeh of the plough, are more '*
plough was contrived during the infancy of agriculture, eafily cut by tic feather, than they can be torn afunder
and was well contrived: in the foils above defcribed, by the common fock. The feathered fock is alfo of
it has not an equal. great ufe in cutting and deftroying root-weeds. The
But in tender foil it is improper, becaufe it adds common fock, however, anfwers much better in ftrong
greatly to the expence of ploughing, without any coun- land.
terbalancing benefit. The length of the head and It is proper here to add, that in fitting the feathered
mould-board increafes the fridfion, and confequently it fock to the head, the point of it fhould be turned a
requires a .greater number of oxen or horfes than are little from the land, or a little to the right hand. 89
neceflary in a fhorter plough. There is another par- If we lookback 30 years, ploughs of different con- Ignoranc^i |
ticular in its form, that refills the draught: the mould- ftrudlions did not enter even into a dream, The Scotch ^ jU
board makes an angle with the fock, inftead of making plough was univerfally ufed, and no other was known.
a line with it gently curving backward. There is an There was no lefs ignorance as to the number of cattle years ago.f
objeftion againft it no lefs folid, that it does not llir neceffary for this plough. In the fouth of Scotland,
the ground perfedlly j the hinder part of the wreft fix oxen and two horfes were univerfal; and in the
rifes a foot above the foie of the head ; and the earth north, 10 oxen, fometimes 12. The firft attempt to
that lies immediately below that hinder part, is left leffen the number of oxen was in Berwickfhire. The
unflirred. This is ribbing land below the furface, fi- low part of that county abounds with flone, clay, and
milar to what is done by ignorant farmers on the fur- marl, the moil fubftantial of all manures, which had
face. been long ufed by one or two gentlemen. About 25
Thefe defeats muft be fubmitted to in a foil that re- years ago it acquired reputation, and fpread rapidly,
quires a ftrong heavy plough ; but may be avoided in As two horfes and two oxen were employed in every
a cultivated foil by a plough differently conftru&ed. marl-cart; the farmer, in fummer-fallowing, and in
Of all the ploughs fitted for a cultivated foil free of preparing land for marl, was confined to four oxen and
ftones, that introduced into Scotland about 20 years two horfes. And as that manure afforded plenty of
■ago, by James Small in Blackadder Mount, Berwick- fucculent ftraw for oxen, the farmer was furprifed to
ftiire, is the beft. It is now in great requeft ; and with find that four oxen did better now than fix formerly,
rcafon, as it .avoids all the defedls of the Scots plough. Marling, however, a laborious work, proceeded flow-
The fliortnefs of its head and of its mouldboard leffeti ly, till people were taught by a noted farmer in that
the fridtion greatly : from the point of the fock to the country* what induftry can perform by means of power
back part of the head it is only 30 inches ;,and the properly applied. It was reckoned a mighty talk to
whole length, from the point of the beam to the end marl five or fix acres in a year. That gentleman, by
of the handles, between eight and nine feet. The plenty of red clover for his working-cattle, accom-
fock and mouldboard make one line gently curving; pliftied the marling 50 acres in a fummer, once 54.
and confequently gather no earth. Inftead of a wreft, Having fo much occafion for oxen, he tried with fuc-
the under edge of the mouldboard is in one plaiq with cefs two oxen and two horfes in a plough ; and that
the foie of the head; which makes a wide furroiv, with- practice became general in Berwickfhire. 90 tf
out leaving any part unftirred. It is termed the chain- Now here appears with luftre the advantage of the A<!va:nag(gf
plough, becaufe it is drawn by an iron chain fixed to chain-plough. The great friction occafioned in theofthechaiJ
the back part of the beam immediately before the Scotch plough by a long head, and by the angle it [kulai lv iT
Coulter. This has two.advantages j firft* by means of makes with the mould-board, neceffarily requires two luRrated. U
a muzzle, it makes the plough go deep, or fhallow; oxen and two horfes, whatever the foil be. The fric-
and, next, it ftreffes the beam lefs than if fixed to the tion is fo much lefs in the chain-plough, that two good
point, and therefore a flenderer beam is fufficient. horfes are found fufficient in every foil that is proper
This plough may well be Confidered as a capital im- for it. Befides, the reducing the draught to a couple
provement; not only by faving expence, but by ma- of horfes has another advantage, that of rendering a
king better work. It is proper for loams ; for carfe- driver unneceffary. This faving on every plough, where
clays ; and, in general* for every fort of tender foil two horfes and two oxen were formerly ufed, will, by
free of ftones. It is even proper for opening Up pa^ the ftrifteft computation, be L. 15 Sterling yearly; and
fture-ground, where the foil has been formerly well where four horfes were ufed, no lefs than L. 20 Sterling,
Cultivated. There is now fcarce to be feen in the low country of
A fpiked fock is ufed in the Scotch plough. The Berwickfhire a plough with more than two horfes ;
difference between it and the feathered fock will be beft which undoubtedly in time will become general. We
underftood by comparing their figures. Fig. 14. is the know but of one further improvement, that of ufing
common fock, and fig. 15. the feathered one. two oxen inftead of two horfes. That draught has
From the conftru&ion of the feathered fock, it is been employed with fuccefs in feveral places; and the
obvious, that it muft meet with greater refiftance than faving is fo great, that it muft force its way every
the common fock. However, when the plough takes where. It may be confidently affirmed, no foil ftirred
off the earth of the furrow broader than that part of in a proper feafon, can ever require more than two
the fock which goes upon the head, it is more eafily horfes and two oxen in a plough, even fuppofing the I
drawn than the plough with the common fock ; for the ftiffeft clay. In all other foils, two good horfes, or
earth which the common fock leaves to be opened by two good oxen abreaft, may be relied - on for every, o-
the wreft, is more eafily opened by the feather of the peration of the chain-plough.
other fock. In lea, the feathered fock makes the A chain-plough of a fmaller fiz-e than ordinary* • ||
•N° 7. 4 drawn
Part II. AGRICULTURE,
2 73
Practice, drawn by a fingle horfe, is of all the moft proper
for horfe-hoeing, fuppofmg the land to be mellow,
which it ought to be for that operation. It is fuffi-
cient for making furrows to receive the dung, for
ploughing the drills after dunging, and for hoeing the
91 crop.
\h fmall A ft ill fmaller plough of the fame kind may be re-
[fingle-horfc commended for a kitchen-garden. It can be reduced
commend- to t^le by being made of iron ; and where
ted for va- the land is properly dreffed for a kitchen-garden, an
rious pur- iron plough of the fmalleft fize drawn by a horfe will fave
jpofes. much fpade-work.—In Scotland, thirtyyears ago, a kit¬
chen-garden was an article of luxury merely, becaufe
1 at that time there could be no cheaper food than oat¬
meal. At prefent, the farmer maintains his fervants at
! double expence, as the price of oat-meal is doubled ;
and yet he has no notion of a kitchen-garden more
than he had thirty years ago. He never thinks, that
living partly on cabbage, kail, turnip, carrot, would
fave much oat-meal: nor does he ever think, that
change of food is more wholefome, than vegetables
alone, or oat-meal alone. We need not recommend
potatoes, which in fcauty crops of corn have proved
a great bleffing : without them, the labouring poor
would frequently have been reduced to a ftarving con¬
dition. Would the farmer but cultivate his kitchen-
garden with as much induftry as he beftows on his
potatoe crop, he needed never fear want ■; and he can
cultivate it with the iron plough at a very fmall ex¬
pence. It may be held by a boy of 12 or 13 ; and
would be a proper education for a ploughman. But it
is the landlord who ought to give a beginning to the
improvement. A very fmall expence would inclofe an
acre for a kitchen-garden to each of his tenants; and
it would excite their induftry, to bellow an iron plough
on thofe who do bell.
Nor is this the only cafe where a fmgle-horfe plough
may be profitably employed. It is fufficient for feed¬
furrowing barley, where the land is light and well-
drefled. It may be ufed in the fecond or third plough¬
ing of fallow, to encourage annual weeds, which are
^ 91 deftroyed in fubfequent ploughings.
Ifcotheram The Rotheram plough is a machine of very Ample
" conftru&ion, and eafily worked. AB is the beam,
|Ef^ CD the Iheath, EBD the main handle, FR the fmal¬
ler handle, GH the coulter, KI the fock or fhare, NP
the bridle, S the fly-band, and ML a piece of wood
in place of a head. The whole of this plough Ihould
be made of alh or elm ; the irons Ihould be Heeled and
well-tempered; and that part of the plough which is
under ground in tilling fhould be covered with plates
of iron. The difference between this and the common
plough feems to confift in the bridle at the end of the
beam, by which the ploughman can give the plough
more or lefs land by notches at N, or make it cut deep-
ilH er or fnallower by the holes at P; in the coulter or
(hare, which are fo made and fet as to cut off the new
furrow without tearing; and in the mould-board, which
is fo fhaped at firli to raife a little, and then gradually
turn over the new cut furrow with very little refiftance.
But the greateft advantage attending it, is its being fo
eafy of draught, that it will do double the work of any
common plough.
The Paring-plough is an inftrumentufedinfeveralparts
-of England for paring off the furface of th,e ground, in
You. I. Part I.
order to its being burnt. Mr Bradley has given the fol- Pradtice.
lowing defcription of a very fimple inftrument of this l~ v—•—*
kind: From A to A (fig. 15.) is the plough-beam,Th/parW
about feven feet long, mortifed and pinioned into the plough,
block B, which is of clean timber without knots. Plate VI.
C C are the (heaths or ftandards, made flat on the in- 4-
fide, to clofe equally with the paring plate, and faften-
ed to it with a bolt and key on each fide, as at D.
E is the paring plate of iron laid with fteel, about four
inches wide, and from 12 to iS inches long. This
plate muft be made to cut on the fides, which are bolt¬
ed to the -ftandards as well as at the bottom part. F F
are two iron braces to keep the ftandards from giving
way: thefe ftandards muft be mortifed near their out-
fides and through the block. G G are the plough
handles, which muft be fixed (lope-ways between the
beam and the ftandards. The pin-holes in the beam,
the ufe of which is to make this plough cut more or
lefs deep, by fixing the wheels nearer to or farther
from the paring plate, ftiould not be above two inches
afunder. ^
Fig. 1. reprefents the four-coultered plough of Mr The Four-
Tull. Its beam is ten feet four inches long, where- coultered
as that of the common plough is but eight. The beam
is ftraight in the common plough, but in this it is
ftraight only from a to b, and thence arched : fo that
the line let down perpendicularly from the corner at a,
to the even furface on which the plough (lands, would
be 114- inches ; and if another line were let down from
the turning of the beam at b to the fame furface, it
would be one foot eight inches and a half; and a third
line let down to the furface from the bottom of the
beam at that part which bears upon the pillow, will
(how the beam to be two feet ten inches high in that
part. At the diftance of three feet two inches from
the end of the beam a, at the plough-tail, the firft coul¬
ter, or that next the (hare, is let through ; and at 13
inches from this, a fecond coulter is let through : a third
at the fame diftance from that; and, finally, the fourth
at the fame diftance from the third, that is, 13 inches;
and from a to b is feven feet.
The crookednefs of the upper part of the beam of
this plough is contrived to avoid the too great length
of the three foremoft coulters, which would be too
much if the beam was ftraight all the way; and they
would be apt to bend and be difplaced, unlefs they
were very heavy and clumfy. Afti is the bed wood to
make the beam of, it being fufficiently ftrong, and" yet
light. The (heat in this plough is to be feven inches
broad. The fixing of the (hare in this, as well as in
the common plough, is the niceft part, and requires
the utmoft art of the maker; for the well-going of the
plough wholly depends upon the placing this. Sup-
pofing the axis of the beam, and the left fide of the
(hare, to be both horizontal, they muft never be fet
parallel to each other ; for if they are, the tail of the
(hare bearing againft the trench as much as the point,
would caufe the point to incline to the right hand, and
it would be carried out of the ground into the furrow.
If the point of the (hare (hould be fet fo, that its fide
(hould make an angle on the right fide of the axis of
the beam, this inconvenience would be much greater ;
and if its point (hould incline much to the left, and
make too large an angle on that fide with the axis of
the beam, the plough would run quite to the left hand *
M m and
274
AGRICU LTURE. Part 11.
Praflice. and if the holder, to prevent its running quite out of
v'”" the ground, turns the upper part of his plough to¬
wards the left hand, the pin of the ftiare will rife up,
and cut the furrow diagonally, leaving it half unplough¬
ed. To avoid this and feveral other inconveniences,
the ftraight fide of the fliare muft make an angle upon
the left fide of the beam ; but that muft be fo very a-
cute a one, that the tail of the ftiare may onljTprefs
lefs againft the fide of the trench than the point does.
This angle is fliown by the pricked lines at the bottom
of fig. 9. where ef is fuppofed to be the axis of the
beam let down to the furface, andjr/’parallel to the left
fide of the ftiare : and it is the fubtenfe eg that deter¬
mines the inclination which the poiiit of the ftiare muft
have towards the left hand. This fubtenfe, fays Mr
Tull, at the fore-end of an eight-feet beam, ftiould ne¬
ver be more than one inch and a half, and whether the
beam be long or ftiort, the fubtenfe muft be the fame.
The great thing to be taken care of, is the placing
the four coulters; which muft be fo fet, that the four
imaginary places defcribed by their four edges, as the
plough moves forward, may be all parallel to each o-
ther, or very nearly fo ; for if any one of them ftiould
be very mucli inclined to, or ftiould recede much from
either of the other, then they would not enter the
ground together. In order to place them thus, the
beam muft be carefully pierced in a proper manner.
The fecond coulter-hole muft be two inches and a half
more on the right hand than the firft, the third muft
be as much more to the right of the fecond, and the
fourth the fame meafure to the right hand of the third ;
and this two inches and a half muft be carefully mea-
furcd from the centre of one hole to the centre of the
othei*. ' Each of thefe holes is a mortife of an inch and
quarter wide, and is three inches and a half long at the
top, and three inches at the bottom. The two oppo-
fite fides of this hole are parallel to the top and bot¬
tom, but the back is oblique, and determines the ob¬
liquity of the Handing of the coulter, which is wedg¬
ed tight up to the poll. The coulter is two feet eight
inches long before it is worn ; the handle takes up fix-
teen inches of this length, and is allowed thus long,
that the coulter may be driven down as the point wears
away. As to the wheels, the left hand wheel is 20
inches diameter,, and that on the right hand two feet
three inches,, and the diftance at which they are fet
from each other is two feet 5 '- inches.
2. The Patent Sward-cutter.
95
Swani- The different parts of this inftrument are reprefent-
cuttcr, e<l by N° j. 2.. 3. of fig. 6. A. A. &c. afquare frame
Plate VI. 3 feet 4 inches from the fore to the hind part, by 4
feet 3 inches,, the breadth of the machine within
fide ; the timber (when of fir) 4 inches fquare, pla¬
ced on two wheels B. B. 3 feet diameter, a little more
or lefs (the old fore-wheels of a chaife may anfwer the
purpofe), to fupport the hind part of the machine.
C. C. &x. are fix ftrong pieces of wood, called
3 feet long, y inches and a half broad, the thicknefs
6 inches at E. and tapering to 3 inches at F. Into
thefe bulls are fixed the cutting wheels, which are iron,
13.-inches diameter, |ths of an inch thick at the cen¬
tre, about an inch diameter for piercing holes to fix
the iron axles in; from that they are to be of Inch
thicknefs, as allow the edges to be well Heeled. The Practice. |
-wheels are fixed by two bolts going through the bulls,/ v~—^
with eyes on one end for the axlfes- of the wheels to
run in, and nuts and fcrews on the other to make them
very firm by funk in the bulls, to prevent their inter¬
fering with the weights L. L. &c. refting on them.
G. G. &c. are hollow pieces of wood, called thorlei,
each 34- inches long, which inclofe the bolt M. M.
and keep the bulls C. C. &c. at their proper diftances,
but may be made longer or fhorter at pleafure, ac¬
cording as the fward requires to be cut in larger or
fmaller pieces. They are in two pieces bound toge¬
ther, and jointed by a ftrap of leather or cord, which
allows them to be readily changed when the cutting
wheels require to be kept at more or lefs diftance.
The iron bolt M. M. goes through two pieces of
wood or iron P. P. 7 inches long, clear of the wood,
fupported by iron ftays fixed to the frame, and thro’
all the bulls. It requires to be ftrong, as the draught
of the horfes terminate there.
H. H. N° 2. and 3. a cylinder or fegment of
wood, 7 inches diameter, called a rocking tree, which
goes acrofs the frame, and moves on the pivots fixed
into it, one at each end, fupported by an iron bolt or
piece of wood mortoifed into the frame, 8 inches high,
as appears in N° 2. and 3. to which 6 chains or ropes
are fixed by hooks, at different diftances, as you want
your cuts, 9, 8, 7, or 6 inches from one another,, and
are joined to the end of each bull in which the cutting
wheels run; fo that when the rocking tree is turned
about by the lever I. fixed in the middle of it, all
the bulls, with their cutting wheels, are raifed out of
the ground at once, as in N° 3. by which means the
machine may be turned, or moved from place to place
with great eafe, without any danger of ftraining the ll
wheels.
L. L. L. &c. N° 1. 2. 3. are weights of freeftone,
26 inches long and 6 inches broad ; the under one 4
inches thick, the upper one 3 inches thick ; weighing
about 641b. the under, and 48 the upper; each of
them having two holes, through which iron fpikes,
firmly fixed in the bulls, pafs, in order to keep them
fteady.
When the ground is eafily cut, the under ftone may
anfwer ; when more difficult, the other ftone may be
added ; fo that every wheel may have 7 ftone-weight
upon it, which has been found fufficient for the ftiffeft
landard tougheft fward the machine has eve'r been | ;
tried on. Call iron weights, will anfwer fully better, I
but are more expenfive.
The lever I. N° 2. 3. which ought to be 5 feet long,
muft have a Hiding rope on it; fixed to the back part-
of the frame ; fo that when the cutting wheels are all
taken out of the ground three or four inches, by the
rocking tree’s being turned partly round by' the lever,
the rope may be fixed to it by a loop over the pin R.
N° 3. (it ought to be placed 3 feet 4 inches from the
extremity of the lever I.) Thus all the cutting wheels
are kept out of the ground till the machine is turned ;
and then by moving the loop off the pin, it. flips back
towards the frame, and the lever is gently let ba,-k to
its place, as in N° 2. by which the cutting wheels are
put into their former pofture, by the weights fixed on
the bulls in which they run. The levers may be made
of good tough aftu
P.P. N.° J
Part II. A G R I C
Pradice. P. P. N° I. a fmall bolt of iron, with a hook on
w’"v ' one end of it (one is fufficient), to ftrengthen the bolt
M. M. to be hooked on the centre of it, and joined to
the frame by a nut and fcrew.
The grooves in which the cutting wheels run, may
be covered below at the hinder part with a plate of
thin black iron, 6 inches long, 3 inches broad, having
a flit in it where the wheels run, to prevent (if found
neceflary) any grafs, weeds, or fmall ftones, from fill¬
ing the grooves, and clogging the wheels.
To the frame N° 1. are fixed (for a double-horfe
fward-cutter) three fliafts, as in a waggon, of fuch
length, ftrength, and diltance from one another, as any
workman may think proper.
For a fingle-horfe fward-cutter (which has only four
cutting wheels), a pair of ftiafts are ufed, and may
make the two fides of the frame without any joinings.
The width of the frame, in proportion to the double-
- horfe fward-cutter, is as four to fix.
It is recommended for a double-horfe fward-cutter
to have eight bulls and wheels, in order that when it
is ufed to reduce hard clody fummer-fallow, or land
for barley, before the laft furrow, or even after it, the
whole weight (42 Hone) employed in cutting the ftiff-
eft land and toughell fvvard, may be applied to the 8
bulls then at 6 inches from one another. The 64 lb.
weights to be applied to fix of the bulls, and two of
the 48 lb. weights to each of the additional bulls,
which is a fufficfent weight for the purpofe, and will
effectually prevent a clod of more than fix inches
breadth from efcaping being broke to pieces.
In the fame manner, a fingle-horfe fward-cutter may
have fix bulls for the above-mentioned purpofe; the
28 ftone belonging to it divided thus: The 64 lb.
weights to four of the bulls, and two of the 48 lb.
weights to eacl\ of the additional bulls.
That the machine may come as cheap as poffible to
the public, the inventor is of opinion, that the expence
of the two wheels and the iron axle (which is confi-
tlerable) may be faved, by joining ftrongly to the frame
at S. N° 3. a piece of wood with a little curve at the
extremity of it, refembling the foot of a fledge, for¬
merly much ufed in Scotland to carry in the corn from
the field; the part of it refting on the ground being
kept 18 inches (the half diameter of the wheels) from
the frame, by a Itrong fupport of wood.
As the two outer bulls next the frame are apt to
get under it, fo as to prevent the cutting wheels from
being taken out of the ground, a thin flip of iron fixed
to the infide of the frame, nearly oppofite to the back
end of the bulls, of convenient length, will be found
neceffary.
The original intention of this machine was to pre¬
pare old grafs-ground for the plough, by cutting it
acrofs the ridges, in the beginning of or during win¬
ter, when the ground is foft, in order to anfwer all
the purpofes that Mr Tull propofed by his four-coulter
plough above deferibed, and fo ftrongly recommended
by him for bringing into tilth grafs-ground that has
been long refted. This the fward-cutter has been
found to do much more effe&ually and expeditioufly :
For Mr Tull’s machine cuts the fward in the fame di-
redtion with- the plough ; and is liable, from every ob-
ilruftion any of the coulters meet with, to be thrown
cut «f its work altogether, or the inftrument broken;
3
U L T U R E. 275
to which the fward-cutter, confifting of four, fix, or Practice,
more cutting wheels, is never liable, from thefe being ' * 1 f
entirely independent of one another, cutting the ground
acrofs the ridges before ploughing, and rendering that
operation eafier to twohorfes than it would be to three,
without its being cut. The furrow being cut acrofs,
falls finely from the plough in fquares of any fize re¬
quired not under fix inches, in place of long flips of
tough fward feldom and imperfectly broke by the ibur-
coultered plough.
This inftrument is very fit for preparing ground for
burnbating, as it will fave much hand-labour.
It may be properly ufed in crofs-cutting clover of
one or two years Handing, to prepare the ground for
wheat, if the land is lliff and moift enough.
It may be applied to cutting and crols-cutting pa-
fture-ground, intended to have manure of any kind put
upon it to meliorate the grafs. In this it will far ex¬
ceed the fcarificator mentioned in one of Mr Young’s
tours; as that inftrument is liable, as well as the four-
coultered plough, to be thrown out of its work when
meeting with a ftone or other interruption. This the
fward-cutter is proof againft, which is looked on as its
greateft excellence.
In preparing for barley, the fward-cutter excels a
roller of any kind in reducing the large hard clods in
clay land, occafioned by a fudden drought, after its
being ploughed too wet; and it is likewife very pro¬
per for reducing fuch clay land when under a fummer-
fallow. In this operation, the fward-cutter is grealy
to be preferred to the cutting-roller, likewife men¬
tioned by Mr Young in one of his tours; for the
wheels of the latter being all dependent one on ano¬
ther, when one is thrown out by a ftone, three or four
muft ftiare the fame fate. Befides, the cutting-roller
has but feven wheels in fix feet; whereas the fward-
cutter has fix in four feet three inches, at nine inches
diftant; and, if neceffary, may have them fo near as
fix inches.
After old grafs-ground is cut acrofs with the fward-
cutter and ploughed, it has a very uncommon and
worklike appearance, from each fquare turned over by
the plough being raifed up an inch or two at the fide
laft moved by the earth-board; fo that the field, when
finilhed, is all prettily waved, and refembles a piece of
water when blown on by a gentle breeze. By this
means a very great deal of the land’s furface is expofed
to the froft and other influences of the air, which can¬
not fail to have a good effedl on it.
Two horfes are fufficient for the draught of a double-
Ijorfe fward-cutter, and one horfe for a fingle-horfe one.
Onemanmanages the machine and drives the horfes. He
begins his operation by firft meafuring off 20 or 30 paces
from the machine, lefs or more as he inclines, and
there fixes a pole. He then cuts the field crofs, as
near at right angles with the ridges as he can. When
the cutting wheels are paft the laft furrow about a
yard or fo, and the machine is upon the outmoft ridge
of the field on which it muft turn, he muft flop the
horfes; then take hold of the lever I. N° 2. and by
pulling it to him he.raifes the cutting wheels out of
the ground, which are kept fo by the loop of the rope
being put over the pin R. in the lever I. N° 3. till the
machine is turned and brought to its..proper place,
, which is done by meafuring off the fame diftance for-
M m 2 merly
276
Pra&icc.
96
Brake de-
fcribed,
Plate V.
%-3-
ms.
A G R I C U
merly done on the oppofite fide of the field. When
the cutting wheels are exactly over the outmoft furrow,
then, on the horfes being flopped, the rop is dipt off
the pin R. and the lever returned to its former place,
as reprefented N°2. which allows the weights L. L. &c.
to force the cutting wheels into the ground again.
He then goes on till the interval betwixt the firll and
fecond ftroke of the machine is all cut. In this manner
the field is to be finiihed, after which you may begin
to plough when you pleafe. (N. B. There muft be a
pole at each fide of the field.)
It is of no confequcnce whether the land to be fward-
cut is in crooked ridges or ftraight, in flat ridges or in
very high railed ones. Be the furface ever fo uneven,
the cutting wheels, being all independent of one ano-
the, are forced by their weights into every furrow or
hollow.
One fward-cutter will cut as much in one day as fix
ploughs will plough.
The land may lie feveral months in winter after be¬
ing fward-cut, when there is no vegetation to make
the cuts grow together again before it is ploughed;
but the fooner it is ploughed after cutting the better,
that it may have the benefit of all the winter’s froft,
which makes it harrow better at feed-time.
When the ground is harrowed, the harrows ought
to go with the waves which appear after ploughing,
not again ft them, as by that means they are lefs apt to
tear up the furrows all cut into fquares. This, how¬
ever, need only be attended to the two firft times of
harrowing, as they are called.
Any common wright and fmith may make the in-
ftrument. It is very ftrong, very Ample, and eafily
managed and moved from place to place ; and, if put
under cover, will laft many years.
It was invented fome time ago by the Honourable
Robert Sandilands; and is reprefented in the Plate as
it has been lately improved by. him, the price being at
the fame time reduced from L. 15 or L. 16 to L. 5
or L. 6.
3. The Brake.
The brake is a large and weighty harrow, the pur-
pofe of which is to reduce a ftubborn foil, where an
ordinary harrow makes little impreffion. It confifts of
four fquare bulls, each fide five inches, and fix feet and
a half in length. The teeth are 17 inches long, bend¬
ing forward like a coulter. Four of them are infert-
ed into each bull, fixed above with a fcrew-nut, ha¬
ving 12 inches free below', with a heel clofe to the un¬
der part of the bull, to prevent it from being puftied
back by ftones. The nut above makes it eafy to be
taken out for lharping. This brake requires four horfes
or four oxen. One of a leffer fize will not fully anfwer
the purpofe : one of a larger fize will require fix oxen;
in which cafe the work may be performed at lefs ex¬
pence with the plough.
This inftrument may be applied to great advantage
in the following circumftances. In the fallowing ftrong
day that requires frequent ploughings, a brakeing be¬
tween every ploughing will pulverize the foil, and ren¬
der the fubfequent ploughings more eafy. In the
month of March or April, when ftrong ground is
ploughed for barley, efpecially if bound with couch-
L T U R E. Part II.
grafs, a crofs-brakeing is preferable, to a crofs-plough- Pradice.
ing, and is done at half the expence. When ground -v—
is ploughed from the. ftate of nature, and after a com¬
petent time is crofs-ploughed, the brake is applied with
great fuccefs, immediately after the crofs-ploughing, to
reduce the whole to proper tilth.
Let it be obferved, that a brake with a greater num¬
ber of teeth than above-mentioned, is improper for
ground that is bound together by the roots of plants,
which is always the cafe of ground new broken up from
its natural ftate. The brake is foon choked, and can
do no execution till freed from the earth it holds. A
lefs number of teeth would be deficient in pulverizing
the foil.
4. The Harrow.
Harrows are commonly confidered as of no ufe
but to cover the feed ; but they have another ufe
fcarce lefs effential, which is to prepare land for the
feed. This is an article of importance for producing
a good crop. But how imperfectly either of thefe pur-
pofes is performed by the common harrow, will appear
from the following account of it. „
The harrow commonly ufed is of different forms. imperfec-
The firft we fhall mention has two bulls, four feet long 'ion of the
and 18 inches afunder, with four wooden teeth in each, common
A fecond has three bulls and 12 wooden teeth. Aharrow*
third has four bulls, and 20 teeth of wood or iron,
10, ti, or 12 inches afunder. Now, in fine mould,
the laft may be fufficient for covering the feed; but
none of them are fufficient to prepare for the feed any
ground that requires fubduing. The only tolerable
form is that with iron teeth ; and the bare defcrip-
tion of its imperfe&ions will fhow the neceffity of a
more perfeft form. In the firft place, this harrow is
by far too light for ground new taken up from the
ftate of nature, for clays hardened with fpring-drought,
or for other ftubborn foils: it floats on the furface ;
and after frequent returns in the fame trad, nothing
is done effectually. In “the next place, the teeth are
too thick fet, by which the harrow is apt to be choked,
efpecially where the earth is bound with roots, which
is commonly the cafe. At the fame time, the lightnefs
and number of teeth keep the harrow upon the furface,
and prevent one of its capital purpofes, that of divi¬
ding the foil. Nor will fewer teeth anfwer for covering
the feed properly. In the third place, the teeth are
too fhort for reducing a coarfe foil to proper tilth; and
yet it would be in vain to make them longer, becaufe
the harrow is too light for going deep into the ground.
Further, the common harrows are fo ill conftru&ed, as
to ride at every turn one upon another. Much time is
loft in difengaging them. Laftly, it is equally unfit
for extirpating weeds. The ground is frequently fo
bound with couch-grafs, as to make the furrow-flice
ftand upright, as when old lea is ploughed : notwith-
ftanding much labour, the grafs-roots keep the field,
and gain the victory.
A little reflection, even without experience, will
make it evident, that the fame harrows, whatever be
the form, can never anfwer all the different purpofes of
harrowing, nor can operate equally in all different foils,,
rough or fmooth, firm or loofe. The following, there¬
fore, have been recommended ; which are of three dif¬
ferent
Aoiucn/mtE.
r.
f
Part II. A G R I C
Practice, ferent forms, adapted for different purpofes. They
’ are all of the fame weight, drawn each by two horfes.
IJmproved Birch ,s the heft wood for them, becaufe it is cheap,
1 and not apt to fplit. The ftrft is compofed of four
bulls, each four feet ten inches long, three and a quav-
%• 3* ter inches broad, and three and a half deep ; the in¬
terval between the bulls 11 and three-fourths inches ;
fo that the breadth of the whole harrow is four feet.
The bulls are connected by four (heths, which go thro’
pig- 4*
U L T U R E. 277
cond is intended for covering the feed : its long teeth Pra&ice.
lays the feed deeper than the common harrow can do ; l—v—1
which is no flight advantage. By placing the feed
confiderably under the furface, the young plants are,
on the one hand, protected from too much heat, and,
on the other, have fufficiency of moifture. At the
fame time, the feed is fo well covered that none of it is
loft. Seed flightly covered by the common harrows
wants moifture, and is burnt up by the fun; befide,
each bull, and are fixed by timber-nails driven through that a proportion of it is left upon the furface unco-
both. In each bull five teeth are inferted, ten inches vered. The third harrow fupplies what may be defi-
free Under the bull, and ten inches afunder. They
of the fame form with thofe of the brake, and inferted
into the wood in the fame manner. Each of thefe teeth
is three pounds weight; and where the harrow is made
of birch, the weight of the whole is fix ftone 14 pounds,
Dutch. An erect bridle is fixed at a corner of the
harrow, three inches high, with four notches for draw-
ing higher or lower. To this bridle a double tree is
fixed for two horfes drawing ebreaft, as in a plough.
And to ftrengthen the harrow, a flat rod of iron is
nailed upon the harrow from corner to corner in the
line of the draught. ^
The fecond harrow confifts of two parts, connected pends greatly on pulverizing the foil, and on an inti-
. together by a crank or hinge in the middle, and two mate mixture of manure with it, whether dung, lime,
chains of equal length, one at each end, which keep
the two parts always parallel, and at the fame diftance
from each other. The crank is fo contrived, as to al¬
low the two parts to ply to the ground like two un-
connedted harrows ; but neither of them to rife above
the other, more than if they were a fingle harrow
without a joint. In a word, they may form an angle
downward, but not upward. Thus they have the ef-
feft of two harrows in curved ground, and of one
cient in the fecond, by fmoothing the furface, and co¬
vering the feed more accurately. The three harrows
make the ground finer and finer, as heckles do lint;
or, to ufe a different comparifon, the iirft harrow makes
the bed, the fecond lays the feed in it, the third
fmooths the cloaths. They have another advantage not
inferior to any mentioned : they mix manure with the
foil more intimately than can be done by common har¬
rows ; and upon fuch intimate mixture depends greatly
the effeft of manure, as has already been explained.
To conclude, thefe harrows are contrived to arifwer an
eftabliflied principle in agriculture, That fertility de¬
marl, or any other.
The Chain and Screw Harrow. Fig. 8. is the plan Plated
of a harrow alfo invented by Mr Sandilands, and to
which he has given the name of the chain andferew
harrow. Its properties are, that if your ridges be
high, and you wifli to harrow them from one end to the
Other, by lengthening the chain (which the ferew com¬
mands), the harrow, wdien drawn along, forms an angle
downwards, and miffes none of the curve of the ridge,
weighty harrow in a plain. This harrow is compofed fo far as it extends (which' may be 1
feet, the di-
the contrary di-
of fix bulls, each four feet long, three inches broad, ftance from A to B. The extent,
and three and a half deep. The interval between the redtion, is five feet fix inches). When the crowns of the
bulls nine and a half inches ; wdiich makes the breadth ridges have got what is thought fufiicient harrowing
of the whole harrow, including the length of the crank, lengthwife, you Ihorten the chain by the ferew, which
to be five feet five inches. Each bull has five teeth, forms an angle upwards : the harrow is then drawn by
nine inches free under the wood, and teft inches afun- the horfes, one on each fide of the furrow; which com-
der. The weight of each tooth is two pounds ; the pletely harrows it, and the fides pf the ridge, if 18 feet
reft as in the former.
The third confifts alfo of two parts, conne&ed to¬
gether like that laft mentioned. It has eight bulls,
each four feet long, two and a half inches broad, and
three deep. The interval between the bulls is eight
inches; and the breadth of the whole harrow, inclu¬
ding the length of the crank, is fix feet four inches.
broad.
When you want to harrow even ground or high
ridges acrofs with the ferew, you can bring the har¬
row to be horizontal, fo as to work as a folid harrow
without a joint.
The teeth are formed and fixed in the common man¬
ner, fquare, not in the falhion of coulters; and are nine
In each bull are inferted five teeth, feven inches free un- or ten inches below the wood, and of fuch ftrength as
der the wood, and ten and a half inches afunder, each
tooth weighing one pound. The reft as in the two for-
Joo mer harrows.
P -operties Thefe harrows are a confiderable improvement. They
cf thefe ply to curved ground like two unconneifted harrows; and
harrows, when drawn in one plain, they are in effect one harrow
of double weight, which makes the teeth pierce deep
into the ground. The imperfe&ion of common har-
it is thought the land requires. The teeth cut, or ra¬
ther tear, the ground at every four inches without va¬
riation, though feemingly placed irregularly ; and this
without any riik of choking; except fometimes at the
extreme angles, where the teeth are neceffarily near-
other; but which may be cleaned with the greateft eafe,
by raifing them a little from the ground. The figures
2, See. point out where the 12 teeth on each fide of
rows, mentioned above, will fuggeft the advantages of the harrow are placed,
the fet of harrows here recommended. The firft is pro- Where a ftrong brake-harrow is not neceffary, by
per for harrowing land that has long lain after plough- making the teeth Ihorter and lighter, you may have 48-
ing, as where oats are fown on a winter-furrow, and in teeth, which will tear tire ground at eveiy two inches,
generalfor harrowing ftiff land : it pierces deep into the cover the feed well, and make a fine mould,
foil by its long teeth, and divides it. minutely. The fe- It is recommended, that harrows for every purpofe,
anti
278 A G R I C U
an(J 0f any f'iZej made on the above principle ; by
v~ which no tooth can ever follow the track of another,
and all of them will be kept conftantly a&ing.
5. The Roller.
The joiler. The roller is an inftrument of capital ufe in huf-
bandry, though fcarcely known in ordinary praftice ;
and, where introduced, it is commonly fo flight as 'to
have very little effeft.
Rollers are of different kinds; ftone, caff-iron, wood.
Each of thefe has its advantages. We would recom¬
mend the laft, conftructed in the following manner.
Take the body of a tree, fix feet ten inches long, the
larger the better, made as near a perfeft cylinder as
polfible. Surround this cylinder with three rows of
fillies, one row in the middle, and one at each end.
Line thefe fillies with planks of wood equally long with
the roller, and fo narrow as to ply into “a circle. Bind
them faff together with iron rings. Beech-wdod is the
beft, being hard and tough. The roller thus mount¬
ed, ought to have a diameter of three-feet ten inches.
It has a double pair of fhafts for two horfes abreaft.
Thefe are fufficient in level ground ; in ground not le¬
vel, four horfes may be neceffary. , The roller without
the (hafts ought to weigh 200 ftone Dutch ; and the
large diameter makes this great weight eafy to be
104 drawn. _
Seafon for Rolling wheat in the month of April is an import-
roiling. ant article in loofe foil; as the winter-rains preffing
'down the foil leave many roots in the air. Barley
ought to be rolled immediately after the feed is fown ;
efpecially where grafs-feeds are fown with it. The
beft time for rolling a gravelly foil, is as foon as the
mould is fo dry as to bear the roller without clinging to
it. A clay foil ought neither to be tilled, harrowed,
nor rolled, till the field be perfe&ly dry. And as
rolling a clay foil is chiefly intended for fmoothing the
furface, 'a dry feafon may be patiently waited for, even
. till the crop be three inches high. There is the greater
teaftfn ffor this precaution, becaufe much rain imme¬
diately after rolling is apt to cake the furface when
drought follows. Oats in a light foil may be rolled
immediately after the feed is fown, unlefs the ground
be fo wet as to cling to the roller. In a clay foil, de¬
lay rolling till the grain be above ground. The pro¬
per time for fowing grafs-feeds in an oat-field, is when
the grain is three inches high ; and rolling fhould im¬
mediately fucceed, whatever the foil be. Flax ought
to be rolled immediately after fowing. This ftioiild ne¬
ver be negle&ed ; for it makes the feed pufh equally,
and prevents after-growth ; the bad effect of which is
vifible in every ftep of the procefs for dreffingflax. The
firft year’s crop of fown graffes ought to be rolled as
early the next fpring as -the ground will bear the hor¬
fes. It fixes all the roots precifely as in the cafe of
wheat. Rolling the fecond and third crops in loofe
foil is an ufeful work 5 though -not fo effential as rolling
jo-; the firft crop.
Effeifts of In the firft place,rolling renders a loofe foil more com-
t-uiinig, padt and folid ; which encourages the growth of plants,
by making the earth clap clofe to every part of every
root. Nor need we !be afraid of tendering the foil too
■ compact ; for no Toller that can be drawn by two or
- four horfts will have that effeft. In the next place,
L T U R E. Part IL
rolling keeps in the moifture, and hinders drought to Practice. |
penetrate. This effeft is of great moment. In a dry y-—J
feafon, it may make the difference of a good crop, or
no crop, efpecially where the foil is light. In the third
place, the rolling grafs-feeds, befide the foregoing ad¬
vantages, facilitates the mowing for hay ; and it is to
be hoped, that the advantage of this practice will lead
farmers to mow their corn alfo, which will increafe the ’
quantity of draw both for food and for the dunghill.
There is a fmall roller for breaking clods in land in¬
tended for barley. The common way is, to break
clods with a. mell; which requires many hands, and is a
laborious work. This roller performs the work more
effettually, and at much lefs expence: let a harrowing
precede, which will break the clods a little ; and after
lying a day, or a day and a half, to dry, this roller will
diffolve them into powder. This however does not fu-
pferfede the ufe of the great roller after all the other ar¬
ticles are finiftied, in order to make the foil compaft,
and to keep out the fummer-drought. A ftone roller
four feet long, and fifteen inches diameter, drawn by
one horfe, is fufficient to break clods that are eafily dif-
folved by preffure. The ufe of this roller in preparing
land for barley is gaining ground daily, even among
ordinary tenants, who have become fenfible both of the
expence and toil of ufing wooden mells. But in a clay
foil, the clods are fometimes too firm, or too tough, to
be fubdued by fo light a machine. In that cafe, a
roller of the fame fize, but of a different conftru&ion, is
neceffary. It ought to be furrounded with circles of
iron, fix inches afunder, and feven inches deep; which
will cut even the moil ftubborn clods, and reduce them
to powder. Let not this inftrument be confidered as
a finical 1‘efinement. In a ftiff clay, it may make the
difference of a plentiful or fcanty crop.'
6. The Fallow-cleansing Machine.
This was invented by Mr Aaron Ogden, a fmithThJfafiow*
at Afhton-under-Line, near Manchefter in Lancaffiire. cleanfing :
It is intended for cleanfing fallows from weeds, &c. machine, j
which exhauft the riches of the foil. A, A, is-the frame; £!ate VI* i
B, the firil roller; C, the fecond ditto; in which laft are g‘ S‘
two cranks to move the arms D, D, which work the rake
up the dire&ors fixed on the plank E. The under fide of
the lower ends or ffiares of thefe diredlors are iharp,tocut
the clods and let them come on the upper fide. Each al¬
ternate heel of the {hare is longer than the intermediate
one, that they inay not have more than one-half to Cut
at once. At the back of the plank E are two ferews
to let it loofe, that the directors may be fet higher or
lower. The ihares are to penetrate the ground two or
three inches, to raife the quicks till the rake I, I,
fetches them into the cart H, where a man mull be
ready with a muck-hook to clear them backward when
gathered. In the rake I are two teeth for every fpace
‘of the directors, that- ftones, &c. may be gathered
without damage. K, K, are two ftaples, by which
the machine is drawn : under them at h are two hooks,
placed low to raife- the machine in turning, by the help
of the traces; and the axle-tree of the cart ihould be
fixed upon a pin, that it may turn like a waggon.
F, F, are the triggers to throw the rake behind the
roots. The long teeth at G, G, are to cleanfe the
roller C. I, I, is the rake which gathers up the weeds
into
Part II. A G R I C U L T U R E.
279
Praftice into the cart H, and is drawn above the trigger F by
—-v— the working of the arms D, exprefled by the dotted
lines at d d, i i i. The triggers F, of which there is
one on each fide, move on the pivots a ; fo that when
the points b, of the rake I, have been drawn up by the
directors E to the part marked c, the trigger, giving
way, permits the rake to pafs; but immediately fall¬
ing, the rake returns along the upper furface of the
trigger marked <f, e, and of courfe falls on the weeds
when it comes to the end, a little beyond the pivot a.
The reader will obferve, that the boarding is taken
away on one fide, in the Plate, in order to give a more
perfect view of the inner parts of the machine ; and
in fact it would perhaps be better if all the boarding,
marked L, L, L, was taken away, and frame-work
put in its Head. The cart II might undoubtedly alfo
be made lighter. The wheels M, M, appear in the
Plate to be made of folid wood ; but there is no ne-
celfity they fliould be fo. At N is another view of
the roller C, by which the difpofition of the fpikes
may be eafily comprehended. Suppofe the circle O,
defcribed by the end of the roller N, to be divided by
four ftrait lines into eight equal fegments, as reprefent-
ed at P. Let the fame be done at the other end of
the roller, and parallel lines be drawn from one corre-
fponding point to the other the length of the roller;
mark the points with figures 1, z, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 ;
afterwards draw oblique lines, as from 1, at the end of
O, to 2, at the other end, and from 2 to 3, &c. on
thefe oblique lines the fpikes are to be fixed at equal
diftances, in eight circles, defcribed on the circumfe¬
rence of the roller. The fpikes. of the fmall roller B
are fixed in the fame manner, except that the diameter
being fmaller, there are only fix inftead of eight, rows.
R is another view of the directors, with the plank E
on which they are fixed; and S is a fedfion of a part
of the plank, with one of the diredlors as fixed, in
which may be feen the heel m, from whence to the
point of the fliare » is a fharp cutting edge. Seethe
fame letters in figure R. At T is one of the long
teeth to be feen at G; it is bent towards .the roller C,
which it ferves to cleanfe. When the end of the rake
b, after rifing above r, is pufhed, by the motion of the
arms D, D, along the upper part e, e, of the trigger
F, and, comes to the end beyond a; as it falls, the
part of the arm marked 0 refts -in the notch />, till it
is again raifed by the motion of the roller C with the
rake. The roller G is to be one foot diameter, the
fpikes nine inches long, that they may go through the
furrow (if the foil fhould be loofe) into the hard earth,
the more effe&ually to work the rake, which other-
wife might-be fo overcharged as to caufe the roller to
drag without,turning. In the rake-ends b there Ihould
be pivots, with rollers or pullers on, to go in the
groove, to take off the fridtion ; and they would liker
wife take the triggers more furely as the rake comes
back. The rake fhould alfo be hung fo far backward-
er, that when it is fallen the arms of it may lie in the
fame plane or parallel with the directors,, on which it
comes up (which will require the frame to be two inches
longer in the model). This will caufe the rake to fall
heavier, and drive the teeth into the roots, and bring
them up without fhattering. Thefe teeth muft be
made of fled, very fine, and fo long as to reach down
to the plank on which the dire£lors are fixed, that is Practice,
to fay, fix inches long (the dire&ers r.re alfo to lie v
made fix inches broad above the plank). The rake-
head fhould alfo fall a little before the crank is at its
extremity, which will caufe the rake to pufh forward
to let the teeth come into the roots. The rake-teeth
muft drop in the fame plane with the roller and wlvels,
or on the furface of the earth. No more fpace fhould
be given from the roller C to the long teeth at G G
than that the rake may juft mifs the fpikes of the rol¬
ler C and fall on the places before mentioned. As
the ftrft roller B was intended to cleanfe the fecond C
more than for any other- ufe, it may be omitted when
the machine is made in large, as Mr Ogden has lately
found that the long teeth at G G anfwer the end alone,
and this renders the machine about a fixth part fhorter;
Now, to fuit any fort of earth, there fhould be to each
machine three planks, with directors at different fpaces,
to ufe occafionally; in the firft, the fpaces between
the directors fhould be eight inches wide, in the fecond
fix, and the third four.. This will anfwer the fame
end'as having fo many machines.
As there may be fome objections- to the rake not
leaving the roots when it has brought them up, Mr
Ogden has feveral methods of cleanfing it; but as he
would make it as fimple as pofiible, he choofes to let
it be without them at prefent p but. fuppofe it fhould
bring fome roots back , again with it, it will probably
lofe them before it gets back to the extremity ; whence
they will lie light, and be of but little detriment to.
the others coming up. Mr Ogden would have the
firft machine made four feet fix inches wide, the teeth .
divided into equal fpaces, the outfides into half fpaces,-.
7. The new-invented Patent Univerfal Sowing ,
Machire.
This machine, whether made to be worked by handj Univeffal '
drawn by a horfe, or fixed to a plough, and ufed with lowing
it, is extremely fimple in the. conftruClion,.and notra,aciline,r
liable to be put out of order; as there is but one
movement to diredf the whole, nor does it require any
fkill in working. It will fow wheat, barley, oats, rye,
clover, cole-feed, hemp, flax, canary, rape, turnip, be-
fides a great, variety of other kinds of grain and feeds
broad-caft, with an accuracy hitherto unknown. It
is equally ufeful in the new hufhandry, particularly
when fixed to a plough ; it will then drill a more exten-
five variety of grain, pulfe, and feed (through every
gradation, with regard to quantity), and deliver each
kind with greater regularity than any. drill-plough
whatever. When ufed in this manner, it will likewile
be found of the utmoft fervice to farmers who are par¬
tial to the old hufbandry, as, among many other very
valuable and peculiar properties, it will not only fow
in the broad-cafl way with a moft fingular exaftnefs,
but fave the expence of a. feedfman; the feed being
fown (either over or-under furrow at. pleafure), and
the land ploughed, at the fame operation.
Perhaps a fair and deeifive experiment for, afcertain-
ing the fuperior advantage of broad-cafting or drilling
any particular crop, was never before fo practicable; as
the feed may now be put in with the utmoft degree of
regularity, in both methods of culture,. by the fame;
machine;
AGRICULTURE. Part II
machine; confequeritly, the feed will be fown in both
cafes with equal accuracy,. without which it is impof-
fible to make a juft decifion.
The excellence of this machine confifts in fpreading
■ any given quantity of feed over any given number of
acres, with a mathematical exa&nefs, which cannot be
done by hand ; by which a great faving may be made
in feeding the ground, as well as benefiting the ex¬
pected crop.
There has always been a difficulty in fowing turnip
feed with any degree of exactnefs, both from the mi-
nutenefs of the feed, and the fmallnefs of the quantity
required to be .fown on an acre. Here the machine
has a manifeft advantage, as it may be fet to fow the
leaft quantity ever required on an acre; and with an
accuracy the beft feedfman can never attain to.
It will alfo fow clover, cole, flax, and every other
kind of final! feed, with the utmoft degree of regularity.
It will likewife broad-caft beans, peafe, and tares, or
drill them with the greateft exadftnefs, particularly when
conftrufted to be ufed with a plough.
Another advantage attending the ufe of this machine
is, that the wind can have no effe& on the falling of
the feed.
Of the Machine when made to he ufed without a
Plough, and to be drawn by a Horje.—It may in
this cafe be made of different lengths at the defire of
the purchafer. The upper part AAA A, contains
the hoppers from which the grain or feed defcends into
the fpouts. The feveral fpouts all reft upon a bar,
which hangs and plays freely by two diagonal fupport-
ers BB; a trigger fixed to this bar bears a catch wheel:
this being fixed on the axle, occafions a regular and
continual motion, or jogging of the fpouts, quicker or
flower in proportion to the pace the perfon fowing
with it drives; and of courfe, if he quickens his pace,
the bar will receive a greater number of ftrokes from
the catch wheel, and the grain or feed will feed the
fafter. If he drives flower, by receiving fewer -ftrokes,
the contrary muft take place. In going along the
fide of a hill, the ftrength of the ftroke is corre&ed by
a fpring which afts with more or lefs power, in pro¬
portion as the machine is more or lefs from a horizon¬
tal pofition, and counteracts the difference of gravity in
the bar, fo that it preffes, in all fituations, with a pro¬
per force againft the catch wheel. This fpring is un-
neceffary if the land be pretty level. At the bottom
of the machine is placed an apron or fhelf in a Hoping
pofition, and the corn or feed, by falling thereon from
the fpouts above, is fcattered about in eveiy direction
under the machine, and covers the ground in a moft
regular and uniform manner.
To fow the -corn or feed in drills, there are moveable
fpouts, (fee fig. 10.) which are fixed on, or taken off
at pleafure, to direft the feed from the upper fpout to
the bottom of the furrow.
The machine is regulated for fowing any particular
.quantity of feed on an acre by a brafs Aider, A, fig. 7.
fixed by fcrews againft a brafs bridge on each of the
fpouts. The machine is prevented from feeding while
turning at the ends, by only removing the lever, E,
fig. 2. out of the channel G, to another at H, on the
right hand of it, which carries back the bar from the
catch-wheel, and occafions the motion of the fpouts to
eeafe, and at the fame tirfie brings them upon a level
N0;.
by the aftion of the diagonal fupporters; fo that no
corn or feed can fall from them.
The machine in this form is particularly ufeful for
broad-cafting clover upon barley or wheat; or for fow¬
ing any other kind of feed, where it is neceflary that
the land fhould firft be harrowed exceedingly fine and
even.
Manner of ufing the Machine, when drawn by a
Horfe.—Place the machine about two feet from the
ends of the furrows where you intend it ftiall begin to
fow. Fill the hoppers with feed, and drive it forwards
with the outfide wheel in the firft furrow. When you
are at the end of the length, at the oppofite fide of the
field, lift the lever E, fig. 2, into the channel H, and
the machine will inftantly ftop fowing. Drive it on
about two feet, and then turn. Fill the hoppers again
if neceflary; then remove the lever back again into the
channel G, and in returning, let the outfide wheel of
the machine go one furrow within the track which
was made by it, in pafling from the oppofite end; as
for example, if the wheel pafled down thfc eighth fur¬
row from the outfide of the field, let it return in the
feventh; and in every following length let the outfide
wheel always run one furrow within the traft made by
the fame wheel: becaufe the breadth fown is about nine
inches lefs than the diftance between the wheels.
Let the machine be kept in a perpendicular fitua-
tion. If the farmer wifhes to fow more or lefs feed
on any one part of the field than the other, it is only
raifing the handles a little higher, or finking them a
little lower than ufual, and it will occafion a fufficient
alteration; and flrould the laft turn be lefs in breadth
than the machine, thofe fpouts which are not wanted
may be taken up from the bar, and prevented from
feeding, by turning the knob above them.
Alfo, when the land required to be fown has what is
called a -cent, that is, when the fides of the field run in
an oblique line to the furrows, w hich by this means
are unequal in length; the fpouts muft be taken up or
let down in fucceffion by turning the knobs; as that
part of the machine, where they are placed, arrives* at
the ends of the furrowrs. This is done while the ma¬
chine is going forwards.
If the land be tolerably level, the machine may be
fixed by the fcrew in the front, and the machine may
then be ufed by any common harrow boy.
Method of regulating the Machine.—In each fpout is
fixed a bridge, (fee fig. 7.) with an aperture in it, B,
for the grain or feed to pafs through. This aperture is
enlarged or contracted by a Aider, A, which pafies over
it; and when properly fixed for the quantity of feed
defigned to be fown on an acre, is faftened by means
of two ftrong fcrews firmly againft the bridge. This
is made ufe of in fowing all kinds of feed, where it is
required to fow from one buffiel upwards on an acre.
To fow one, two, three gallons, or any of the inter¬
mediate quantities, as of clover, cole-feed, &c. the
brafs plate, fig. 6, is placed between the bridge and the
Aider, with the largeft aperture B downwards, which
aperture is enlarged or contracted by the Aider as be¬
fore. To fow turnips, the fame plate is placed between
the bridge and the Aider, with its fmalleft aperture A
downwards, and the hollow part about the fame aper¬
ture inwards.
Fig. 8. is a view of the regulator, by which the
2 apertures
Praftice.
A<®IGITLTflTRE.
Flnte VI.
| Part II. AGRICULTURE; 281
ra Practice, apertures in the feveral fpouts are all fet exaftly alike, to more than the price of the machine) and the feedf- Practice.
with the utmoft eafe, to make them feed equally. The man’s labour will be faved. The feed may likewife be ' v 1 f
extreme height of the largeft aperture is equal to the fown either under or over furrow; or one call each
breadth AB, and the breadth at C is equal to the way, as is praftifed by fome farmers; The feed alfo,
height of the fmalleft aperture ufed, viz. that for tur- being call by the machine upon the frefh ploughed
nips. The fide AC, is divided into 60 equal parts, land, may be immediately harrowed in, before the
and on it moves the Aider or horfe D; which being mould has loll any part of its moiiture ; which in a dry
placed at any particular degree, according to the quan- feafon will greatly promote the crop. In drilling any
tity of feed required to be fown on an acre, is fixed kind of grain, pulfe, or feed, it poflefies every property
upon it, by a fcrew on the fide of the Aider or horfe. that can be wifhed for in the belt drill-plough, nor will
When this is done, the end of the regulator is put it (as molt of them do) bruife the feed, or feed irre-
through the aperture in the bridge or plate (whichever gularly. The conftrudtion of the machine is the fame
is intended to be ufed), and the Aider againft the as the large ones, except being made with one hopper
bridge in the fpout, raifed by it, till it Hops againlt the and fpout inftead of feveral, and the apron moveable
horfe on the regulator; then the Aider is faltened inllead of being fixed, as maybe feen by infpedling
againft the bridge firmly by the two fcrews; care be- fig. 4. The only alteration neceffary to make the
ing taken at the fame time that it Hands nearly fquare. machine broad-caft or drill is, in the formg^ cafe to
I By this means the fpouts (being all fixed in the place the apron B, fig. 1, at the bottom of the ma-
fame manner) wftl feed equally. chine, upon the hooks FF, doping either towards the
It is eafy to conceive, that the fize of the apertures, furrows or the imploughed land, according as it is in*
and confequently the quantity of feed to be fown on an tended to fow the feed, either over or under furrow,
here, may be regulated with a far greater accuracy than Whenever the apron is required to be drifted, it is done
is required in common pradtice. in lefs than a fecond of time; as it only requires to be
The fpouts may be regulated with the utmoft nicety, moved up or down with the hand, when a catch fixes it.
in five minutes, to fow each particular feed, for the To prepare it for drilling, inftead of the apron, place
whole feafon. But a little practice will enable any per- the long fpout, fig. 10, upon the brackets, on the front
fon, who poftefies but a very moderate capacity, to of the machine, by the ears AA, to receive the feed
make the fpouts feed equally, even without ufing the from the. upper fpout, and fallen the lower end of it,
regulator (a). by a fmall cord, to that hook upon which the apron is*
Of the Machine, 'when made to be ufed by Hand.— hung for broad-cafting, which is next the plough (fee
The difference of the machine in this cafe js, that it is fig-3;) the feed will then be diredled by the long
made lighter, with but three fpouts, without (hafts, fpout, to the centre of the furrow,, near the heel of the-
and is driven forwards by the handles. It hath alfo a plough. The fpring for correcting the ftrength of the
bolt in front, which being pulhed in by the thumb, re- ftroke, is neceffary only when they are required to go
leafes the machine ; fo that it can then eafily be placed along the fide of a confiderable declivity. The ma¬
in a perpendicular pofition. This alteration is necef- chine, when fixed to a plough, does not require the
fary to keep the handles of a convenient height, in. fmalleft degree of Ikill in ufing, as nothing is neceffary
lowing up and down a hill, where the Aope is confider- but to keep the hopper filled, which will contain a fuf-
able ; and is done while the machine is turning at the ficient quantity of feed to go upwards of 140 rods, be-
end of the length. The method of regulating and fore it will want re-filling,. when three buftiels and a
ufing it is the fame as when made to be drawn by a. half are fown on an acre. The accuracy with which
horfe. it. will broad-caft, may in fome meafure be conceived, .,
^ Of the Machine, when conftruEled to be ufed with a by confidering that the feed regularly defeends upon
Plough.—This is, without doubt, the moft ufeful ap- the apron or ihelf, and.is from thence fcattered upon
plication of the machine ; and it can be. fixed without the ground, in quantity exactly proportioned to the
difiiculty to any kind of plough, in the fame manner as fpeed of the plough: alfo that each call fpreads to the
to that reprefented in fig. 1. third furrow; and by this means Amts upon the laft.
The advantages arifing from the ufe of it are great In this manner it is. continually filling up till the whole
and numerous; for, belide the increafe in the crop, field is completely covered; fo that it is impoffible to
which will be infUred by the feeds being broad-caft leave the fmalleft fpace without its proper quantity of
with a mathematical nicety, a larg^ proportion of feed feed.
(the value of which alone, in afew months, will amount. When the plough is wanted for any other purpofe,
Vo L. I. Part I.. Nn the
(a) Proper diredlibns are given with each machine for ufing it, as alfo for fixing the Aiders to fow any parti¬
cular quantity of corn or feed on an acre, ,fo as to enable any.perfon to fet the fpouts.
The prices of the machine (exclufive of the packing cafes) are as follow. If conftru&ed to be ufed with a
Angle furrow plough ; the wheel, with the axle and cheeks Heeled, ftrap, regulator, brafs-plates for broad-caft¬
ing or drilling turnips, lucerne, tares, wheat, barley, &c. &c. &c. and every article neceffary for fixing it inclu¬
ded, three guineas and ahalf. If made with a fpring (for fowing on the fide of a hill, where the Aope is confi¬
derable), but which is very rarely neceffary, five (hillings more. If made to be fixed to any double-furrow
plough, four guineas and a half.
The large machine, fig. 2. when made to broad-coaft feven furrows at a time and to be drawn by a horfe,,
eight guineas and a half. If conftrudled to fow five furrows at a time, and to be ufed by hand, fix guineas, .
Thefe are alfo five (hillings more if made with a fpring.
232 A G R I C U
Practice, the machine, with the wheel at the heel of the plough
for giving it motion, can be removed or replaced at any¬
time in five minutes.
Fig. 11. reprefents the machine fixed to a double¬
furrow creafing plough, and prepared for drilling. As
this plough may not be generally known, it will not be
improper to obferve, that it is chiefly ufed for creafing
the land with furrows (after it has been once ploughed
and harrowed); which method is neceifary when the
feed is to be fown broad-caft upon land that has been a
c lover-lay, See. b'ecaufe, if the feed be thrown upon the
rough furrows, a confiderable part of it will fall be¬
tween them, and be unavoidably loft, by laying too
deep buried in the earth. This mode anfwers ex¬
tremely well, and partakes of both methods of culture;
the feed, though fown broad-caft, falling chiefly into
the furrows.
The machine is very ufeful for fowing in this man¬
ner; as the feed is broad-caft, with an inconceivable
regularity, at the time the land is creafed. The ad¬
vantages it likewife pofiefies for drilling all forts of
grain or feed with this plough, are too evident to need
mentioning.
The machine, when conftru&ed to be ufed with a
double-furrow plough, is made with two upper and
two long fpouts for drilling, two aprons for broad-
cafting, and with a double hopper; but in other re-
fpefts the fame as when intended for a Angle furrow
plough: it is ufed in all cafes with the greateft eafe
imaginable.
The interval between the points of the two /hares of
a creafing plough is ufually ten inches; the beam about
nine feet long; and the whole made of a light con-
ftm&ion.
sJPlateVH A more particular explanation of the figures.—Fig. I.
The machine fixed to a Kenti/h turn wreft plough. A,
The machine. B, The apron upon which the feed falls
and rebounds upon the land, in broad-cafting. C, Lid
to cover the hopper. D, Wheel at the heel of the
plough. E,iftrap. FF, Hooks, upon which the apron
turns by a pivot on each fide. G, Stay, to keep the
machine fteady. H, Lever, to prevent it from fowing.
Fig. 2.Hhe machine conftru&ed to be drawn by a
horfe. AAAA, The hoppers. BB, The diagonal
fupporters. CCCC, The upper fpouts. D, The apron
or /helf upon which the feed falls from the upper fpouts.
E, The lever, which carries back the bar, and prevents
the machine from fowing. FF, Staples upon the han¬
dles, through which the reins pafs, for the man who
condufts the machine, to diredt the horfe by. I,
Screw, to fix the machine occafionally. N. B. The
knobs (by turning which each particular fpout may
be taken from off the bar, and thereby prevented from
feeding) are over each upper fpout; but, to prevent
confufion, are not lettered in the Plate.
Fig. 3. Is the fame machine with that in fig. x. The
dotted lines, exprefiing the fituation of the long fpout,
when the apron is removed, and the machine adapted
for drilling,
Fig. 4. Alfo the fame machine, with the front laid
open to Ihow the infide. A, The catch-wheel fixed
upon the axle. BB, The axle upon which the machine
hangs between the handles of the plough. C, The
pulley, by which the ftrap from the wheel at the heel
of the plough turns the catch-wheel. D, The bar,
L T U R E. Partir.
upon which the upper fpout refts, fufpended by the Pradtice.
diagonal fupporters EE, bearing againft the catch- 1 ,r—
wheel by the trigger F, and thereby kept in motion
while the plough is going* G, The apron in a doping
pofition, upon which the corn or feed falls from the
upper fpout, and is fcattered by rebounding upon the
land. It turns upon pivots, and by this means throws
the feed either towards the right hand or left at plea-
fure.
Fig. 5. The upper fpout.
Fig. 6. The plate which is placed between the bridge
and the Aider, for fowing fmall feeds. . The aperture
A being downwards for fowing turnips; the larger
one B downwards for fowing clover, &c.
Fig. 7. The bridge, fixed in the upper fpouts. A,
The Aider, whicli contrails or enlarges the different
apertures. B, The aperture in the bridge, through
which the feed paffes, when fowing any quantity from
one buftrel upwards on an acre.
Fig. 8. The regulator, made of brafs. D, The
Aider or horfe which moves upon it, and is fixed at
any particular degree by a ferew in its fide.
Fig. 9. Reprefents the movement in the machine
fig. 2. AAAA, Gleets, between which the upper
fpouts reft. BB, The diagonal fupporters, by which
the bar with the upper fpouts hang. C, The catch-
wheel. DD, The axle. |E, The trigger upon the
bar, which bears againft the catch-wheel. FF, Stays
from the back of the machine, by which the bar plays.
Fig. 10, The long fpout. A A, The ears by which
it hangs.
Sect. II. Preparing Land for Cropping.
J. Obstructions to Cropping.
106
In preparing land for cropping, the firft thing that Ob/lruc-
occurs, is to coniider the obftruflions to regular plough-tlons> 'V'!S
ing. The moft formidable of thefe, are Jlones lying a- stones*
bove or below the furface, which are an impediment to
a plough, as rocks are to a fliip. Stones above the
furface may be avoided by the ploughman, though not
without lofs of ground ; but ftones below the furface
are commonly not difeovered till the plough be flrat-
tered to pieces, and perhaps a day’s work loft. The
clearing land of ftones is therefore neceffary to prevent
mifehief. And to encourage the 'operation, it is at¬
tended with much actual profit. In the firft place, the
ftones are ufeful for fences: when large they muft be
blown, and commonly fall into parts proper for build¬
ing. And as the blowing, when gunpowder is furni/h-
ed, does not exceed a halfpenny for each inch that is
bored, thefe ftones come generally cheaper than to dig
as many out of the quarry. In the next place, as the
foil round a large ftone is commonly the beft in the
field, it is purchafed at a low rate by taking out the
ftone. Nor is this a trifle ; for not only is the ground
loft that is occupied by a large ftone, but alfo a con¬
fiderable fpace round it, to which the plough has not
accefsjyjthout danger. A third advantage is greater
than all the reft; which is, that the ploughing can be
carried on with much expedition, when there is no ap-
prehenfion of ftones: in ftony land, the plough muft
proceed fo flow, as not to perform half of its work.
To clear land of ftones, is in many inftances an un¬
dertaking
Part II. AGRICULTURE.
283
Pra&ice. dertaking too expenfive for a tenant who has not a
*•—““v very long leafe. As it is profitable both to him and to
his landlord, it appears reafonable that the work fhould
be divided, where the leafe exceeds not nineteen years.
It falls naturally upon the landlord to be at the expence
of blowing the ftones, and upon the tenant to carry
I ioS them off the field,
Wetnefs. Another obitruftion is wet ground. Water may
improve gravelly or fandy foils ; but it fours (a) a clay
foil, and converts low ground into a morafs, unfit for
any purppfe that can interell the hufbandman.
A great deal has been written upon different me¬
thods of draining land, mollly fo expenfive as to be
fcarce fit for the landlord, not to mention the tenant.
One way of draining without expence when land is
to be inclofed with hedge and ditch, is to diredl the
ditches fo as to carry off the water. But this method is
not always practicable, even where the divifions lie con¬
venient for it. If the run of water be confiderable, it
will deftroy the ditches, and lay open the fences, efpe-
cially where the foil is loofe or fandy.
If ditches will not anfwer, hollow drains are fome-
times made, and fometimes open drains, which muff be
made fo deep as to command the water. The former
is filled up with loofe ftones, with brufii-wood, or with
any ether porous matter that permits the water to
pafs. The latter is left open, and not filled up. To
make the former effedlual, the ground mull have fuch
a flope as to give the water a brifle courfe. To execute
them in level ground is a grofs error: the paffages are
foon Hopped up with fand and fediment, and the work
is rendered ufelefs. This inconvenience takes not place
in open drains ; but they are fubject to other inconve¬
niences : They are always filling up, to make a yearly
reparation neceffary ; and they obftruCt both plough¬
ing and pa fturing.
The following is the bell in all view's. It is an open
drain made with the plough, cleaving the fpace in¬
tended for the drain over and over, till the furrow be
made of a fufficient depth for carrying off the water.
The flope on either fide may, by repeated ploughings,
be made fo gentle as to give no obltruction either to-
the plough or to the harrow. There is no occafion for
a fpade, unlefs to fmooth the fides of the drain, and to
remove accidental obftrudlions in the bottom. The
advantages of this drain are manifold. It is executed
at much lefs expence than either of the former; and
it is perpetual, as it can never be obftrudled. In level
ground, it is true, grafs may grow at the bottom of
the drain ; but to clear off the grafs once in four or five
years, will reftore it to its original perfection. A hol¬
low drain may be proper between the fpring-head and
the main drain, where the diftance is not great; but
in every other cafe the drain recommended is the belt.
Where a level field is infefted with water from
higher ground, the water ought to be intercepted by
a ditch carried along the foot of the high ground, and
terminating in fome capital drain.
The only way to clear a field of water that is hollow
in the middle, is to carry it off by fome drain ftill low- Pradice.
er. This is commonly the cafe of a morafs fed with w—^
water from higher ground, and kept on the furface by
a clay bottom.
A clay foil of any thicknefs is never peftered with
fprings; but it is peftered with rain, which fettles on
the furface as in a cup. The only remedy is high nar¬
row' ridges, w'ell rounded. And to clear the furrows,
the furrow of the foot-ridge ought * to be confiderably
low'er, in order to carry off the water cleverly. It can¬
not be made too low, as nothing hurts clay foil more
than the ftagnation of water on it; w'itnefs the hollows
at the end of crooked ridges, which are abfolutely bar¬
ren. Some gravelly foils have a clay bottom; which is
a fubftantial benefit to a field when in grafs, as it re¬
tains moifture. But when in tillage, ridges are necef¬
fary to prevent rain from fettling at the bottom ; and
this is the only cafe where a gravelly foil ought to be
ridged.
Clay foils that have little or no level, have fometimes
a gravelly bottom. For difeharging the water, the bell
method is, at the end of every ridge to pierce down to
the gravel, which will abforb the water. But if the
furrow of the foot-ridge be low enough to receive all
the water, it will be more expeditious to make a few
holes in that furrow. In fome cafes, a field may be
drained, by filling up the hollows with earth taken from
higher ground. But as this method is expenfive, it
will only be taken where no other method anfwers.
Where a field happens to be partly wet, partly dry,
there ought to be a feparation by a middle ridge, if it
can be done conveniently ; and the dry part may be
ploughed while the other is drying.
The low part of Berwickftiireisgenerallya brick clay,
extremely wet and poachy during winter. This in a
good meafure may be prevented by proper inclofing,
as there is not a field but can be drained into lower
ground all the way down to the river Tweed. But
as this would ieffen the quantity of rain in a dry cli¬
mate, fuch as is all the eaft fide of Britain, it may ad¬
mit of fome doubt whether the remedy would not be
as bad as the difeafe. {See the article Draining.)
2. Bringing into culture, Land from the
STATE of NATURE.
To improve a moor, let it be opened in winter when Moorifii
it is wet; which has one convenience, that the plough ground,
cannot be employed at any other work. In fpring, after
froft is over, a flight harrowing will fill up the feams
with mould, to keep out the air, and rot the fod.. In
that Hate let it lie the following fummer and winter,
which will rot the fod more than if laid open to the air
by ploughing. Next April, let it be crofs-ploughed,
braked, and harrowed, till it be fufficiently pulverized.
Let the manure laid upon it, whether lime or dung,
be intimately mixed with the foil by repeated harrow-
ings. This will make a fine bed for turnip-feed if fown
broad-caft. But if drills be intended, the method mull
N n 2 be
(a) By this expreffion it is not meant that the ground really becomes acid, but only that it becomes unfit
for the purpofes of iiegetation. The natural products of fuch a foil are rulhes and four grafs: which lall ap¬
pears in the furrows, but feldom in the crown of the ridge ; is dry and taftelefs like a chip of wood ; and feels
rough when ftroked backwards.
284 A G R I C U
Practice, be followed that is direcled afterward in treating more
direflily of the culture of turnip.
A fuceefsful turnip-crop, fed on the ground with
fheep, is a fine preparation for laying down a field with
grafs-feeds. It is'an improvement upon this method,
to take two or three fucceffive crops of turnip, which
will require no dung for the fecond and following crops,
no This will thicken the foil, and enrich it greatly.
Swampy The beft way of improving fwampy ground after
groimd. dra;ning)
is paring and burning. But where the ground
is dry, and the foil fo thin as that the furface cannot
be pared, the beft way 6f bringing it into tilth from
the ftate of nature, as mentioned above, is to plough
it with a feathered fock, laying the graffy furface un¬
der. After the new furface is mellowed with froft,
fill up all the feams by harrowing crofs the field, which
by excluding the air will effectually rot the fod. In
this ftate let it lie fummer and winter. In the begin-
ing of May after, a crofs-ploughing will reduce all to
fmall fquare pieces, which muft be pulverized with the
brake, and make it ready for a May or June crop. .If
thefe fquare pieces be allowed to lie long in the fap
without breaking, they will become tough and not be
eafily reduced.
3. Forming Ridges.
©f ridges. The firft thing that occurs on this head, is to con-
fider what grounds ought to be formed into ridges, and
what ought to be tilled with a flat furface. Dry foils,
which fuffer by lack of moifture, ought to be tilled flat,
which tends to retain moifture. And the method for
fuch tilling, is to go round and round from the cir¬
cumference to the centre, or from the centre to the cir¬
cumference. This method is advantageous in point of
expedition, as the whole is finilhed without once turn¬
ing the plough. At the fame time, every inch of the
foil is moved, inftead of leaving either the crown or
the furrow unmoved, as is commonly done in tilling
ridges. Clay foil, which fuffers by water Handing on
it, ought to be laid as dry as poffible by proper ridges.
A loamy foil is the middle between the two mentioned.
It ought to be tilled flat in a dry country, efpecially
if it incline to the foil firft mentioned. In a moift
country, it ought to be formed into ridges, high or
low according to the degree of moifture and tendency
to clay.
In grounds that require ridging, an error prevails,
that ridges cannot be raifed too high. High ridges
labour under feveral difadvantages. The foil is heap¬
ed upon the crown, leaving the furrows bare : the
•crown is too dry, and the furrows too wet: the crop,
which is always beft on the crown, is more readily flra-
ken with the wind, than where the whole crop is of an
equal height: the half of the ridge is always covered
from the fun, a difadvantage which is far from being
■flight in a cold climate. High ridges labour under
another difadvantage in ground that has no more level
than barely fufficient to carry off water: they fink the
furrows below the level of the, ground; and confe-
quently retain water at the end of every ridge. The
furrows ought never to be funk below tbe level of the
ground. Water will more effe&ually be carried off
by leffening the ridges both in height and breadth : a
l. T U R K. Part II; i
narrow ridge, the crown of which is but 18 inches Prathke. 'j
higher than the furrow, has a greater flape than a very '—1
broad ridge where the difference is three or four feet.
Next, of forming ridges where the ground hangs
confiderably. Ridges may be too fteep as well as too
horizontal; and if to the ridges be given all the fteep-
nefs of a field, a heavy fhower may do irreparable mif-
chief. To prevent fuch mifehief, the ridges ought to
be fo directed crofs the fi-dd, as to have a gentle flope
for carrying off water flowly, and no more. In that
refpedl, a hanging field has greatly the advantage of
one that is nearly horizontal; becaufe in the latter,
there is no opportunity of a choice in forming the
ridges. A hill is of all the beft adapted for dire&ing
the ridges properly. If the foil be gravelly, it may be
ploughed round and round, beginning at the bottom
and afeending gradually to the top in a fpiral line.
This method of ploughing a hill, requires no more
force than ploughing on a level; and at the fame time
removes the great inconvenience of a gravelly hill, that
rains go off too quickly; for the rain is retained in
every furrow. If the foil be fuch as to require ridges,
they may be direfted to any flope that is proper.
In order to form a field into ridges, that has not been
formerly cultivated, the rules mentioned are eafily put
in execution. But what if ridges be already formed,
that are either crooked or too high ? After feeing the
advantage of forming a field into ridges, people were
naturally led into an error, that the higher the better.
But what could tempt them to make their ridges crook¬
ed ? Certainly this method did not originate from de-
fign ; but from the lazinefs of the driver fuffering the
cattle to turn too haftily, inftead of making them finifli
the ridge without turning. There is more than one
difadvantage in this flovenly practice. Firft, the wa¬
ter is kept in by the curve at the end of every ridge,
and fours the ground. Next, as a plough has the leaft
fridlion polfible in a ftraight line, the friftion muft be
increafed in a curve, the back part of the mouldboard
preffing hard on the one hand, and the coulter preffing
bard - on the other. In the third place, the plough
moving in a ftraight line, has the greateft command in
laying the earth over. But where the ftraight line of
the plough is applied to the curvature of a ridge in
order to heighten it by gathering, the earth moved by
the plough is continually falling back, in fpite of the
moft Ikilful ploughman.
The inconveniences of ridges high and crooked are fo
many, that one would- be tempted to apply a remedy at
any rifle. And yet, if the foil be clay, it would not be
advifable for a tenant to apply the remedy upon a leafe
flrorter than two nineteen years. In a dry gravelly
foil, the work is not difficult nor hazardous. When
the ridges are cleaved two or three years fnccef*
lively in tHe courfe of cropping, the operation ought
to be concluded in one fummer. The earth, by reite¬
rated ploughings, fliould be accumulated upon the fur¬
rows, fo as to raife them higher than the crowns : they
cannot be raifed too high, for the accumulated eartb
will fubfide by its own weight. Crofs-ploughing once
or twice, will reduce the ground to a flat furface, and
give opportunity to form ridges-at will. The fame
method brings down ridges in clay foil: only let care
be taken to carry on the work with expedition; be¬
caufe
Part. IT.
Pratflice. caufe a hearty Ihower, before the new ridges
ed, would foak the ground in water, and make the far¬
mer fufpend his work for the remainder of that year at
leaft. In a ftrong clay, we would not venture to alter
* EJayi an ^ie ridges, unlefs it can be done to perfe&ion in one
i^n«//K«,feafon. — On this fubjedt Mr Anderfon has the follow-
i/ol.I.p.146 ing obfervations*.
na _ « Yhe difficulty of performing this operation pro-
mces in the Per^7 with the common implements of hufhandry, and
iommon the obvious benefit that accrues to the farmer from ha-
nethods ofving his fields level, has produced many new inventions
levelling. 0f pJ0Ugbs, harrows, drags, See. calculated for fpeedily
reducing the fields to that ftate ; none of which have
as yet been found fully to anfwer the purpofe for
which they were intended, as they all indiferiminately
carry the earth that was on the high places into thofe
that were lower; which, although it may, in fome ca-
AGRICULTURE. 285
form- chine, is to render the furface perfedtly fmooth and Pra£hce.
even in- every part, at the time that the operation isv—
performed : but as, in this cafe, the old hollows are
fuddenly filled up with loofe mould to a great depth,
while the earth below the furface upon the heights of
the old ridges remain firm and compaft,jhe new-raifed
earth after a fhort times fubfides very much, while the
other parts of the field do not fink at all; fo that in
a fhort time the old furrows come to be again below
the level of the other parts of the field, and the water
of courfe is fuffered in fome degree to flagnate upon
them; in fo much that, in a few years, it becomes ne-
ceffary once more to repeat the fame levelling procefs,
and thus renew the damage that the farmer fuftains by
this pernicious operation. 114
“ On thefe accounts, if the farmer has not a long Levelling
leafe, it will be found in general to be much his intererc^^1^8
fes, render .the furface of the ground tolerably fmooth to leave the ridges as he found them, rather than to "t°ten^)te(j<
and level, is ufually attended with inconveniences far
greater, for a confiderable length of time, than that
which it was intended to remove.
{Vegetable u For experience fufficiently fhows, that even the
piould be- beft vegetable mould, if buried for any length of time
|on|^s. ",ert fo far beneath the furface as to be deprived of the be'
ugbuned n'gn influences of the atmofphere, lofes its vis vita, if and parallel ridges.
attempt to alter their direftion : and, if he attends with
due caution to moderate the height of thefe old ridges,
he may reap very good crops, although perhaps at a
fomewhat greater expence of labour than he would
have been put to upon the fame field, if it had been re¬
duced to a proper level furface, and divided into ftraight
I may be allowed that expreffion ; becomes an inert,
lifelefs mafs, little fitted for nourifhing vegetables; and
conftitutes a foil very improper for the purpofes of the
farmer. It therefore behove's him, as much as in him
lies, to preferve, on every part of-his fields, an equal
covering of that vegetable mould that has long been
uppermoft, and rendered fertile by the meliorating in¬
fluence of the atmofphere. But, if he fuddenly levels
his high ridges by any of thefe mechanical contrivan¬
ces, he of neceffity buries all the good mould that was
on the top of the ridges in the old furrows ; by which
he greatly impoveriffies one part of his field, while he
too much enriches another ; infomuch that it is a mat¬
ter of great difficulty, for many years thereafter, to get
the field brought to an equal degree of fertility in dif*
ferent places; which makes it impoffible for the far¬
mer to get an equal crop over the whole of his field by
any management whatever : and he has the mortifica¬
tion frequently, by- this means, to fee the one half of
his crop rotted by an over-luxuriance, while other parts
of it are weak and fickly, or one part ripe and ready
for reaping, while the other is not properly filled ; fo
that it were, on many occafions, better for him to have
‘ But, where a man is fecure of pofleffing his ground
for any confiderable length of time, the advantages
that he will reap from having level and well laid-out
fields, are fo confiderable as to be worth purchafing, if
it fliould even be at a confiderable expence. But the
lofs that is fultained at the beginning, by this mecha¬
nical mode of levelling ridges, if they are of confider¬
able height, is fo very great, that it is perhaps doubt¬
ful if any future advantages can ever fully compenfate
it. I would therefore advife, that all this levelling
apparatus fhould be laid afide ; and the following more
efficacious practice be fubftituted in its ftead : A prac¬
tice that I have long followed with fuccefs, and can
fafely recommend as the very belt that has yet come to
my knowledge. iij
“ If the ridges have been raifed to a very great nie‘
height, as a preparation for the enfuing operations,j'y'nLj,
they may be firlt cloven, or fealed out, as it is called in ‘ _
different places ; that is, ploughed fo as to lay the earth
on each ridge from the middle towards the furrows.
But, if they are only of a moderate degree of height,
this operation may be omitted. When you mean to
proceed to level the ground, let a number of men be
his whole field reduced at once to the fame degree of collefted, with fpades, more or fewer as the nature of
poornefs as the pooreft of it, than have it in this ftate.
An almoft impracticable degree of attention in fpread-
ing the manures may indeed in fome meafure get the
better of this; but it is fo difficult to perform this pro-
the ground requires, and then fet a plough to draw a
furrow directly aerofs the ridges of the whole field in¬
tended to be levelled. Divide this line into as many
parts as you have labourers, allotting to each one ridge
perly, that I have frequently feen fields that had been . or'two, or more or lefs, according to their number,
thus levelled, in which, after thirty years of continued height, and other circumftances. Let each of the la-
culture and repeated dreffings, the marks of the old bourers have orders, as foon as the plough has paffed
ridges could he diftimhly traced when the corn was
growing, altho’ the furface was fo level that no traces
tof them could be perceived when the corn was off the
.ground.
But this is a degree of perfection in levelling that
cannot be ufually attained by following this mode of wards the other furrow, and repeat the
practice ; and, therefore, is but feldom feen. For all other fide of the ridge, always throwing tl
that can be expefted to be done by any levelling ma- t--j: -i ^ ’ j|l r ’ '
that part affigned him, to begin to dig in the bottom
of the furrow that the plough has juft made, about the
middle of the fide of the old ridge, keeping his face
towards the old furrow, working backwards till he
comes to the height of the ridge, and then turn to-
" e fame on the
___ the earth that
he digs up into the deep old furrow between the rid¬
ges,
286
AGRICULTURE.
Part II.
ges, that is dire&ly before him ; taking cart; not to dig
deep where he firft begins, but to go deeper and deeper
as he advances to the height of the ridge, fo as to leave
the bottom of the trench he thus makes acrofs the
ridge entirely level, or as nearly fo as poffible. And
when he has finifhed that part of the furrow allotted to
him that the plough has made in going, let him then
go and finifh in the fame manner his own portion of
the furrow that the plough makes in returning. In this
manner, each man performs his own talk through the
whole field, gradually raifing the old furrows as the
old heights are deprelfed. And, if an attentive over-
feer is at hand, to fee that the whole is equally well
done, and that each furrow is railed to a greater height
than the middle of the old ridges, fo as to allow for the
fubfiding of that loofe earth, the operation will be en¬
tirely finilhed at once, and never again need to be re¬
peated*
“ In performing this operation, it will always be
proper to make the ridges, formed for the purpofe of
levelling, which go acrofs the old ridges, as broad as
poffible ; becaufe the deep trench that is thus made in
each of the furrows are an impediment in the future
operations, as well as the height that is accumulated
in the middle of each of thefe ridges; fo that the fewer
there are of thefe, the better it is. The farmer, there¬
fore, will do well to advert to this in time, and begin
by forming a ridge by always turning the plough to
the right hand, till it becomes of fuch a breadth as
makes it very inconvenient to turn longer in that man-
per; and then, at the diftance of twice the breadth of
expences of levelling by the plough and by the fpade, Practice. 1
in which he finds the latter by far the cheapeil me- v—^
thod. xi6 I
Let it be a rule, to direft the ridges north and Proper di- |
fouth, if the ground will permit. In this direction, the °f ,
eaft and weft fides of the ridges, dividing the fun e- n"ges" 1
qually between them, will ripen at the fame time. II7 |
It is a great advantage in agriculture, to form ridges Narrow 1
fo narrow, and fo low, as to admit the crowns and fur- ridges an ;jj
rows to be changed alternately eveiy crop. The foil advantages
neareft the furface is the belt; and by fuch ploughing,
it is always kept near the furface, and never buried.
In high ridges, the foil is accumulated at the crown
and the furrows left bare. Such alteration of crown
and furrow, is eafy where the ridges are no more but
feven or eight feet broad. This mode of ploughing
anfwers perfectly well in fandy and gravelly foils, and
even in loam ; but it is not fafe in clay foil. In that
foil, the ridges ought to be n feet wide, and 20 inches
high ; to be preferred always in the fame form by call¬
ing, that is, by ploughing two ridges together, be¬
ginning at the furrow that feparates them, and plough¬
ing round and round till the two ridges be finilhed.
By this method, the feparating furrow is railed a little
higher than the furrows that bound the two ridges.
But at the next ploughing, that inequality is correc¬
ted, by beginning at the bounding furrows, and going
round and round till the ploughing of the two ridges
be completed at the feparating furrow.
4. Clearing Ground of Weeds.
For this purpofe a new inftrument, termed a cleaning Cleaning
harrow, has been introduced by Lord Kames, and is harrow. ;
ftrongly recommended (b). It is one entire piece |
like the firft of thofe mentioned above, confifting ol s‘ ’ j
feven bulls, four feet long each, two and one-fourth
inches broad, two and three-fourths deep. The bulls
are united together by Iheths, fimilar to what are men¬
tioned above. The intervals between the bulls being
three and three-fourths inches, the breadth of the whole
harrow is three feet five inches. In each bull are in¬
fected eight teeth, each nine inches free below the
wood, and diftant from each other fix inches. The
oaiance u. ami a, in oraer 10 mouerare uic ucigiu. weight of each tooth is a pound, or near it. The
that would be formed in the middle of each of thefe whole is firmly bound by an iron plate from corner to
great ridges, it will always be proper to mark out the corner in the line of the draught. The reft as in the
ridges, and draw the furrow that is to be the middle of harrows mentioned above. The fize, however, is not
each fome days before you colie61 your labourers to invariable. The cleaning harrow ought to be larger
level the field ; that you may, without any hurry or or lefs according as the foil is ftiff or free,
lofs of labour, clear out a good trench through the To give this inftrument its full effedt, ftones of fuch
middle of each of the old ridges; as the plough at this a fize as not to pafs freely between the teeth ought to
time going and returning nearly in the fame track, pre- be carried off, and clods of that fize ought to be bro-
vents the labourers from working properly without this ken. The ground ought to be dry, which it commonly
precaution. is in the month of May.
“ If thefe rules are attended to, your field will be at In preparing for barley, turnip, or other fummer-
once reduced to a proper level, and the rich earth that crop, begin with ploughing and crofs-ploughing. If
formed the furface of the old ridges be ftill kept upon the ground be not fufficiently pulverized, let the great
the furface of your field ; fo that the only lofs that the brake be applied, to be followed fucceffively with the ill
poffeffor of fuch ground can fuftain by this operation, and 2d harrows. In ftiff foil, rolling may be proper,.pjate y- ,
is merely the expence of performing it.” or twice between the a6ls. Thefe operations will loofen fig. 3,4, Lj
He afterwards makes a calculation of the different every root, and bring fome of them to the furface.
This
this new-formed ridge from the middle of it, mark off
a furrow for the middle of another ridge, turning
round it to the right hand, in the fame manner as was
done in the former, till it becomes of the fame breadth
with it; and then, turning to the left hand, plough out
the interval that was left between the two new-formed
ridges. By this mode of ploughing, each ridge may
be made of 40, or 50 or 60 yards in breadth, without
any great inconvenience ; for although fome time will
be loft in turning at the ends of thefe broad ridges,
yet, as this operation is only to be once performed in
this manner, the advantage that is reaped by having
few open furrows, is more than fufficient to counter-
{b} Iq his CantJeman Farmer; to which performance the pradlical part of this article is materially indebted..
1
; Part II. A G R I C
if Pra<aice This is the time for the 3d harrow, condutted by a
'f ' boy mounted on one of the horfes, who trots fmartly
1 l * * *‘°' S' along the field, and brings all the roots to the furface:
there they are to lie for a day or two, till perfectly
dry. If any ftones or clods remain, they muft be car¬
ried off in a cart. And now fucceeds the operation of
the cleaning harrow. It is drawn by a fingle horfe,
directed by reins, which the man at the oppofite corner
puts over his head, in order to have both hands free.
In this corner is fixed a rope, with which the man from
time to time raifes the harrow from the ground, to let
the weeds drop. For the fake of expedition, the weeds
ought to be dropt in a ftraight line crofs the field,
whether the harrow be full or not; and feldom is a
field fo dirty but that the harrow may go 30 yards be¬
fore the teeth are filled. The weeds will be thus laid
in parallel rows, like thofe of hay raked together for
drying. A harrow may be drawn fwiftly along the
I * rows, in order to (hake out all the dull; and then the
weeds may be carried clean off the field in carts. But
we are not yet done with thefe weeds: inftead of burn¬
ing, which is the ordinary pra&ice, they may be con¬
verted into ufeful manure, by laying* them in a heap
with a mixture of hot dung to begin fermentation.
At firll view, this way of cleaning land will appear
operofe ; but upon trial, neither the labour nor ex¬
pence will be found immoderate. At any rate, the la¬
bour and expence ought not to be grudged ; for if a
field be once thoroughly cleaned, the feafons muft be
very crofs, or the farmer very indolent, to make it ne-
ceffary to renew the operation in lefs’than 20 years. In
the worft feafons, a few years pafture fs always under
command; which eflettually deftroys triennial plants,
fuch as thillles and couch-grafs.
5. On the Nature of different kinds of Soils, and the
Plants proper to each.
1. Clay, which is in general the ftiffeft of all foils,
and contains an unftuous quality. But under the
term c/ajs, earths of different forts and colours are in¬
cluded. One kind is fo obftinate, that fcarcely any
thing will fubdue it; another is fo hungry and poor,
that it abforbs whatever is applied, and turns it into
its own quality. Some clays are fatter than others,
and the fattefl are the beft; fame are more foft and
flippery. But all of them retain water poured on
their furfaces, where it ftagnates, and chills the plants,
without finking into the foil. The clofenefs of clay
prevents the roots and fibres of plants from fpreading
in fearch of nourifhment. The blue, the red, and the
white clay, if flrong, are unfavourable to vegetation.
The ftony and loofer fort are lefs fo,; bat none of them
are worth any thing till their texture is fo loofened by
a mixture of other fubftances, and opened, as to ad¬
mit the influence of the fun, the air, and frofts. A-
mong the manures recommended for clay, fand is of
all others to be preferred ; and fea-fand the befl of all
where it can be obtained : This mofl effectually breaks
the cohefion.
The reafon for preferring fea-fand is, that it is not
formed wholly (as molt other fands are) of fmall ftones ;
but contains a great deal of calcareous matter in it,
fuch as, fliells-grated and broken to pieces by the tide;
and alfo of falls. The fmaller the fand is the more
U L T U R E. 287
eafily it penetrates the clay ; but it abides lefs time in Pradfice.
it than the larger. 1 v 1
The next beft fand is that waflied down by rains on
gravelly foils. Thofe which are dry and light are the
worft. Small gritty gravel has alfo been recommended
by the beft writers on agriculture for thefe foils ; and
in many inftances we have found them to anfwer the
purpofe.
Shell marie, allies, and all animal and vegetable fub¬
ftances, are very good manures for clay ; but they have
been found moft beneficial when fand is mixed with
them. Lime has been often ufed, but the writer of
this fedfipn would not recommend it, for he never
found any advantage from it fingly, when applied to
clays.
The crops moft fuitable for fuch lands are, wheat,
beans, cabbages, and rye-grafs. Clover feldom fuc¬
ceeds, nor indeed any plants whofe roots require depth,
and a wide fpread in the earth.
2. Chalk. Chalky foils are generally dry and warm,
and if there be a tolerable depth of mould,' fruitful;
producing great crops of barley, rye, peafe, vetches,
clover, trefoil, burnet, and particularly faint foin. The
latter plant flourilhes in a chalky foil better than any
other. But if the furface of mould be very thin, this
foil requires good manuring with clay, marie, loam, or
dung. As thefe lands are dry, they may be fown ear¬
lier than others.
When your barley is three inches high, throw in
10 lb. of clover, or 15 lb. of trefoil, and roll it well.
The next fummer mow the crop for hay; feed off the
aftermath with fheep ; and in winter give it a top-drefif
fing of dung. This will produce a crop the fecond
fpring, which ihould be cut for hay. As foon as this
crop is carried off, plough up the land, and in the be¬
ginning of September fow three bulhels of rye per
acre, either to feed off with ffieep in the fpring or to
ftand for harveft. If you feed it off, fow winter
vetches in Auguft or September, and make them into
hay the following fummer. Then get the land into
as fine tilth as poffible, and fow it with faint foin, which,
with a little manure once in two or three years, will
remain and produce good crops for 20 years together.
3. Light poor land, which feldom produces good
crops of any thing till well manured. After it is well
ploughed, fow three bufhels of buck-wheat per acre,
in April or May: When in bloom, let your cattle in
a few days to eat off the beft, and tread the other
down ; this done, plough in what remains immediate¬
ly. This will foon ferment and rot in the ground ;
then lay it fine, and fow thi-ee bufhels of rye per acre.
If this can be got off early enough, fow turnips ; if
not, winter vetches to cut for hay. Then get it in
good tilth and fow turnip-rooted cabbages, in rows
three feet apart. This plant feldom fails, if it has
fufficient room, and the intervals be well horfe-hoed ;
and you will find it the beft fpring-feed for (heep when
turnips are over.
The horfe-hoeing will clean and prepare the land
for faint foin ; for the fowing of which April is
reckoned the beft feafon. The ufual way is to fow
it broad-caft, four bulhels to an acre; but the writer
prefers fowing it in drills two feet afunder ; for then
it may be horfe-hoed, and half the feed will be fuffi¬
cient.
The
288 A G R I C U
Pradllce. The horfe-hoeing will not only clean the crop, but
earth up the plants, and render them more luxuriant
and lafting.
If you fow it broad-caft, give it a top-drefling in
December or January, of rotten dung or afhes, or,
which is hill better, of both mixed up in compoft.
From various trials, it is found that taking only one
crop in a year, and feeding the after-growth, is better
than to mow it twice. Cut it as foon as it is in full
bloom, if the weather will permit. The hay will be
the fweeter, and the hrength of the plants lefs im¬
paired, than if it hands till the feed is formed.
4. Light rich land, being the moh eafy to cultivate
to advantage, and capable of bearing moh kinds of
grain, pulfe, and herbage, little need be faid upon it.
One thing however is very proper to be obferved, that
fuch lands are the beh adapted to the drill hufbandry,
efpecially where machines are ufed, which require fhal-
low furrows to be made for the reception of the feed.
This, if not prone to couch-grafs, is the beh of all
foils for lucerne ; which, if fown in two feet drills,
and kept clean, will yield an ahonifhing quantity of
the moh excellent herbage. But lucerne will never
be cultivated to advantage where couch-grafs and weeds
are very plentiful; nor in the broad-cah method, even
where they are not fo ; becaufe horfe-hoeing is effen-
tial to the vigorous growth of this plant.
5. Coarfe rough land. Plough deep in autumn ;
when it has lain two weeks, crofs-plough it, and let it
He rough through the winter. In March give it ano¬
ther good ploughing ; drag, rake, and harrow it well,
to get out the rubbilh, and fow four bufhels of black
oats per acre if the foil be wet, and white oats if dry.
"When about four inches high, roll them well after a
fhower : This will break the clods; and the fine mould
falling among the roots of the plants will promote their
growth greatly.
Some fow clover and ray grafs among the oats, but
this appears to be bad huibandry. If you defign it
for clover, fow it Angle, and let a coat of dung be laid
on in December. The fnow and rain will then dilute
its falts and oil, and carry them down among the roots
of the plants. This is far better than mixing the
crops on fuch land, for the oats will exhauft the foil fo
much that the clover will be impoverifiled. The fol¬
lowing fummer you will have a good crop of clover,
which cut once, and feed the after-growth. In the
winter plough it in, and let it lie till February : Then
plough and harrow it well; and in March, if the foil
be moift, plant beans in drills of three feet, to admit
the horfe-hoe freely. When you horfe-hoe them a fe-
cond time, fow a row of turnips in each interval, and
they will fucceed very well. But if the land be ftrong
enough for fowing wheat as foon as the beans are off,
the turnips may. be omitted..
Sect. III. Culture ef particular Plants.
The articles hitherto infilled on, are all of them
preparatory to the capital object of a farm,; that of
railing plants for the nourilhment of man, and of o-
ther animals. Thefe are of two,kinds; culmiferous
and leguminous; differing widely from each other.
Wheat, rye, barley, oats, rye-grafs, are of the firft
No 8.
L T U R E. Part II.
kind : of the other kind are, peafe, beans, clover, cab- Praftice. I
bage, and many others. '
Culmiferous plants, fays Bonnet, have three fets of - . j
roots. The firft iffue from the feed, and pulh to the rous plants,
furface an upright llem ; another fet iffue from a knot
in that ftem; and a third from another knot, nearer i
the furface. Hence the advantage of laying feed fo
deep in the ground as to afford fpace for all the fets. i2r J
Leguminous plants form their roots differently. Legumi- >•
Peafe, beans, cabbage, have ilore of fmall roots, all110US P^autff|
iffuing from the feed, like the undermoll fet of culmi¬
ferous roots; and they have no other roots. A potato
and a turnip have bulbous roots. Red clover has a
llrong tap-root. The difference between culmiferous
and leguminous plants with refpedt to the effects they
produce in the foil, will be infilled on afterward, in
the fedlion concerning rotation of crops. As the pre-
fent fection is confined to the propagation of plants,
it falls naturally to be divided into three articles : firlt.
Plants cultivated for fruit; fecond, Plants cultivated,
for roots; third, Plants cultivated for leaves.
I. Plants Cultivated for Fruits I
1. Wheat and Rye. _ I
5,2®’
Any time from the middle of April to the middle Fallowing*-'
of May, the fallowing for wheat may commence. The for wheaWj
moment Ihould be chofen, wdien the ground, beginning
to dry, has yet fome remaining foftnefs : in that con¬
dition, the foil divides ealily by the plough, and falls
into fmall parts. This is an effential article, deferving
the ftridlell attention of the farmer.. Ground plough¬
ed too wet, rifes, as we nuhole-fur, as when pafture-
ground is ploughed where ploughed too dry, it rifes
in great lumps, which are not reduced by fubfequent
ploughings ; not to mention, that it requires double
force to plough ground too dry, and that the plough is
often broken to pieces.. When the ground is in pro¬
per order, the farmer can have no excufe for delaying,
a Angle minute. This firft courfe of fallow muft, it is
true, yield to the barley-feed ; but as the barley-feed
is commonly over the firft week of May, or fooner, the
feafon.muft be unfavourable if the fallow cannot be
reached by the middle of May.
As clay foil requires high ridges, thefe ought to be.
cleaved at the firft ploughing, beginning at the furrow,
and ending at the crown. This ploughing ought to
be as deep as the foil will admit,: and water-fufrowing
ought inftantly to follow; fog if rain happen before
water-furrowing, it ftagnates in the furrow, neceffarily
delays the fecond ploughing till that part of the ridge
be dry, and prevents the furrow from.being mellowed
and roafted by the fun. If this firft ploughing be well
executed, annual weeds will rife in plenty.
About the firft week of June, the great brake wall
loofen and reduce the foil, encourage a fecond crop of
annuals, and raife to the furface the roots of weeds
moved by the plough. Give the weeds time to fpring,
which may be in two or three weeks. Then proceed
to the fecond ploughing about the beginning of July
which muft be crofs the ridges, in order to reach all
the flips, of the former ploughing. By crofs-ploughing
the furrows will be filled up, and water-furrowing be
Hill more neceffary than before. Employ the brake
again about the 10th of Auguft, to deltroy the annuals
4 that.
A G R I C
that have fpfung fince the laft ftirring. The deftruc-
' tion of weeds is a capital article in fallowing : yet fo
blind are people to their intereft, that nothing is more
common than a fallow field covered with charlock and
wild muftard, all in, flower, and 10 or 12 inches high.
The field having now received two harrowings and two
breakings, is prepared for manure, whether lime or
dung, which without delay ought to be incorporated
with the foil by a repeated harrowing and a gathering
Drefling
loam for
wheat.
U L T U R E. 289
of the greateft improvements in husbandry that has ta- Police,
ken place this century. It feems to have been firfl:' v ^
fuggefted by planting grains in a garden from mere cu-
riofity, by perfons who had no thought or opportunity
of extending it to a lucrative purpofe. Nor was it
attempted on a larger fcale, till a little farmer near
Norwich began it about 17 years fince, upon lefs than I2g
an acre of land. For two or three years only a few Setting of
followed his example; and thefe were generally the wheat;
furrow. This ought to be about the beginning of butt of their neighbours merriment for adopting fo
September, and as foon after as you pleafe the feed may
be fown.
As in ploughing a clay foil it is of importance to
prevent poaching, the hinting furrows ought to be done
with two horfes in a line. If four ploughs be employ¬
ed in the fame field, to one of them may be allotted the
care of finifliing the hinting furrows.
Loam, being a medium between fand and clay, is
of all foils the fitteft for culture, and the leaft fubjeft
to chances. It does not hold water like clay; and
when wet, it dries fooner. At the fame time> it is more
retentive than fand of that degree of moifture which
promotes vegetation. On the other hand, it is more
fubjeft to couch-grafs than clay, and to other weeds;
to deftroy which, fallowing is ftill more necelfary than
in clay.
Beginning the fallow about the firft ©f May, or as
foon as barley-feed is over, take as deep a furrow as
the foil will admit. Where the ridges are fo low and
narrow as that the crown and furrow can be changed
alternately, there is little or no occafion for water fur¬
rowing. Where the ridges are fo high as to make it
proper to cleave them, water-furrowing is proper. The
fecond ploughing may be at the diftance of five weeks.
Two crops of annuals may be got in the interim, the
fii ft by the brake and the next by the harrow; and by
the fame means eight crops may be got in the feafon.
The ground muft be cleared of couch-grafs and knot-
grafs roots, by the cleaning harrow deferibed above.
The time for this operation is immediately before the
manure is laid on. The ground at that time being in
its loofeft ftate, parts with its grafs roots more freely
than at any other time. After the manure is fpread,
and incorporated wdth the foil by brakeing or harrow¬
ing, the feed may be fown under furrow, if the ground
hang fo as eafily to carry off the moifture. To leave
Angular a practice. They had, however, confiderably
better corn and larger crops than their neighbours :
this, together with the faving in feed, engaged more
to follow them: while fome ingenious perfons, ob-
ferving its great advantage, recommended and pub-
liftied its utility in the Norwich papers. Thefe re¬
commendations had their effect. The curiofity and
inquiry of the Norfolk farmers (particularly round
Norwich) were excited, and they found fufficient rea-
fon to make general experiments. Among the reft
was one of the largeft occupiers of lands in this county,
who fet 57 acres in one year. His fuccefs, from the
vifible fuperiority of his crop, both in quantity and
quality, was fo great, that the following autumn he
fet 300 acres, and has continued the praftice ever
fince. This noble experiment eftabliftied the praftice, 127
and was the means of introducing it generally among A capita!
the intelligent farmers in a very large diftridl of land; imPro.vc*
there being few who now fow any wheat, if they can gncuiture*
procure hands to fet it. It has been generally obferved,
that although the fet crops appear very thin during the
autumn and winter, the plants tiller and fpread prodi-
gioufly in tbe fpring. The ears are indifputably lar¬
ger, without any dwarfifti or fmall corn ; the grain is
of a larger bulk, and fpecifically heavier per bufhel
than when fown.
The lands on which this method is particularly pro-
fperous, are either after a clover ftubble, or on which
trefoil and grafs-feed were fown the fpring before the 12S
laft. Thefe grounds, after the ufual manuring, are Method,
once turned over by the plough in an extended flag or
turf, at ten inches wide ; along which a man, who is
called a dibbler, with two fetting-irons, fome what big¬
ger than ram-rods, but confiderably bigger at the
lower end, and pointed at the extremity, fteps back¬
wards along the turf and makes the holes about four in-
it rough without harrowing has two advantages : it ches afunder every way, and an inch deep. Into thefe
Rreffins? a
fimdy foil.
Time for
fuwing.j
is not apt to cake with moifture, and the inequali¬
ties make a fort of ftielter to the young plants againft
froft. But if it lie flat, it ought to be fmoothed with
a flight harrow after the feed is fown, which will facilitate
the courfe of the rain from the crown to the furrow.
A fandy foil is too loofe for wheat. The only chance
. for a crop is after red clover, the roots of which bind
the foil; and the inftruftions above given for loam are
applicable here. Rye is a crop much fitter for fandy
foil than wheat ; and, like wheat, it is generally fown
after a fummer-fallow.
Laftly,'Sow wheat as foon in tbe.month of Oftober as
the‘ground is ready. When fown a month more early,
it is too forward in the fpring, and apt to be hurt by
froft; when fown a month later, it has not time to
holes the droppers (women, boys, and girls) drop two
grains, which is quite fufficient. After this, a gate
bufhed with thorns is drawn by one horfe over the
land, and clofes up the holes. By this mode, three
pecks of grain is fufficient for an acre ; and being im¬
mediately buried, it is equally removed from vermin or
the power of froft. The regularity of its rifing gives
the beft opportunity of keeping it clear from weeds,
by weeding or hand-hoeing. • ^
Wheat-fetting is a method peculiarly beneficial when Peculiar
corn is dear ; and, if the feafon be favourable, may, advantages,
be prahtifed with great benefit to the farmer. Sir
Thomas Beevor of Hethel-Hall in Norfolk, found the
produce to be two buftiels per acre more than from the
wheat which is fown ; but having much lefs fmall corn
root before froft comes on, and froft fpews it out of intermixed with it, the fample is better, and always
the ground.
Setting of ‘wheat, a method which is reckoned one
Vol. L Part I.
fetches a higher price, to the amount generally of twb
Ihillings per quarter.
O o This
ting of
wheat by
dividing
the roots.
AGRICULTURE. Part II.
■ This method, too, faves to the farmer and to the a fecond been made, Mr Miller thinks the number of Praftice.
public fix pecks of feed-wheat in every acre ; which, if plants would have amounted to 2000 inftead of 500,' v—^
nationally adopted, would of itfelf afford bread for and the produce thereby much enlarged,
more than half a million of people. The ground was a light blackifh foil, upon a gra-
Add to thefe confiderations, the great fupport given velly bottom ; and, confequently, a bad foil for wheat,
to the poor by this fecond harveft, as it may be called, One half of the ground was well dunged, the other
which enables them to difcharge their rents and main- half had no manure. There was, however, not any
tain their families without having recourfe to the pa- difference difcoverable in the vigour, or growth, or
rifh.—The expence of fetting by hand is now reduced produce, of the plants.
to about fix fhillings per acre ; which, in good wea- It muft be evident, that the expence and labour of
ther, may be done by one dibbler, attended by three fetting in the above manner by the hand, will render
droppers, in two days. This is five fhillings per day ; it impra&icable upon a large fcale fo as to be produc-
of which, if the dibbler gives to the children fixpence tive of any utility. A correfpondent of the Bath Sp-
each, he will have himfelf three fhillings and fixpence ciety, therefore (Robert Bogle, Efq; of Daldowin,
for his day’s work, which is much more than he can near Glafgow), with a view to extend the pra&ice,
poffibly earn by any other labour fo eafy to himfelf. has propofed the ufe of the harrow and roller until x,r
But put the cafe, that the man has a wife who dibbles fome better implements be invented. This method Method
with him, and two or three of his own children to occurred to him from attending to the practice ufual propofed by
drop to him, you fee his gains will then be prodigious, with farmers on certain' occafions, of harrowing their Mr B°glss ■
and enough to enfure a plenty of candidates for that fields after the grain is fprung up. Upon inveftigating
work, even in the leaf! populous parts of the country. the principles upon which thefe practices are founded.
It is, however, to be obferved with regard to this he found them confined merely to that of pulverifing
method^ that in feafons when feed-corn is very cheap, the earth, without any attention to Mr Miller’s doc-
or the autumn particularly unfavourable to the practice, trine. They faid, “that after very heavy rains, and
it muft certainly be leffened. In light lands, for in- then exceffive dry weather, the furface of their lands
ftance, a very dry time prevents dibbling; as the holes were apt to be caked, the tender fibres of the young
made with the inftruments will be filled up again by roots were thereby prevented from pufliing, and of
the mould as faft as the inftrument is withdrawn. So, courfe the vegetation was greatly obftruCted ; in fuch
again, in a very wet feafon, on ftrong and ftiff clays, the inftanees, they found very great benefit from harrow-
feeds in the holes cannot be well and properly covered ing and rolling.”
by the bullies drawn over them. But thefe extremes of Thefe principles he acknowledges to be well found-
dry and wet do not often happen, nor do they affeft ed, fo far as relates to pulverifing ; but contends, that
lands of a moderately confiftent texture, or both light the benefit arifing from harrowing and rolling is not
and heavy foils at the fame time, fo that the general derived from pulverizing entirely, but alfo from fub-
praftice is in faft never greatly impeded by them. dividing and enabling the plants to tiller (as it is term-
Propagating of ’wheat by dividing and tranfplanting ed). “ The harrow (he obferves) certainly breaks
it{ roots. In the Philofophical Tranfaftions for 1768, the incruftation on the furface, and the roller crumbles
we meet with a very extraordinary experiment, of the clods; but it is alfo obvious, that the harrow re-
which the following is an abftraft. Gn the 2d of June moves a great many of the plants from their original
1766, Mr C. Miller fowed fome grains of the common ftations; and that if the corn has begun to tiller at the
red wheat; and on the 8th of Auguft a Angle plant time it is ufed, the roots will be, in many inftances,
was taken up and feparated into 18 parts, and each fubdivided, and then the application of my lyftem of di¬
part planted feparately. Thefe plants having pufhed vifibility comes into play. The roller then ferves to plant
out feveral fide-fhoots, by about the middle of Sep- the roots which have been torn up by the harrow.” T,a
tember fome of them were then taken up and divid- But on this the Society obferve, that the teeth of a Objections,
ed, and the reft of them between that time and the harrow are too large to divide rootsffo fmall and tena-
middle of Oftober. This fecond divifion produced 67 clous as are thofe of grain ; and whenever fuch foots
plants. Thefe plants remained through the winter, (however tillered) ftand in the line any tooth makes,
and another divifion of them, made between the middle they will, if fmall, be only turned on one fide by the
of March and the 12th of April, produced 500 plants, earth yielding to their lateral preffure, or, if large, the
They were then divided no further, but permitted to whole root will probably be drawn out of the ground,
remain. The plants were in general ftronger than any The principal ufes, therefore, derived from harrowing
of the wheat in the fields. Some of them produced and rolling thefe crops are, opening the foil between
upwards of 100 ears from a fingle root. Many of the the plants, earthing them up, breaking the clods, and
ears meafured feven inches in length, and contained clofing the earth about their roots,
between 60 and 70 grains. In a fubfequent letter, Mr Bogle, without eonteft-
The whole number of ears which, by the procefs ing thefe points, further urges the fcheme of propaga-
above mentioned, were produced from one grain of ting wheat by dividing and tranfplanting its roots. “I
wheat, was 21,109, which yielded three pecks and have converfed (fays he) much with many praftical
three quarters of clear corn, the weight of which was farmers, who all admit that my plan has the appearance
47 lb. 7 ounces ; and from a calculation made by not only of being praftical, but advantageous. I have
counting the number of grains in an ounce, the whole alfo feen in the ninth number of Mr Young’s Annals of
number of grains was about 576,840. Agriculture, the account of an experiment which
By this account we find, that there was only one ftrongly corroborates my theory. It was made by the
^general divifion of the plants made in the fpring. Had Rev. Mr Pike of Edmonton. From this, and other
experiments
Part II. A G R I C
Pra<5Uce. experiments which have been made under my own eye,
' ' I forefee clearly, that the fyftem is practicable, and
will certainly be produ&ive of great benefit, fiiould it
U L T U R E. 291
from which his fields may be fupplied; he calculates Practice,
that one acre will yield plants fufficient for 100 acres. * " ‘
4. That a very great increafe of crops may be ob-
PraCticabi- become general. Befides the faving of nine-tenths of tained by this method, probably a double crop, nay
fchefne aT t^e ^own broad-caft, other very important 1—
forced. " advantages will attend the fetting out of wheat from a
feed-bed, fuch as an early crop ; the certainty of good
crops; rendering a fummer fallow unneceflary ; faving
dung; and having your wheat perfectly free from weeds
without either hand or horfe-hoeing. Five hundred
plants in April produced almoft a bufhel of grain. My
gardener fays, he can fet one thoufand plants in a day,
which is confirmed by the opinion of two other gar¬
deners. Mr Miller found no difference in the produce
of what was planted on lands that had dung, and on
what had none, except where the land was improper
for wheat at all.”
Bath Socie- On this letter we have the following note by the fo-
cy’s obfei- ciety: “ Mr Bogle will fee, by the fociety’s premium-
vations. book this year, that by having offered feveral premi¬
ums for experiments of the kind he fo earneftly recom¬
mends, we wifh to have his theory brought to the tell
of practice. Our reafon for this, as well as for print¬
ing Mr B’s letter, was rather to excite decifive trials
by ingenious perfons, than from any expeftation of the
practice ever becoming a general one. General, in¬
deed, it never can be. A fufficient number of hands
could not be found to do it. Unkindly feafons at the
time of tranfplanting and dividing the roots would fre¬
quently endanger and injure, if not deftroy the crops.
But admitting the mode generally practicable, we very
much doubt whether-all the advantages he has enumera¬
ted would be derived from this mode of culture. Why
fhould dividing and tranfplanting the roots of wheat
caufe the crop to be early, or afford a certainty of its
• being a good one ? We cannot think that le/s manure
is neceffary in this method, than either in drilling or
. , n 1  j 
perhaps a triple quantity of what is reaped either by
drilling, or by the broad-caft hufbandry.
5. That a great part of the labour may be perform¬
ed by infirm men and women, and alfo by children,
who are at prefent fupported by the parifh charity;
and that of courfe the poor’s rates may be confiderably
reduced.
6. That the expence will not exceed from 20 s. to
30 s. per acre, if the work be performed by able-bodied
men and women; but that it will be much lower, if
that proportion of the work which may be done by
employing young boys and girls fhould be allotted to
them.
7. That in general he has found the diftance of nine
inches every way a very proper diftance for fetting out
the plants at; but recommends them to be tried at o-
ther fpaces, fuch as fix, eight, or even 12 inches.
8. That he conceives an earlier crop may be obtain¬
ed in this manner than can be obtained by any other
mode of cultivation.
9. That a clean crop may alfo be procured in this
way, becaufe if the land be ploughed immediately be¬
fore the plants are fet out, the corn will fpring much
quicker from the plants than the weeds will do from
their feeds, and the cord will thereby bear down the
growth of the weeds.
10. That fuch lands as are overflowed in the winter
and fpring, and are of courfe unfit for fowing with
wheat in the autumn, may be rendered fit for crops of
w heat by planting them in the fpring, or even in the
fummer.
11. That he has known inftances of wheat being
tranfplanted in September, October, November, Fe-
broad-caft ; nor can we by any means admit, that fuch bruary, March, April, and even as late as the middle
crops wmuld “ be perfectly free from weeds without
either hand or horfe-hoeing.” We readily agree wnth
Mr Bogle, that by this mode of culture on a general
fcale, an immenfe quantity of feed-corn would be an¬
nually faved to the nation ; and in this, we believe, the
advantage, were it practicable, would principallyconfift.”
Further ob- Upon the fame fubjeCt, and that of harrowing all
kinds of corn, we are informed, Mr Bogle afterwards
of Mr
Bogle.
of May, which have all anfwered very well.
12. That he has known an early kind of wheat fov/n
as late as the middle of May, which has ripened in very
good time ; and from that circumftance he conceives,
if the plants fiiould be taken from that early kind, the
feafon of tranfplanting might be prolonged at leaft till
the ift of July, perhaps even later.
13. That he has reafon to think wheat, oats, and
communicated to the Society his thoughts more at barley, are not annuals, but are perennials, provided
large, together with authentic accounts which w<
made at his inftance, and which were attended with
very great fuccefs. Thefe, however, were received too
late for publication in the laft (3d) volume of their pa-
they are eaten down by cattle and fiieep, or are kept
low by the feythe or fickle; and are prevented from
fpindling or coming to the ear.
14. That one very prevalent motive with him in
pers. But the Society, conceiving his fyftem may be profecuting this plan, is, that he is of opinion it may
attended with confiderable advantages if brought into
general pra&ice, have given, at the end of the volume,
a few of his leading principles. Mr Bogle Hates, 1.
That he has known many inftances of very great crops
having been obtained by harrowing fields of corn after
they w'ere fprouted; and therefore recommends the
practice very warmly.
enable Government to devife means of fupporting the
vagrant poor, both old and young, who are now to be
met with every where, both in towns and in the coun¬
try, and who are at prefent a burden on the commu¬
nity : but if fuch employment could be ftruck out for
them, a comfortable fubfiftence might be provided for
them by means of their own labour and induftry ; and
2. That he has alfo received an authentic account of not only fave the public and private charitable contri-
one inftance where the fame good effects were produ¬
ced by ploughing the field.
3. On the fyftem of tranfplanting, he ftates, that a
very great proportion of the feed will be faved, as a
farmer may have a nurfery, or fmall patch of plants.
butions, but may alfo render that clafs of people ufeful
and profitable fubjedls; inftead of their remaining in
a ufelefs, wretched, and perhaps a profligate and vi¬
cious courfe of life.
Laftly, Mr Bogle has hinted at a fecondary objeef
O o 2 which
A G R I C U
which he has in view, from this mode of cultivation,
which he apprehends may in time, with a fmall degree
of attention, prove extremely advantageous to agricul¬
ture.—It is, that in the firft place, the real and intrin-
fic value of different kinds of grain may be more ac¬
curately afcertained by making a comparifon of it with
a few plants of each kind fet out at the fame time,
than can be done when fown in drills or, broad-caft ;
and when the moll valuable kinds of wheat, oats, or
barley, are difcovered, he ftates, that in a very fhort
time (not exceeding four or five years) a fufficient
quantity of that valuable kind may be procured to fup-
ply the kingdom with feed from a fingle grain of each
kind; for he calculates, that 47,000 grains of wheat
may be produced by divifibility in two years and three
months.
Upon thefe propofitions the Society obferves, “ That
although Mr Bogle appears to be too fanguine in his
expectations of feeing his plan realized \n general prac¬
tice, it certainly merits the attention of Gentlemen
Farmers. We wifh them to make fair experiments, and
report their fuccefs. Every grand improvement has
been, and ever will be, progreffive. They muft necef-
farily originate with gentlemen ; and thence the circle
is extended by almoll imperceptible degrees over pro¬
vinces and countries. At all events, Mr Bogle is juftly
intitled to the thanks of the Society, and of the pub¬
lic, for the great attention he has paid to the fubjeft.”
2. Oats.
As winter-ploughing enters into the culture of oats,
we muft remind the reader of the effeft 'of froft upon •
tilled land, tilled land. Providence has negleCted no region in¬
tended for the habitation of man. If in warm cli¬
mates the foil be meliorated by the fun, it is no lefs
meliorated by froft in cold climates; Froft aCts upon
water, by expanding it into a larger fpace. Froft has^
no effeft upon dry earth ; witnefs fand, upon which it
it makes no impreffion. But upon wet earth it ads
moft vigoroufly: it expands the inoifture, which re¬
quiring more fpace puts every particle of the earth out
of its place, and feparates them from each other. In
that view, froft may be confidered as a plough fuperior
to any that is made, or can be made, by the hand of
man : its aftion reaches the minuteft particles; and, by
dividing andr feparating them, it renders the foil loofe
and friable. This operation is the moft remarkable in
tilled land, which gives free accefs to froft. With re-
fpeCl to clay-foil in particular, there is no rule in huf-
bandry more eflential than to open it before winter in
hopes of froft. It is even advifable in a clay-foil to
leave the ftubble rank ; which, when ploughed in be¬
fore winter, keeps the clay loofe, and admits the froft
into every cranny.
To apply this doftrine, it is dangerous to plough
clay-foil when wet; becaufe water is a cement for clay,
and binds it fo as to render it unfit for vegetation. It
is, however, lefs dangerous to plough wet clay before
winter than after. A fucceeding froft corrects the bad
effefts of fuchploughing; a fucceeding drought increafes
138 thern*
Culture of The common method is, to fowoats on new-plough-
oats. ed land in the month of March, as fbon as the ground
is tolerably dry. If it continue wet all. the month of
March, it is too late to venture them after. It is much
136
Obferva-
tion of the
Bath So¬
ciety.
*37
Iffeft of
froft upon
L T U R E. Part II.
better tofummer-fallow,and to fowwheat in the autumn. Praftice.
But the preferable method, efpecially in clay-foil, is *
to turn over the fielcbafter harveft, and to lay it open
to the influences of froft and air, which leflen the te¬
nacity of clay, and reduce it to a free mould. The fur-
face-foil by this means is finely mellowed for reception
of the feed ; and it would be a pity to bury it by a fe-
cond ploughing before fowing. In general, the bulk
of clay-foils are rich ; and fkilful ploughing without
dung, will probably give a better crop, than unlkilful'
ploughing with dung.
Hitherto of natural clays. We muft add a. word of '
carfe-clays which are artificial, whether left V by the
fea, or fweeped down ’ from higher grounds' by rain.
The method commonly ufed of drdTmg_carfe-clay for ■
oats, is, not to ftir it till the ground .be dry in the
fpring, which feldom happens before the firft of March,.
and the feed is fown as foon after as the ground is fuffi-
ciently dry for its reception., Froft has T a ftronger
effedt on fuch clays than on natural clay. And if the
field be laid open before winter, it is rendered fo loofe by
froft as to be foon drenched in water. The particles at
the fame time are fo fmalt, as that the firft drought in
fpring makes the furface cake or cruft. The difficulty
of reducing this, craft into mould for covering the oat-
feed, has led farmers to delay ploughing till the month
of March; But we are taught by experience, that this
foil ploughed before winter, is fooner dry than when •
the ploughing is delayed till fpring ; and as early fow-.
ing is a great advantage, the objettion of the fuperfi-
cial crafting is eafily removed by the firft harrow above
deferibed, which will produce abundance of mould for
covering the feed. The ploughing before winter not
only procures early fowing, but has another advantage:
the furface-foil that had been mellowed during winter
by the fun, froft, and wind, is kept above. •
The dreffing a loamy foil for oats differs little from
dreffing a clay foil, except in the following particular,
that being lefs hurt by rain, it requires not high ridges, ,
and therefore ought to be ploughed crown and furrow
alternately.
Where there is both clay and loam in a farm, it is ;
obvious from what is faid above, that the ploughing
of the clay after harveft ought firft to be difpatched..
If both cannot be overtaken that feafon, the loam may
be delayed till the fpring with lefs hurt.
Next of a gravelly foil; which is thereverfe of clayy
as it never fuffers but from want of moifture. Such a .
foil ought to have no ridges; but be ploughed circularly:
from the centre to the circumference, or from the cir¬
cumference to the centre. It ought to be tilled after
harveft : and the firft dry weather in fpring ought to be
laid hold of to fow, harrow, and roll; which will pre-.
ferve it in fap.
The culture of oats is the fimpleftof all; That grain,
is probably a native of Britain : it will grow on the
worft foil with very little preparation. For that reafon,
before turnip was introduced, it was always the firft'
crop upon land broken up from the ftate of nature.
Upon fuch land, may it not be a good method,
to build upon the crown of every ridge, in the form:
of a wall, all the furface-earth, one fod above ano¬
ther, as in a fold for ffieep? After ftanding in this form
all the fummer and winter, let the walls be thrown
down, and the ground prepared for oata. This wilh
fecure
AGR ICULTURE.
139
fecure one or two good crops ; after which the land
may be dunged for a crop of barley and grafs-feeds.
This method may anfwer in a farm where manure is
fcanty..
3. B A R L E Y.
Iture of This is a culmiferous plant that requires a mellow
■leV- foil. Up on that account, extraordinary care is requi-
fite where it is to be fown in clay. The land ought to
be ftirred immediately after the foregoing crop is re¬
moved, which lays it open to be mellowed with the
froft and air. In that view, a peculiar fort of plough-
Sbbing. ing has been introduced, termed rilbing; by which the
greatefl. quantity of furface pofiible is expofed to the
air and froil. The obvious objedtion to this method is,
that half of the ridge is left unmoved. And to ob¬
viate that objeftion, the following method is offered,
which moves the whole foil, and at the fame time ex-
poles the fame quantity of furface to the froft and air.-
As foon as the former crop is off the field, let the
ridges be gathered with as deep a furrow as the foil,
wiir admit, beginning at the crown and ending at the
furrows. This ploughing loofens the whole foil, gi¬
ving free accefs to the air and froft. Soon after, begii
293
better
| tethod.
prevents thefe noxious effedts. By the two ploughings Pradhcc. ^
the whole foil is opened, admitting freely air and froft;'1 v *
and the multitude of furrows lays the furface perfedtly
dry, giving an early opportunity for the barley-feed.—
But further, as to the advantage of this method:
When it is proper to fow the feed, all is laid flat with
the brake, which is an eafy operation upon foil that is
dry and pulverized; and the feed-furrow which fuc-
ceeds, is fo {hallow as to bury little or none of the fur-
face-earth : whereas the ftirring for barley is common¬
ly done with the deepeft furrow; and confequently bu-.. l4^ _
ries all the furface-foil that was mellowed by the froft. ment
and air. Nor is this method more expenfive; becaufe feed in a
the common ribbing muft always be followed with a dry feafem
ftirring furrow, which is fayed in the method recom¬
mended. Nay, it is lefs expenfive ; for after common .
ribbing, which keeps in the rain water, the ground is
commonly fo foured, ,as to. make the ftirring .a labo- -
rious work..
It is well known that barley is lefs valuable when it
does not ripen equally ; and that barley which comes
up fpeedily in a dufky foil, muft gain a great advantage,
over feed-weeds. Therefore, firft take out about one-
third of the contents of the facks of feed barley or
bear, to allow for the fwelling of the grain. Lay the
a fecond ploughing in the following manner. Let the facks with the grain to fteep in clean water ; let it lie
field be divided by parallel dinea crofs the ridges,. witL covered with it for at leaft 24 hours. When the
intervals of 30 feet or fo. Plough once round an in- ground is fo dry as at prefent, and no likelihood, of
terval, beginning at the edges, and turning the earth
toward the middle of-the interval; which covers a foot
or fo of the ground formerly ploughed. Within that
foot plough another round fimilar to the former; and
after that, other rounds, till the whole interval be finifh-
rain for 10 days, it is better to lie 36 hours. Sow tha
grain wet from fteeping, without any addition of pow¬
dered quick-lime, which, though often recommended
in print, can-only poifon the feed, fuck up part of ita
ufeful moifture, and burn the hands of the fower., The
ed, ending at the middle. Inftead of beginning at feed will fcatter well, as clean, water has no tenacity ;
the edges, and ploughing toward the middle, it will
have the fame efl’eft to begin at the middle and to
plough toward the edges. Plough the other intervals
only the .fower muft put in a fourth or a third more
feed in bulk than ufual .of dry grain, as-the grain is
fwelled in that proportion : harrow it in as quickly as
in the fame manner.. As by this operation the furrows poffible after it is- fbwn ; -and though not necefiary.
of the ridges, will be pretty much .filled up, let them
be cleared and water-furrowed without delay. By
this method, the held will be left waving like a plot
in a kitchen-garden, ridged up for winter. In this
form, the field is kept perfedtly dry; for. befide the
capital furrows that feparate the ridges, every ridge
has a number of crofs furrows that carry the rain in-
ftantly to the capital furrows. In hanging grounds
retentive of moifture, the parallel lines above mention¬
ed ought not to be perpendicular to the furrows of the
give it the benefit of frefh furrow, if convenient,
may expedt it up in a fortnight at fartheft.-,
The following experiment by a correfpondent of the •
Bath Society being canfidered . as , a, .-very interefting
one, is here fubjoinetL. 144 ,
‘‘'The laft fpring (1783) being remarkably dry, I Important v
foaked my feed-barley in the black water taken from a e3CPen-
refervoir which conftantly receives the draining of my fced-barkyo >
dung-heap and ftables. As the light corn floated on
the top, I flcimmed it off, and let the reft Hand 24
ridges, but to be directed a: little downward, in order hours. On taking it from the water, I mixed the feed
to carry rain-water the more haftily to thefe furrows.
If the ground be clean, it may lie in that ftate winter
and fpring, till the time of feed-furrowing. If weeds
happen to rife, they muft be deftroyed by ploughing;
or brakeing, or. both ; for there cannot be worle huf-
14a bandry, than to put feed into dirty ground,
j&dvanta- This method refembles common ribbing in appear-
' jhls ance, but is very different in reality. As the common
1 0 ' ribbing is not preceded by a gathering furrow, the
half of the field is left untilled, compact as when the
former crop was removed, impervious in a great mea-
fure to air or froft. The common ribbing at the fame
grain with a fufficient quantity of lifted wood-alhes, to
make it fpread regularly, and fo wed three fields with
it I began flowing the 16th, and finilhed the 23d of
April... The produce was 60 bulhels per acre, of good
clean barley, without any fmall or green corn, or weeds ;
at harveft. No perfon in. this country had better -
dry, and without any preparation ; but the crop, like
thofe of my neighbours, was very poor; not more than
twenty buftiels per acre, and much mixed with green
rn and weeds when harvefted. I alfo flowed fome of •
time lodges the rain-water on every ridge, preventing the feed dry on one ridge in each of my former fields*
it. from defcending to the furrows ; which is hurtful in but the produce was very poor in
all foils, and poifonous in a clay foil. The Jiitching other parts of the field.”
here defcribed, or ribbing, if you pleafe to call it .foj
tparifon of the
Where the land is.in good order, and free of weeds; .
April i
AGRICULTURE. PartllJ
Pradice. April is the month for fowing barley. Every day is
' v ' proper, from the firll to the laft.
Time^of The dreffing loamy foil and light foil for barley, is
fowing. the fame with that defcribed ; only that to plough dry
is not altogether fo eflential as in dreffing clay-foil.
Loam or fand may be ftirred a little moift: better,
however, delay a week or two, than to ftir a loam when
moift. Clay muft never be ploughed moift, even tho’
the feafon ffiould efcape altogether. But this will fel-
dom be neceflary; for not in one year of 20 will it hap¬
pen, but that clay is dry enough for ploughing fome
time in May. Fro ft may correft clay ploughed wet
after harveft ; but ploughed wet in the fpring, it unites
into a hard mafs, not to be diffolved but by very hard
labour.
On the cultivation of this grain we have the follow-
T46 ing obfervations by a Norfolk farmer.
Mifcellane- The beft foil, he obferves, is that which is dry and
0113 otiler- healthy, rather light than ftiff, but yet of fufficient
tenacity and ftrength to retain the moifture. On this
cultivation1 kind of land the grain is always the beft bodied and
of barley, coloured, the nimbleft in the hand, and has the thin-
neft rind. Thefe are qualities which recommend it
raoft to the maltfter. If the land is poor, it ffiould be
dry and warm ; and when fo, it will often bear better
corn than richer land in a cold and wet fituation.
In the choice of your feed, it is needful to obferve,
that the beft is of a pale lively colour, and brightiffi
caft, without any deep rednefs or black tinge at the
tail. If the rind be a little ffirivelled, it is the better;
for that flight ffirivelling proves it to have a thin flcin,
and to havp fweated in the mow. The neceffity of a
change of feed by not fowing two years together what
grew bn the fame foil, is not in any part of hufbandry
more evident than in the culture of this grain, which,
if not frequently changed, will grow coarfer and coar-
fer every fucceeding year.
It has generally been thought that feed-barley would
be benefited by fteeping ; but liming it has, in many
inftances, been found prejudicial. Sprinkling a little
foot with the water in which it is fteeped has been of,
;great fervice, as it will fecure the feed from infedts.
In a very dry feed-time, barley that has been wetted
for malting, and begins to fprout, will come up fooner,
and produce as good a crop as any other.
If you fow after a fallow, plough three times at leaft.
At the firft ploughing, lay your land up in fmall ridges,
and let it remain fo during the winter, for the froft to
mellow it; the fecond ploughing ffiould be the begin¬
ning of February. In March fplit the ridges, and lay
the land as flat as poffible, at the fame time harrowing
it fine. But in ftrong wet lands (if you have no other
for barley) lay it round, and make deep furrows to re¬
ceive the water.
“ I have often (continues he), taken the following
method «ith fuccefs : On lands tolerably manured, I
fowed clover with my barley, which I reaped at har-
. vdt; and fed the clover all the following winter, and
from fpring to July, when I fallowed it till the fol¬
lowing fpring, and then fowed it-with barley and clo¬
ver as before. Repeating this method every year I had
very large crops, but w ould not recommend this prac¬
tice on poor light land.
“ We fow on our lighteft lands in April, on our
iRoilt lands in May; finding that thofe lands which are
3
the moft fubjeft to weeds produce the beft crops when Pradtice.
fown late. u—y—a —■
“ The common method is to fow the barley-feed
broad-caft at two fowings ; the firft harrowed in once,
the fecond twice; the ufual allowance from three to
Tour buffiels per acre. But If farmers could be pre- ■ ■ j
vailed on to alter this practice, they would foon find
their account in it. Were only half the quantity fown
equally, the produce would be greater, and the corn
lefs liable to lodge : For when com ftands very clofe,
the ftalks are drawn up weak; and on that account are
lefs capable of refilling the force of winds, or fupport-
ing themfelves under heavy rains.
“ Fropi our great fuccefs in fetting and drilling
wheat, fome of our farmers tried thefe methods with
barley ; but did not find it anfwer their expectations,
except on very rich land.
“ I have myfelf had 80 ftalks on one root of Barley,
which all produced good and long ears, and the grain
was better than any other; but the method is too ex-
penfive for general praCtice. In poor land, fow thin,
or your crop will be worth little. Farmers who do
not reafon on the matter, will be of a different opinion;
but the fad is indifputable.”
When the barley is fowed and harrowed in, he ad-
vifes that the land be rolled after the firft ffiower of rain,
to break the clods. This will clofe the earth about
the roots, which will be a great advantage to it in dry
weather.
When the barley has been up three weeks or a
month, it is a very good way to roll it again with a
heavy roller, which will prevent the fun and air from
penetrating the ground to the injury of the roots.
This rolling, before it branches out, will alfo caufe it
to tiller into a greater number of ftalks ; fo that if the
plants be thin, the ground will be thereby filled, and
the ftalks ftrengthened.
If the blade grows too rank, as it fometimes will in
a warm wet fpring, mowing is a much better method
than feeding it down with fheep ; becaufe the fcythe
takes off only the rank tops, but the ffieep being fond
of the fweet end of the ftalk next the root, will often
bite fo clofe as to injure its future growth.
4. Buck-wheat.
147 JK
The ufes of this plant have been mentioned in the Culture c4||
preceding part, n0 46. It delights in a mellow fan- Byck* I
dy foil; but fucceeds well in any dry loofe healthywieat* 11
land, and moderately fo in a free loamy ftone-braffi.
A ftiff clay is its averfion, and It is entirely labour loft
to fow it in wet poachy ground. The proper feafon
for fowing is from the laft week of May or the begin¬
ning of June. It has been fown, however, fo early as
the beginning of April, and fo late as the 22d of July,
by way of experiment; but the latter was rather ex¬
treme to be chofen, and the former was in danger from
froft. In an experiment upon a fmall piece of groun
the grain of two different crops was brought to matu¬
rity in the fummer 1787.—After fpring feedings,
a crop of turnip-rooted cabbage, or vetches, there will
be fufficient time to fow the land with buck-weat.
Probably, in hot dry fummers, a crop of vetches
might even be mown for hay early enough to introduce
a crop of this grain after it.
In the year 1780, about feven acres of a fandy foil
on
art IT. A G R I C U
ra6lice. on Briflington Common (a), having been firft tole-
—Y—' rably well cleanfed from brambles, furze, See. received
one ploughing. To reduce the irregularities of the
furface, it was rolled ; and on the 9th of June in that
year, two bufhels and a half of buck-weak per acre
148 Town, the ground rolled again without harrowing.
Ivcinta- The vegetation appeared in five or fix days, as is
5 of.t,lls conftantly the cafe be the weather wet or dry. The
;)PPinb- growth vvas fo rapid, that the fern, with which this
land greatly abounded, was completely kept under.
About the middle of September the crop was mown,
but by reafon of a great deal of rain about that time,
it was not fecured until the beginning of Oftober;
hence a lofs of great part of the grain by fhedding, as
well as fome eaten by birds. However, there were
faved about 24 Winchefter bujfhels per acre ; and, not-
withftanding its long expofure to the weather, recei¬
ved no fort of damage, only perhaps that the fineft
and moft perfect grain was the firft to fall from the
plant. The ground after this had almoft the appear¬
ance of a fallow, and was immediately ploughed.
When it had lain a moderate time to meliorate, and
to receive the influences of the atmofphere, it was har¬
rowed, fown with Lammas wheat, and ploughed in
under furrow, in a contrary direftion to the firft
| ploughing. Thus a piece of land, which in the
month of April was altogether in a ftate of nature, in
the following November was feen under a promifing
crop of what is well ftyled the king of grain, and this
w’ithout the aid of manure, or of any very great degree
of tillage. Nor was the harveft by any means deficient;
for feveral perfons converfant in fuch things eftimated
the produce from 26 to 30 buftiels per acre. As foon
as the wheat crop was taken off, the ground had one
ploughing, and on the firft of September following was-
fown with turnip-feed. The turnips were not large,
but of an herbage fo abundant as in the following
fpring to fupport 120 ewes with their lambs, wrhich
were fed on it by folding four weeks. After this it
was manured with a compofition of rotten dung and
natural earth, about 20 putt loads per acre, and plant¬
ed with potatoes. The crop fold for L. 138, befides
a confiderable number ufed in the family, and'a quan¬
tity referved with which ten acres were planted the
following feafon. The enfuing autumn it was again
fown with wheat, and produced an excellent crop. In
the fpring of 1784, it was manured and planted with
potatoes, as in the preceding inftance; the crop (tho’
tolerably good) by no means equal to the former, pro¬
ducing about 100 facks per acre only. In fpring
1785, -the land was now for a third time under a crop
of \tfheat, it being intended to try how far this mode
of alternate cropping, one year with potatoes and
another with wheat, may be carried..
From the fuceefs of the preceding and other expe¬
riments, by Nehemiah Bartley, Efq; of Briftol, as de¬
tailed in the Bath Society Papers, it would feem, that
the culture of this plant ought in many cafes to be a-
dopted inftead of a fummer-fallowing: for the crop
produced appears not only to he fo much clear gain in
refpeft to fuch practice, but alfo affords a confiderable
quantity of ftraw for fodder and manure ; befide that
L T U R E. 295
a fummer-fallowing is far from being fo advantageous Praftke.
a preparation for a fucceeding crop. 1111 ■’
5. Beans.
The propereft foil for beans is a deep and moift clay. Culture of
There was lately introduced into Scotland a method beans,
of fowing beans with a drill-plough, and horfe-hoeing
the intervals; which, befide affording a good crop, is
a dreffing to the ground. But as that method is far
from being general, we keep in the common track.
As this grain is early fown, the ground intended for
it fhould be ploughed before winter, to give accefs to
the froft and air ; beneficial in all foils, and neceffary
in a clay foil. Take the firft opportunity after Ja¬
nuary when the ground is dry, to loofen the foil with
the harrow firft deferibed, till a mould be brought up¬
on it. Sow the feed, and cover it with the fecond
harrow. The third will fmooth the furface, and cover
the feed equally. Thefe harrows make the very beft
figure in fowing beans; which ought to be laid deep
in the ground, not lefs than fix inches. In clay foil,
the common harrows are altogether infufficient. The
foil, which has rerted long after ploughing, is render¬
ed compact and folid : the common harrows Ikim the
furface: the feed is not covered; and the firft hearty
ftiower of rain lays it-above ground. Where the far¬
mer overtakes not the ploughing after harveft, and is
reduced to plough immediately before fowing, the
plough anfwers. the purpofe of the firft harrow ; and
the other two will complete the work. But the labour
of the firft harrow is-ill faved; as the ploughing before
winter is a fine preparation, not only for beans, but
for grain, of every kind. If the ground ploughed be-■
fore winter happen by fuperfluity of moifture to cake,
the firft harrow going along the ridges, and crofting
them, will loofen the furface, and give accefs to the air
for drying. As foon as the ground is dry; fow with¬
out delaying a moment. If rain happen in the interim,.,
there is no remedy but patience till a dry day or two
come.
Carfe-clay, ploughed before winter, feldom fails to
cake. Upon that account, a fecond ploughing is ne¬
ceffary before fowing; which ought to be performed
with an ebb furrow,. in order to keep the froft-mould
as near the furface as pofiible. To cover the feed with
the plow is exprefled by the phrafe A? fow under fur.
row. The clods, raifed in this ploughing are a fort,
of (helter to the young plants in the chilly fpring- -
months.
The foregoing method will anfwer for loam. And -
as for a fandy or gravelly foil,, it is altogether impro--
per for beans.
Though we cannot approve the horfe-hoeing of
beans, with the invervals that are commonly allotted
for turnip, yet we would ftrongly recommend the drill¬
ing them atthe diftanceof 10 or 12 inches,. and keep¬
ing the intervals clean of weeds., This may be done
by hand-hoeing, taking opportunity at the fame time
to lay frelh foil to the roots of the plants. But as this
is an expenfive operation, and hands are not always to be
got, a narrow plough, drawn by a Angle horfe, might
be ufed, with a mould-board on each fide to fcatter the
earth.
(a) A very rough piece of land, at that time juft inclofed.
296 A G R I G
Practice, eartli upon the roots of the plants. This is a cheap
and expeditious method: it keeps the ground clean ;
and nourifhes the plants with frefh foil.
As beans delight in a moiil foil, and have no end
of growing in a moift feafon, they cover the ground
totally when fown broadcaft, keep in the dew, and ex¬
clude the fun and air : the plants grow to a great
height; but carry little feed, and that little not well
ripened. This difplays the advantage of drilling ;
which gives free accefs to the fun and air, dries the
•ground, and affords plenty of ripe feed.
* 6. Peas e.
150
Culture of Pease are- of two kinds ; the white, and the gray.
• |>eafe. The cultivation of the latter only belongs to this place.
There are two fpecies of the gray kind, diftinguifh-
ed by their time of ripening. One ripens foon, and for
that reafon is termed hot feed: the other, which is flower
■ in ripening, is termed cold feed.
Peafe, a leguminous crop, is proper to intervene
between two culmiferous crops; lefs for the profit of a
peafe-crop, than for meliorating the ground. Peafe,
however, in a dry feafon, will produce fix or feven bolls
each acre ; but, in an ordinary feafon, they feldom reach
above two, or two and a half. Hence, in a moift cli¬
mate, which all the weft of Britain is, red clover feems
a more beneficial crop than peafe; as it makes as good
winter-food as peafe, and can be cut green thrice du¬
ring fummer.
A field intended for cold feed ought to be ploughed
in October or November; and in February, as foon as
the ground is dry, the feed ought to be fown on the
winter-furrow. A field intended for hot feed ought to
be ploughed in March or April, immediately before
fowing. But if infefted with weeds, it ought to be al-
fo ploughed in October or November.
Peafe laid a foot below the furface will vegetate ; but
the moft approved depth is fix inches in light foil, and
four inches in clay foil; for which reafon, they ought
to be fown under furrow when the ploughing is delayed
till fpring. Of all grain, beans excepted, they are the
leaft in danger of being buried.
Peafe differ from beans, in loving a dry foil and a
dry feafon. Horfe-hoeing would be a great benefit,
could it be performed to any advantage 5 but peafe
.grow expeditioufly, and foon fall over and cover the
ground, which bars ploughing. Horfe-hoeing has
■little effedt when the plants are new fprung; and when
they are advanced to be benefited by that culture, their
length prevents it. Faft growing at the fame time is
■the caufe of their carrying fo little feed : the feed is
buried among the leaves; and the fun cannot penetrate
to make it grow and ripen. The only practicable re¬
medy to obtain grain, is thin fowing ; but thick fowing
produces more ftraw, and mellows the ground more.
Half a boll for an Englifh acre may be reckoned thin
fowing ; three firlots, thick fowing.
Notwithftanding what is faid above, Mr Hunter, a
noted farmer in Berwickftiire, began fome time ago to
fow all his peafe in drills; and never failed to have great
crops of corn as well as of ftraw. He fowed double
rows at a foot interval, and two feet and an half be¬
tween the double rows, which admit horfe-hoeing. By
that method, he had alfo good crops of beans on light
land.
N° 8. 4
U L T U R E. Part It
Peafe and beans mixed -are often fown together, in Pra&iee,
order to catch different feafons. In a moift feafon, the v""*
beans make a good crop ; in a dry feafon, the peafe.
The growth of plants is commonly checked by
drought in the month of July ; but promoted by rain
in Auguft. In July, grafs is parched ; in Auguft, it
recovers verdure. Where peafe are fo far advanced in
the dry feafon as thfit the feed begins to form, their
growth is indeed checked, but the feed continues to fill.
If only in the bloffom at that feafon, their growth is
checked a little; but they become vigorous again in
Auguft, and continue growing without filling till flop¬
ped by ffoft. H?nce it is, that cold feed, which is
early fown, has the beft chance to produce corn : hot
feed, which is late fown, has the beft chance to pro¬
duce ftraw.
The following method is pradlifed in Norfolk, for
fowing peafe upon a dry light foil, immediately opened
from pafture. The ground is pared with a plough ex¬
tremely thin, and every fod is laid exadtly on its back.
In every fod a double row of holes is made. A pea
dropt in every hole lodges in the flay’d ground imme¬
diately below the fod, thrufts its roots horizontally, and
has fufficient moifture. This method enabled Norfolk
farmers, in the barren year 1740, to furnifh white peafe
at 12 s. per boll.
II. Plants cultivated for Roots. \_See alfo Art. III.']
1. Turnip.
Turnip delights in a gravelly foil; and there it can Culture J
be raifed to the greateft perfection, and with the leaft turnip,
hazard of mifcarrying. At the fame time, there is no
foil but will bear turnip when well prepared.
No perfon ever deferved better of a country, than he
who firft cultivated turnip in the field. No plant is bet¬
ter fitted for the climate of Britain, no plant profpers
better in the coldeft part of it, and, no plant contributes
more to fertility. In a word, there has not for two
centuries been introduced into Britain a more valuable
improvement.
Of all roots, turnip requires the fineft mould; and
to that end, of all harrows froft is the beft. In order
to give accefs to froft, the land ought to be prepared
by ribbing after harveft, as above diredled in preparing
land for barley. If the field be not fubjedl to annuals,
it may lie in that ftate till the end of May ; otherwife
the weeds muft be deftroyed by a brakeing about the )■
middle of April; and again in May, if weeds rife.
The firft week of June, plough the field with a fhallow
furrow. Lime it if requifite, and harrow the lime into
the foil. Draw Angle furrows with intervals of three
feet, and lay dung in the furrows. Cover the dung fuf-
ficiently, by going round it with the plough, and form-
-ing the three-feet fpaces into ridges. The dung comes
thus to lie below the crown of every ridge. j j-
The feafon of fowing muft be regulated by the time Seafon ail n
intended for feeding. Where intended for feeding in method Jbfi
November, December, January, and February, the IowinS- QR
feed ought, to be fown from the ift to the 20th of June.
Where the feeding is intended to be carried on to
March, April, and May, the feed muft not be fown
till the end of July. Turnip fown earlier than above
direfted, flowers that very fummer, and runs faft to
feed; which renders it in a good meafure unfit for
food.
4
'Part II.
AGRICULTURE.
Pra(Slice, food. If fown much later, it does not apple, and there
is no food but from the leaves.
Though by a drill-plough the feed may be fown of
any thicknefs, the fafefl: way is to fow thick. Thin
fowing is liable to many accidents, which are far from
being counterbalanced by the expence that is faved in
thinning. Thick-fowing can bear the ravage of the
black fly, and leave a fufficient crop behind. It is a pro-
teftion againil drought, gives the plants" a rapid prb-
grefs, and eftablifhes them in the ground before it is
neceffary to thin them.
The fowing turnip broadcaft is univerfal in England,
and common in Scotland, though a barbarous practice.
The eminent advantage of turnip is, that beflde a pro¬
fitable crop, it makes a moft complete fallow ; and the
latter cannot be obtained but by horfe-hoeing. Upon
that account, the fowing turnip in rows at three feet
diftance is recommended. Wider rows anfwer no pro¬
fitable end, ftraiter rows afford not room for a horfe
to walk in. When the turnip is about four inches high,
annual weeds will appear. Go round every interval
with the flighteft furrow pofiible, at the diitance of
two inches from each row, moving the earth from the
rows toward the middle of the interval. A thin plate
of iron muft be fixed on the left fide of the plough, to
prevent the earth from falling back and burying the
turnip. Next, let women be employed to weed the
rows with their fingers ; which is better, and cheaper
done, than with the hand-hoe. The hand-hoe, be-
fide, is apt to difturb the roots of the turnip that are to
Hand, and to leave them open to drought by removing
the earth from them. The ftanding turnip are to be
at the diftance of twelve inches from each other : a
greater diftance makes them fwell too much ; a lefs di¬
ftance affords them not fufficient room. A woman
foon comes to be expert in finger-weeding. The fol¬
lowing hint may be neceffary to a learner. To fecure
the turnip that is to ftand, let her cover it with the left
hand ; and with the right pull up the turnip on both
fides. After thus freeing the ftanding turnip, fhe may
fafely ufe both hands. Let the field remain in this
ftate till the appearance of new annuals make a fecond
ploughing neceffary ; which muft be in the fame fur¬
row with the former, but a little deeper. As in this
ploughing the iron plate is to be removed, part of the
loofe earth will fall back on the roots of the plants :
the reft will fill the middle of the interval, and bury
every weed. When weeds begin again to appear, then
is the time for a third ploughing in an oppofite direc¬
tion, which lays the earth to the roots of the plants.
This ploughing may be about the middle of Augufi ;
after which, weeds rife very faintly. If they do rife,
another ploughing will clear the ground of them.
Weeds that at this time rife in the row, may be cleared
with a hand-hoe, which can do little mifchief among
plants diftant twelve inches from each other. It is cer¬
tain, however, that it may be done cheaper with the
hand (a). And after the leaves of turnips in a row meet
Vol. I. Parti.
297
together, the hand is the only inftrument that can be Practice,
applied for weeding. e_—w
In fwampy ground, the furface of which is beft re¬
duced by paring and burning, the feed may be fown
in rows with intervals of a foot. To fave time, a drill-
plough may be ufed that fows three or four rows at
once. Hand-hoeing is proper for fuch ground ; be-
caufe the foil under the burnt Jir^atum is commonly full
of roots, which digeft and rot better under ground than
when brought to the furface by the plough. In the
mean time, while thefe are digefting, the aihes will fe¬
cure a good crop.
In cultivating turnips to advantage, great care fliould Properties
be taken to procure good, bright, nimble, and well-of Afferent
dried feed, and of the beft kinds. forts of tur-
The Norfolk farmers generally raife the oval white, 1
the large green-topp’d, and the red or purple-topp’d
kinds, which from long experience they have found to
be the moft profitable.
The roots of the. green-topp’d will grow to a large
fize, and continue good much longer than others. The
red or purple-topp’d will alio grow large, and continue
good to the beginning of February ; but the roots be¬
come hard and ftringy fooner than the former.
The green-topp’d growing more above ground, is in
more danger of fuftaining injury from fevere frofts than
the red or purple, which are more than half covered by
the foil; but it is the fofteft and fweeteft, when grown
large, of any kind. We have feen them brought to ta¬
ble a foot in diameter, and equally good as garden
turnips.
Turnips delight in a light foil, confifting of fand
and loam mixed ; for when the foil is rich and heavy,
although the crop may be as great in weight, they
will be rank, and run to flower earlier in fpring.
Turnip-feed, like that of grain, will not do well OMerva-
without frequent changing. The Norfolk feed is fent tions with
to moft parts of the kingdom, and even to Ireland, but regar<lto
after two years it degenerates ; fo that thofe who wiftifeet^’
to have turnips in perfedtion fliould procure it frefh e-
very year from Norwich, and they will find their ac¬
count in fo doing. For from its known reputation,
many of the London feedfmen fell, under that cha-
radter, feed raifed in the vicinity of the metropolis,
which is much inferior in quality.
When the plants have got five leaves, they fhould be
hoed, and fet out at leaft fix inches apart. A month
afterward, or earlier if it be a wet feafon, a fecond hoe¬
ing ftiould take place, and the plants be left at leaft 14
inches diftant from each other, efpecially if intended
for feeding cattle ; for where the plants are left thick-
er, they will be proportionably finaller, unlefs the land
is very rich indeed. ^
Some of the beft Norfolk farmers fow turnips in Methods of
drills three feet afunder, and at a fecond hoeing leave culture in
them a foot a part in the rows. By this means the Norfolk,
trouble and expence of hoeing is much leflened, and
the crop, of equal weight as when fown in the com-
P p mon
(a) Children under thirteen may be employed to weed turnip with the fingers. We have feen them go oa
in that work with alacrity ; and a fmall premium will have a good effedt. For boys and girls above thirteen,
a hand-hoe adapted to their fize is an excellent inftrument: it {Lengthens the arms amazingly. In driving the
■plough, the. legs only are exerqifed ; but as the arms are chiefly employed iu hulbandry, they ought to be pre-
^red beforehand by gentle exercife.
156
Value as
fool for
cattle.
Method of
preferving
turnips.
A G R I C U
mon method. The intervals may eafily be cleared of
J weeds by the horfe-hoe.
Great quantities of turnips are raifed in Norfolk e-
very year for feeding black cattle, which turn to great
advantage.
It is well known, that an acre of land contains 4840
fquare yards, or 43,560 fquare feet; fuppofe then that
every fquare foot contains one turnip, and that they
weigh only two pounds each on an average, here will
be a mafs of food excellent in kind, of 46 tons per acre,
often worth from four to five guineas, and fometimes
more.
Extraordinary crops of barley frequently fucceed
turnips, efpecially when fed off the land. In feeding
them off, the cattle Ihould not be fuffered to run over
too much of the ground at once, for in that cafe they
will tread down and fpoil twice as many as they eat.
In Norfolk, they are confined by herdles to as much
as is fufficient for them for one day. By this mode
the crop is eaten clean, the foil is equally trodden, which
if light, is of much fervice, and equally manured by
the cattle.
A notion prevails in many places, that mutton fat¬
tened with turnips is thereby rendered rank and ill-
tafted; but this is a vulgar error. The belt mutton
in Norfolk (and few counties have better) is all fed
with turnips. It is rank paftures, and marfiiy lands,
that produce rank mutton.
If the land be wet and fpringy, the belt method is
to draw and carry off your turnips to fome dry pafture ;
for the treading of the cattle will not only injure the
crop, but render the land fo ftiff, that you mull be at
an additional expence in ploughing.
To preferve turnips for late fpring feed, the bell me¬
thod, and which has been tried with fuccefs by fome
of the bell Englilh farmers, is. To Hack them up in
dry ftraw; a load of which is fufficient to preferve
40 tons of turnips. The method is eafy, and as fol¬
lows :—
After drawing your turnips in February, cut off the
tops and tap roots, (which may be given to Iheep),
and let them lay a few days in the field, as no weather
will then hurt them.
Then, on a layer of ftraw next the ground, place a
layer of turnips two feet thick ; and then another layer
of ftraw, and fo on alternately, till you have brought
the heap to a point. Care mull be taken to turn up
the edges of the layers of ftraw, to prevent the turnips
from rolling out; cover the top well with long ftraw,
and it will ferve as a thatch for the whole.
In this method, as the ftraw imbibes the moifture
exhaled from the roots, all vegetation will be prevent¬
ed, and the turnips will be nearly as good in May as
when firfl drawn from the field, if ftraw be fcarce,
old haulm or ftubble will anfwer the fame purpofe.
But to prevent this trouble and expence, perhaps
farmers in all counties would find it moft to their in-
tereft to adopt the method ufed by our neighbours the
Norfolk farmers, which is, to continue fowing turnips
to the latter end of Auguft; by which means their late
crops remain good in the field till the latter end of A-
pril, and often till the middle of May.
The advantages of having turnips good till the fpring
feed is generally ready, are fo obvious and fo great,
that many of the moft intelligent farmers (although at
L T U R E. Part II.
firft prejudiced againft the pra&ice) are now come into Pra<5Hce.
it, and find their account in fo doing. u—v—j
2. Potatoes.
The choice of foil is not of greater importance in General
any other plant than in a potato. This plant in clay culture,
foil, or in rank black loam lying low without ventila¬
tion, never makes palatable food. In a gravelly or
fandy foil, expofed to the fun and to free air, it thrives
to perfection, and has a good relifli. But a rank black
loam, though improper to raife potatoes for the table,
produces them in great plenty; and the produdt is,
as already obferved, a palatable food for horned cattle,
hogs, and poultry.
The fpade is a proper inftrument for raifing a fmall
quantity, or for preparing corners or other places inac-
ceffible to the plough; but for raifing potatoes in quan¬
tities, the plough is the only inftrument.
As two great advantages of a drilled crop are, to
deftroy weeds, and to have a fallow at the fame time
with the crop, no judicious farmer will think of raifing
potatoes in any other way. In September or Oftober,
as foon as that year's crop is removed, let the field have
a rouiing furrow, a crofs-brakeing next, and then be
cleared of weeds by the cleaning harrow. Form it into
three-feet ridges, in that ftate to lie till April, which
is the proper time for planting potatoes. Crofs-bake
it, to raife the furrows a little. Then lay well-digefted
horfe-dung along the furrows, upon which lay the roots
at eight inches diftance. Cover up thefe roots with the
plough, going once round every row. This makes a
warm bed for the potatoes; hot dung below, and aloofc
covering above, that admits every ray of the fun. As
foon as the plants appear above ground, go round every
row a fecond time with the plough, which will lay up¬
on the plants an additional inch or two of mould, and
at the fame time bury all the annuals; and this will
complete the ploughing of the ridges. When the po¬
tatoes are fix inches high, the plough, with the deepeft
furrow, muft go twice along the middle of each inter¬
val in oppofite diredlions, laying earth firft to one row,
and next to the other. And to perform this work, a
plough with a double mould-board will be more expe¬
ditious. But as the earth cannot be laid clofe to the
roots by the plough, the fpade muft fucceed, with
which four inches of the plants muft be covered, lea¬
ving little more but the tops above ground; and this
operation will at the fame time bury all the weeds that
have fprung fince the former ploughing. What weeds
arife after muft be pulled up with the hand. A hoe
is never to be ufed here : it cannot go fo deep as to
deftroy the weeds without Cutting the fibres of the
plants; and if it Ikim the furface, it only cuts off the
heads of the weeds, and does not prevent their pulhing
again. _ 159
In the Bath Society Papers, we have the following Particular
practical obfervations on the culture and ufe of pota- methods,
toes, given as the refult of various experiments made
for five years fucceflively on that valuable root, the
growth of which cannot be too much encouraged.
When the potato crop has been the only object in
view, the following method is the moll eligible.
The land being well pulverized by two or three good
harrowings and ploughings, is then manured with 15
or 20 cart-loads of dung per acre, before it receives its
Part II. A G R I C
PradHce. laft earth. Then it is thrown on to what the Suffolk
* farmers call the Trench balk, which is narrow and deep
ridge-work, about 15 inched from the centre of one
ridge to the centre of the other. Women and children
drop the fets in the bottom of every furrow 15 inches
apart; men follow, and cover them with large hoes, a
foot in width, pulling the mould down fo as to bury
the fets five inches deep; they muft receive two or three
hand-hoeings, and be kept free from weeds; always
obferving to draw the earth as much as pofiible to the
ftems of the young plants. By repeated trials, the firft
or fecond week in April is found the mofi: advantageous
time for planting."
In the end of September or the beginning of Octo¬
ber, when the haulm becomes withered, they fhould be
ploughed up with a ftrong double-breailed plough.
The workman muft be cautioned to fet his plough very
deep, that he may ftrike below all the potatoes, to a-
void damaging the crop. The women who pick them
up, if not carefully attended to, will leave many in the
ground, which will prove detrimental to any fucceeding
corn, whether wheat or barley. To avoid which in¬
convenience, let the land be harrowed, and turn the
fwine in to gl<
gligence.
By this method, the fets will be 15 fquare inches
from each other; it wiU take 18 bufhels to plant an
acre ; and the produce, if on a good mixed loamy foil,
will amount to 300 bufhels.
If the potatoes are grown as a preparation for wheat,
it is preferable to have the rows two feet two in¬
ches from each other, hand-hoeing only the fpace from
plant to plant in each row ; then turning a fmall fur-
tow from the infide of each row by a common light
U L T U R E. 299
every cottager’s garden is now occupied by this root, Praflice.
and it forms a principal part of their diet. Potatoes ‘ ' ^ “
are cheap and excellent fubllitutes for peafe in foups
and broths, allowing double the quantity. 161
“ Although it is nearly a tranfcript of the direc* A cheap
tions given by a very ingenious author, yet I fhall take j^the t*°B
the liberty of inferting a receipt for making a potato-poor
foup, which I have weekly diftributed amongfl the poor r
to their great relief.
An ox’s head
Two pecks of potatoes
Quarter of a peck of onions
Three quarters of a pound of fait
An ounce and a half of pepper
Total 3 to
Ninety pints of water to be boiled with the above in¬
gredients on a flow fire until reduced to 60, which re¬
quire one peck of coals, value threepence. I have ad¬
ded the expence of every article according to their
prices with me, that gentlemen may nearly perceive at
how eafy a rate they can feed 60 of their poor neigh*
the few that may be left by their ne- hours. I find from experience, a pint of this foup, with
a fmall piece of the meat, is fufficient to fatisfy a hearty
working man with a good meal. If vegetables are
plentiful, fome of every fort may be added, with a few
fweet herbs.
“ I hope my inferting the above, will not be efteem-
ed improper; though fomewhat deviating from the
culture of potatoes, it may poffibly be a means of ren¬
dering them more extenfively ufeful.”
A premium having been offered by the abovemen-
tioned Society for the cultivation of potatoes by far-
plough, and afterwards with a double-breafled plough mers, &c. whofe rent does not exceed 401. per annum.
with one horfe, fplit the ridge formed by the firft
ploughing thoroughly to clean the intervals. This
work Ihould not be done too deep the firft time, to a-
void burying the tender plants; but the laft earth fhould
be ploughed as deep as pofiible; and the clofer the
mould is thrown to the ftems of the plants, the more
the following methods were communicated, by which
thofe who have only a fmall fpot of ground may obtain
a plentiful crop.
Firft, then, the earth fhould be dug 12 inches deep, Methods of
if the foil will allow of it; after this, a hole Ihould be cultivating
opened about fix inches deep, horfe-dung, or long lit- potatoes on
advantageous it will prove. Thus 15 bulhels will plant ter fhould be put therein about three inches thick ; Op01’'
an acre, and the produce will be about 300 bufhels
but the land, by the fummer ploughings, will be pre¬
pared to receive feed-wheat immediately, and almoft
j I(50 enfure a; plentiful crop.
To prevent The potato-fets fhould be cut a week before plant-
the grub, ing, with one or two eyes to each, and the pieces not
very fmall; two bufhels of frefh flaked lime fhould be
fown over tire furface of the land as foon as planted,
which will effe&ually prevent' the attacks of the grub.
The expence attending an acre of potatoes well cul¬
tivated in the firft method, fuppofing the rent 20 fhil-
lings, tithe and town charges rather high (as in Suf¬
folk), taking up, and every thing included, will be a-
bout fix pounds. In the laft method, it would be fome¬
what reduced.
“ When predileftions for old cuftoms are fubdued
(adds the author), I hope to fee the potato admitted in
the conftant courfe of crops'by every fpirited hufband-
man. The moft beneficial effects will, I am certain,
accrue from fuch a fyftem. The advantages in my
neighbourhood are apparent; I cultivated and fed my
own children upon them, and my poorer neighbours
fenfibly followed the example,
this hole fhould not be more than 12 inches in diame¬
ter ; upon this dung orlitter, a potato fhould be plant¬
ed whole, upon which a little more dung fhould be
fhook, and then earth muft be put thereon. In like
manner the whole plot of ground muft be planted, ta¬
king care that each potato be at leaft 16 inches apart;
and when the young fhoots make their appearance, they
fhould have frefh mould drawn round them with a hoe;
and if the tender fhoots are covered, it will prevent the
froft from injuring them : they fhould again be earthed
when the fhoots make- a fecond appearance, but not be
covered, as in all probability the feafon will then be lefs
fevere. A plentiful fupply of mould fhould be given
them, and the perfon who performs this bufinefs fhould
never tread upon the plant, or the hillock that is raifed
round it; as the lighter the earth is, the more, room
the potato will have to expand. From a fingle
root thus planted, very near 40 pounds weight of large
potatoes were obtained, and from almoft every other
root upon the fame plot of ground from 15 to 20
pounds weight ; and except the foil be ftohey or
gravelly, 10 pounds or half a peck of potatoes may al-
A great proportion of moft always be obtained from each root, by purfuing
P p 2 the
•3°o
A G R I C U
Pradice. the foregoing method. But note, cuttings or fmall fets
1 ^ ' will not do for this purpofe.
Methods The fecond method will fait the indolent, or thofe
cf culture who have not time to dig their ground, and that is,
adapted to where weeds much abound and have not been cleared
fmallfarms. jn t]le wJnter, a trench may be opened in a ftraight line
the whole length of the ground, and about fix inches
deep ; in this trench the potatoes fhould be planted a-
fcout to inches apart ; cuttings or fmall potatoes
will do for this method. When they are laid in the
trench, the weeds that are on -the furface may be pared
elf on each fide about i o inches from it, and be turned
upon the plants ; another trench ffiould then be dug,
and the mould that comes out of it turned carefully on
the weeds. It mull not be forgot, that each trench
fhould be regularly dug, that the potatoes may be
throughout the plot I o or 12 inches from each other.
This flovenly method will in general raife more pota¬
toes than can be produced by digging the ground twice,
afid dibbling in the plants; and tlnj reafon is, that the
weeds lighten the foil, and give the roots room to ex¬
pand. They Ihould be twice hoed, and earthed up in
rows. And here note, that if cut potatoes are to be
planted, every cutting (hould have two eyes, for though
fewer fets will be obtained, there will be a greater cer¬
tainty of a crop, as one eye often fails or is deftroyed
by grubs in. the earth.
Where a crop of potatoes fail in part (as will fome-
times be the cafe in a dry feafon), amends may ftill be
made by laying a little dung upon the knots of the
flraw or haulm of thofe potatoes that do appear, and
covering them with mould; each knot or joint thus or¬
dered will, if the weather prove wet afterwards, pro¬
duce more potatoes than the original roots.
From the fmalleft potatoes planted whole, from four
to fix pounds at a root were obtained, and fome of the
fingle potatoes, weighed near two- pounds. Thefe were
dug in as before-mentioned, in trenches where the
ground was covered with weeds, and the foil was a ftiff
loamy clay.
A good crop may be obtained by laying potatoes
upon turf at about 12 or 14 inches apart, and upon
beds of about fix feet wide ; on each fide of which a
trench fhould be opened about three feet wide, and the
turf that comes from thence fhould be laid with the
graffy fide downwards upon the potatoes; a fpit of
mould fhould next be taken from the trenches, and be
fpread over the turf; and in like manner the whole plot
of ground that is defigned to be planted muft be treat¬
ed. And remark, that when the young fhoots appear,
another fpit of mould from- the trenches fhould be
ftrewed over the beds fb as to cover the fhoots; this
will prevent the froft from injuring them, encourage
them to expand, and totally deftroy the young weeds;
and when the potatoes are taken up in the autumn, a
careful perfon may turn the earth again into the tren¬
ches, fo as to make the furface level; and it will be
right to remark, that from the fame ground a much
better crop of potatoes may be obtained the following
year.
For field planting, a good (if not the heft) method
is to dung the land, which fhould be once ploughed
previous thereto ; and when it is ploughed a fecond
time, a careful perfon fhould drop the potato plants be¬
fore the plough in every third furrow at about eight or
3
L T U R E. Part IT
ten inches apart. Plants that are cut with'two eyes are Pra&h
beft for this purpofe. The reafon for planting them at fo ' v'~
great a difbance as every third furrow, is, that when the
fhoots appear, a horfe-hoe may go upon the two va¬
cant furrows to keep them clean ; and after they are
thus hoed, they fhould be moulded up in ridges ; and
if this crop be taken up about Oftoher or November,
the land will be in excellent condition to receive a crop
of wheat. Lands that are full of twitch or couch-grafs
may be made clean by this method, as the horfe-hoeing
is as good as a fummer-fallow ; and if, when the pota¬
toes are taken up, women and children were to pick
out fuch filth, not any traces of it would remain ; and
by laying it on heaps and burning it, a quantity of
afhes would be produced for manure.
After ploughing, none fhould ever dibble in potatoes,,
as the perfons who dibble, plant, or hoe them, will all
tread the ground ; by which means it will become fo
bound, that the young fibres, cannot expand, as has
been already obferved. Good crops have indeed been
obtained by ploughing the land twice, and dropping
the plants in every other furrow, and by hand-hoeing
and earthing them up afterwards as the gardeners do
peafe; but this method is not equal to the other.
Vacant places in hedge-rows might be grubbed and
planted with potatoes, and a good crop might be ex¬
pected, as the leaves of trees, thorns, &c. are a good
manure, and will furprifingly encourage their growth,
and gratify the wifhes of the planter; who by cultiva¬
ting fuch places, will then make the molt of his ground,
and it will be in fine order to receive a crop of corn the
following year.
164*
Account of the culture, expences, and produce offx acres Method of
of potatoes, being a fair part of near 70 acres, raifed culture, &i
by John Billingfley, Ffq; and for 'which the premium
'was granted him in the year 1784.
if
is grant-
Expences..
Plowing an oat-ftubble in October 1783, at
4s. per acre
Crofs-ploughing in March4784,
Harrowing, 2s. per acre
180 cart-loads of compoft, 31. per acre
42 facks of feed-potatoes (each lack weigh¬
ing 240 lb.) of the white fort
Cutting the fets, 6d. per fack
Setting on ridges eight feet wide (leaving
an interval of two feet for an alley) 6d.
for every 1 o yards
Hoeing, at 5 s. per acre
Digging up the two feet interval, and
throwing the earth on the plants, "at 10s.
per acre - -
Digging up the crop, at 8d. for every 20
yards in length* the breadth being 8 feet
Labour and expence of fecuring in pits,
wear and tear of bafkets, ftraw, reed,
fpikes. See. i os. per acre
Rent - -
Tithe ....
L. s. d.e‘
»4 x6 a
72 9
73 “
L.146 o o
Pro-
Part rr.
A G
Practice. PRODUCE,
goo facks of befl: potatoes at 4s.
120 facks middle-fized, 3s. 6d.
50 of fmall, 2s.
N. B. Each fack 240 11>.
RIG
L. s. d.
120 o o
21 O O
5 0 0
L. 146 O O
The field on which the above experiment was made,
was an oat-ftubble in the autumn of 1783. In O6I0-
ber it was ploughed, and left in a rough ftate during
the winter. In April it was crofs-ploughed and har¬
rowed. On the 8th of May the field was marked out
into beds or ridges eight feet wide, leaving a fpace of
two feet wHe for an alley between every two ridges.
The manure (a eompoft of liable dung, virgin earth,
and fcrapings of a turnpike road) was then brought on
the land, and depofited in fmall heaps on the centre of
each ridge, in the proportion of about 30 cart-loads to
each acre. A trench was - then opened with a fpade,
breadth-way of the ridge, about four inches deep ; in
this trench the potato-fets were placed, at the diitance
of nine inches from each other; the dung was then
fpread in a trench on the fets, and a fpace or plit of 14
inches in breadth, dug in upon them. When the plants
I were about fix inches high, they were carefully hoed,
I: and foon after the two feet intervals between the ridges
were dug, and the contents thrown around the young-
plants. This refrelhment, added to the ample manu¬
ring previoufly bellowed, produced fuch a luxuriance
and rapidity of growth, that no weed could Ihow its
li. 165 head.
.'Eeft me- The Ihorteft and moll certain method of taking up
Ikin ? them" Potatoes» to pl°ugh once round every row at the di-
1 Lm fiance of four inches, removing the earth from the
. [ plants, and gathering up with the hand all the potatoes
that appear. The diftance is made four inches, to pre¬
vent cutting the roots, which are feldom found above
that dillance from the row on each fide. When the
ground is thus cleared by the plough, raife the pota¬
toes with a fork having three broad toes or claws ; which
is better than a fpade, as it does not cut the potatoes.
The potatoes thus laid above ground mud be gathered
with the hand. By this method fcarce a potato will
I 166 be left.
Of prefer- As potatoes are a comfortable food for the low peo-
] vtng th. m.. p]e> jg Qf importance to have them all the year round.
For a long time,.potatoes in Scotland were confined to
the kitchen-garden ; and after they were planted in
the field, it was not imagined at firft that they could
be ufed after the month of December. Of late years,
they have been found to anfwer even till April; which
has proved' a great fupport to many a poor family, as
they are eafily. cooked,, and require neither- kiln nor
mill. But there ia no caufe for Hopping there. It is
eafy to preferve them till the next crop : When taken
cut of the ground, lay in the corner of a barn a quan-
t tity that may ferve till April, covered from froll with
dry llraw. prefied down: bury the remainder in a hole
dug in dry ground, mixed with the hulks of dried oats,
fand, or the dry leaves of trees, over which build a
Hack of hay or corn. When the pit is opened for
taking out the potatoes, the eyes of what have a ten¬
dency to pulh mull be cut out; and this cargo will
ferve all the month of June. To be Hill more certain
of making the old crop meet the new, the fetting of a
fmall quantity may be delayed till June, to be taken
U L T U R E. 301
up at the ordinary time before froft. This cargo, ha- Pradhce. ^
ving not arrived to full growth, will not be fo ready to ' v
pulh as what are fet in April.
If the old crop happen to be exhaulled before the new
crop is ready, the interval may be fupplied by the po¬
tatoes of the new crop that lie next the futface, to be
picked up with the hand 5 which, far from hurting the
crop, will rather Improve it.
3. Carrot and Parsnip.
. . *6?
Of all roots, a carrot requires the deepell foil. It Culture of:
ought at leall to be a foot deep, all equally good from c.arreU
top to bottom. If fuch a foil be not in the farm, it
may be made artificially by trench-ploughing, which
brings to the furface what never had any communica¬
tion with the fun or air. When this new foil is fuffi-
ciently improved by a crop or two with dung, it is fit
for bearing carrots. Beware of dunging the year when
the carrots are fown ; fur with frefh dung they feldom-
efcape rotten feabs. v
The only foils proper for that root,., are a loam and a
fandy foil.
The ground mull be prepared by the deepeft furrow
that can be taken, the fooner after harveft the better
immediately upon the bade of which, ai ribbing ought'
to fucceed, as diredled for barley. At the end of March,,
or beginning of April, which is the time of lowing the
feed, the ground muft. be fmoothed with a brake. Sow
the feed in drills, with intervals of a foot fof hand-
hoeing : which is no expenfive operation where the '
crop is confined to an acre or two; but if the quantity
of ground be greater, the intervals ought to be three,
feet, in order for horfe-hoeing.
In fiat ground without ridges, it may be proper to
make parallel furrows with the plough, ten feet from
each other, in order to'carry off any redundant moi-
fture.
At Parlington in Yorkfhire, from the end of Sep¬
tember to the firft of May, 20 work-horfes, four bul¬
locks, and fix milk-cows, were fed on the carrots that
grew on three acres; and thefe animals never tafted
any other food but a little hay. The milk was excel¬
lent and, over and above, 30 hogs-were fattened upon
what was left by the other beafts. We have this fact
from undoubted authority. , i68~‘
The culture of parfnips is the fame with that ofPaifiups,
carrots.
IIP. Plants cultivated for Leaves* or for both Leaves
and Root.
There are many garden-plants of thefe kinds. The
plants proper for the field are cabbage red and white,
colewort plain and curled, turnip-rooted cabbage,, and
the root of fearcity; 169.
1. Cabbage is an interefting article in hufbandry. It Culture o,
is eafily raifed, is fubject to few difeafes, refifts froft cabbage,
more than turnip, is palatable to cattle, and fooner fills
them, than turnip, carrot, or potatoesi
The feafon for fetting cabbage depends on the, ufe
it is intended for.. If intended for feeding in Novem¬
ber, December, and January, plants procured- from
feed fown the end of July the preceding year muft be
fet in March or April. If intended for feeding in
March, April, and May, the plants mult be fet the firft.
week
302 A G R I C u
TraiSHce. week of the preceding July, from feed fovvn in the end of
**—'V—-' February or beginning of March the fame year. The
late fetting of the plants retards their growth; by
which means they have a vigorous growth the follow¬
ing fpring. And this crop makes an important link
in the chain that connedts winter and fummer green
food. Where cabbage for fpring-food happens to be
negledfed, a few acres of rye, fown at Michaelmas, will
fupply the want. After the lye is confumed, there is
time fufficient to prepare the ground for turnip.
And now to prepare a field for cabbage. Where
_ the plants are to be fet in March, the field mull be
made up after harveft, in ridges three feet wide. In
that form let it lie all winter, to be mellowed with air
and froft. In March, take the firft opportunity, be¬
tween wet and dry, to lay dung in the furrows. Cover
the dung with a plough, which will convert the furrow
into a crown, and confequently the crown into a fur¬
row. Set the plants Upon the dung, diftant from each
other three feet. Plant them fo as to make a ftraight
line crofs the ridges, as well as along the furrows, to
which a gardener’s line ftretched perpendicularly crofs
the furrows will be requifite. This will fet each plant
at the diltance precifely of three feet from the plants
that furround it. The purpofe of this accuracy is to
give opportunity for ploughing, not only along the
ridges, but crofs them. This mode is attended with
three fignal advantages: it faves hand-hoeing, it is a
more complete dreffing to the foil, and it lays earth
neatly round every plant.
If the foil be deep and compofed of good earth, a
trench-ploughing after the preceding crop will not be
amifs; in which cafe, the time for dividing the field
into three-feet ridged, as above, ought to be immediately
before the dunging for the plants.
If weeds happen to rife fo clofe to the plants as not
to be reached by the plough, it will require very little
labour to deltroy them with a hand-hoe.
Unlefs the foil be much infefted with annuals, twice
ploughing after the plants are fet will be a fufficient
drefiing. The firft removes the earth from the plants ;
the next, at the diftance of a month or fo, lays it back.
Where the plants are to be fet in July, the field
mull be ribbed as diredted for barley. It ought to
have a flight ploughing in June before the planting, in
order to loofen the foil, but not fo as to bury the fur-
face-earth ; after which the three feet ridges muft be
formed, and the other particulars carried on as diredt-
ed above with refpcdl to plants that are to be fet in
, j0 March.
Cultivation 2. As to the turnip-rooted callages, their importance
of the tur- and value feem only to have been lately afcertained.
cabba°es^ t^e Society Papers we have the following ac-
s ' count of Sir Thomas Beevor’s method of cultivating
them ; which from experience he found to be cheaper
and better than any other.
“ In the firft or fecond week of June, I fow the
fame quantity of feed, hoe the plants at the fame fize,
leave them at the fame diftance from each other, and
treat them in all refpetts like the common turnip. In
this method I have always obtained a plentiful crop of
them ; to afcertain the value of which I need only in¬
form you, that on the 23d day of April laft, having
then two acres left of my crop, found, and in great
L T U R E. Part II.
perfedlion, I divided them by fold hurdles into three Practice,
parts of nearly equal dimenfions. Into the firft partv—
I put 24 fmall bullocks of about 30 ftone weight each ,7l
(141b. to the ftone), and 30 middle-fized fat wethers, Their utili-
which, at the end of the firft week, after they had ty and va-
eaten down the greater part of the leaves, and fomelue<
part of the roots, I drifted into the fecond divifion,
and then put 70 lean fheep into what was left of the
firft; thefe fed off the remainder of the turnips
left by the fat ftock; and fo they were drifted through
the three divifions, the lean ftock following the fat
as they wanted food, until the whole was confumed.
“ The 24 bullocks and 30 fat wethers continued
in the turnips until the 21ft of May, being exactly
four weeks; and the 70 lean dreep until the 29th,
which is one day over four weeks : fo that the two
acres kept me 24 fmall bullocks and no dreep four
weeks (not reckoning the overplus day of keeping the
lean dreep) ; the value, at the rate of keeping at that
feafon, cannot be eftimated in any common year at lefs
than 4d. a-week for each dreep, and is. 6d. per week
for each bullock, which would amount together to the
firm of L,. 14 : 10 : 8 for the two acres.
“ You will hardly, I conceive, think I have fet the
price of keeping the dock at too high a rate ; it is be¬
neath the price here in almoft every fpring, and in this
laft it would have coft double, could it have been pro¬
cured ; which was fo far from being the cafe, that
hundreds of dreep and lambs here were loft, and the
reft greatly pinched for want of food.
“ You will obferve, gentlemen, that in the valua¬
tion of the crop above mentioned I have claimed no
allowance for the great benefit the farmer receives by
being enabled to fuffer his grafs to get into a forward
growth, nor for the fuperior quality of thefe turnips
in fattening his ftock ; both which circumftances muft
ftamp a new and a great additional value upon them.
But as their continuance on the land may feem to be
injurious to the fucceeding crop, and indeed will de¬
prive the farmer totally of either oats or barley; fo to
fupply that lofs I have always fown buck-wheat on the
firft earth upon the land from which the turnips were
thus fed off; allowing one budiel of feed per acre, for
which I commonly receive from five to fix quarters per 1
acre in return. And that I may mot throw that part
of my land out of the fame courfe of tillage with the
reft, I fow my clover or other grafs-feeds with the
buck-wheat, in the fame manner as with the oat or
barley crops, and have always found as good a layer
(ley) of it afterwards.
“ Thus you fee, that in providing a moft incompa¬
rable vegetable food for cattle, in that feafon of the
year in which the farmer is generally moft diftreffed,
and his cattle almoft ftarved, a confiderable profit may
like wife be obtained, much beyond what is ufually de¬
rived from his former practice, by the great produce
and price of a crop raifed at fo eafy an expence as that
of buck-wheat, which, with us, fells commonly at the
fame price as barley, oftentimes more, and but very
rarely for lefs.
“ The land on which I have ufually fown turnip-
rooted cabbages is a drymixed foil, worth 15 s. per acre.”
To the preceding account the Society have fubjoin-
ed the following note : “ Whether we regard the im-
portancr
Part II.
if Practice, portance of the fubjeft, or the dear and practical in-
' formation which the foregoing letter conveys, it may
be conlidered as truly interefting as any we have ever
com been favoured with : and therefore it is recommended
mendatlon *n ftrongeft manner to farmers in general, that they
!by the Bath adopt a mode of practice fo decifively afcertained to
-society. be in a high degree judicious and profitable.”
To raife the turnip-rooted cabbage for tranfplanting,
the bell; method yet difcovered is, to breaft-plough and
burn as much old pafture as may be judged neceffary
for the feed-bed; two perch well Hocked with plants
will be fufficient to plant an acre. The land fliould
be dug as (hallow as poflible, turning the a(hes in ; and
173 the feed (hould be fown the beginning of April,
raife The land intended for the plantation to be cultivated
Jlhe turnip- and dunged as for the common turnip. About Mid-
ba^for^" ^ummer (or f°oner if the weather will permit) will be
tranfplant- a ProPer time for planting, which is beft done in the
Ing. following manner : the land to be thrown into one-bout
ridges, upon the tops of which the plants are to be fet,
at about 18 inches diftance from each other. As foon
as the weeds rife, give a hand-hoeing, afterwards run
the ploughs in the intervals, and fetch a furrow from
each ridge, which, after laying a fortnight or three
weeks, is again thrown back to the ridges; if the weeds
rife again, it is neceffary to give them another hand-
hoeing.
If the young plants in the feed-bed (hould be at¬
tacked, by the fly, fow wood-a(hes over them when the
dew is on, which will effe&ually prevent the ravages
j _4 they would otherwife make,
ifculture of 3. The racinede difetie,or root of fcarcity, (Betacida)
the root of delights in a rich loamy land well dunged. It is diredt-
Karcny. e(j to jje fown jn rowS) or broad-caff, and as foon as the
plants are of the fize of a goofe-quill, to be tranfplanted
in rows of 18 inches diftance, and 18 inches a part, one
plant from the other: care muff be taken in the fow-
ing, to fow very thin, and to cover the feed, which
lays in the ground about a month, an inch only.—In
tranfplanting, the root is not to be (hortened, but the
leaves cut at the top ; the plant is then to be planted
with a fetting-ftick, fo that the upper part of the root
(hall appear about half an inch out of the ground; this
laft precaution is very neceffary to be attended to.
Thefe plants will ftrike root in twenty-four hours, and
a man a little accuftomed to planting, will plant with
eafe 1800 or 2000 a-day. In the feed-bed, the plants,
like all others, muff be kept clear of weeds : when
they are planted out, after once hoeing, they will take
care of themfelves, and fuffocate every kind of weed
near them.
The heft time to fow the feed is from the beginning
of March to the middle of April: it is, however, ad-
vifed to continue fowing every month until the begin¬
ning of July, in order to have a fucceflion of plants.
Both leaves and roots have been extolled as excellent
both for man and bead. This plant is faid not to be
liable, like the turnip, to be deftroyed by infects, for
no infedt touches it, nor is it affedted by exceffive
drought, or the changes of feafons. Horned cattle,
horfes, pigs, and poultry, are exceedingly fond of it
when cut fmall. The leaves may be gathered every
12 or 15 days; they are from 30 to 40 inches long,
by 22 to 25 inches broad. This plant is excellent for
milch cows, when given to them in proper proportions,
AG RICULTURE. 303
as it adds much to the quality as well as quantity of i Praftice^
their milk ; but care muff be taken to proportion the
leaves with other green food, otherwife it would abate
the milk, and fatten them too much, it being of fo
exceeding a fattening quality. To put all thefe pro¬
perties beyond doubt, however, further experiments
are wanting.
Sect. IV. Culture of Graft.
The latter end of Auguft, or the beginning of Sep-
tember, is the beft feafon for lowing grafs-feeds, as Of laying
there is time for the roots of the young plants to fix d°WB fields
themfelves before the (harp frofts fet in. It is fcarcet0 gra*®'
neceffary to fay, that moift weather is beft for fowing;
the earth being then warm, the feeds will vegetate im¬
mediately ; but if this feafon prove unfavourable, they
will do very well the middle of March following.
If you would have fine pafture, never fow on foul
land. On the contraiy, plough it well, and clear it
from the roots of couch-grafs, reft harrow, fern, broom,
and all other noxious weeds. If thefe are fuffered to
remain, they will foon get above, and deftroy your
young grafs. Rake thefe up in heaps, and burn them
on the land, and fpread the allies as a manure. Thefe
ploughings and harrowings (hould be repeated in dry
weather. And if the foil be clayey and vest, make
fome under-drains to carry off the water, which, if fuf¬
fered to remain, will not only chill the grafs, but make
it four. Before fowing, lay the land as level and fine
as poffible. If your grafs-feeds are clean, ( which (hould:
always be the cafe) three bufhels will be fufficient per
acre. When fown, harrow it in gently, and roll it in
with a wooden roller. When it comes up, fill up all the
bare fpots by frelh feed, which, if rolled to fix it, will
foon come up, and overtake the reft.
In Norfolk they fow clover with their graffes, par¬
ticularly with rye-grafs; but this (hould not be done
except when the land is defigned for grafs only three or
four years, becaufe neither of thefe kinds will laft long
in the land. Where you intend it for a continuance, it
is better to mix only fmall white Dutch clover, or marie
grafs, with your other grafs feed, and not more than
eight pounds to an aefe. Thefe are abiding plants,
fpread clofe on the furface, and make the fweefeft feed
of any for cattle. In the following fpring, root up
thiftles, hemlock, or any large plants that appear.
The doing this while the ground is foft enough to per¬
mit your drawing them by the roots, and before they
feed, will fave you infinite trouble afterwards.
The common method of proceeding in laying down
fields to grafs is extremely injudicious. Some fow
barley with their graffes, which they fuppofe to be
ufeful in (hading them, without coilfidering how much
the com draws away the nourifhment from the land.
Others take their feeds from a foul hay-rick; by
which means, befides filling the land with rubbiffi and
weeds, what they intend for dry foils may have come ^
from moift, where it grew naturally, and vice verfa. Differcnr
The confequence is, that the ground, inftead of being kinds of
covered with a good thick fward, is filled with grafs>
plants unnatural to it. The kinds of grafs moft
eligible for pafture-lands are, the annual-meadow,
creeping, and fine bent, the fox-tails, and crefted
dog’s-tail, the poas, the fefcucs, the vernal, oat-
grafs,
AGRICULTURE.
Part IT;
* Plate V,
%• 7-
grafs, and tlie ray, or rye-grafs. We do not, how¬
ever, approve of fowing all thefe kinds together ; for
■not to mention their ripening at different times, by
•which means you can never cut them all in perfe&ion
and full vigour, no kind, of cattle are fond of all alike.
Horfes will fcarcely eat hay which oxen and cows
will thrive upon ; fheep are particularly fond of fome
kinds, and refufe others. The Darnel-grafs, if not
cut before feveral of the other kinds are ripe, becomes
fo hard and wiry in the ftalks, that few cattle care to
eat it.
Such gentlemen as wifh a particular account of the
above-mentioned graffes, will be amply gratified in con¬
sulting Mr Stillingfleet on this fubjeft. He has treat¬
ed it with great judgment and accuracy, and thofe
who follow his directions in the choice of their graffes
will be under no fmall obligation to him for the valu¬
able information he has given them. The fubftance
of his obfe'rvations are given in the article Grasses in
this Dictionary.
The graffes commonly fown for pafture, for hay, or
to cut green for cattle, are red clover, white clover,
■yellow clover, rye-grafs, narrow-leaved plaintain com¬
monly called ribwort, faintfoin, and lucerne.
Red clover is of all the molt proper to be cut green
for fummer-food. It is a biennial plant when fuffered
to perfeCt its feed; but when cut green, it will laft
three years, and in a dry foil longer. At the fame
time the fafeft courfe is to let it ftand but .a fingle year:
if the fecond year's crop happen to be fcanty, it proves,
like a bad crop pf peafe, a great encourager of weeds
by the Ihelter it affords them.
Here, as in all other crops, the goodnefs of feed is
of importance. Choofe plump feed of a purple colour,
becaufe it takes pn that colour when ripe. It is red
when hurt in the drying, and of a faint colour when
unripe.
Red clover is luxuriant upon a rich foil, whether clay,
loam, or gravel: it will grow even upon a moor, when
properly cultivated. A wet foil is its only bane ; for
there it does not thrive.
To have red clover in perfection, weeds muff be ex¬
tirpated, and Hones taken off. The mould ought to
be made as fine as -.harrowing can make it ; and the
furface be fmoothed with a light roller, if not fuffi-
ciently fmooth without it.' This gives opportunity for
diftributing the feed evenly : which mull be covered by
a fmall harrow with teeth no larger than that of a gar¬
den-rake, three inches long, and fix inches afunder*. In
harrowing, the man Ihould-walk behind with a rope in
his hand fixed to the back part of the harrow, ready
to difentangle it from Hones, clods, turnip or cabbage-
roots, which would trail the feed, and difplace it.
Nature has not determined any precife depth for the
feed of red clover more than of other feed. It will
grow vigoroufly from two iitches deep, and it will grow
when barely covered. Half an inch may be reckoned
the moil advantageous pofition in clay foil, a whole
inch in what is light or loofe. It is a vulgar error,
that fmall feed ought to be fparingly covered. Milled
by that error, farmers commonly cover their Clover-
feed with a bufhy branch of thorn ; which not only
covers it unequally, but leaves part on the furface to
wither in the air.
The proper feafon for fowing red-clover, is from the
n° a.
middle of April to the middle of May. It will fpring Practice.
from the firH of March to. the end of AuguHbut 
fuch liberty ought not to be taken except from ne-
ceffity.
There cannot be a greater blunder in hufbandry, than
to be fparing of feed. Ideal writers talk of fowing an
acre with four pounds. That quantity of feed, fay
they, will fill an acre with plants as thick as they ought
to Hand. This rule maybe admitted where grain is
the objeCl; but it will not anfwer with refpeft tp grafs.
Grafs-feed cannot be fown too thick: the plants fliel-
ter one another: they retain all the dew: and they
muH puflx upward, having no room laterally. Obferve
the place where a fack of peafe, or of other ,grain, has
been fet down for fowing: the feed, dropt there acci¬
dentally grows more quickly than in the reH of the
field fown thin out of hand. A young plant of clover,
or of faintfoin, according to Tull, may be raifed to a
great fize where it has room; but the field will not
produce half the quantity. When red clover is fown
for cutting green, there ought not to be lefs than 24
pounds to an acre. A field of clover is feldom too
thick : the fmaller a Hem be, the more acceptable it is
to cattle. It is often too thin j and when fo, the Hems
tend to wood. ||
Red clover Is commonly fown with grain ; and the Of fowing |
moil proper grain has been found by experience to beclovfr with!
flax. The foil mufl be highly cultivated for flax as wellsrain’
as for red clover. The proper feafon of fowing is the
fame for both ; the leaves of flax being very fmall, ad¬
mit of free circulation of air ; and flax being an early
crop, is removed fo early as to give the clover time for
growing. In a rich foil it has grown lb fafl, as to af¬
ford a good cutting that very year. Next to flax,
barley is the belt companion to clover. The foil muH
be loofe and free for barley; and fo it ought to be for
clover: the feafon of fowing is the fame ; and the clo¬
ver is well eltabliihed in the ground, before it is over¬
topped by the barley. At the fame time, barley com¬
monly is fooner cut than either oats or wheat. In a
word, barley is rather a nurfe than a flepmother to
clover during its infancy. When clover is fown in
fpring upon wheat, the foil, which has lain five or fix
months without being Hirred, is an improper bed for
it; and the wheat, being in the vigour of. growth,
overtops it from the beginning. It cannot be fown
along with oats, becaufe of the hazard of frofl; and when
fown as ul'ual among the oats three inches high, it is
over-topped, and never enjoys free air till the oats be
cut. Add, that where oats are fown upon the winter-
furrow, the foil is rendered as hard as when under
wheat.—Red clover is fometimes fown by itfelf with¬
out other grain: but this method, befide lofing a crop,
is not falutary ; becaufe clover in its infant Hate re¬
quires flicker.
As to the quantity of grain proper to be fown with
clover : In a rich foil well pulverized, a peck of barley
on an Englifh acre is all that ought to be ventured ;
but there is not much foil in Scotland fo rich. Two
Linlithgow firlots make the proper quantity for an
acre that produces commonly fix bolls of barley ; half
a firlot for what produces nine bolls. To thofe who
are governed by cuflom, fo fmall a quantity will be
thought ridiculous. Let them only confider, that a
rich foil in perfett good order, will from a fingle feed
: Part. II. AGRICULTURE. 365
# Practice. 0f barley produce 20 or 30 vigorous ftems. People clous than a hot fun to make the hulk part with its Pra&ice.
~ 1 > may flatter themfelves with the remedy of cutting bar- feed ; in which view it may be expofed to the fun by v ' ,
ley green for food, if it happen to opprefs the clover, parcels, an hour or two before the flail is applied.
This is an excellent remedy in a field of an acre or two; White clover, intended for feed, is managed in the
but the cutting an extenfive field for food muftbe flow; fame manner. No plant ought to be mixed with rye-
and while one part is cutting, the clover is fmothered grafs that is intended for feed. In Scotland, much rye-
| 179 in other parts. grafs feed is hurt by tranfgrefling that rule. The feed
I Whre and The culture of white clover, of yellow clover, of is ripe when it parts eafily with the hulk. The yellow-
|yellow clo- ribwort, 0f rye-grafs, is the fame in general with that nefs of the ftem is another indication of its ripenefs;
■| wor^and °f red clover. We proceed to their peculiarities. Yel- in which particular it refembles oats, barley, and other
rye-grafs. low clover, ribwort, rye-grafs, are all of them early culmiferous plants. The bell manner to manage a crop
plants, blooming in the end of April or beginning of of rye-grafs for feed, is to bind it loofely in fmall
May. The two latter are evergreens, and therefore fheaves, widening thent at the bottom to make them
excellent for winter-pafture. Rye-grafs is lefs hurt by Hand ereA; as is done with oats in moift weather. In
froft than any of the clovers, and will thrive in a moi- that Hate they may Hand till fufficiently dry for
fter foil: nor in that foil is it much affedted by threlhing. By this method they dry more quickly,
drought. In a rich foil, it grows four feet high : even and are' lefs hurt by rain, than by clofe binding and
in the dry fummer 1775, it rofe to three feet eight putting the flieaves in fhocks like corn. The worfl:
inches; but it had gained that height before the drought
came on. Thefe graifes are generally fown with red
clover for producing a plentiful crop. The proportion
of feed is arbitrary; and there is little danger of too
much. When rye-grafs is fown for procuring feed, five
firlots wheat-meafure may be fown on an acre; and
for procuring feed of ribwort, 40 pounds may be fown.
The roots of rye-grafs fpread horizontally : they bind
the foil by their number; and tho* fmall, are yet fo vi¬
gorous as to thrive in hard foil. Red clover has a large
tap-root, which cannot penetrate any foil but what is
open and free ; and the largenefs of the root makes the
foil ftill more open and free. Rye-grafs, once a great
favourite, appears to be difcarded in moft parts of Bri¬
tain. The common pra&ice has been, to fow it with red
clover, and to cut them promifcuoufly the beginning of ufelefs for feed.
t r  r i  th * • rru., —
way of all is to fpread the rye-grafs on the moift ground,
for it makes the feed malten. The flieaves, when fuffi¬
ciently dry, are carried into clofe carts to where they
are to be threfhed on a board, as mentioned above for
clover. Put the ftraw in a rick when a hundred {tone
or fo are threflied. Carry the threftiing-board to the
place where another rick is intended; and fo on till the
whole feed be threflied, and the ftraw ricked. There is
neceffity for clofe carts to fave the feed, which is apt
to drop out in a hot fun; and, as obferved above, a hot
fun ought always to be chofen for threfliing. Carry
the. feed in facks to the granary or barn, there to be
feparated from the hulks by a fanner. Spread the feed
thin upon a timber-floor, and turn it once or twice a-
day till perfedlly dry. If fuffered to take a heat, it is
June for green food, and a little later for hay. This in¬
deed is the proper feafon for cutting red clover, becaufe
at that time it begins to flower; but as at that time the
feed of the rye-grafs is approaching to maturity, its
growth is ftopped for that year, as much as of oats or
barley cut after the feed is ripe. Oat? or barley cut
green before the feed forms, will afford two other cut-
The writers on agriculture reckon fainfoin prefer-Ciil ure of
able to clover in many refpe&s: They fay, that it pro- f-unfoiu.
duces a larger crop ; that it does not hurt cattle when
eaten green; that it makes better hay; that it continues
four times longer in the ground; and that it will grow
on land that will bear no other crop.
Sainfoin has a very long tap-root, which is able to
tings'; which is the cafe of rye-grafs, of yellow clover, pierce very hard earth. The roots grow very large; and
and of ribwort. By fuch management, all the profit
will be drawn that thefe plants can afford.
When red clover is intended for feed, the ground
ought to be cleared of weeds, were it for no other pur-
pofe than that the feed cannot otherwife be preferved
pure: what feeds efcape the plough ought to be ta-
the larger they are, they penetrate to the greater depth;
and hence it may be concluded, that this grafs, when
it thrives well, receives a great part of its nouriftiment
from below the Jiaple of the foil: of courfe, a deep dry
foil is beft for the culture of fainfoin. When plants
draw their nourifliment from that part of the foil that
ken out by the hand. In England, when a crop of is near the furface, it is not of much confequence
feed is intended, the clover is always firft cut for hay.
This appears to be done, as in fruit-trees, to check the
growth of the wood, in order to encourage the fruit.
This pra&ice will not anfwer in Scotland, as the feed
would often be too late for ripening. It would do bet¬
ter to eat the clover with fheep till the middle of May,
which would allow the feed to ripen. The feed is ripe
when, upon rubbing it between the hands, it parts
readily from the hulk. Then apply the fcythe, fpread
the crop' thin, and turn it carefully. When perfectly
dry, take the firft opportunity of a hot day for threfli¬
ing it on boards covered with a coarfe Iheet. Another
way lefs fubjedt to, rifle, is to Hack the dry hay, and
to threlh it in the end of April. After the firft threfli¬
ing, expofe the hulks to the fun, and threlh them over
and over till no feed remain. Nothing is more effica-
Vol. I. Part I.
whether their number be great or fmall. But the cafe
is very different when the plants receive their food, not
only near, but alfo deep below, the furface- Befides,
plants that Ihoot their roots deep are often fupplied
with moifture, when thofe near the furface are parched
with drought.
To render the plants of fainfoin vigorous, itisnecef-
fary that they be fown thin. The beft method of do¬
ing this is by a drill; becaufe, when fown in this man
ner, not only the weeds, but alfo the fupernumerary
plants, can eafily be removed.' It is feveral years be¬
fore fainfoin comes to its full ftrength ; and the num
ber of plants fufficient to ftock a field, while in this im-
perfeft ftate, will make but a poor crop for the firft
year or two. It is therefore neceffary tnat it be fown
in fuch a manner as to make it eafy to take up plants
Qjl in
3c6 A G R I C U
PraAice. in fuch numbers, and in fuch order, as always to leave
v-—-' in the field the proper number in their proper places.
This can only be done, with propriety, by fowing the
^plants in rows by a drill. Suppofing a field to be dril¬
led in rows at ten inches diftance, the partitions may
be hand-hoed, and the rows drefi'ed in fuch a manner
as to leave a proper number of plants. In this fitua-
tion the field may remain two years; then one-fourth
of the rows may be taken out in pairs, in fuch a man¬
ner as to make the beds of fifty inches, with fix rows in
each, and intervals of thirty inches, which may be
ploughed. Next year, another fourth of the rows
may be taken out in the fame manner, fo as to leave
double rows with partitions of ten inches, and
intervals of thirty : All of which may be hoed at
once or alternately, as it may be found moft conve¬
nient.
The great quantity of this grafs which the writers on
this fubjeft afiure us may be railed upon an acre, and
the excellency and great value of the hay made of it,
fhould induce farmers to make a complete trial of it,
and even to ufe the fpade in place of the hoe, or hoe-
plough, if neceffary.
The plants taken up from a field of fainfoin may be
fet in another field; and if the tranfplanting of this
grafs fucceeds as well as the tranfplanting of lucerne
has done with Mr Lunin de Chateauvieux, the trouble
and expence will be fufficiently recompenfed by the
largenefs of the crops. In tranfplanting, it is necef¬
fary to cut off great part of the long tap-root: this
will prevent it from ftriking very deep into the foil,
and make it pufh out large roots in a Hoping direction
from the cut end of the tap-root. Sainfoin managed in
this manner, will thrive even on {hallow land that has
a wet bottom, provided it be not overftocked with
plants.
Whoever inclines, to try the culture of this grafs in
Scotland, fiiould take great pains in preparing the
land, and making it as free from weeds as poffible.
In England, as the roots ftrike deep in that chalky
foil, this plant is not liable to be fo much injured by
drought as other graffes are, whofe fibres lie horizon¬
tally, and lie near the furface. The quantity of hay
produced is greater and better in quality than any
other. But there is one advantage attending this guafs,
, which renders it fuperior to any other; and that ari-
fes from feeding with it milch cows. The prodigious
increafe of milk which it makes is aftonifiiing, being
nearly double that produced by any other green food.
The milk is alfo better, and yields more cream than
any other; and the butter procured from it much bet-
jgj ter coloured and flavoured.
Remarks The following remarks by an Englifli farmer are
on the cul- made from much experience and obfervation.
foTn in**”1* ^a^nf°in much cultivated in thofe parts where
England. t^ie ^ ’s a chalky kind. It will always fucceed
well where the roots run deep; the worft foil of all for
it is where there is a bed of cold wet clay, which the
tender fibres cannot penetrate. This plant will make
a greater increafe of produce, by at leaft 30 times,
than common grafs or turf on poor land. Where it
meets with chalk or Hone, it will extend its roots
through the cracks and chinks to a very great depth
in fearch of nourifhixient. The drynefs is of more
L T U R E. Part II.
confequence than the richnefs of land for fainfoin ; al- Pi adHce.
though land that is both dry and rich will always pro- -v—"'
duce the largeft crops.
It is very commonly fowed broadcafl; but it is found
to anfwer bell in drills, efpecially if the land be made
fine by repeated ploughing, rolling, and harrowing.
Much depends on the depth which this feed is fown.
If it be buried more than an inch deep, it will feldom
grow ; and if left uncovered, it will pulh out its roots
above ground, and thefe will be killed by the air.
March and the beginning of April are the beft feafons
for fowing it, as the feverity of winter and the drought
of fummer are equally unfavourable to the young
plants. A bufhel of feed fown broadcaft, or half that
quantity in drills, if good, is fufficient for an acre.
The drills fhould be 30 inches apart, to admit of horfe-
hoeing between them. Much, however, depends on
the goodnefs of the feed, which may be beft judged of
by the following marks.
The hulk being of a bright colour, the kernel
plump, of a grey or bluifh colour without, and, if cut
acrofs, greenifti and frefti withinfide ; if it be thin and
furrowed, and of a yeliowifli call, it will feldom grow.
When the plants ftand fingle, and have room to fpread,
they produce the greateft quantity of herbage, and.
the feed ripens beft. But farmers in general, from a
miftaken notion of all that appears to be wafte ground
being unprofitable, plant them fo clofe, that they choke
and impoveriftr each other, and often die" in a few
years. Single plants run deepeft and draw moft nou-
rifhment; they are alfo eafieft kept free from weeds.
A fingle plant will often produce half a pound of hay,
when dry. On rich land this plant will yield two good:
crops in a year, with a moderate {hare of culture. A,
good crop muft not be expefted the firft year ; but, if
the plants ftand not too thick, they will increafe in
fize the fecond year prodigioufly.
No cattle ftiould be turned on the field the firft win¬
ter after the corn is off with which it was fown, as
their feet would injure the young plants. Sheep fhould
not come on the following fummer, becaufe they would
bite off the crown of the plants, and prevent their
{hooting again. A fmall quantity of foapers afhes as.
a top-dreffing will be of great fervice, if laid on the
firft winter.
If the fainfoin be cut juft before it comes into
bloom, it is adfnirable food for horned cattle ; and if
cut thus early, it will yield a fecond crop the fame
feafon. But if it proves a wet feafon, it is better to
let it ftand till its bloom be perfected; for great care
muft be taken, in making it into hay, that the flowers
do not drop off, as cows are very fond of them ; and
it requires more time than other hay in drying. Sain¬
foin is fo excellent a fodder for horfes, that they require
no oats while they eat it, although they be worked
hard all the time. Sheep will alfo be fattened with it
fafter than with any other food..
If the whole feafon for cutting proves very rainy, it
is better to let the crop ftand for feed, as that will
amply repay the lofs of the hay; becaufe it will not only
fetch a good price,, but a peck of it . will go as far as
a peck and a half of oats for horfes.
The beft time of cutting the feeded fainfoin is, when
the greateft part of the feed is well. filled, the firft
Wow a
Its excel¬
lence as
food for
Part II. A G R I C U
Praftice. blown ripe, and the laft blown beginning to open. For
‘ ll * want of this care fome people have loft raoft of theit
feed' by letting it ftand too ripe. Seeded fainfoin
fliould always be cut in a morning or evening, when
the dews render the ftalks tender. If cut when the
fun fhines hot, much of the feed will fall out and be
  loft.
An acre of very ordinary land, when improved by
this grafs, will maintain four cows very well from the
firft of April to the end of November; and afford, be-
fides, a fufficient ftore of hay to make the greater part
of their food the four months following.
If the foil be tolerably good, a field of fainfoin will
laft from 15 to 20 years in prime; but at the end of
feven or eight years, it will be neceffary to lay on a
moderate coat of well-rotted dung; or, if the foil be
very light and fandy, of marie. By this means the
future crops, and the duration of the plants in health
and vigour, will be greatly increaled and prolonged.
Hence it will appear, that for poor land there is no¬
thing equal to this grafs in poin't of advantage to the
farmer.
Clover will laft only two years in perfe&ion; and
often, if the foil be cold and moift, near half the plants
will rot, and bald patches be found in every part of
the field the fecond year. Befides, from our frequent
rains during the month of September, many crops
left for feeding are loft. But from the quantity and
excellent quality of this grafs (fainfoin), and its ripen¬
ing earlier, and continuing in vigour fo much longer,
much rifk and certain expence is avoided, and a large
annual profit accrues to the farmer.
Culture of The writers on agriculture, ancient as well as mo-
Juceme. dern, beftow the higheft encomiums upon lucerne as
affording excellent hay, and producing very large crops.
Lucerne remains at leaft x o or 12 years in the ground,
and produces about eight tons of hay upon the Scots
acre. Thereisbutlittle ofitcultivatedinScotland. How¬
ever, it has been tried in feveral parts of that country;
and it is found, that, when the feed is good, it comes
up very well, and Hands the winter froft. But the
chief thing which prevents this grafs from being more
ufed in Scotland, is the difficulty of keeping the foil
open and free from weeds. In a few years the furface
becomes fo hard, and the turf fo ftrong, that it de-
ftroys the lucerne before the plants have arrived at
their greateft perfection : fo that lucerne can fcarce be
cultivated with fuccefs there, unlefs fome method be
fallen upon of deftroying the natural grafs, and pre¬
vent the furface from becoming hard and impenetrable.
This cannot be done effectually by any other means
than horfe-hoeing. This method was firft propofed by
Mr Tull, and afterwards praftifed fuccefsfully by M.
de Chateauvieux near Geneva. It may be of ufe
therefore to give a view of that gentleman’s method of
cultivating lucerne.
He does not mention any thing particular as to the
manner of preparing the land; but only obferves in ge¬
neral, that no pains fliould be fpared in preparing it.
He tried the fowing of lucerne both in rows upon the
beds where it was intended to ftand, and likewife the
fowing it in a nurfery, and afterwards tranfplanting it
into the beds prepared for it. He prefers tranfplant¬
ing ; becaufe, when tranfplanted., part of the tap-root
L T U R E. 307
is cut off, and the plant (hoots out a number oflateral Pradticc. ^
branches from the cut part of the root, which makes it y ’
fpread its roots nearer the furface, and confequently
renders it more eafily cultivated : befides, this circum-
ftance adapts it to a (hallow foil, in which, if left in its
natural ftate, it would not grow.
The tranfplanting of lucerne is attended with many
advantages., The land may be prepared in the fummcr
for receiving the plants from the nurfery in autumn ;
by which means the field muft be in a much better fi-
tuation than if the feed had been fown upon it in the
fpring. By tranfplanting, the rows can be made more
regular, and the intended diftances more exaftly ob-
ferved; and confequently the hoeing can be performed
more perfedtly, and with lefs expence. Mr Chateau¬
vieux likewife tried the lucerne in Angle beds three feet
wide, with (ingle rows ; in beds three feet nine inches
wide, with double rows; and in beds four feet three
inches wide, with triple rows. The plants in the
Angle rows were fix inches afunder, and thofe in
the double and triple rows were about eight or nine
inches. In a courfe of three years he found, that
a fingle row produced more than a triple row of
the fame length. The plants of lucerne, when cul¬
tivated by tranfplantation, ftiould be at leaft fix in¬
ches afunder, to allow them room for extending their
crowns.
He further obferves, that the beds or ridges ought to
be raifed in the middle ; that a fmall trench, two or
three inches deep, ftiould be drawn in the middle; and
that the plants ought to be fet in this trench, covered
with earth up to the neck. He fays, that if the lu¬
cerne be fown in fpring, and in a warm foil, it will be
ready for tranfplanting in September; that, if the wea¬
ther be too hot and dry, the tranfplanting fliould be
delayed till Oftober; and that, if the weather be un¬
favourable during both thefe months, this operation
muft be delayed till fpring. He further direfts, that
the plants fliould be carefully taken out of the nurfery*
fo as not to damage the roots; that the roots be left
only about fix or feven inches long ; that the green
crops be cut off within about two inches of the crown ;
that they be put into water as foon as taken up, there
to remain till they are planted ; and that they fliould
be planted with a planting-ftick, in the fame manner as
cabbages.
He does not give particular dire&ions as to the times
of horfe-hoeing; but only fays in general, that the in¬
tervals fliould be ftirred once in the month during the
whole time that the lucerne is in a growing ftate. He
likewife obferves, that great care ought to be taken not
to fuffer any weeds to grow among the plants, at leaft
for the firft two or three years ; and for this purppfe,
that the rows, as well as the edges of the intervals
where the plough cannot go, ftiould be weeded by the
hand. _ „
Burnet is peculiarly adapted to poor land; be- cu]ture 0f
fides, it proves an excellent winter-pafture when hardly burnet.
any thing elfe vegetates. Other advantages are, It
makes good butter; it never blows or fwells cattle ;
it is fine pafture for (heep ; and will flourifti well on
poor, light, fandy, or ftony foils, or even on dry chalk
hills.
The cultivation of it is neither hazardous nor expen
Qjj z five.
So8 A G R I C U
Pradtice. five. If the land is prepared as is generally done for
turnips, there is no danger of its failing. After the
firft year, it will be attended with very little expence,
as the flat circular fpread of its leaves will keep down,
or prevent the growth of weeds.
On the failure of turnips, either from the fly or the
black worm, fome of our farmers have fown the land
with burnet, and in March following had a fine pafture
for their fheep and lambs. It will perfect its feed twice
in a fummer; and this feed is faid to be as good as
oats for horfes ; but it is too valuable to be applied to
that ufe.
It is fometimes fown late in the fpring with oats and
barley, and fucceeds very well; but it is beft to fow it
fingly in the beginning of July, when there is a pro-
fpe£l of rain, on a fmall piece of land, and in O&ober
following, tranfplant it in rows two feet apart, and a-
bout a foot diftant in the rows. This is a proper dif-
tance, and gives opportunity for hoeing the intervals
in the fucceeding fpring and fummer.
After it is fed down with cattle, it fhould be har¬
rowed clean. Some horfes will not eat it freely at fir ft,
but in two or three days they are generally very fond
of it. It affords rich pleafaht milk, and in great plenty.
A gentlemen farmer near Maidftone fome years
fince fowed four acres as foon as the crop of oats were
got off, which was the latter end of Auguft. He
threw in i 2 pounds of feed per acre, broadcaft; and
no rain falling until the middle of September, the plants
did not appear Before the latter end" of that month.
There was however a good crop, and in the fpring he
fit the plants out with a turnip-hoe, leaving them about
a foot diftant from each other. But the drill method
is preferable, as it faves more than half the feed. The
land was, a poor dry gravel, not worth three ihillings
an acre for any thing elfe.
The fevereft froft never injures this plant; and the
oftener it is fed the thicker are its leaves, which fpring
conftantly from its root.
Sect.V. Rotation of Crops.
185
No branch of huibandry requires more IkiH and fa-
gacity than a proper rotation of crops, fo as to keep
the ground always in heart, and yet to draw out of it
the greateft profit poffible. Some plants rob the foil,
others are gentle to it: fome bind, others loofen. The
nice point is, to intermix crops, fo as to make the
greateft profit confiftently with keeping the ground in
trim. In that view, the nature of the plants employ¬
ed in hufbandry muft be accurately examined.
Oulmifo The difference between culmiferous and leguminous
rous and le- plants, is occafionally mentioned above*. With re-
guminous fpe& to the prefent fubjedl, a clofer infpe&ion is necef-
j lants. fary. Culmiferous-plants, having fmall leaves and few
* N° i2o, in number, depend moftly on the foil for nouriftiment,
and little on the air. During the ripening of the feed,
they draw probably their whole nourifhment from the
foil; as the leaves by this time, being dry and wither¬
ed, muft have loft their power of drawing nouriftiment
from the air. Now, as culmifercus plants are chiefly
cultivated for their feed, and are not cut down till the
feed be fully ripe, they may be pronounced all of them
to be robbers, fome more, fome lefs. But fuch plants,
while young, are all leaves; and in that ftate draw.
L T U R E. Part IE
moft of their nourifhment from the air. Hence it is, Pradtice.
that where cut green for food to cattle, a culmiferous
crop is far from being a robber. A hay-crop accor¬
dingly, even where it confifts moftly of rye-grafs, is not
a robber, provided it be cut before the feed is formed;
which at any rate it ought to be, if one would have
hay in perfection. And the foggage, excluding the
froft by covering the ground, keeps the roots warm. A
leguminous plant, by its broad leaves, draws much of
its nouriftiment from the air. A cabbage, which has
very broad leaves, and a multitude of them, owes its
growth more to the air than to the foil. One fact is
certain, that a cabbage cut and hung up in a damp
place, preferves its verdure longer than other plants.
At the fame time,; a feed is that part of a plant which
requires the moft nourifhment; and for that nourifh¬
ment a culmiferous plant muft be indebted entirely to
the foil. A leguminous crop, on the contrary, when
cut green for food, muft be very gentle to the ground.
Peafe and beans are leguminous plants ; but being cul¬
tivated for feed, they feem to occupy a middle ftation : .
their feed makes them more fevere than other legumi¬
nous crops cut green ; their leaves, which grow till
reaping, make them lefs fevere than a culmiferous plant
left to ripen.
Thefe plants are diftinguifhed no lefs remarkably by
the following circumftance. All the feeds of a culmife¬
rous plant ripen at the fame time. As foon as they begin
to form, the plant becomes ftationary, the leaves wither,
the roots ceafe to pufh, and the plant when cut down
is blanched and faplefs. The feeds of a leguminous plant
are formed fucceftively : flowers and fruit appear at the
fame time in different parts of the plant. This plant
accordingly is continually growing, and pufhing its
roots. Hence the value of bean or peafe ftraw above
that of wheat or oats: the latter is withered and dry
when the crop is cut; the former, green and fucculent.
The difference therefore, with refpedl to the foil, be¬
tween a culmiferous and leguminous crop, is great. The
latter, growing till cut down, keeps the ground in con-
ftant motion, and leaves it to the plough loofe and mel¬
low. The former gives over growing long before reap¬
ing ; and the ground, by want of motion, turns com-
paft and hard. Nor is this all. Dew falling on a
culmiferous crop after the ground begins to harden,
refts on the furface, and is lucked up by the next fun.
Dew that falls on a leguminous crop, is lhaded from
the fun by the broad leaves, and finks at leifure into
the ground. The ground accordingly, after a culmi-.
ferous crop, is not only hard, but dry : after a legu¬
minous crop, it is not only loofe, but foft and unc-.
/tuous.
Of all culmiferous plants, wheat is the moft fevere,.
by the long time it occupies the ground without ad¬
mitting a plough. And as the grain is heavier'than
that of barley or oats, it probably requires more nou-.
rilhment than either. It is, obferved above, that as
peafe and beans draw part of their nouriftiment from
the air, by their green leaves while allowed to Hand,
they draw the lefs from the ground ; and by their con-
ftant growing they leave it in good condition for fub-
fequent crops. In both refpefts they are preferable
to any culmiferous crop.
Culmiferous crops, as obferved above, are not rob¬
bers when cut green ; the foil, far from hardening, is ,
jrtir. A G II I C
raftice. kept in conilant motion by the pufhing of the roots,
 J and is left more tender than if it had been left at reft
without any bearing crop.
Bulbous-rooted plants are above all fuecefsful in di¬
viding and pulverizing the foil. Potato-roots grow
fix, eight, or ten inches under the furface ; and, by
their fize and number, they divide and pulverize the
foil better than can be done by the plough; confequent-
Jy, whatever be the natural colour of the foil, it is
black when a potato-crop is taken up. The potato,
however, with refpeft to its quality of dividing the
foil, muft yield to a carrot or parfnip ; which are large
roots, and pierce often to the depth of 18 inches.
The turnip, by its tap-root, divides' the foil more than
can be done by a fibrous-rooted plant; but as its bul¬
bous root grows moftly above ground, it divides the
foil lefs than the potato, the carrot, or the parfnip.
Red clover, in that refpeft, may be put in the fame
clafs with turnip.
Whether, potatoes or turnip be the more gentle crop,
appears a puzzling queftion. The former bears feed,
and probably draws more nourifhment from the foil
than the latter, when cut green. On the other hand,
potatoes divide the foil more than turnip, and leave it
more loofe and friable. It appears no lefs puzzling,
to determine between cabbage and turnip : the former
draws more of its nourifhment from the air, the latter
leaves the foil more free and open.
The refult of the whole is what follows: Culmi-
ferous plants are robbers ; fome more, fome lefs : they
at the fame time bind the foil; fome more, fome lefs.
Leguminous plants in both refpefts are oppofite : if
any of them rob the foil, it is in a very flight degree;
and all of them without exception loofen the foil. A
culmiferous crop, however, is generally the more pro¬
fitable : but few foils can long bear the burden of fuch
crops, unlefs relieved by interjected leguminous crops.
Thefe, on the other hand, without a mixture of cul¬
miferous crops, would foon render the foil too loofe.
Thefe preliminaries will carry the farmer fome length
in directing a proper rotation of crops. Where dung,
lime, or other manure, can be procured in plenty to
recruit the foil after fevere cropping, no rotation is
more proper or profitable m a ftrong foil, than wheat,
peafe or beans, barley, oats, fallow.. The whole farm
may be brought under this rotation, except fo far as
hay is wanted. But as fuch command of manure is
rare, it is of more importance to determine what fhould
be the rotation when no manure can be procured but
the dung colle&ed in the farm. Confidering that cul¬
miferous crops are the more profitable in rich land, it
would be proper to make them more frequent than the
other kind. But as there are few foils in Scotland that ;
will admit fuch frequent culmiferous crops without fuf-
fering, it may be laid down as a general rule, that al¬
ternate crops, culmiferous and leguminous, ought to
form the rotation. Nor are there many foils that will
Hand good, even with this favourable rotation, un¬
lefs relieved from time to time by pafturing a few
years. If fuch extended rotation be artfully carried
on, crops without end may be obtained in a tolerable
good foil, without any manure but what is produced in
the farm.
It is fcarce neceffary to be mentioned, being known
to every farmer that clay anfwers belt for. wheat,
U L T U R E. 309
moift clay for beans, loam for barley and peafe, light Prafiice.
foil for turnip, fandy foil for rye and buck-wheat; and "
that oats thrive better in coarfe foil than any other The. nature
grain. Now, in directing a rotation, it is not fuffi-of foil con-
dent that a culmiferous crop be always fucceeded by a fdered,
leguminous: attention muft alfo be given, that no crop
be introduced that is unfit for the foil. Wheat, being rotation of
a great binder, requires more than any other crop a crops..
leguminous crop to follow. But every fuch crop is
not proper: potatoes are the greateft openers of foil;
but they are improper in a wheat foil. Neither will tur¬
nip anfwer, becaufe.it requires a light foil. A very loofe
foil, after a crop of rye, requires rye-grafs to bind it, or
the treading of cattle in pafturing: but to bind the foil,
wheat muft not be ventured; for it fucceeds ill in loofe
foil.
Another confideration of moment in dire&ing the
rotation, is to avoid crops that encourage weeds. Peafe
is the fitteft of all crops for fucceeding to wheat, be-
caufe it renders the ground loofe and mellow, and the
fame foil agrees with both. But beware of peafe, un¬
lefs the foil be left by the wheat perfe&ly free of weeds;
becaufe peafe, if not an extraordinary crop, fofter
weeds. Barley may be ventured after wheat, if the
farmer be unwilling to lofe a crop. It is indeed a rob¬
ber; better, however, any crop, than run the hazard of
poifoning the foil with weeds. But to prevent the ne-
ceffity of barley after wheat, the land ought to be fal¬
lowed before the wheat: it cleans the ground tho¬
roughly, and makes peafe a fecure crop after wheat.
And after a good crop of peafe, barely never fails. A
horfe-hoed crop of turnip is equal to a fallow for root¬
ing out weeds ; but turnip does not fuit land that is
proper for wheat. Cabbage does well in wheat foil;
and a horfe-hoed crop of cabbage, which eradicates
weeds, is a good preparation for wheat to be fucceed¬
ed by peafe; and a crop of beans diligently hand-
hoed, is in that view little inferior;.. As red clover re- ■
quires the ground to be perfeftly clean, a good crop •
of it enfures wheat; and next peafe. . In loam, a drill- -
ed crop of turnip or potatoes prepares the ground, e- -
qual to a fallow., for the fame fuecellion;
Another rule is, to avoid a frequent repetition of
the fame fpecies; for to produce good crops, change
of fpecies is no lefs neceflary than change of feed.
The fame fpecres returning every fecond or third year,
will infallibly degenerate, and be a fcanty crop. This
is remarkably the cafe of red clover. Nor will our -
fields bear pleafantly perpetual crops of wheat after
fallow, which is the practice of fome Englifh farmers. ,
Hitherto of rotation in the fame field. We add
one rule concerning rotation in different fields; which
is, to avoid crowdirig crops one after another in point
of time ; but to choofe fuch as admit intervals fufiicient :
for leifurely dreffmg,. which gives opportunity to ma- •
nage all with the fame hands, and with the fame cat- •
tie ; for example, beans in January or February, peafe
and oats in March, barley and potatoes in April, tur¬
nip in June or July, wheat and rye in October. ,
For illuftrating the foregoing rules, a few inftancesjjj^p,;^*,
of exceptionable rotations will not be thought amifs. able rota-. -
The following is an ufual rotation in Norfolk. Firft, tions.
wheat after red clover. Secondly, barley. Third, tur¬
nip. Fourth, barley with fed clover. Fifth, clover
cut for hay. Sixth, a fecond year’s crop of clover*
commonly /
AGRI CULTURE. Partll.
commorlly paftured. Dung is given to the wheat and ought to be their ftudy, to improve their foil, by ma« Pra&ice.
J turnip. — Againft this rotation feveral obje&ions lie. king it free, and alfo retentive of moifture. If they —
Barley after wheat is improper. The two crops of bar- accomplifh thefe ends, they need not be afraid of ex-
ley are too near together. The fecond crop of clover haufting the foil by cropping.
muft be very bad, if pafturing be the beft way of con- Where a farmer has accefs to no manure but what Examples
fuming it; and if bad, it is a great encourager of is his own produ&ion, the cafe under confideration, of rotations,!
weeds. But the ftrongeft objection is, that red clover there are various rotations of crops, all of them good |
repeated fo frequently in the fame field cannot fail to though perhaps not equally fo. We {hall begin with
degenerate; and of this the Norfolk farmers begin to two examples, one in clay, and one in free foil, each
be fenfible.—Salton in Eaft Lothian is a clay foil; of the farms 90 acres. Six acres are to be inclofed for
and the rotation there is, Wheat after fallow and dung, a kitchen-garden, in which there muft be annually a
Second, barley after two ploughings; the one before crop of red clover, for fummer-food to the working
winter, the other immediately before the feed is fown. cattle. As there are annually 12 acres in hay, and 12
Third, oats. Fourth, peafe. Fifth, barley. Sixth, in pafture, a fingle plough with good cattle will be fuf-
.oats: and then fallow. This rotation confifts chiefly ficient to command the remaining 60 acres,
of robbing crops. Peafe are the only leguminous
Rotation in a clay foil.
1777.
Peafe.
Barley.
Hay.
Oats.
1778.
Barley.
Hay.
Oats.
Fallow.
Fallow. | Wheat.
Wheat.' Peafe.
’779-
Hay.
Oats.
Fallow.
Wheat.
Peafe.
Barley.
Failure.
1780.
Oats.
Fallow.
Wheat.
Peafe.
Barley.
Hay.
Pafture.
180
Fields not
to be kept
too long ii
jafture.
crop, which even with the fallow is nqt fufficient to
loofen a ftiff foil. But the foil is good, which infome
meafure hides the badnefs of the rotation.—About 1775.11776.
-Seaton, and all the way from Prefton to Gosford, the 1. Fallow. jWheat.
ground is ftill.more feverely handled; wheat after fal- 2. Wheat. Peafe.
low and dung, barley, oats, peafe, wheat, barley, oats, 3. Peafe. Barley,
and then another fallow. The foil is excellent; and 4. Barley. Hay.
-it ought indeed to be fo, to fupport many rounds of 5. Hay. jOats.
fuch cropping. 6. !Oats. Fallow.
In the parifhes of Tranent, Aberlady, Dirleton, 7. iPafture. Pafture.j Pafture. Pafture.
North-Berwick, and Athelftonefoord, the following
rotations were formerly univerfal, and to this day are When the rotation is completed, the feventh inclo-
.much more frequent than any other mode. fure having been fix years in pafture, is ready to be ta-
1. After fallow with dung, wheat, barley, oats, peafe ken up for a rotation of crops which begins with oats
:and beans, barley, oats, wheat. in the year 1781, and proceeds as in the fixth inclo-
2. After fallow and dung, barley, oats, peafe and fure. In the fame year 1781, the fifth inclofure is
Beans, wheat, barley, oats peafe, wheat. made pafture, for which' it is prepared by lowing pa-
3. After fallow and dung, wheat, oats, peafe, bar- fture grafs feeds with the barley of the year 1780. And
ey, oats, wheat. in this manner may the rotation be carried on without
4. After fallow and dung, barley, oats, beans, wheat, end. Here the labour is equally diftributed; and there
.peafe, barley, oats. is no hurry nor confufion. But the chief property of
In the feveral Tours of Young the itinerant farmer, this rotation is, that two culmiferous or white-corn
are found, in the beft counties of England, examples crops are never found together; by a due mixture of
without end, of rotations no lefs exceptionable than crops, the foil is preferved in good heart without any
many of thofe mentioned. adventitious manure. At the fame time, the land is
Where a field is laid down for pafture in order to be always producing plentiful crops: neither hay nor pa-
recruited, it is commonly left in that ftate many years; fture get time to degenerate. The whole dung is laid
j for it is the univerfal opinion, that the longer it lies, upon the fallow.
the richer it becomes for bearing corn. This may be Every farm that takes a grafs-crop into the rotation
tme ; but in order to determine the mode of cropping, muft be inclofed, which is peculiarly neceflary in a clay
the important point is, what upon the whole is the foil, as nothing is more hurtful to clay than poaching,
moft profitable rotation; not what may produce luxu¬
riant crops at a diftant period. Upon that point, it
may be affirmed, that the farmer who keeps a field in
pafture beyond a certain time, lofes every year confi-
derably; and that a few luxuriant crops of corn, after
20 years of pafture, and ftill more after 30, will not
make up the lofs.
Pafture-grafs, while young, maintains many animals;
and the field is greatly recruited by what they drop ;
it is even recruited by hay crops, provided the grafs be
cut before feeding. But as old grafs yields little pro¬
fit, the field ought to be taken up for corn when the
pafture begins to fail; and after a few crops, it ought
Rotation in a free foil.
r> *775-
1. Turnip.
2. Barley.
3. Hay.
4. Oats.
5. Fallow.
6. Wheat.
7. Pafture.,
1776.
Barley.
Hay.
Oats.
Fallow.
Wheat.
1777. I 1778.
Hay. 1 Oats.
Oats. Fallow.
Fallow. Wheat.
Wheat. I Turnip.
Turnip.; Barley.
Turnip. Barley, i Hay.
Pafture. Failure.) Pafture.
1779-
Fallow.
Wheat.
T urnip.
Barley.
Hay.
Oats.
Pafture.
1780.
Wheat.
Turnip.
Barley.
Hay.
Oats.
Fallow.
Pafture.
For the next rotation, the feventh inclofure is taken
to be laid down again with grafs-feeds. Seduced by up for corn, beginning with an oat-crop, and proceed-
a chimerical notion, that a field, by frequent corn-crops, ing in the order of the fourth inclofure; in place of
is fatigued and requires reft, like a labouring man or which, the third inclofure is laid down for pafture by
animal, careful farmers give long reft to their fields by fowing pafture-grafles with the laft crop in that inclo-
pafture, never adverting that it affords little profit. It fure, being barley. This rotation has all the advanta¬
ges
•I art II. A G R I C
Mfradice. ges of the former. Here the dung is employed on the
‘f turnip-crop.
We proceed to confider what rotation is proper for
1 carfe clay. The farm we propofe confifts of 73 acres.
Nine are to be inclofed for a kitchen garden, affording
plenty of red clover to be cut green for-the farm-cattle.
The remaining 64 acres are divided into four inclo-
fures, 16 acres each, to be cropped as in the following
table.
‘778-
Oats.
Beans.
Barley.
Hay.
gj 1775.
1. Beans.
2. ’ Barley.
3. Hay.
4. Oats.
1776.
Barley.
Hay.
Oats.
Beans.
‘777-
Hay. I
Oats, i
Beans. 1
Barley.;
Here the dung ought to be applied ta the barley.
Many other rotations may be contrived, keeping to
the rules above laid down. Fallow, for example, wheat,
peafe and beans, barley, cabbage, oats, for clay. Here
dung muff be given both to the wheat and cabbage.
For free foil, drilled turnip, barley, red clover, wheat
upon a Angle furrow, drilled potatoes, oats. Both
the turnip and potatoes muft have dung. Another for
free foil: turnip drilled and dunged,, red clover, wheat
©n a Angle furrow with dung, peafe, barley, potatoes,
oats. The following rotation has proved fuccefsful in
a foil proper for wheat. 1. Oats with red clover, after
fallow, without dung. 2. Hay. The clover-ftubble
dunged, and wheat fown the end of October with a
Angle furrow. 3. Wheat. 4. Peafe. 5. Barley. Fal¬
low again. Oats are taken the firft crop, to fave the
dung for the wheat. Oats always thrive on a fallow,
though without dung, which is not the cafe of barley.
But barley feldom fails after peafe. In ftrong clay
foil, the following rotation anfwers. 1. Wheat after
fallow and dung. 2. Beans fown under furrow as early
as pofAble. Above the beans, fow peafe end of March,
half a boll per acre, and harrow them in. The two
grains will ripen at the fame time. 3. Oats or barley
on a winter furrow with grafs-feeds. 4. Hay for one
year or two;, the fecond growth paftured. Lay what
dung can be fpared on the hay Hubble, and fow wheat
with a Angle furrow. 5. Wheat., 6. Beans or peafe.
7. Oats. Fallow again.
Sect. VI. 0/ Reaping Corn and Hay Craps, and
Storing them up for ufe.
L r9I
!)flipencfs. Culmiferous plants are ripe when the Hem is to¬
tally white : they are not fully ripe if any green ftreaks
remain. Some farmers are of opinion, that wheat ought
to be cut before it is fully ripe. Their reafons. are,
firft, that ripe wheat is apt to fhakeand next, that
the flour is not fo good. With refpe<ft to the.laft, it is
contrary to nature, that any feed can be better in an
unripe ftate than when brought to. perfc&ion : nor
will it be found fo upon trial. With refpeft to the
firft, wheat, at the point of perfection, is not.more apt
to {hake than for fome days before : the hulk begins
not to open till after the feed is fully ripe ; and then
the fuffering the crop to ftand becomes ticklifli: after
the minute of ripening, it ftiould be cut down in an
icftant, if pofiible.
U L T U R E. 31 r
This leads to the hands that are commonly engaged Praaice.^
to cut down corn. In Scotland, the univerfal prac-
tice was, to provide a number of hands, in proportion of reapers,
to the extent of the crop, without regard to the time
of ripening. By this method, the reapers were often
idle for want of work ; and what is much worfe, they
had often more work than they could overtake, and
ripe fields were laid open to {baking winds. The Lo-
thians have long enjoyed weekly markets for reapers,
where a farmer can provide himfelf with the number
he wants; and this practice is creeping into neighbour¬
ing {hires. Where there is no opportunity of fuch
markets, neighbouring farmers ought to agree in bor¬
rowing and lending their reapers.
One fliould imagine, that a caution againft cutting
corn when wet is unneceffary ; yet from the impatience
of farmers to prevent {baking, no caveat is more fo.
Why do they not, confider, that corn Handing dries in
half a day ; when, in a clofe flieaf, the weather muft
be favourable if it dry in a month ? in moift weather it
will never dry.
With refpeft to the manner of cutting, we muft pre- of
mife, that barley is of all the moft difficult grain to be cutting,
dried for keeping. Having no hulk, rain has eafy
accefs; and it has a tendency to malten when wet.
Where the ground is properly fmoothed by rolling, it
feems beft to cut it down with the fcythe. This man¬
ner being more expeditious than the fickle, removes it
fooner from danger of wind ; and' gives a third more
ftraw, which is a capital article for dung, where a farm
is at a diftance from other manure. We except only
corn that has lodged ; for there the fickle is more con¬
venient than the fcythe. As it ought to be dry when
cut, bind it up diredlly :. if allowed to lie any time in
the fwath, it is apt to be difcoloured.-—Barley fown
with grafs-feeds, red clover efpecially, requires a dif¬
ferent management. Where the grafs is cut along
with it,, the difficulty is great of getting it fo dry as
to be ventured in a Hack. The beft way is, to cut
the barley with a fickle above the clover, fo as that
nothing but clean barley is bound up. Gut with a.
fcythe the ftubble and grafs: they make excellent winter-
food. The fame method is applicable to oats; with
this only difference, that when the field is expofed to
the fouth-weft wind, it is lefs neceffary to bind imme¬
diately after mowing. As wheat commonly grows
higher than any other grain, it is difficult to manage
it with the fcythe ; for which reafon the fickle is pre¬
ferred in England. Peafe and beans grow fo irregu¬
larly, as to make the fickle .neceflary.
The beft way for drying peafe, is to keep feparate D ^ of
the handfuls that are cutthough in this way they wret peafe.
eafily, they dry as foon. In the common way of heap¬
ing peafe together for compofing a ftieaf, they wet as
eafily, and dry not near fo foon. With refpeft to beans,
the top of the handful laft cut, .ought to be laid on the
bottom of the former; which gives ready accefs to the
wind. By this method peafe and beans are ready for
the Hack in half the ordinary time. tgS
A. flieaf commonly is made as large as can be con- Size of.:
tained in two lengths of the corn made into a rope. To fheaves*
fave frequent tying, the binder preffes it down with his
knee, and binds it fo hard as totally to exclude the air.
If there be any moifture in the crop, which feldom fails,-.
a procefs of fermentation and putrefaction commences
512 A G R I C U
Pradtice. Jn the flieaf; which is perfefted in the flack, to the
V ■* J deftruftion both of corn and llraw. How flupid is it,
■ : to make the fize of a flieaf depend on the height of the
plants! By that rule, a wheat-flieaf is commonly fo
weighty, as to be unmanageable by ordinary arms : it
requires an effort to move it, that frequently burfls the
knot, and occafions lofs of grain, befide the trouble of
a fecond tying. Sheaves ought never to be larger than
can be contained in one length of the plant, cut clofe
to the ground; without admitting any exception, if
the plants be above eighteen inches high. The bind¬
er’s arm can then comprefs the flieaf fufficiently, with¬
out need of his knee. The additional hands that this
way of binding may require, are not to be regarded,
compared with the advantage of drying foon. Corn
thus managed may be ready for the flack in a week;
it feldom in the ordinary way requires lefs than a fort¬
night, and frequently longer. Of a fmall fheaf com-
prefled by the arm only, the air pervades every part;
nor is it fo apt to be unloofed as a large flieaf, how¬
ever firmly bound. We omit the gathering of fheaves
into fliocks, becaufe the common method is good,
which is to place the fliocks directed to the fouth-weft,
in order to refill the force of the wind. Five flieaves
on each fide make a fufficient flay; and a greater^num-
Car-^in ^er cannot be covered with two head-fheaves.
Every article is of importance that haflens the ope-
vidtual. ration in a country, like Scotland, fubjedted to unequal
harveft-weather; for which reafon, the moft expediti¬
ous method fliould be chofen for carrying corn from the
field to the flack-yard. Our carriages are generally
too fmall or too large. A fledge is a very aukward
machine : many hands are required, and little progrefs
made. Waggons and large carts are little lefs dilato-
' ry, as they mufl Hand in the yard till unloaded flieaf
by flieaf. The bell way is, to ufe long carts moveable
upon the axle, fo as at once to throw the whole load on
the ground; which is forked up to the flack by a
hand appointed for that purpofe. By this method,
tQ7 two carts will do the work of four or five.
©fftacking. Building round flacks in the yard is undoubtedly
preferable to houfing corn. There it is fhut up from
the air ; and it muft be exceedingly dry, if it contraft
not a muftinefs, which is the firft flep to putrefaftion.
Add to this, that in the yard, a flack is preferred from
-rats and mice by being fet on a pedeftal; whereas no
method has hitherto been invented for preferving corn
in a houfe from fuch deflruftive vermin. The proper
manner of building, is to make every flieaf incline
downward from its top to its bottom. Where the
fheaves are laid horizontally, the flack will take in rain
both above and below. The bell form of a flack is
that of a cone placed on a cylinder; and the top of
the cone fnould be formed with three flieaves drawn to
a point. If the upper part of the cylinder be a little
198 wider than the under, fo much the better.
£ov®ri"g The delaying to cover a flack for two or three
t e ac s. wee]iS} though common, is, however, exceedingly ab-
furd; for if much rain fall in the interim, it is beyond
the power of wind to dry the flack. Vegetation be¬
gun in the external parts, fhuts out the air from the
internal; and to prevent a total putrefaftion, the flack
mufl be thrown down, and expofed to the air, every
fheaf. In order to have a flack covered the moment it
is finifhed, ftraw and ropes ought to be ready; and
L T U R E. Part tli
the covering ought to be fo thick as to be proof Pradice.;1]
againfl rain. r”— 1
Scotland is fubjefl not only to floods of rain, but to
high winds. Good covering guards againfl the for¬
mer, and ropes artfully applied guards againft the lat¬
ter. The following is a good mode. Take a hay-
rope well twilled, and furround the flack with it, two
feet or fo below the top. Surround the flack with
another fuch rope immediately below the eafing. Con-
ne£t thefe two with ropes in an up-and-down pofition,
diflant from each other at the eafing about five or fix
feet. Then furround the flack with other circular
ropes parallel to the two firft mentioned, giving them
a twill round every one of thofe that lie up and down,
by which the whole will be connected together in a
fort of net-work. What remains is, to finifh the two
feet at the top of the flack. Let it be covered with
bunches of ilraw laid regularly up and down ; the un¬
der part to be put under the circular rope firft men¬
tioned, which will keep it fall, and the upper part be
bound by a fmall rope artfully twilled, commonly call¬
ed the cro<wn of the jlack. This method is preferable
to the common way of laying long ropes over the top
of the flack, and tying them to the belting-rope; which
flattens the top, and makes it take in rain. A flack
covered in the way here defcribed, will Hand two years
fecure both againft wind and rain; a notable advantage
in this variable climate. 199 ||
The great aim in making hay is, to preferve as much Hay-nm- ||
of the fap as poflible. All agree in this; and yet differ |
widely in the means of making that aim effectual. To
defcribe all the different means would be equally tedi¬
ous and unprofitable. We fhall confine ourfelves to
two, which appear preferable to all others. A crop of
rye-grafs and yellow clover ought to be fpread as cut.
A day or two after, when the dew is evaporated, rake
it into a number of parallel rowrs along the field, term¬
ed 'w/nd-roivs, for the convenience of putting it up into
fmall cocks. After turning the rows once and again,
make fmall cocks weighing a ftone or two. At the
diftance of two days or fo, put two cocks into one,
obferving always to mix the tops and bottoms together,
and to take a new place for each cock, that the leaft
damage poflible may be done to the grafs. Proceed
in putting two cocks into one, till fufficiently dry for
tramp-ricks of 100 ftone each. The eafieft way of
erefting tramp-ricks, is to found a rick in the middle
of the row of cocks that are to compofe it. The cocks
may be carried to the rick by two perfons joining arms
together. When all the cocks are thus carried to the
rick within the diftance of 40 yards'or fo, the reft of
the cocks will be more expeditjoufly carried to the
rick, by a rope wound about them and dragged by 1
horfe. Two ropes are fufficient to fecure the ricks
from wind the fliort time they are to ftand in the field.
In the year 1775, 10,000 ftone were put into tranq?-
ricks the fourth day after cutting. In a country fo wet
as many parts of Scotland are, expedition is of mighty
confequence in the drying both of hay and corn. With
refpeft to hay intended for horned cattle, it is by the
generality held an improvement, that it be heated a
little in the ftack. But we violently fufpeft this doc¬
trine to have been invented for excufing indolent ma¬
nagement. An ox, it is true, will eat fuch hay ; but
it will always be found that he prefers fweet hay; and
4 ifc
AGRICULTURE.
3T3
it cannot well be doubted, but that fuch hay is the
moft falutary and the moft nouriihing.
j The making hay confilUng chiefly of red clover,
requires more care. The feafon of cutting is the lail
week of June, when it is in full bloom ; earlier it may
be cut, but never later. To cut it later would indeed
produce a weightier crop; but a late firfl: cutting
makes the fecond alfo late, perhaps too late for drying.
At the fame time, the want of weight in an earlv firft
cutting, is amply compenfated by the weight of the
fecond.
fork, lift up one of thefe fmall cocks between them Praftice. ^
with the greateft eafe, and carry them one after ano- -r—*
ther to the place w’here the tramp-cock is to be built(A):
and in this manner they proceed over the field till the
whole is finiflied. 202
“ The advantages that attend this method of making Advantages
hay, are. That it greatly abridges the labour; as it does 15 m~~
not require above the one-half of the work that is ne-
ceifary in the old method of turning and tedding it:
That it allows the hay to continue almoft as green as
when it is cut, and perferves its natural juices in the
When the feafon is too variable for making hay of greateft perfe^ion ; for, unlefs it be the little that is
the fecond growth, mix llraw with that growth, which
will be a fubftantial food for cattle during winter.
This is commonly done by laying ftrata of the ftraw
and clover alternately in the ftack. But by this me¬
thod, the ftrata of clover, if they do not heat, turn
mouldy at leaft, and unpalatable. The better way is,
to mix them carefully with the hand before they be put
into the ftack. The dry ftraw imbibes mcifture from
the clover and prevents heating.
But the belt method of hay-making feems to be that
recommended by Mr Anderfon *. “ Inftead,” fays
he, “ of allowing the hay to lie, as ufual in moft pla-
ces, for fome days in the fwathe after it is cut, and af-
• terwards alternately putting it up into cocks and fpread-
ing it out, and tedding it in the fun, which tends great¬
ly to bleach the hay, exhales its natural juices, and
fubjefts it very much to the danger of getting rain,
and thus runs a great rifle of being good for little, 1
make it a general rule, if poflible, never to cut hay
but, when the grafs is quite dry; and then make the
gatherers follow clofe upon the cutters,—putting it up
immediately into fmall cocks about three feet high each
when new put up, and of as fmall a diameter as they
can be made to ftand with; always giving each of them
a flight-kind of thatching, by drawing a few hand¬
fuls of the hay from the bottom of the cock all around,
and laying it lightly upon the top with one of the ends
hanging downwards. This is done with the utmoft
eafe and expedition; and when it is once in that ftate,
I confider my hay as in a great meafure out of dan¬
ger : for unlefs a violent wind fliould arife immediately
after the cocks are put up, fo as to overturn them, no¬
thing elfe can hurt the hay; as I have often experienced,
that no rain, however violent, ever penetrates into thefe
cocks but for a very little way. And, if they are
dry put up, they never fit together fo clofely as to
heat; although they acquire, in a day or two, fuch a
degree of firmnefs, as to be in no danger of being
overturned by wind after that time, unlefs it blows a
hurricane.
“ In thefe cocks I allow the hay to remain, until,.
upon infpeftion, I judge that it will keep in pretty
large tramp-cocks (which is ufually in one or two
weeks, according as the weather is more or lefs favour¬
able, when two men, each with a long pronged pitch-
Vo t. L Part I.
expofed to the fun and air upon the furface of thfc
cocks, which is no more bleached than every ftraw of
hay faved in the ordinary way, the whole is dried in
the moft flow and equal manner that could be defired :
and, laftly, That it is thus in a great meafure fecured
from almoft the pofiibility of being damaged by rain.
This laft circumftance deferves to be much more at¬
tended to by the farmer than it ufually is at prefent; as
I have feen few who are fufficiently aware of the lofs
that the quality of their hay fuftains by receiving a
flight fliower after it is cut, and before it is gathered ;
the generality of farmers feeming to be very yvell fatis-
fied if they get in their hay without being abfolutely
rotted; never paying the leaft attention to its having
been feveral times wetted while the hay was making.
But, if thefe gentlemen will take the trouble at any
time to compare any parcel of hay that has been made
perfectly dry,, with another parcel from the fame field
that has received a (bower while in the fwathe, or even
a copious dew, they will foon be fenfible of a very ma-
nifeft difference between them ; nor will their horfes or
cattle ever commit a miftake in choofing between the
tw0- . . . 203
“ Let it be particularly remarked, that in this man-Particular
ner of making hay, great care muft be taken that it be cation re-
dry when firft put into the cocks; for, if it is in the 'f*
leaft degree wet at that time, it will turn inftantlyt usmet °
mouldy, and fit together fo as to become totally imper¬
vious to the air, and will never afterwards become dry
till it is fpread out to the fun. For this reafon, if at
any time during a courfe of good fettled weather you
(hould begin to cut in the morning before the dew is off
the grafs, keep back the gatherers till the dew is eva¬
porated ; allowing that which was firft cut to lie till it
is, dry before it is cocked. In this cafe, you will al¬
moft always find that the uncut grafs will dry fooner
than that which has been cut when wet; and, there¬
fore, the gatherers may always b'egin to put up that
which is frefh cut before the other; which will ufually
require two or three hours to dry after the new-cut hay
may be cocked. And if, at any time, in cafe of ne-
ceffity, you (hould be obliged to cut your hay before it
is’dry, the fame rule muft be obferved, always to allow
it to remain in the fwathe till it is quite dry: but, as
there is always a great rifle of being long in getting it
R r up,
(a) If the hay is to be carried to any confiderable diftance, this part of the, labour may be greatly abridged,
by caufing the carriers take two long (ticks of a fufficient (Length, and having laid them down by the fmall
cocks parallel to one another, at the diftance of one and a half, or two feet afunder, let them lift three or four
cocks, one after another, and place them carefully above the (ticks, and then carry them altogether, as if upon
a hand-barrow, to the place where the large rick is to be built.
314 A G R I C U
Practice, up, and as it nctcr in this cafe ivinj ( a ) fo kindly as
' r—~‘ jf ;t had been dry cut, the farmer ought to endeavour,,
if poffible, in all cafes, to cut his hay only when dry;
even if it (hould coft him fome additional expence to
the cutters, by keeping them employed at any other
work, or even allowing them to remain idle, if the
weather {hould be variable or rainy.
“ But if there is a great proportion of clover, and
the weather {hould chance to. be clofe and calm at the
time, it may, on fome occafions, be neceflary to open
up thefe cocks a little, to admit fome frefli air into
them ; in which cafe, after they have ftood a day or
two, it may be of great ufe to turn thefe cocks and o-
pen them up a little, which ought to be done in the
drieft time of the day; the operator taking that part of
each cock which was the top, and with it forming the
bafe of a new one; fo that the part which was moft: ex-
pofed to the air becomes excluded from it, and that
which was undermoft comes to be placed upon the top,
fo as to make it all dry as equally as poflible.
“ If the hay has not been damp when it was fxrft
put up, the cock may be immediately finhhed out at
once; but if it is at all wet, it will be of great ufe to
turn over only a little of the top of the cock at firft, and
leaving it in that date to dry a little, proceed to ano¬
ther, and a third, and fourth, See. treating each in
the fame way; going on in that manner till you find
that the infide of the firft opened cock is fufficiently
dried, when it will be proper to return to it,, turning
over a little more of it till you come to what is ftill
damp, when you leave it and proceed to another, and
fo on round the whole; always returning afrelh till the
cocks are entirely finiftiedi. This is the beft way of fa¬
ring your hay, if you have been under the necefiity of
cutting it while damp ;: but it is always beft to guard
204 agamft this inconvenience, if poffible.”
Hay-ftacks. In the yard, a ftack of hay ought to be an oblong
fquare, if the quantity be greater than to be eafily
flowed in a round ftack ; becaufe a fmaller furface is
expofed to the air, than in a number of round flacks.
For the fame reafon, a ftack of peafe ought to have the
fame form, the ftraw being more valuable than that of
oats, wheat, or barley. The moment a flack is finifh-
ed, it ought to be covered ; becaufe the furface-hay is
much damaged by withering in dry weather, and moi-
llening in wet weather. Let it have a pavilion-roof;
for more of it can be covered with ftraw in that fhape,
than when built perpendicular at the ends. Let it be
roped as directed above for corn-ftacks ; with this dif¬
ference only, that in an oblong fquare the ropes muft
be thrown over the top, and tied to the belt-rope be¬
low. This belt-rope ought to be fixed with pins to
the ftack: the reafon is, that the ropes thrown over the
ftack will bag by the finking of the ftack, and may
be drawn tight by lowering the belt-rope, and fixing
it in its new pofition with the fame pins.
The Items of hops, being long and tough, make
excellent ropes; and it will be a faving article, to pro¬
pagate a few plants of that kind for that very end.
A ftack of rye-grafs hay, a year old, and of a mode¬
rate fize,,will weigh, each cubic yard, ix Dutch {tone.
L T U R E. Part II.
A ftack of clover-hay in the fame circumftancea weighs PradHce.
fomewhat lefs. y—4
Sect. VII. Manures.
The manures commonly ufed are dung, lime, fliell-
marl, clay-marl, and ftone-marl. Many other fub-
ftances are ufed; {havings of horn, for example, refufe
of malt, and even old rags: but as the quantity that
can be procured is inconfiderable, and as their applica¬
tion is fimple, we {hall corrfume no time upon them.
Dung is the chief of all manures ; becaufe a quan¬
tity of it may be colledted in every farm, and becaufe
it makes the quickeft return. A field fufficiently dung¬
ed will produce" good crops four or five years. ^
Dung of animals that chew the cud, being more Dung.,
thoroughly putrefied than that of others, is fit to be
mixed with the foil without needing to be colledled in¬
to a dunghill. A horfe does not chew the cud ; and
in horfe-dung may be perceived ftraw or rye-grafs bro¬
ken into fmall parts, but not diffolved : it is proper
therefore that the putrefaction be completed in a dung¬
hill. It ought to be mixed there with cool materials :
fo hot it is, that, in a dunghill by itfelf, it finges and
bums inftead of putrefying. The difference between
the dung of a horfe and of a horned animal, is vifible
in a pafture-field : the grafs round the former is wither¬
ed ; round the latter, it is ranker and more verdant than
in the reft of the field. A mixture of dry and moift
fluff ought to be ftudied : the former attradling moi-
fture from the latter, they become equally moift. 206
To prevent fap from running out of a dunghill, its Of a dung-
fituation {hould be a little below the furface ; and totl1^’
prevent rain from running into it, it {hould be fur-
rounded with a ring of fod. If the foil on which the
dunghill {lands be porous, let it be paved, to prevent
the fap from finking into the ground. If moillure
happen to fuperabound, it may be led off by a fmall
gutter to impregnate a quantity of rich mould laid
down to receive it, which will make it equal to good
dung.
Straw {hould be prepared for the dunghill, by being
laid under cattle, and fufficiently moiftened. When laid
dry into a dunghill, it keeps it open, admits too much
air, and prevents putrefaction.
Dung from the liable ought to be carefully fpread on
the dunghill, and mixed with the former dung. When
left in heaps upon the dunghill, fermentation and putre¬
faction go on unequally.
Complete putrefaftion is of importance with regard
to the feed of weeds that are in the dunghill: if they
remain found, they are carried out with the dung, and
infeft the ground. Complete putrefaction is of ftill
greater importance by pulverizing the dung ; in which
condition it mixes intimately with the foil, and operates,
the moft powerfully. In land intended for barley, un-
digefted dung has a very bad effeCt: it keeps the ground
open, admits drought, and prevents the feed from
fpringing. On the other hand, when thoroughly rotted,
it mixes with the foil, and enables it to retain moifture.
It follows, that the propereft time for dunging a field,
is
( a) By •winning hay, is meant the operation by which it is brought from the fucculent ftate of grafs to that
of a . dry fodderv
Part II.
AGRICULTURE.
3r5
Pratftke. is in its highcfl pulverization ; at which time the earth and therefore can never be intimately mixed with the Pra6tice.
^ mixes intimately with the dung. Immediately before foil. Sometimes an opportunity offers to bring home-"-v——'
Time°for cabbage, lowing turnip, or wheat, is a good fhell-lime before the ground is ready for it; and it is
! dunging, time. Dung divides and fpreads the moil accurately commonly thrown into a heap without cover, trailing
when moift. Its intimate mixture with the foil is of to rain for flaking. The proper way is, to lay the
fuch importance, that hands Ihould be employed to di- fliell-lime in different heaps on the ground where it is
to be fpread, to reduce thefe heaps into powder by fla¬
king with water, and to cover the flaked lime with fod
fo as to defend it from rain. One however would avoid
as much as poffible the bringing home lime before the
ground be ready for it. Where allowed to lie long in
a heap, there are two bad confequences : firft, lime at-
trafts moillure, even, though well covered, and runs in¬
to clots, which prevents an intimate mixture; and,
next, we know, that burnt limellone, whether in Ihells
powder, returns gradually into its original ftate
20g ride and Ipread any lumps that may be in it.
Manner of Dung Ihould be fpread, and ploughed into the
dunging, ground without delay. When a heap lies two or three
weeks, fome of the moiflure is imbibed into the ground,
which will produce tufts of corn more vigorous than in
the reft of the field. There cannot be a worfe pradlice
than to lead out dung before winter, leaving it expo-
fed to froft and fnow. The whole fpirit of the dung is
extracled by rain, and carried off with it. The dung
divefted of its fap becomes dry in fpring, and incapable
of being mixed with the mould. It is turned over of limeftone ; and upon that account alfo, is lefs capable
whole by the plough, and buried in the furrow.
Of coHeift- As dung is an article of the utmoft importance in
fug dung, hufbandry, one fhould imagine, that the collefting it
would be a capital article with an induftrious farmer.
Yet an ingenious writer, obferving that the Jamaicans
are in this particular much more induftrious than the
Britifh, aferibes the difference to the difficulty of pro¬
curing dung in Jamaica. “ In England, where the
long winter enables a farmer to raife what quantity he ries the whole away.
of being mixed with the foil. And this is verified by a
‘fact, that, after lying long, it is fo hard bound together
as to require a pick to feparate the parts.
For the fame reafon, it is a bad pra&ice, though
common, to let fpread lime lie on the furface all win¬
ter. The bad effefts above mentioned take place here
in part: and there is another ; that rain wadies the
lime down to the furrows, and in a hanging field car-
pleafes, it is not colle&ed with any degree of induftry.
But in Jamaica, where there is no winter, and where
the heat of the fun is a great obftru&ion, the farmer
muft be indefatigable, or he will never raife any dung.”
Cool intereft is not alone a fufficient motive with the
indolent, to be aftive. As dung is of great import¬
ance in hufbandry, a farmer cannot be too affiduous in
eolle&ing animal and vegetable fubftances that will rot.
As the particles of powdered lime are both fmall and
heavy, they quickly fink to the bottom of the furrow, 3J,
if care be not taken to prevent it. In that view, it isTime Jf
a rule, that lime be fpread, and mixed with the foil, ming.
immediatelybefore lowing, or along with the feed. In
this manner of application, there being no occafion to
move it till the ground be ftirred for a new crop, it has
time to incorporate with the foil, and does not readily
r c. .v 't'i  . • r t r ‘
One article of that kind there is, to colleft which there feparate from it. Thus, if turnip-feed is to be fown
t double motive, and yet is neglefted almoft every broadcaft, the lime ought to be laid on immediately
where. A farm full of weeds is a nuifance to the
neighbourhood : it poifons the fields around ; and the
poffeffor ought to be difgraced as a peft to fociety.
formed, anfwers two excellent purpofes. Firft, it en¬
courages good crops, by keeping the ground clean.
Next, thefe weeds mixed with other materials in a
before fowing, and harrowed in with the feed. If a
crop of drilled turnip or cabbage be intended, the lime
ought to be fpread immediately before forming in
Now the cutting down every weed before the feed is drills. With refpeft to wheat, the lime ought to be
r J r ~ 11 ‘ r "r" ^ ‘‘ ~ fpread immediately before feed-furrowing. If fpread
more early, before the ground be fufficiently broken,
it finks to the bottom. If a light foil be prepared
dunghill, may add , confiderably to the quantity of for barley, the lime ought to be fpread after feed-fur-
dung.
Next of lime, which is a profitable manure, and great¬
ly fo when it can be got in plenty within a moderate
diftance. The benefit of lime is fo vifible, that the
ufe of it has become general, where the price and car¬
riage are in any degree moderate.
However people may differ in other particulars, all
agree, that the operation of lime depends on its inti¬
mate mixture with the foil; and therefore that the pro¬
per time of applying it, is when it is perfeftly powder¬
ed and the foil at the fame time in the higheft degree
of pulverization. Lime of itfelf is abfolutely barren ;
and yet it enriches a barren foil. . Neither of the two
produces any good effeft without the other: and con-
fequently, the more intimately they are mixed, the effect
muft be the greater.
Hence it follows, that lime ought always to be fla¬
ked with a proper quantity of water, becaufe by that
means it is reduced the moft effectually into powder.
Lime left to be flaked by a moift air, or accidental rain,
rowing, and harrowed in with die feed. In a ftrong
foil, it finks not fo readily to the bottom ; and there¬
fore, before fowing the barley, the lime ought to be
mixed with the foil by a brake. Where moor is fum-
mer-fallowed for a crop of oats next year, the lime
ought to be laid on immediately before the laft plough¬
ing, and braked in as before. It has fufficient time
to incorporate with the foil before the land be ftirred
again. _ . 4r3
The quantity to be laid on depends on the nature Quantity,
of the foil. Upon a ftrong foil, 70 or 80 bolls of
{hells are not more than fufficient, reckoning four fmall
firlots to the boll, termed wheat-meafure ; nor will it
be an overdofe to lay on 100 bolls. Between 50 and
60 may fuffice upon medium foils ; and upon the thin
or gravelly, between 30 and 40. It is not fafe to lay
a much greater quantity on fuch foils. 2T4
It is common to lime a pafture-field immediately Liming pa-
before ploughing. This is an unfafe practice; it is fture-fidds.
thrown to the bottom of the furrow, from which it is
is feldom or never thoroughly reduced into powder j never fully gathered up. The proper time for liming
Rr 2
ai6
Of fliell-
AGRICULTURE. Part II.
a pafture field, intended to be taken up for corn, is a Summer is the proper feafon for marling ; becaufe Practice, -i;
year at leaft, or two, before ploughing. It is waftied in that feafon the marl, being dry, is not only lighter, ' v J
in by rain among the roots of plants, and has time to but is eafily reduced to powder. Froft however is not.
incorporate with the foil. improper for marling, efpecially as in froft there is
Limeftone beat fmall makes an excellent manure ; little opportunity for any other work,
and fupplies the want of powdered lime where there is Marl is a heavy body, and finks to the bottom of
no fuel to burn the limeftone. Limeftone beat fmall the furrow, if indifcreetly ploughed. Therefore the
has not hitherto been much ufed as a manure; and the firft crop fliould always have an ebb furrow. During
proportion between it and powdered lime has not been the growing of that crop, the mad has time to incor-
afcertained. What follows may give fome light. Three porate with the foil, and to become a part of it; after
pounds of raw lime is by burning reduced to two which it does not readily feparate.
pounds of ftiell-lime. Yet nothing is expelled by the
fire but the air that was in the limeftone : the calca- SecT.VIII. Principles and Operations of the New
reous earth remains entire. Ergo, two pounds of fhell- or Horfe-hoeing Hufbandry.
lime contain as much calcareous earth as three pounds
of raw limeftone. Shell-lime of the beft quality, when The general properties attributed to the new huf-
flaked. with water, will meafure out to thrice the quan- .bandry may be reduced to two, viz. the prompting the
tity. But as limeftone lofes none of its bulk by being growth of plants by hoeing, and the faving of feed ;
both of which are equally profitable to the farmer. ^
The advantages of tillage before fowing have al- Advaiita-
ready been pointed out. In this place we muft con-gesafcribed
fine ourfelves to the utility of tillage after fowing.i0 h°rfe-
This kind of tillage is moft generally known by the !loe'nS-
name oi horfe-hoeing.
Land fowed with wheat, however well it may be
cultivated in autumn, finks in the winter; the particles
get nearer together, and the weeds rife; fo that in
Of clay
and flone-
burnt into ftiells, it follows, that three buftiels of raw *
limeftone contain as much calcareous earth as fix buftiels
of povydered lime; and confequently, if powdered
lime poffefs not fome virtue above raw limeftone, three
buftiels of the latter beat fmall ftiould equal as a ma¬
nure fix buftiels of the former.
Shell-marl, as a manure, is managed in every r
fpeft like powdered lime; with this only difference, that
a fifth or a, fourth part more in meafure ought to be
given. The reafon is, that ftiell-marl is lefs weighty fpring, the land is nearly in the fame fituation as if it
than lime ; and that a boll of it contains lefs calcareous
earth, which is the fmftifying part of both.
Clay and ftone marls, with refpeft to hufbandry, are
the fame, though in appearance different.
never had been ploughed. This, however, is the fea¬
fon when it fhould branch and grow with moft vigour;
and confequently Hands molt in need of ploughing or
hoeing, to deftroy the weeds, to fupply the roots with
The gooflnefs of marl depends on the quantity of ■ frefh earth, and, by dividing anew the particles of the
calcareous earth in it: which has been known to amount
to a half or more. It is too expenfive if the quantity
be lefs than a third or a fourth part. Good marl is the
moft fubftantial of all manures; becaufe it improves the
weakeft ground to equal the beft borough-acres. The
low part of Berwickfhire termed the Merfe, abounds
every where with this marl; and is the only county in
Scotland where it is plenty.
Land ought to be cleared of weeds before marling ;
and it ought to be fmoothed with the brake and harrow,
in order that the marl may be equally fpread. Marl
is a foffil on which no vegetable will grow ; its efficacy
depends, like that of lime, 'on its pulverization, and in¬
timate mixture with the foil. Toward the former, al¬
ternate drought and moifture contribute greatly, as alfo
froft. Therefore, after being evenly fpread, it ought
to lie on the furface all winter. In the month of Oc¬
tober it may be roufed with a brake ; which will bring
to the furface, and expofe to the air and froft, all the
hard parts, and mix with the foil all that is powdered.
In that refpeft it differs widely from dung and lime,
which ought to be ploughed into the ground without
delay. Oats is a hardy grain, which will anfwer for
being the firft crop after marling better than any 0-
ther ; and it will fucceed though the marl be not tho¬
roughly mixed with the foil. In that cafe, the marl
ought to be ploughed in with an ebb furrow immediate¬
ly before fowing, and braked thoroughly. It is tick-
liflr to make wheat the firft crop : if fown before win¬
ter, froft fwells the marl, and is apt to throw the feed
foil, to allow the roots to extend and colie£t nourifti-
ment.
It is well known, that, in gardens, plants grow with
double vigour after being hoed or tranfplanted. Jf
plants growing in arable land could be managed with
eafe and fafety in this manner, it is natural to expe£t,
that their growth would be promoted accordingly. Ex¬
perience ffiows, that this is not only practicable, but
attended with many-advantages.
In the operation of hoeing wheat, though fome of
the roots be moved or broken, the plants receive no
injury; for this very circumftance makes them fead-
forth a greater number of roots than formerly, which
enlarge their pafture, and confequently augment their
growth.
Sickly wheat has often recovered its. vigour after a-
good hoeing, efpecially when performed in weather not
very hot or dry. >
Wheat, and fuch grain as is fown before winter,
requires hoeing more than oats, barley, or other grain
fown in the fpring ; for, if the land has. been well
ploughed before the fowing of fpring-corn, it neither
has time to harden, nor to produce many weeds, not
having been expofed to the winter’s fnow and rain.
Of S O WI N G.
219
As, in the praftice of the New Hufbandry, plants Method of
grow with greater vigour than by the old method, the fowing in
land ftiould be fowed thinner. It is this principle of
the new hufbahdry that has been chiefly objefted to; iU an *
out of the ground ; if fown in fpring, it will fuffer more for, upon obferving the land occupied by a fmall num-
than oats by. want of due mixture. ber of plants, people are apt to look upon all the va¬
cant
Part II. A G R I C U
Practice, cant fpace as loft. But this prejudice will foon be re-
moved, when it is conlidered, that, in the belt land
cultivated in the common method, and fown very thick,
each feed produces but one or two ears; that, in the
fame land fown thinner, every feed produces two or
three ears ; and that a Angle feed fometimes produces
18 or 21 ears.
In the common method, as there are many more
plants than can find fufficient nourifhment, and as it is
impoffible to affift them by hoeing, numbers die before
they attain maturity, the greateft part remain fickly
and drooping ; and thus part of the feed is loft. On
the contrary, in the new method, all the plants have
as much food as they require-; and as they are, from
time to time, affifted by hoeing, they become fo vigo¬
rous as to equal in their production the numerous but
fickly plants cultivated in the common method.
Of Hoeing.
The new hulbandry is abfolutely impra&icable in
lands that are not eafily ploughed. Attempting to
cultivate land according to this hulbandry, without at¬
tending to this circumftance, that it is practicable in
no land excepting fuch as have already been brought
' into good tilth by the old method, has gone far to
zzo make it contemptible in many places.
The diffe- When a field is in good tilth, it fhould be fown fo
rent hoe- ^Jn a3 to leave fufficient room for the plants to extend
ln^S’ their roots. After being well ploughed and harrowed,
it muft" be divided into'rows, at the diftance of thirty
inches from one another. On the fidesof each of thefe
rows, two rows of wheat muft be fowed fix inches di-
ftant from each other. By this means there will be an-
interval of two feet wide betwixt the rows, and every
plant will have room enough to extend its roots, and to
fupply it vvith food. The intervals will likewife be fuf¬
ficient for allowing the earth to be hoed or tilled with¬
out injuring the plants in the rows.,
The firft hoeing, which ffiould be given before the
winter, is intended to drain away the wet, and to dif-
pofe the earth to be mellowed by the frofts. Thefe
two ends will be anfwered by drawing two fmall fur¬
rows at a little diftance from the rows, and throwing
the earth taken from the furrows into the middle of
the intervals. This firft hoeing (hould be given when
the wheat is in leaf.
The fecond hoeing, which is intended to make the-
plants branch, ffiould be given after the hard frofts are
over. To do this with advantage, after ftirring the
earth a little near the rows, the earth which was thrown
in the middle of the intervals ffiould be turned back in¬
to the furrows. This earth, having been mellowed by
the winter, fupplies the plants with excellent food, and .
makes the roots extend.
The third hoeing, which is intended to invigorate
the ftalk, ffiould be given when the ears of the corn
begin to ffiow themfelves. This hoeing may, however,
be very flight.
But the laft hoeing is of the greateft importance,
as it enlarges the grain, and makes the ears fill at their
extremities. This hoeing ffiould be given when the
wheat is in bloom ; a furrow muft be drawn in the
middle of the interval, and the earth thrown to the
right and left on the fftot of the plants. This fupports
the plants, prevents them from being laid, and pre-
L T U R E. 317
pares the ground for the next flowing, as the feed is Practice,
then to be put in the middle of the ground that form- ^ 1
ed the intervals.
The beft feafon for hoeing is two or three days af¬
ter rain, or fo foon after rain as the foil will quit the
inftrument in hoeing. Light dry foils may be hoed al-
moft any time, but this is far from being the cafe with
ftrong clay foils; the feafon for hoeing fuch is fre¬
quently ffiort and precarious ; every opportunity there¬
fore ,ffiould be carefully watched, and eagerly embra¬
ced. The two extremes of wet and dry, are great ene¬
mies to vegetation in ftrong clay foils. There is a pe¬
riod between the time of clay foils running together,
fo as to puddle by Superfluous wet, and the time of
their caking by drought, that they are as tra£lable_as
need be. This is the junfture for hoeing; and fo
much land as ffiall be thus-feafonably hoed, will not
cake or cruft upon the furface, as it otherwife would
have done, till it has been foaked or drenched again
with rain ; in which cafe the hoeing is to be repeated
as foon as the foil will quit the inftrument, and as of¬
ten as neceffary; by which time the growing crop will
begin to cover the ground, fo as to aft as a fcreen to
the furface of the land againft the intenfe heat of the
fun, and thereby prevent, in great meafure, the bad
effefts of the foil’s caking in dry weather.
By this fucceffive tillage, or hoeing, good crops will-
be obtained, provided the weather is not very unfa¬
vourable.
But as ftrong, vigorous plants are longer before they,
arrive at maturity, corn raifed in the new way is later
in ripening than any other, and muft therefore be flown
earlier.
In order to prepare the intervals for flowing again,,
fome well-rooted dung may be laid in the deep furrows
made in the middle of the intervals ; and this dung
muft be covered with the earth that was before thrown
towards the rows-of wheat. But, if the land does not
require mending, the deep furrow is filled without any
dung. This operation ffiould be performed immedi¬
ately after harveft, that there may be time to give the
land a flight ftirring before the rows are fowed; which
ffiould occupy the middle of the fpace which formed
the intervals during the laft crop. The intervals of the
fecond year take up the fpace occupied by the ftubble
of the firft.
Suppofing dung to -be neceffary, which is denied by-
many, a very fmall quantity is fufficient; a Angle layer, ,
put in the bottom of each furrow, will be enough.
Description of the Instruments commonly ufed ini
the New Husbandry.
^ 221
Fig. 1. is a marking plough. The principal ufe ofinftruments-
this plough is to ftraight and regulate the ridges. The defcribed.-
firft line is traced by the eye, by means of three poles,plate VII->r
placed in a ftraight line. The plough draws the firft
furrow in the direftion of this line ; and, at the fame
time, with the tooth A, fixed in the block of wood
near the end of the crofs-pole or Aider B B, marks the
breadth of the ridge at the diftance intended. The
ploughman next traces the fecond line or rutt made by
the tooth, and draws a fmall furrow along it; and con¬
tinues in this manner till the whole field is laid out in
ftraight and equidiftant ridges.
Figv-
3i 8 A G R I C
Practice. Fig. 2. is a plough for breaking up lee, or turning
Up the bottom of land when greatly exhaufted. By its
conftruftion, the width and depth of the furrows can
Plate VII. be regulated to a greater certainty than by any other
hitherto known in this country. Its appearance is
heavy ; but two horfes are fufficient to plough with it
in ordinary free land; and only four are neceffary in
the ftiffeft clay-foils. This plough is likewife eafily
held and tempered. A, is the fword fixed fh the fixers
B, which runs thro’ a mortoife E, at the end of the beam
C, and regulates the depth of the furrow by railing or
depreffing the beam ; it is fixed by putting the pin D
thro’ the beam and fword, and is moveable at E.
Fig. 3. is a jointed brake-harrow with 24. teeth, fha-
ped like coulters, and Handing at about an angle of 80
degrees. By this inflrument the land is finely pulve¬
rized, and-prepared for receiving the feed from the drill.
It requires four horfes in HifF, and two in open, land.
This harrow is likewife ufed for levelling the ridges;
which is done by preffing it down by the handles where
the ridge is high, and railing it up when low.
Fig. 4. is an angular weeding harrow, which may
follow the brake when necefiary. The feven hindmolt
teeth fhould Hand at a more acute angle than the reft,
in order to colledt the weeds, which the holder can
drop at pleafure, by railing the hinder part, which is
fixed to the body of the harrow by two joints.
Fig. 5. is a pair of harrows with drafts. This har¬
row is ufed for covering the feed in the drills, the horfe
going in the furrow.
Fig. 6. is a drill-plough, conftrucled in fuch a man¬
ner as to fow at once two rows of beans, peafe, or
wheat. This machine is eafily wrought by two horfes.
A, is the happer for containing the feed ; B, circular
boxes forTeceiving the feed from the happer; CC, two
fquare boxes which receive the feed from fmall holes in
the circular boxes, as they turn round ; and laft of all,
the feed is dropped into the drills through holes in the
fquare boxes, behind the coulters D. The cylinder E
follows, which, together with the wheel F, regulates
the depth of the coulters, and covers the feed; the har¬
row G comes behind all, and covers the feed more
completely. Id H, two Aiders, which, when drawn
out, prevent the feed from falling into the boxes ; and,
I, is a ketch which holds the rungs, and prevents the
boxes from turning, and lofing feed at the ends of the
ridges.
Fig. 7. Is a Angle hoe-plough of a very fimple con-
ftruftion, by which the earth in the intervals is ftir-
red and laid up on both Tides to the roots of the plants,
and at the fame time the weeds are deftroyed. A A
the mould-boards, which may be raifed or depreffed at
pleafure, according as the farmer wants to throw the
earth higher or lower upon the roots.
Plate VI. Fig. 2. is a drill-rake for peafe. This inftrument,
which is chiefly calculated for fmall inclofures of light
grounds, is a fort of ftrong plough rake, with four
large teeth at a, a, b, b, a little incurvated. The diftance
from a to a, and from b to b, is nine inches. The interval
between the two inner teeth, a and b, is three feet fix in¬
ches, which allows fuf&cient room for the hole-plough to
move in. To the piece of timber cc, forming the head
of the rake, are fixed the handles d, and the beam e,
to which the horfe is farmed. When this inftrument
is drawn over a piece of land made thoroughly fine,
2
J L T U R E. Part II
and the man who holds it bears upon the handles, four Pra&ice.
furrows, f, g, h, i, will be formed, at the diftances de- 1
termined by the conftru&ion of the inftrument. Thefe
diftances may be accurately prefenned, provided that
the teeth a a return when the ploughman comes back,
after having ploughed one turn, in two of the channels
formed before, marked b b: thus all the furrows in the
field will be traced with the fame regularity. When
the ground is thus formed into drills, the peafe may
be fcattered by a fingle motion of the hand at a cer¬
tain diftance from one another into the channels, and
then covered with the flat part of a hand-rake, and
prefied down gently. This inftrument is fo fimple,
that -any workman may eafily make or repair it.
On 2d Plate VII. is delineated a patent drill
machine, lately invented by the Reverend James
Cooke of Heaton-Norris near Manchefter. A, the
upper part of the feed-box. B, the lower part of
the fame box. C, a moveable partition, with a le¬
ver, by which the grain or feed is let fall at pleafure
from the upper to the lower part of the feed-box,
from whence it is taken up by cups or ladles ap¬
plied to the cylinder D, and dropped into the funnel
E, and conveyed thereby into the furrow or drill made
in the land by the coulter F, and covered by the rake
or harrow G. H, a lever, by which the wheel I is
lifted out of generation with the wheel K, to prevent
the grain or feed being fcattered upon the ground,
while the machine is turning round at the end of the
land, by which the harrow G is alfo lifted from the
ground at the fame time, and by the fame motion, by
means of the crank, and the horizontal lever b h. L,
a Hiding lever, with a weight upon it, by means of
which, the depth of the furrows or drills, and confe-
quently the depth that the grain or feed will be depofi-
ted in the land, may be eafily afcertained. M, a fcrew
in the coulter beam, by turning of which, the feed-box
B is elevated or depreffed, in order to prevent the grain
or feed being cruftied or bruifed by the revolution of
the cups or ladles. Fig. 13. a rake with iron teeth,
to be applied to the under fide of the rails of the ma¬
chine, with ftaples and fcrew nuts at n n, by which
many ufeful purpofes are anfwered, viz. in accumula¬
ting cuitch or hay into rows, and as a fcarificator for
young crops of wheat in the fpring, or to be ufed upon
a fallow; in which cafe, the feed-box, the ladle cylin¬
der, the coulters, the funnels, and harrows, are all taken
away.
This fide view of the machine is reprefented, for the
fake of perfpicuity, with one feed-box only, one coul¬
ter, one funnel, one harrow, &c. whereas a complete
machine is furnifhed with five coulters, five harrows,
feven funnels, a feed-box in eight partitions, &c. with
ladles of different fizes, for different forts of grain and
feeds.
Thefe machines, (with five coulters fixteen guineas,
with four coulters fifteen guineas) equally excel in fet-
ting or planting all forts of grain and feeds, even carrot
feed,' to exaiftnefs, after the rate of from eight to ten
chain acres per day, with one man, a boy, and two
horfes. They depofite the grain or feed in any given
quantity from one peck to three bufhels per acre, re¬
gularly and uniformly, and that without grinding or
bruifing the feed, and at any given depth, from half an
inch to half a dozen inches, in rows at the diftance of
twelve.
Part II. A G R I C U
Pra<ftice. twelve, fixteen, and twenty-four inches, or any other
 ' diftance. They are equally ufeful on all lands, are
durable, eafy to manage, and by no means fubjeft to
be put Qut of repair.
The ladle cylinder D is furnilhed with cups or la¬
dles of four different fizes for different forts of grain
or feeds, which may be diitinguifhed by the numbers
i, 2, 3, 4.—NJ 1. (the fmalleft fize) is calculated for
turnip-feed, clover-feed, cole-feed, rape, &c. and will
fow fomething more than one pound per ftatute acre.
N 2. for wheat, rye, hemp, flax, &c. and will fow
fomething more than one bufhel per acre. NJ 3. for
barley; and will fow one bufhel and a half per acre.
N° 4. for beans, oats, peafe, vetches, &c. and will
fow two bufhels per acre.
Notwithftanding the above fpecified quantities of
grain or feeds, a greater or lefs quantity of each may
be fown at pleafure, by flopping up with a little clay,
or by adding a few ladles to each refpeftive box. The
grain or feeds intended to be fown, muft be put in thofe
boxes, to which the cups or ladles as above defcribed
refpectively belong, an equal quantity into each box,
and all the other boxes empty. The ladle cylinder may
be reverfed, or turned end for end at pleafure, for dif¬
ferent forts of grain, &c.
For fowing beans, oats, peafe, &c. with a five-coulter
machine, four large ladles muft occafionally be applied
at equal diftances round thofe parts of the cylinder
which fubtend the two end boxes. And for fowing
barley, eight large ones muft be applied as above ; or
four ladles, N3 2. to each of the wheat boxes. Thefe ad¬
ditional ladles are fixed on the cylinder with nails, or ta¬
ken off in a few minutes; but for fowing with a four-coul¬
ter machine, the above alterations are not neceffary.
The funnels are applied to their refpe&ive places by
correfponding numbers. Care fhould be taken, that
the points of the funnel ftand directly behind the backs
of the coulters, which is done by wedges being applied
to one fide or other of the coulters, at the time they
are fixed in their refpedfive places.
The machine being thus put together, which is rea¬
dily and expeditioufly done, as no feparate part will
coincide with any other but that to which it refpec¬
tively belongs, and an equal quantity of grain or feed
in each of the refpeftive boxes, the land alfo being pre-
vioufly ploughed and harrowed once or fo in a place to
level the furface; but if the land be very rough, a rol¬
ler will beft anfwer that purpofe, whenever the land is
dry enough to admit of it; and upon ftrong clays, a
fpiked roller is fometimes neceffary to reduce the fize
of the large dry clods; which being done, the driver
fhould walk down the furrow or edge of the land, and
having hold of the laft horfe’s head with his hand, he
will readily keep him in fuch a direction, as will bring
the outfide coulter of the machine within three or four
inches of the edges of the land or ridge, at which
uniform extent, he fhould keep his arm till he comes
to the end of the land ; where having turned round,
he muft come to the other fide of his horfes, and walk¬
ing upon the laft outfide drill, having hold of the horfe’s
head with his hand as before, he will readily keep the
machine in fuch a direction, as will ftrike the fucceed-
ing drill at fuch a diftance from the laft outfide one, or
that he walks upon, as the coulters are diftant from each
other,.
L T U R E. 3i(
The perfon who attends the machine fhould put down Pra&ke.
the lever H forin enough at the end of the land, that1 
the cups or ladles may have time to fill, before he be¬
gins to fow ; and at the end of the land, he muft ap-
ply his right hand to the middle of the rail between the
handles, by which he will keep the coulters in the
ground, while he is lifting up the lever H with his left
hand, to prevent the grain being fcattered upon the
headland, while the machine is turning round; this he
will do with great cafe, by continuing his right hand
upon the rail between the handles, and applying his
left arm under the left handle, in order to lift the coul¬
ters out of the ground while the machine is turning
round.
If there be any difficulty in ufing the machine, it
confifts in driving it ftraight. As to the perfon who-
attends the machine, he cannot poffibly commit any er¬
rors, except fuch as are wilful, particularly as he fees at
one view the whole procefs of the bufinefs, viz. that the
coulters make the drills of a proper depth; that the
funnels continue open to convey the grain or feed into
the drills; that the rakes or harrows cover the grain
fufficiently; and when feed is wanting in the lower,
boxes B, which he cannot avoid feeing, he readily fup-
plies them from the upper boxes A, by applying his
hand, as the machine goes alonu, to the lever C. The
lower boxes B, fhould not be fuffered to become empty
before they are fupplied with feed, but fhould be kept
nearly full, or within an inch or fo of the edge of the
box.
If chalk lines are made acrofs the backs of the coul¬
ters, at fuch a diftance from the ends as the feed fhould
be depofited in the ground (viz. about two inches for
wheat, and from two to three for fpring corn), the per¬
fon that attends the machine will be better able to af-
certain the depth the feed fhould be depofited in the
drills, by obferving, as the machine goes along, whe¬
ther the chalk lines are above or below the furface of
the land; if above, a proper weight muft be applied
to the lever L, which will force the coulters into
the ground; if below, the lever L and weight muft
be reverfed, which will prevent their finking too
deep.
In different parts of the kingdom, lands or ridges-
are of different fizes; where the machine is too wide,
for the land, one or more funnels may occafionally be
flopped with a little loofe paper, and the feed received
into fuch funnel returned at the end of the land, or
fooner if required, into the upper feed-box. But for
regularity and expedition, lands confifting of fo many
feet wide from outfide to outfide, as the machine con¬
tains coulters, when fixed at twelve inches diftance, or
twice or three times the number, &c. are beft calcula¬
ted for the machine. In wet foils or ftrong clays,
lands or ridges of the width of the machine, and in dry
foils, of twice the width, are recommended. For fow¬
ing of narrow high-ridged lands, the outfide coulters
fhould be let down, and the middle ones raffed, fo that
the points of the coulters may form the fame curve
that the land or ridge forms. And the loofe foil har¬
rowed down into the furrows fhould be returned to the
edges of the lands or ridges from whence it came, by
a double mould-board or other plough, whether the
land be wet or dry.
Clover or other lays, intended to be fown by the
machine,
AGRICULTURE. Partll.
machine, fhoulcl be ploughed a deep ftrong furrow
and well harrowed, in order, to level the furface, and to
get as much loofe foil as pofiible for the coulters to
work in ; and when fown,- if any of the feed appears
in the drills uncovered by reafon of the ftiff texture of
the foil, or toughne'fs of the roots, a light harrow may
be taken over the land, once in a place, which will ef-
fe&ually cover the feed, without difplacing it at all in
the drills. For fowing lays, a confiderable weight muft
be applied to the lever L, to force the coulters into the
ground ; and a fet of wrought-iron coulters, well-heel¬
ed, and made (harp at the front edge and bottom, are
recommended; they will pervade the foil more readily,
confequently require lefs draught, and expedite bufmefs
more than adequate to the additional expence.
For every half acre of land intended to be fown by
the machine with the feed of that very valuable root,
(carrot) one.bufhel of faw-duft, and one pound of car¬
rot feed, fhould be provided; the faw-duft fhould be
made dry, and fifted to take out all the lumps and
chips, and divided into eight equal parts or heaps ; the
carrot-feed ftiould likewife be dried, and well rubbed
between the hands, to take off the beards, fo that it
will feparate readily, and being divided into eight e-
qual parts or heaps, one part of the carrot-feed muft
be well mixed with one part of the faw-duft, and fo on,#
till all the parts of carrot-feed and faw-duft are well
mixed and incorporated together; in which ftate it may
be fown very regularly in drills at twelve inches dif-
tance, by the cups or ladles N° 2. Carrot-feed refem-
bling faw-duft very much in its fize, roughnefs, weight,
adhefion, &c. will remain mixed as above during the
fowing ; a ladle-full of faw-duft will, upon an average,
contain three or four carrot-feeds, by which means the
carrot-feed cannot be otherwife than regular in the
drills. In attempting to depofite fmall feeds near the
furface, it may fo happen that fome of the feeds may
not be covered with foil; in which cafe, a light roller
may be drawn over the land after the feed is fown,
which will not only cover the feeds, but will alfo, by
levelling the furface, prepare the land for an earlier
hoeing than could otherwife have taken place.
It has always been found troublefome, fometimes
impracticable, to fow any kind of grain or feeds (even
broad-caft) in a high wind. This inconvenience is en¬
tirely obviated, by placing a fcreen of any kind of
cloth, or a fack, fupported by two uprights nailed to
the fides of the machine, behind the funnels, which will
prevent the grain or feed being blown out of its direc¬
tion in falling from the ladles into the funnels. Small
pipes of tin may alfo be put on to the ends of the fun¬
nels, to convey the grain or feed fo near the furface of
the land, that the higheft wind fhall not be able to in¬
terrupt its defcent into the drills.
Refpefting the ufe of the machine, it is frequently
remarked by fome people not converfant with the pro¬
perties of matter and motion, that the foil will clofe
after the coulters, before the feed is admitted into the
drills. Whereas the very contrary is the cafe ; for the
velocity of the coulters in palling through the foil, is
fo much greater than the velocity with which the foil
clofes up the drills by its own fpontaneous gravity, that
the incifions or drills will be conftantly open for three
or four inches behind the coulters ; by which means,
it is morally impoffible (if the points of the funnels
N°8.
ftand directly behind the coulters) that the feed with Pradice. ’
the velocity it acquires in falling through the funnels, v
fhall not be admitted into the drills.
Fig. 12. is a new conltrudted fimple hand-hoe, by 2dP!ateVll
which one man will effedtually hoe two chain acres per
day, earthipg up the foil at the fame time to the rows
of corn or pulfe, fo as to caufe roots to ifl'ue from the
firft joint of the ftem, above the furface of the land, . '■S
which otherwife would never have cxifted.
This hoe is worked much in the fame manner as a
common Dutch hoe, or fculfte, is worked in gardens. ' IS
The handle is elevated or depreffed, to fuit the fize of
the perfoh that works it, by means of an iron wedge
being refpeftively applied to the upper or under fide of
the handle that goes into the focket of the hoe.
The wings or moulding plates of the hoe, which are
calculated to earth up the foil to the rows of corn, fo as
to caufe roots to iffue from the firft joint of the ftem
above the furface, which otherwife would not have
exifted, fhould never be ufed for the firft hoeing, but . 9
fhould always be ufed for the laft hoeing, and ufed or
not ufed, at the option of the farmer, when any inter¬
mediate hoeing is performed.
Summary of the Operations-neceffary in executing
the New Husbandry with the Plough.
1. It is indifpenfably neceffary that the farmer be Summaryuf
provided with a drill and hoe-plough. the opera-J
2. The new hufbandry may be begun either with thetl0n’- a
winter or fpring Corn.
3. The land muft be prepared by four goodplough-
ings, given at different times, from the beginning of
April to the middle of September. .
4. Thefe ploughings muft be done in dry weather,
to prevent the earth from kneading.
5. The land muft be harrowed in the fame manner as
if it were fowed in the common way.
6. The rows of wheat fhould be fowed very ftraight.
7. When the field is not very large, a line muft be I
ftrained acrofs it, by which a rill may be traced with
a hoe for the horfe that draws the drill to go in ; and
when the rows are fown, 50 inches muft be left betwixt
each rill. But, when the field is large, flakes at five I
feet diftance from each other muft be placed at the two
ends. The workman muft then trace a fmall furrow . jM
with a plough that has no mold-board, for the horfe to
go in that draws the drill, directing himfelf with his eye
by the flakes.
8. The fowing fhould be finifhed at the end of Sep¬
tember, or beginning of October.
9. The furrows muft be traced the long way of the
land, that as little ground as pofiible may be loft in head¬
lands.
10. The rows, if it can be done, fhould run down -
the Hope of the land, that the water may get the ea-
fier off.
11. The feed-wheat muft be plunged into a tub of
lime-water, and ftirred, that the light qorn may come
to the furface and be fkimmed off.
12. The feed muft be next fpread on a floor, and
frequently ftirred, till it is dry enough to run through * • I
the valves of the happer of the drill.
13. To prevent fmut, the feed may be put into a ley
of afhes and lime.
4 14. Good
AGRICTJIiTUM
^ .Plate YE
Jpart II. AGRICULTURE.
32»
Pradtice. 14. Good old feed-whe^t fhould be chofen in prefe-
rence to new, as it is found by experience not to be fo
fubjeft to fmut.
15. After the happers of the drill are filled, the
,1 , horfe muft go llowly along the furrow that was traced.
I That a proper quantity of feed may be fown, the a-
perture of the happer muft be fuited to the fize of the
grain.
16. As the drill is feldom well managed at firft, the
field ihould be examined after the corn has come up,
and the deficiencies be fupplied.
17. Upon wet foils or ftrong clays, wheat fhould not
be depofited more than two inches deep, on any ac¬
count whatever; nor lefs than two inches deep on dry
foils, From two to three inches is a medium depth for
all fpring corn. But the exaft depth at which grain
fhould be depofited in different foils, from the lighteft
fand to the ftrongeft clay, is readily afcertained only
by obferving at what diftance under the furface of the
land, the fecondary or coronal roots are formed in the
fpring.
18. Stiff lands, that retain the wet, muft be ftirred
or hoed in Oftober. This fhould be done by opening
a furrow in the middle of the intervals, and afterwards
filling it up by a furrow drawn on each fide, which
w'ill raife the earth in the middle of the intervals, and
(leave two fmall furrows next the rows, for draining off
the water, which is very hurtful to wheat in winter.
19. The next ftirring muft be given about the end
of March, with a light plough. In this ftirring the
furrows made to drain the rows muft be filled up by
earth from the middle of the intervals.
20. Some time in May, the rows muft be evened ;
which, though troublefome at firft, foon becomes eafy,
as the weeds are foon kept under by tillage.
2 1. In June, juft before the wheat is in bloom, ano¬
ther ftirring muft be given with the plough. A deep
furrow muft be made in the middle of the intervals,
and the earth thrown upon the fides of the rows.
22. When the wheat is ripe, particular care muft be
taken, in reaping it, to trample as little as poflible on
the ploughed land.
23. Soon after the wheat is carried off the field, the
intervals muft be turned up with the plough, to prepare
them for the feed. The great furrow in the middle
muft not only be filled, but the earth raifed as much as
poffible in the middle of the intervals.
24. In September, the land muft be again fowed
with a drill, as above direfted.
25. In Oftdber, the ftubble muft be turned in for
forming the new intervals ; and the fame management
muft be obferved as directed in the firft year.
We pretend not to determine whether the old or
new hufbandry be preferable in every country. With
j| regard to this point, the climate, the fituation of parti¬
cular land,lkill and dexterity in managing the machinery,
the comparative expence in raifing crops, and many
other eircumftances, muft be accurately attended to be¬
fore a determination can be given.
The following comparative view of the old and new
methods of culture, was furnidled for the editors of Mr
Tull’s Horfe-hoeing Hufbandry, by a gentleman who for
fome years pra&ifed both in a country where the foil was
light and chalky, like that from which he drew his ob-
Vgl. L Part I.
fervations. It is neceffary to remark, that in the new
huftsandry every article is ftated at its full value, and
the crop of each year is four bufhels diort of the other;
though, in feveral years experience, it has equalled and
generally exceeded thofe of the neighbourhood in the
old way.
“ An eftimate of the expence and profit of 1 o acres
of land in 20 years.
I. In the old way.
Firft year, for wheat, cofts 33 1. 5s.
viz. L. s. d. L. s. d.
Firft ploughing, at 6s. per acre 300
Second and third ditto, at 8s.
per acre - 400
Manure, 30s. per acre - 15 o o
213
Compara¬
tive view o£
the expence
and profits
of the Oid
and New
Hufbandry,
22 O O
Two harrowings, and fowing,
at 2s. 6d. per acre - I 5 0
Seed, three bufhels per acre,
at 4s.' per bufhel - 600
Weeding, at 2s. per acre -100
Reaping, binding, and carry¬
ing, at 6s. per acre - 300
 11 5 ©
Second year, for barley, cofts
1 il. 6s. 8d. viz.
Once ploughing, at 6s. per
acre - - 300
Harrowing and fowing, at
1 s. 6d. per acre - 0150
Weeding, at is, per acre - o 10 p
Seed, four bufhels per acre,
at 2s. per bufhel - 400
Cutting, raking, and carry¬
ing, at 3s. 2d. per acre - i 11 8
Grafs-feeds, at 3s. per acre 1 10 o
 n 6 S
44 11 8
Third and fourth years, lying in grafs.,
coft nothing : fo that the expence of
ten acres in four years comes to 44I.
ns. 8d. and in twenty years to - 22218 4
Firft years produce is half a
load ofwheat per acre, at 7I. 35 o o
Second years produce is two
quarters of barley per acre,
at il. - 20 o o
Third and fourth years grafs
is valued at 11. IPs. per acre 15 o o
So that the produce of ten 
acres in four years is 70 P o
And in twenty years it will be 350 o o
Deduct the expence, and there remains
clear profit on ten acres in twenty years  
by the bid way - - 127 1 8
II. In the new way.
Firft year’s extraordinary expence is, for
ploughing and manuring the land, the
fame as in the old way L. 22 o o
S f
Ploughing
322
Pradice.
» ,u ’ Plougftng once more, at 4s.
per acre
Seed, nine gallons per acre,
at 4s. per bufijel
Drilling, at 7d. per acre
Hand-hoeing and weeding, at
2S. 6d. per acre
Horfe-hoeing fix times, at
1 es. per acre
Reaping, binding, and car¬
rying, at 6s. per acre - 3 O O
The fianding annua! charge on  —_
ten acres is - 1315x0
Therefore the expence on ten acres in
twenty years is - - 275 16 8
Add the extraordinaries of the firft year,   
and the fum is - - 297 16 8
The yearly produce is at leaft two quar¬
ters of wheat per acre, at ill 8s. per
quarter ; which, on ten acres in twen-   
ty years, amounts to - 560 o o
Therefore, all things paid, there remains
clear profit on ten acres in twenty years 
by the new way - - 262 3 4
Arguments “ So that the profit on ten acres of land in twenty
the^Ne v/ ^ years» *n t^ie new way, exceeds that in the old by
Method. -L- x35 : 1 : and confequently is confiderably more
than double thereof; an ample encouragement to prac-
tife a fcheme, whereby fo great advantage will arife
from fo fmall a quantity of land, in the compafs of a
twenty-one years leafe ; one year being allowed, both
in the old and new way, for preparing the ground.
“ It ought withal to be obferved, that Mr Tull’s huf-
fcandry requires no manure at all, though we have here,
to prevent objections, allowed the charge thereof for
the firft year ; and moreover, that though the crop of
wheat from the drill-plough is here put only at two
quarters on an acre, yet Mr Tull himfelf, by actual ex¬
periment and meafure, found the produce of his drill¬
ed wheat-crop- amounted to almoft four quarters on art
acre.”
It appears alfo from a comparative calculation of ex*
pence and profit between the drill and common huf-
bandry, taken from Mr Baker’s report to the Dublin
Society of his experiments in agriculture for the year
1765, that there is a clear profit arifing upon an Irifh
acre of land in 15 years in the drill hulbandry of
L. 5 2 : 3 : 1 t , and in the common hulbandry of
L. 27 : 19 : 2 ; and therefore a greater profit in the
drilled acre in this time of L. 24 : 4 : 9, which amounts
to L. 1 : 12 : 3'J per annum. From hence he infers,
that in every 15 years the fee-fi'mple of all the tillage-
lands of the kingdom is loft to the community by the
common courfe of tillage. In ftating the- accounts,
from which their refult is obtained, no notice is taken
of fences, water-cutting the land, weeding and reap¬
ing, becaufe thefe articles depend on a variety of cir-
cumftances, and will, in general, exceed in the com¬
mon hulbandry thofe incurred by the other.
Befides, the certainty of a crop is greater in this new
way than in the old way of lowing; for moft of the
Part IL
accidents attending wheat crops, are owing to their t Prafticc. ^
being late fown, which is needfary to the farmer in
the old way ; but in the horfe-hoeing method the far¬
mer may plough two furrows whereon the next crop
is to Hand immediately after the firft crop is off. In
this manner of hulbandry, the land may be ploughed
dry and drilled wet, without any inconvenience ; and
the feed is never planted under the furrow, but placed
juft at the depth which is moft proper, that is, at about
two inches; in which cafe it is eafy to preferve it, and
there is no danger of burying it. Thus the feed has
all the advantage of early fowing, and none of the dif¬
ad vantages that may attend it in the other way, and
the crop is much more certain than By any other means
that can be ufed.
The condition in which the land is left after the
crop, is no lefs in favour of the horfe-hoeing hulbandry
than all the other articles. The number of plants is
the great principle of the exhaufting of land. In the
common hulbandry, the number is vaftly greater than
in the drilling way, and three plants in four often
come to nothing, after having exhaufted the ground
as much as profitable plants; and the weeds which live
to the time of harveft in the common way, exhauft the
land no lefs than fo many plants of corn, often much
more. ^The horfe-hoeing method deftroys all the weeds
in the far greater part of the land, and leaves that part
uijexhauffed and perfe&ly frefh for another crop. The
wheat plants being alfo but a third part of the number
at the utmoft of thofe in the fowing way, the land is
fo much the lefs exhaufted by them; and it is very e-
vident from the whole, that it muft be, as experience
proves that it is, left in a much better condition after
this than after the common hulbandry. 22f
The farmers who are againft this method objeft, that ObjedUon*
it makes the plants too ftrong, and that they are more and an*
liable to the blacks or blights of infefts for that rea- ^wers*
fon; but as this allows that the hoeing can, without
the ufe of dung, give too much nourilhment, it is very
plain that it can give enough ; and it is the farmer’s
fault if he do not proportion his pains fo as to have the
advantage of the nourifhment without the difadvanta-
ges. It is alfo objected, that as hoeing can make poor
land rich enough to Bear good crops of wheat, it may
make good land too rich for it. But if this Ihould
Happen, the fowing of wheat on it may be let alone a
while, and in the place of it the farmer may have a
crop of turnips, carrots, cabbages, and the like, which
are excellent food for cattle, and cannot be over-nou-
rilhed: or, if this is not chofen, the land, when thus
made too rich, may foon be fufficiently impoverifired
by fowing corn upon it in the common old way.
The method of horfe-hoeing hulbandry, fo ftrongly
recommended by Mr Tull, is obje&ed to by many on
account of the largenefs of the intervals which are to
be left behind the rows of corn. Thefe are required
to be about five feet wide; and it is thought that fuch
wide fpaces are fo much loft earth, and that the crop
is to be fo much, the lefs for it. But it is to be obfer¬
ved, that the rows of corn feparated by thefe intervals
need not be fingle; they may be double, triple, or
quadruple, at the pleafure of the farmer; and four
rows thus Handing as one will have the five foot inter¬
val but one-fourth of its bignefs as to the whole quan¬
tity, and it- will be but as fifteen inch intervals!© plants
AGRICULTURE.
L. s. d. L. s. d.
200
250
0510
1 5 o
500
• Part IT.
!fl| PraAke. in fingle rows. Corn that is fown irregularly in the
"■j 1' common way, feems .indeed to cover the ground bet¬
ter than that in rows: but this is a mere deceptio tifus;
for the italics of corn are never fo thick as when they
come out of one plant, or as when they ftand in a row;
and a horfe-hoed plant of corn will have 20 or 30
{talks in a piece of ground of the fame quantity, where
AGRICULTURE.
323
426
that not in refpeft of the foil, but of the huihandry of Praflice. ^
the owners, who are ufually in the old way, and change v
the fpecies of corn, and make it neceffary to fallow
every fecond, third or fourth year. Neverthelefs it
has been found by later experiments, that the intervals
betwixt the rows of plants, as recommended by Mr
Tull, were too great, perhaps double of what they
an unhoed plant will have only two or three ftalks. If ihould be in the moft profitable method of culture; by
thefe ftalks of the hoed plant were feparated and which means much lefs crops are obtained than might
planted over the intervals, the whole land would be
better covered than it is in the common way; and the
truth is, that though thefe hoed fields feem to con¬
tain a much lefs crop than the common fown fields, yet
they in reality do contain a much greater. It is only
the different placing that makes the fown crop feem
the larger, and even this is only while both crops are-
young.
The intervals are not loft ground, as is ufually fup-
pofed, but when well horfe-hoed they are all employ¬
ed in the' nourifhment of the crop ; the roots of the
plants in the adjoining rows fpreading themfelves thro’
the whole interval, and drawing fuch nourifhment from
it, that they increafe accordingly. When the plants
{land in the fcattered way, as in common fowing, they
are too clofe to one another; each robs its neighbours
of part of their nourifhment, and confequently the earth
is foon exhaufted, and all the plants half ftarved. The
clofe Handing of them alfo prevents the benefit of after-
tilling, as the hoe cannot be brought in, nor the
ground by any means ftirred between them to give it
a new breaking, and confequently afford them new food.
Experiments have abundantly proved, that in large
grounds of wheat where the different methods have
been tried, thofe parts where the intervals were largeft
have produced the greateft crops, and thofe where hoe¬
ing was ufed without dung have been much richer
be produced at nearly the fame expence. This has
rendered the profits of the drill method much lefs than
they would have been in a more judicious praftice, and,
confequently, has proved a great difadvantage to it in
comparifon with the broad-caft. Mr Tull was led into
this, partly from the want of more perfect inftruments
for hoeing, and of ploughs proper for drilling.
To the preceding ftatements, the following obferva-
tions by Sir John Anftruther, publifhed among the Se¬
lect Papers of the Bath Society, may not be improper¬
ly fubjoined.
The flow progrefs which the Drill-hufbandry has Obferva-
made in many parts of Great Britain fince Mr Tull’st10”® ^Sl1’
time, he obferves, has been principally owing to the
want of proper drill-ploughs. Before drilling can be¬
come general, thofe ploughs muft be Ample, fuch as a
common ploughman accuftomed to ufe ftrong inftru¬
ments can ufe without breaking, and fuch alfo as com¬
mon workmen can eafily make or repair. Mathema¬
tical accuracy he confiders as not required for deliver¬
ing the feed: for it matters very little whether there
be a quarter of a peck more or lefs fown, if it be deli¬
vered with tolerable regularity. He therefore had a
plough made, according to his own direttions, by a
common plough-wright, of fufficient ftrength for any
land made fit for turnips or wheat. It was tried on
very rough ground unfit for fowing, in order to afcer-
than thofe where dung was ufed without hoeing. If it tain its ftrength ; and it had been ufed for eight years
were pofiible that plants could ftand as thick, and thrive without its needing any repair. It is a double drill-
as well over the whole furface of the ground, as they plough, which fows two ridges at a time, the horfe
do in the rows feparated by thefe large intervals, the
crops of corn fo produced would be vaftly greater than
any that have been heard of; but the truth is, that
plants receive their growth not according to the ground
they ftand on, but to the ground they can extend their
roots into; and therefore a fingle row may contain
more plants than a large interval can nourifh, and
therefore the fame number that ftand in that row, and
no more than thefe, could be nourilhed, if fcattered
over the whole interval; and they would be much worfe
nouriftied in that way ; becaufe while the interval is
going in the furrow between them, and of courfe does
not tread upon the ground intended to be fown; which
with a fingle drill muft be the cafe, and does much
harm by the horfes feet finking and making holes in
the fine ground, which retain the water, and hurt the
wheat when young.
He proceeds to obferve, “ That having read Mr For¬
bes upon the extenfive practice of the new husbandry,
and fome other authors, who gave a more clear and di-
ftindl account of the different operations in drilling than
had heretofore been given, I wiftied to try them, and
void, the eatth may be ftirred about them, and new to adapt my plough to fow the quantities therein di¬
roots will be formed in great numbers from every one redted. It was, however, adjufted to fow a {mailer
broken by the inftruments, and new nourifhment laid quantity, and the feed was not fteeped.
before thefe roots by the breaking the particles of
; Not having ground fo proper as I wifhed, it was
earth, by which the plants will have fupplies that they drilled on the fide of a field, the foil of which was light
1 ’ -j .1- and fandy, and in fuch bad order, that the preceding
crop was a very indifferent one. It was therefore ma¬
nured with a compoft dung-hill.
“ After crofs-ploughing and manuring, it was laid
into four and a half feet ridges, then harrowed and
drilled with one peck and a half of wheat on an acre
and a quarter, which is nearly one peck and a fifth per
Englilh acre. It was drilled the 27th of O&ober, and
rolled after drilling. The crop was late in*its appear¬
ance, and very backward in the fpring.
S f 2 “ March
cannot have when fcattered over the whole furface,
becaufe the ground is then all occupied, and cannot be
moved between the plants.
All foils and all fituations are not equally proper
circum- for this method of planting in rows, with large inter-
ftance the vals an(j hoeing between. The lighteft foils feem to
thod islefs ^or't’ anc^ t^ie tougb and wet clays the worft.
proper. Such grounds as lie on the fides of hills are alfo lefs pro¬
per than others for this work.
This method is not fo proper in common fields, but
A G R I C U
“ March 31ft, it was horfe-hoed one furrow from
"'the rows.
“ April 8th, it was hand-hoed and weeded in the
'row's.
“ 2 5th, horfe-hoed again, laying a furrow back /<?
the rows.
“ May 15th, hand-hoed the fecond time.
“ June id, horfe-hoed from the row's.
“ June 12th, hand-hoed the third time.
“ July 14th, horfe-hoed to the rows.
“ At this laft hoeing, as many of the ears were
beaten down into the intervals by wind and rain, a man
went before the horfe-hoe, and turned the ears back
into their proper place.
“ The crop, when reaped and threflied, yielded me
36 bufhels on one acre and a quarter, which is ,'8
bufhels and three pecks per acre ; and the produce
from one peck and half 96 for one.
“ As the produce appeared fo great, from land in
fech bad order, it was carefully meafured again, and
found to be right. But this increafe, though great,
was not fo large as Mr Crake of Glafgow had without
dung.
« Mr Randal fays, ‘ It is an experimented faft, that
on a fine loam exquifitely prepared, 144 bulhels have
been produced from one acre. And, I believe, it is
not known* what the increafe may be brought to in rich
lands by high cultivation.’
“ Some years fince, I had beans dropt alternately
with potatoes, at two feet diflance in the rows, wdiich
were three feet apart, and ploughed in the intervals.
The land adjoining was fown with beans and peafe,
which were a good crop ; but thofe fown among the,
potatoes,a better one. I pulled one ftem of the beans
planted with the potatoes, which had three branches
rifing from the bottom,-and it produced 225 beans. In
all the trials of drilled beans, moft of the Items had two
branches, with many pods upon each.- From thefe
and other inftances, I believe it is not yet known to
what increafe grain may be brought by drilling, good
cultivation, and manure.
“ Horfe-hoeing is certainly preferable to clofe drill¬
ing or hand-hoeing; but the latter is fuperior to broad-
caft.
“ Horfe-hoeing the full depth increafes the crop, by
making it tiller or branch more than it otherwife would
do ; and the advantage is diftinctly obfervable every
hoeing, by the colour of the grain. It prepares the
ground for the next crop, at the fame time that it in-
oreafes the crop growing, which hand-hoeihg does not,
although it may deftroy the weeds. Thus drilled
ground is kept in a loofe open ftate to receive the be¬
nefit of the influence of the air and weather, which
broadcoaft has not; and it is evident, from certain ex¬
perience, that crops maybe drilled many years to good
advantage without manure.
“ Suppofe the crops only 20 bufhels per acre, what
courfe of broadcaft crops will give 51. an acre for the
courfe ? But fuppofe they are dunged the fame as any
ground in the moft approved courfe, there is the great-
eft reafon to expeft as much as in the above experi¬
ment, which is 28 and three-quarters, and at 5s. per
feufhel amounts to 7I. 3s. qd.
“ Calculations may be of fervice to thofe who wifh
to try drilling, and have few books to direct them.
L T U R E. Part II.
“ One acre is 10 chains long, of 660 feet, or 220 Pra<5tice. '
yards long, and one yard broad, containing 4840 fquare '
yards. Then if the ridge is four feet fix inches, this
makes 14 ridges, and three feet to fpare. This length
of 220 yards, multiplied by 14 (the number of ridges)
gives a length of yards 3080, to which add 146 for the
fpare three feet, and it will be 3226 yards. And as
two rows are drilled on a ridge, the number of rows
will be in length 645 2 yards; but as a deduftion of
172 yards muft be made for the head ridges, fuppofe
three yards each, &c. the whole length to be fown will
be 6280 yards clear. Now a gallon (Winchefter) holds
about 80,000 grains. The quantity recommended to
be drilled by Mr Forbes and others, being fix gallons,
or two-thirds of a bufhel per acre, is nearly 78 grains
to a ^ard, or 26 to a foot. But in my experiment, by
this Calculation, it was only about 11 grains to a foot;
which is quite fufficient, if the feed be good, and it be
riot deftroyed by vermin.
“ Now with regard to the quantity of land this
drill-plough may fow ; if a horfe walks at the rate of
two miles per hour, he goes 16 miles in eight hours,
or 28,460 yards. As he fows two ridges at once, this
is feven lengths and two-thirds per acre, or 1686 yards
to fow an acre, being nearly 17 acres in a day.
“ Four horfe-hoeings are calculated equal to two
ploughings. In plain ploughing they fuppofe the ridge
is ploughed with four furrows, or eight for twice 1
ploughing. The four horfe-hoeings are eight furrows,
equal to two ploughings.
“ Mr Tull directs four hoeings, and Mr Forbes
five. Firft, In November, when the plant has four
blades. 2dly, In March, deep, and nearer the rows
than the former ; both thefe hoeings fhould be from
the rows. 3dly, Hand-hoed when it begins to fpindle,
if the earth be crumbly, to the rows. 4thly, When
it begins to bloffom', from the rows, but as near to
them as in the fecond hoeing. 5thly, When done
bloflbming, to ripen and fill the grain, to the rows.
“ The laft hoeing Mr Tull does not diretft, but Mr
Forbes advifes it, as being of effential fervice in filling
the grain, and faving trouble in making the next feed-
furrows. They advife the patent or fowing-plough for
horfe-hoeing; and the expence is calculated by Mr
Craick at one guinea per acre, reaping included.
“ But let us fuppofe the following, which are the
prices in the county I live in (Fife).
L. s. d.
Ploughing to form the ridges, - 040
Harrowing, - - -004
Four hoeings, equal to two ploughings, 080
Sowing, - - - 004
Hand-hoeing twice, - - 080
Seed, one peck and a half, at 5 s. a bufhel, o 1 10
Whole expence per acre, - L. 1 2 6”
Drill-hufbandry is, as a good writer has juftly defi-^6^”^
ned it, “ ths practice of a garden brought into the field.” broad-caft
Every man of the leaft refle&ion muft be fenfible, that methods
the practice of the garden is much better than that of more parti-
the field, only a little more expenfive ; but if (as is the cu,arlV
cafe) this extra expence be generally much more than ”
rapid by the fuperior goodnefs and value of drilled
crops, it ought to have no weight in comparing the
two modes of hufbandry.
In
I
r|?art II. A G R I C U
Pradice. In the broadcaft method the land is often fown in
' bad tilth, and always fcattered at random, fometimes
by very unfkilful hands. In drilling, the land mull be
in fine order ; the feed is fet in trenches drawn regu¬
larly, all of nearly an equal depth, and that depth fuit-
ed to the nature of each kind of feed. Thefe feeds
are alfo diftributed at proper diftances, and by being,
equally and fpeedily covered, are protected from vermin
and other injuries ; fo that the practice of the garden
is here exaftly introduced into the field.
In the broadcall method the feed falls in fome pla¬
ces too thick, in others too thin ; and being imper-
feftly covered, a part of it is devoured by vermin which
follow the fower ; another part is left expofed to rain
or froft, or to heats, which greatly injure it. When
harrowed, a great part of it (fmall feeds efpecially) is
buried fo deep, that if the foil be. wet, it perilhes be¬
fore it can vegetate.
Again : When thus fown, there is no meddling with
the crop afterwards, becaufe its growth is irregular.
The foil cannot be broken to give it more nourifirment,
nor Can even the weeds be deftroyed without much in¬
convenience and injury.
But in the drill-hufbandry the intervals between the
rows, whether double or fir.gle, may be horfe-hoed;
and thereby nourifhment may repeatedly be given to
the plants, and the weeds almoft totally deftroyed.
The very fame effedfts which digging has upon young
fhrubs and trees in a garden, will refult from horfe-
hoeing in a field, whether, the crop be corn or pulfe :
For the reafon of the thing is the fame in both cafes,
and being founded in nature and fact, cannot ever fail.
In drilling, no more plants are raifed on the foil than
it can Well fupport t, and by dividing and breaking the
ground they have the full advantage of all its fertility.
l t u R E. 325
The plough prepares the land for a crop, but goes Pm&ice..
no further; for in the broadcaft hufbandry it cannot v
be ufed : but the crop receives greater benefit from the
tillage of the land by the horfe-hoe, while it is grow¬
ing, than it could in the preparation. No'care in til¬
ling the land previous to fowing can prevent weeds ri-
fing with the crop ; and if thefe weeds be not deftroy¬
ed while the crop is growing, they will greatly injure
it. In the broadcaft huibandry this cannot be done ■;
but in drilling, the horfe-hoe will effect' it eafily.
And what adds to the farmer’s misfortune is, that
the moft pernicious weeds have feeds winged with
down, which are carried by the wind to great diftan¬
ces ; fuch are thiftles, fow-thiftles, colts-foot, and fome
others.
If the expence of horfe-hoeing be objefted, there
are two anfwers which may very properly be made :
The firft is, that this expence is much lefs than that
of hand-hoeing were it pradticable, or of hand-weed¬
ing. The fecond is, that it is more than rapid by the
quantity of feed faved by drilling ; to fay nothing of
the extra quantity and goodnefs of the crops, which
are generally felf-evident.
Upon the whole-: If the particular modes of cul¬
tivating land by the new hulbandry ftiould, after all,
be confidered as perhaps too limited to be univer-
fally adopted ; yet it has been of great ufe in rai-
fing fufpicions concerning the old method, and in turn¬
ing the views of philofophers and fanners towards im-
provihg in general. Many real improvements in agri¬
culture have been the confequences of thefe fufpicions j
and as this fpirit of inquiry remains in full vigour, a:
folid foundation is laid for expecting ftill further im¬
provements in this ufeful art.
A G R
'AGRIFOLIUM, or Aquifolium. See Ilex.
AGRIGENTUM, (anc. geog.), a city of Sicily,
'part of the fite of which is now occupied by a town
called Girgenti from the old name. See Girgenti.
According to ancient authors, Dedalus, the moft fa¬
mous mechanician of fabulous antiquity, fled to this
fpot for protection againft Minos, and built many won¬
derful edifices for Cocalus king of the iffand. Long
after his flight, the people of Gela fent a colony hi-
' ther 6co years before the birth of Chrift ; and from
the name of a neighbouring ftream called the new city
dcragas, whence the Romans formed their word slgri-
gentinn. Thefe Greeks converted the ancient abode
of the Siculi into a citadel to guard the magnificent
city, which they ereCted on the hillocks below.
An advantageous fituation, a free government with
all its happy effefts, and an aftive commercial fpi--
rit, exalted their commonwealth to a degree of riches
and power unknown to the other Greek fettlements,
Syracufe alone excepted. But the profperity of Agri-
gentum appears to have been but of ftrort duration, and
tyranny foon deftroyed its liberties.
Ph alar is was the firft that reduced it to flaveiy. His
name is familiar to moft readers on account of his
cruelty, and the brazen bull in which he tortured his
■enemies.: (See Fhalmis.)—Fhalaris. met with the
A G R
common fate of tyrants, and after his death the A-
grigentines enjoyed their liberty for 150 years; at
the expiration of which term Thero ufnrped the fo-
vereign authority. The moderation, juftice, and va¬
lour of this prince preferred him from oppofition
while living, and have refeued his memory from the
obloquy of pofterity. He joined his fon-in-law Gelo,
king of Syracufe, in a war againft the Carthaginians ;.
in the courfe of which victory attended all his fteps,
and Sicily faw heffelf for a time delivered from her
African opprellions. Soon after his deceafe, his fon;
Thrafydeus was defpoiled of the diadem, and Agrigen-
tum reftored to her old democratical government. Du-
cetius next difturbed the general tranquillity. He was •
a chief of the mountaineers, defeendants of the Siculi;
and was an overmatch for the Agrigentintes while they
were unfupported by alliances,but fank under the weight
of tlu*!r union with the Syracufans. Some trifling alter¬
cations diffolved this union, , and produced a war, in
which the Agrigentines were worfted, and compelled1
to fubmit to humiliating terms of peace. Refentment
led them to embrace witK'joy the propofals of the A-
thenians, then meditating an attack upon Syracufe.
Their new friends foon made them feel that the fa-
crifice of liberty and fortune would be the price of /
their protection; and this confideration brought them <
fpeedily
A G R [ 326 ] A G. R
Agrigen- fpeedily back to their old conneftions. But as if it felves up for fafety among the bleak and inacceffible Agrigen-
( had been decreed that all friendfhip (hould be fatal to rocks of the prefent city. , tutn-
/ t^e;r repofe, the reconciliation and its effefts drew up- At the north-eaft angle of the ancient limits, upon
on^them the anger of the Carthaginians. By this ene- fome foundations of large regular ftones, a church has
my their armies were routed, their city taken, their been eredted; a road appears hewn in the folid rock
race almoft extirpated, and fcarce a veftige df magnifi- for the convenience of the votaries that vifited this
cence was left. Agrigentum lay 50 years buried under temple in ancient days. It was then dedicated to
its own ruins; when Timoleon, after triumphing over Ceres and her daughter Proferpine, the peculiar pa-
the Carthaginians, and reftoring liberty to Sicily, col- tronefles of Sicily. Biihop Blaife has fucceeded to
le&ed the defcendants of the Agrigentines, and fent their honours.
them to re-eftabli<h the dwellings of their forefathers. At the fouth-eaft corner, where the ground, rifing
Their exertions were rewarded with aflonifhing fuc- gradually, ends in a bold eminence, which is crowned
cefs ; for Agrigentum rofe from its afhes with fuch a with majeftic columns, are the ruins of a temple faid
renewal of vigour, that in a very fhort time we find it to have been confecrated to Juno. To the weft of
engaged in the bold fcheme of feizing a lucky moment,
when Agathocles and Carthage had reduced Syracufe
to the loweft ebb, and arrogating to itfelf fupremacy
over all the Sicilian republics. Xenodicus was appoint¬
ed the leader of this arduous enterprife ; and had his
latter operations been .as fortunate as his firft campaign,
this, ilands the building commonly called the ‘Temple
of Concord; the ftone of which, and the other buildings,
is the fame as that of the neighbouring mountains and
cliffs, a conglutination of fea-fand and {hells, full of per¬
forations, of a hard and durable texture, and a deep
reddifh brown colour. This Doric temple has all its
Agrigentum would have acquired.fuch a preponderance columns, entablature, pediments, and walls entire; only
of reputation and power, that the rival ftates would part of the roof is wanting. It owes its prefervation to
not even have dared to attack it. But a few brilliant the piety of fome Chriftians, who have covered half the
exploits were fucceeded by a fevere overthrow; the nave, and converted it into a church confecrated un-
Agrigentines loft courage, difagreed in council, and
humbly fued for peace to Agathocles. This common¬
wealth afterwards took ui ftrong part with Pyrrhus;
and when he left Sicily to the mercy of her enemies,
threw itfelf into the arms of Carthage. During the
der the invocation of St Gregory, biihop of Girgenti.
Proceeding in the fame direction, you walk.between
rows of fepulchfes cut in the rock wherever it admit¬
ted of being excavated by the hand of man, or was fo
already by that of nature. Some maffes of it are hewn
firft Punic war Agrigentum was the head-quarters of into the ftiape of coffins ; others drilled full of fmall
the Carthaginians, and was befieged by the Roman Iquare holes employed in a different mode of interment,
confuls, who after eight months blockade took it by and ferving as receptacles of urns. One ponderous
florin. It neverthelefs changed mailers feveral times piece of the rock lies in an extraordinary pofition ; by
during the conteft between thofe rival Hates, and in the failure of its foundation, or the Ihock of an earth-
every inftance-fuffered moll cruel outrages. After this quake, it has been loofened from the general quarry^
period very little mention of it occurs in hiftory, nor
do we know the precife time of the deftrudtion of the
old city and the building of the new one. See
Girgenti.
The principal part of the ancient city lay in the
vale ; the prefent town, called Girgenti, occupies the
mountain on which the citadel of Cocalus Hood.
It was difficult to be more judicious and fortunate
in the choice of fituation for a large city. The
inhabitants were here provided with every requifite
for defence, pleafure, and comfort of life; a na¬
tural wall, formed by abrupt rocks, prefented a ftrong
barrier againft affailants ; pleafant hills flickered them
•on three fides without impeding the circulation of air;
before them a broad plain watered by the Acragas,
gave admittance to the fea-breeze, and to a noble pro¬
and rolled down the declivity, where it now remains fu-
pine with the cavities turned upwards. Only a Angle
column marks the confufed heap of mofs-grown ruins
belonging to the temple of Hercules. It flood on a
projecting rock above a chafm in the ridge, which was
cut through for a paffage to the emporium.
In the fame trad, over fome hills, is fituated the
building ufually called the tomb of Thero. It is fur-
rounded by aged olive-trees, which call a wild irregular
{hade over the ruin. The edifice inclines to the pyra-
midical lhape, and confifts at prefent of a triple plinth,
and a bafe fupporting a fquare pedeftal: upon this plain
folid foundation is raifed a fecond order, having a win¬
dow in each front, and at each angle two Ionic pila-
fters crowned with an entablature of the Doric order.
Its infide is divided into a vault, a ground room, and
fpeft of that awful element; the port or emporium lay one in the Ionic ftory, communicating with each other
in view at the mouth of the river, and probably the by means of a fmall internal ftaircafe.
road acrofs the fiat was lined with gay and populous
Xuburbs.
The hofpitality and parade for which the Agrigen¬
tines are celebrated in hiftory were fupported by an ex-
tenfive commerce; by means of which, the common¬
wealth was able to refill many fllocks of adverfity, and
always to rife again with frelh fplendour. It was,
however, crulhed by the general fall of Grecian liberty;
the feeble remnants of its population, which had fur-
yived fo many calamities, were at length driven out of
•its walls by the Saracens, and obliged to lock them-
3
In the plain are feen the fragments of the temple of
Efculapius; part of two columns and two pilafters,
with an intermediate wall, fupport the end of a farm-
houfe, and were probably the front of the cella. Pur-
fuing the track of the walls towards the weft, you ar¬
rive at a fpot which is covered with the gigantic re¬
mains of the temple of Jupiter the Olympian, minute-
tely defcribed by Diodorus Siculus. It may literally
be faid that it has not one ftone left upon another; and
it is barely poffible, with the help of much conjecture,
to difcover the traces of its plan and dimenfions. Di¬
odorus
!
A G R [ 327 ]' A G R
grigcn- odorus calls it the largeft temple in the whole ifland :
it.um’. but adds, that the calamities of war caufed the work to
be abandoned before the roof could be put on ; and
that the Agrigentines were ever after reduced to fuch
a ftate of poverty and dependence, that they never had
it in their power to finifli this fuperb monument of the
tafle and opulence of their anceftors. The length of
this temple was 370 Greek feet, its breadth 60, and
its height 220, exclufive of the foundations or bafement
ftory; the extent and folidity of its vaults and under¬
works were wonderful; its fpacious porticos and ex-
quifite fculpture were fuited to the grandeur of the
whole. It was not built in the ufual ftyle of Sicilian
temples with a cella of maffive walls and a peryilile,
but was defigned in a mixt tafte with half columns let
into the walls on the outfide, the infide exhibiting a
plain furface.
The next ruin belongs to the temple of Caftor and
Pollux ; vegetation has covered the lower parts of the
building, and only a few fragments of columns appear
between the vines. This was the point of the hill
where the wall ftopt on the brink of a large fifh-pond
fpoken of by Diodorus : it was cut in the folid rock
30 feet deep, and water was conveyed to it from the
hills. In it was bred a great quantity of fifli for the
ufe of public entertainments; fwans and various other
kinds of wild fowl fwam along its furface, for the a-
mufement of the citizens, and the great depth of water
prevented an enemy from furprifing the town on that
fide. It is now dry and ufed as a garden On the
oppofite bank are two tapering columns without their
capitals, moft happily placed in a tuft of carob trees.
Monte Toro, where Hanno encamped with the Car¬
thaginian army, before the Roman confuls drew him
into an engagement that ruined his defenfive plan, is a
noble back-ground to this pi&urefque group of objefts.
—The whole fpace comprehended within the walls of
the ancient city abounds with traces of antiquity, foun¬
dations, brick-arches, and little channels for the con¬
veyance of water ; but in no part are any ruins that
can be prefumed to have belonged to places of public
entertainment. This is the more extraordinary, as the
Agrigentines were a fenfual people, fond of (hews and
dramatic performances, and the Romans never dwelt
in any place long without inttoducing their favage
games. Theatres and amphitheatres feem better cal¬
culated than mod buildings to refill the outrages of
time-; and it is furprifing that not even the veftiges of
their form fhould remain on the ground.
AGRIMONIA, Agrimony : A genus of the di-
gynia order, belonging to the dbdecandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
35th order, Sewicofa:. The charablers are thefe: The
calyx is a monophyllous perianthium, divided into five
acute fegments, perfillent, and fenced with another
calyx : The cijra/A* confifts of five petals, flat, and cre-
nated at the ends : The Jlamina have ten capillary fila¬
ments, (hbrter than the- corolla, and inferted into the
calyx ; the antherae are fmall, didymous, and comprefl-
ed : The pi ft ilium has a germen beneath ; the ftyli are
two, Ample, and the length of the (lamina : There is
no pericarpium; the calyx is contra&ed in the neck,
and indurated : The feeds are two, and roundifli. Of
this genus there are five fpecies enumerated by botani-
.t,pa.
cal writers; but none of them have any remarkable
properties except the two following. a- 1 *
Species and properties. 1. The eupatoria, or com- t__ ;
mon agrimony, grows naturally in feveral parts of Bri¬
tain by the fides of hedges and of woods. It
is eat by (heep and goats, but refufed by horfes
and fwine. The Canadians are faid to ufe an infufion-
of the root in burning fevers with great fuccefs. An
infufion of fix ounces of the crown of the root in a
quart of boiling water, fweetened with honey, and half
a pint of it drank three times a-day, is an effeftual cure
for the jaundice, according to Dr Hill. He advifes
to begin with a vomit, afterwards to keep the belly
foluble, and to continue the medicine as long as any
fymptoms of the difeafe remain. It is faid to be an
aperient, detergent, and (Irengthener of the vifeera.
Hence it is recommended in fcorbutic diforders, in de¬
bility and laxity of the inteftines, &c. Digefted in-
whey, it affords an ufeful diet-drink for the fpring-
feafon, not ungrateful to the palate or (lomach. Doc¬
tor Alfton fays, that the bell mode of adminiftering
this herb is in powder, when the intention is to cor¬
roborate ; and that if thus taken in a large quantity,
we may expedl many of the effects of the bark from it -
in agues.
2. The odorata, or fweet-feented agrimony. This
grows near four feet high ; the leaves have more pin ns
than the former; the ferratures of the leaves are alfo;
(harper, and, when handled, they emit an agreeable
odour. The leaves of this fpecies make an agreeable-.:
cooling tea, which is fometim-es preferibed by phyfi-
cians as a drink for people in fevers.
Culture Both thefe fpecies may be propogated
either by feed, or by parting the roots in autumn when-
the leaves begin to decay. The feeds ought alfo to be
Town in this feafon- ; for if kept out of the ground till
fpring, they feldbm come up that year.-r—Agrimony ia >
a Hardy perennial plant, and will thrive in almoft any
foil or fituation ; but . the plants (hould not be placed -
nearer one another than two feet, that the roots may
have room to- fpread.
Hemp Agrimonts. See Eupatorium.
Water Hemp-AaRiMoNY. See Bidens.
AGRIONIA, in Grecian antiquity, feftivals an¬
nually celebrated, by the Boeotians,- in honour of
Bacchus. At thefe fellivals, the women pret&nded to
fearch after Bacchus as a fugitive; and, after fome time,
gave over their inquiry, faying, that he was fled to the
Mules, and was concealed among them.
AGRIOPHAGI, in antiquity, a name given to
thofe who fed on wild beads. The word is Greek,..
compounded of “ wild,,, “ favage,” and W"*
“ I eat.” The name is given, by ancient writers, to
certain people, real or fabulous, faid to have fed alto¬
gether on lions and panthers. Pliny and Solinus fpeak'
of Agriophagi m Ethiopia, and Ptolemy of others id
India on this fide the Ganges’.
AGRIPPA-, in midwifery, a term applied to chil¬
dren, brought forth'with their feet foremoft;
Agrippa (Herod), the fon of Ariftobulus and"
Mariamne, and grandfon to Herod the Great, was.
born in the year of the world 3997, three years be-r
fore the birth of our Saviour, and feven years be--
fore the vulgar sera. After the death of Arillobu-
k*
A G R r 328 ] A G R
Agrippa. lus his father, Jofephus informs us, that Herod his grandfather. He returned to Judea, and governed it A^ripp
r~ grandfather took care of his education, and feat him to the great fatisfaction of the Jews. But the defire ^
to Rome to make his court to Tiberius. The em- of pleafing them, and a miftaken zeal for their religion,
peror conceived a great affeftfon for Agrippa, and induced him to commit an unjuft action, the memory of
placed him near his fon Drufus. Agrippa very foon which is preferred in Scripture, A&sxii. i,2,&c. for
won the graces of Drufus, and of the emprefs An- 1 ,1 r
tonia. But Drufus dying fuddenly, all thofe who
had been much about him were commanded by Tibe¬
rius to withdraw from Rome, left the fight and pre¬
fence of them ihould renew his affliction. Agrippa,
who had indulged bis inclination to liberality, was ob¬
liged to leave Rome overwhelmed with debts, and in a
very poor condition. He did not think it fit to go to
Jerufalem, becaufe he was not able to make a figui
about the feaft of the paffover, in the year of JefusChrift
44, St James major, the fon of Zebedee and brother to
St John the Evangelift, was feized by, his order and
put to death. He proceeded alfo to lay hands on Sj:
Peter, and imprifoned him, waiting till the feftival was
over, that he might then have him executed.' But
God having miraculoufly delivered St Peter from the
place of his confinement, the defigns of Agrippa were
fruftrated. After the paflbver, this prince went from.
there fuitable to his birth. He retired therefore to Jerufalem to Ccefarea, and there had games performed
 a1' --l— ,-1 ■ in honour of Claudius. Here the inhabitants of Tyre
and Sidon waited on him to fue for peace. Agrippa
being come early in the morning to the theatre, with
a defign to give them audience, feated himfelf on his
throne, drefted in a robe of filver-tiffue, worked in the
moft admirable manner. The rifing fun darted on it
" ith its rays, and gave it fuch a luftre as the eyes of
the caftle of Malfada, where he lived rather like a pri¬
vate perfon than a prince. Herod the Tetrarch, his
uncle, who had married Herodias his fifter, affifted him
for fome time with great generofity. He made him
principal magiftrate of Tiberias, and prefented him
with a large fum of money: but all this was not fuffi-
cient to anfwer the exceffive expences and profufion
of Agrippa ; fo that Herod growing weary of. afiifting the fpeCtators could not endure. When therefore the
him, and reproaching him with his bad oeconomy. A-
grippa took a refolution to quit Judea and return to
Rome. Upon his arrival, he was received into the
good graces of Tiberius, and commanded to attend
Tiberius Nero the fon of Drufus. Agrippa, however,
"having more inclination for Caius the Ton of Germani-
cus, and grandfon of Antonia, chofe rather to attach
himfelf to him ; as if he had fome prophetic views of
the future elevation of Caius, who at that time was be¬
loved by all the world. The great affiduity and agree¬
able behaviour of Agrippa fo far engaged this prince,
that he kept him continually about him.
Agrippa being one day overheard by Eutyches, a
have whom he had made free, to exprefs his wifiies for
Tiberius’s death and the advancement of Caius, the
Have betrayed him to the Emperor; whereupon A-
grippa was loaded with fetters, and committed to the
cuftody of an officer. Tiberius foon after dying, and
Caius Caligula fucceeding him, the new Emperor
heaped many favours and much wealth upon Agrippa;
changed his iron fetters into a chain of gold; fet a
royal diadem upon his head ; and gave him the tetrar-
chy which Philip, the fon of Plerod the Great, had
been poffeffed of, that is, Batanssa and Trachonitis.
To this he added that of Lyfanias ; and Agrippa re¬
turned very foon into Judea to take poffeffion of his
new kingdom.
Caius being foon after killed, Agrippa, who was
then at Rome, contributed much by his advice to
maintain Claudius in poffeffion of the imperial dignity,
to which he had been advanced by the army. But in
this affair Agrippa a<5led a part wherein he ffiowed
more cunning and addrefs than fincerity and honefty
for while he made a ftiow of being in the intereft of du£ts, &c.
king fpoke to the Tyrians and Sidonians, the parafites
around him began to fay, that it was the voice of a
god, and not that of a man. Inftead of rejefting thefe
impious flatteries, Agrippa received them with an
air of complacency; but at the fame time obferved an
owl above him on a cord.' He had feen the fame bird
before when he was in bonds by order of Tiberius;
and it was then told him, that he fliould be foon fet
at liberty: but that whenever he faw the fame thing a
fecond time, he ftiould not live above five days after¬
wards. He was therefore extremely terrified; and he
died at the end of five days, racked with tormenting
pains in his bowels, and devoured with worms. Such
was the death of Herod Agrippa, after a reign of feven
years, in the year of Chrift 44.
Agrippa II. Jon of the preceding Herod, was made
king of Chaicide; but three or four years after, he
was deprived of that kingdom by Claudius, who gave
him in the place of it other provinces. In the war Vef-
pafian carried on againft the Jews, Herod fent him a
fuccour of 2000 men; by which it appears, that, tho’ a
Jew by religion, he was yet entirely devoted to the Ro¬
mans, whofe affiftance indeed he wanted, to fecure the
peace of his own kingdom. He lived to the third year
of Trajan, and died at Rome A. C. 100. He was the
feventh and laft king of the family of Herod the Great.
It was before him and Berenice his fifter, that St Paul
pleaded his caufe at Caefarea.
Agrippa (Marcus Vefpanius), fon-in-law to Augu-
ftus, of mean birth, but one of the moft confiderable
generals among the Romans. Auguftus’s victory over
Pompey and Mark Anthony was owing to his counfel:
he adorned the city with the pantheon, baths, aque-
the fenate, he fecretly advifed Claudius to be refolute,
and not to abandon his good fortune. The Emperor,
as an acknowledgment for his kind offices, gave him
all Judea and the kindom of Chalcis, which had been
Agrippa (Cornelius), born at Cologne in i486, a
man of confiderable learning, and by common report
a great magician ; for the monks at that time fufpefted
every thing of herefy or forcery which they did not un-
poffeffed by Herod his brother. Thus Agrippa be- derftand. He compofed his Treatife of the Excellence
came of a hidden one of the greateft princes of the
Eaft ; and was poffeffed of as much, if not more, ter¬
ritories than had been held by Herod the Great his
N°9. 1
of Women, to infinuate himfelf into the favour of Mar¬
garet of Auftria, governefs of the Low-Countries. He
accepted of the charge of hiftoriographer to the empe-
A G R
[ 329 1
A G R
which that princefs gave him. The treatife of the firft is found naturally in corn-fields, it is very feldom Agrofti*-
Lrofterr.a ^antty °f Sciences, which he puhlilhed in 1530,
' raged his enemies extremely; as did that of Occult Pkilo-
fophy, which he printed foon after at Antwerp, lie
was imprifoned in France for fomething he had written
againft Francis I.’s mother; but was enlarged, and went
to Grenoble, where he died in 1534. His works are
printed in two volumes oftavo.
cultivated in gardens; the third fort (hould have a II
fiiady fituation, and thrives heft in a ftrong foil. The A,1P " "
fecond fpecies is perennial, but only thofe varieties u
which have {ingle flowers produce any feeds; the double
kind, therefore, as it produces no feeds, muft be pro¬
pagated by parting the roots in autumn, after the
flowers are paft. In doing this, every head which can
AGRIPPINA, daughter of Germanicus, After of be flipped off with roots fliould be parted: thefe ftiould
Caligula, and mother of Nero ; a woman of wit, but be planted in a border of frefti undflnged earth, at the
exceffively lewd. She Was thrice married, the laft time
to Claudius her own uncle, whom (he poifoned to make
way for Nero her fon. Nero afterward caufed her to
be murdered in her chamber, when (he bid the execu¬
tioner- ftab her firft in the belly that had brought forth
fuch a monfter.
Agrippina colonia ubiorum (anc. geog.), now
Cologne: fo called from Agrippina; the daughter of which is in July and Auguft.
Germanicus, and mother of Nero, who had a colony fent horfes, goats, and flieep.
thither at her requeft by the emperor Claudius, to ho- - — ^ "
diftance of fix inches one from the other, obferving to
water them gently until they have taken root; after
which they will require no more; for much wet is very
injurious to them, as is alfo dung. In this border they
may remain till fpring, when they fliould be planted in
the borders of the flower-garden, where they will be
very ornamental during the time of their flowering,
' ’ ' ’ ’ T ’ 1 A 11 -This plant is eat by
nour the place of her birth. See Cologn
AGRIPPINIANS, in church-hiftory, the followers
of Agrippinus bifhop of Carthage, in the third century,
who firft introduced and defended the pradlice of rc-
baptization.
AGROM, a difeafe frequent in Bengal and other
parts of the Indies, wherein the tongue chaps and
cleaves in feveral places, being extremely rough withal,
and fometimes covered with white fpots. The Indians
are very fearful of this difeafe, which they attribute to
extreme heat of the ftomach. Their remedy is, to drink
fome chalybeate liquor, or the juice of mint.
AGROSTEMA, Wild Lychnis, or Campion:
A genus of the pentagynia order, belonging to the de-
candria clafs of plants; and in the natural method
ranking under the 22d order, Caryophyllei. The cha¬
racters are : The calyx is a fmgle-leaved perianthium,
leathery, tubular, quinquederitated, and perfiftent:
The corolla confifts of five ungulated petals : The Jla-
ntina have ten Tubulated filaments; the anthers are
Ample : The p{fitlhim has an egg-fliaped germen ; the,
ftyli are five, filiform, ereft, and the length of the
ftamina ; the ftigmata are fimple : The pcvicarpium is
an oblong covered capfule, having two cells and five
valves : The feeds are numerous and kidney-fhaped;
the receptacula are as many as the feeds, the interior
ones gradually longer.
Species. The moft remarkable are, 1. The githago,
hairy wild lychnis, or common campion, which grows
naturally in corn-fields in moft parts of Britain, The
flowers appear in June, are generally purple, fometimes
white, and by cultivation yellow.
2. The coronaria, or fingle-rofe campion. Of this
fpecies there are four varieties; one with deep red,
another with flefh-colouredj a third with white, flowers;
AGROSTIS, Bent-grass, in botany : A genus of
the triandria order, belonging to the digynia clafs of
plants ; and, in the natural method, ranking under the
4th order, Gramina. The characters are : The calyx
is a one-flowered, two-valved, pointed gluma, rather
lefs than the corolla. The corolla is two-valved and
pointed. The Jlamina have three capillary filaments,
which are larger than the corolla. The anther sc are
forked. The pijlillum has a roundifli germen ; the fty¬
li are two, reflected, and villous; the ftigmata hifped
longitudinally. The pericarpium is the corolla grow¬
ing to the feed, not gaping. The feed is one, globu¬
lar, and pointed at both ends. There are 15 fpecies ;
eight of them natives of Britain.
AGROSTOGRAPHIA, fignifies the hiftory or
defcription of graffes. See Grass.
AGROUND-, the fituation of a fhip whofe bottom,
or any part of it, hangs, or refts upon the ground, fo
as to render her immoveable, till a greater quantity of
water floats her off, or till fhe is drawn out into the
ftream by the application of mechanical powers.
AGRYPNIA, among phyficians, implies an inap¬
titude to fleep ; a troublefome fymptom of feverifh and
other diforders.
Agrypnia, in the Greek church, implies the vigil
of any of the greater feftivals.
AGUE, a general name for all periodical fevers,
which, according to the different times of the returns
of the feverifh paroxyfm, are denominated tertian, quar-
tian, and quotidian. See Medicine [Index.)*
AauE-Cake, the popular name for a hard tumour on
the left-fide of the belly, lower than the falfe ribs, faid
to be the effeCt of intermitting fevers.
AcvE-Tree, a name given to the faffafras, on ac¬
count of its febrifuge qualities.
AGUEPERSE, a town of France, fituated on the
and a fort with double flowers, which has turned moft Lyonnois, about 15 miles north of Clermont.
of the others out of the gardens.
3. The flos jovis, or umbelliferous mountain-campion,
grows -naturally upon the Helvetian mountains. It is
a low plant with wooly leaves: the flower-ftem rifes
near a foot high ; the flowers grow in umbel's on the
top 'of the ftafk, and are of a bright red colour. They
Uppear in July, and the feeds ripen in {September.
Culture. The.firft and third fpecies are annual
plants, fo muft be propagated by feeds ; but as the
Vol. I. Part I.
AGUILLANEUF, or Augillaneuf, a form of
rejoicing ufed among the ancient Franks on the firft
day of the year. The word is compounded of the
French A “ to,” gui “ mifleto,” and Van neuf “ the
new year.” Its origin is traced from a druid-ceremo¬
ny : the priefts ufed to go yearly yi December, which
with them was reputed a facred month, to gather mifleto
of the oak in great folemnity. The prophets marched
in the front, finging hymns in honour of their deities;
T t after
A G U [ 330 ] AHA
.Aguiliar after them came a herald with a caditceus in his hand ; AGURAH, in Jewifh antiquity, the name of a -Agurafc
■A<nir were followed by three druids a-breaft, bearing fdver coin, othenvife cabled, gerah and kejhita. Ahab :
the things neceflary for facrifice ; laft of all came the AGURIUM, or Agyrium (anc. geog.), a town . , .'
chief or arch druid, accompanied with the train of of Sicily in the Val di Demona, near the river Seme
people. The chief druid climbing the oak, cut off the tus. The people were called Populus dgyrinenfis by
inifleto with a golden fickle, and the other druids re- Cicero ; Jlgyrinus by Pliny. It was the birth-place of
ceived it in a white cloth ; on the firft day of the year Diodorus Siculus, as he himfelf teftifies ; but he calls it
it whs diftributed among the people, after having blef- Argyrium, as it is now called S. Philippa d’Argirone,
fed and confecrated it by crying A gut Pan neuf, to which modern name feems to confirm that Argyrium is
proclaim the new year. This cry is ftill continued in the true reading.
Picardy, with the addition of Plantez> Plantez, to AGUSADURA, in ancient cuftoms, a fee due
wifh a plentiful year. In Burgundy and fume other from vaflals to their lord for the fharpening their
parts, the children ufe the fame word to beg a new- ploughing tackle. Anciently the tenants in fome ma-
year’s gift. Of later times the name Aguillaneuf was nors were not allowed to have their rural implements
alfo given to a fort of begging, pradtifed in fome dio- fharpened by any but whom the lord appointed ; for
cefes, for church-tapers, on new-year’s day, by a troop which an acknowledgment was to be paid, called Agu
of young people of both fexes, having a chief, &c. fadura, in fome places Agufage: which fome take to
It was attended with various ridiculous ceremonies, as be the fame with what was otherwife called Reillage,
dancing in the church, &c. which occafioned thefynods from the ancient French reille, a ploughfhare.
to fupprefs it. AGUTI, in zoology, the trivial name of u fpecies
AGUILLAR, a town of Spain, in the province of of the moufe, belonging to the mammalia glires of
Navarre, about 24 miles weft of Eftella. Linnasus. See Mus.
Agvillar Del Campo, a town of Old Caftile, with AGYEI, in antiquity, a kind of obelilks, facred
the title of marquifate, about 15 leagues north of the to Apollo, eredled in the veftibles of houfes, by way
city of Burgos. of fecurity.
AGUILLONIUS (Francis), ajefuit, born atBruf- AGYNIANI, in church-hiftory, a fed! who con-
fels: he was redtor of the Jefuits college at Antwerp, demned all ufe of flefh, and marriage, as not inftituted
and eminent for his Ikill in mathematics. He was by God, but introduced at the inftigation of the devil,
the firft who introduced that fcience among the Jefuits The word is compounded of the privative « and
in the low countries: he wrote a book of Optics, and 'woman. Theyare fometimes alfo called Agynnenfes, and
was employed in finilhing his Catoptrics and Dioptrics, Agynii ; and are faid to have appeared about the year
when death prevented him in 1617. 694. It is no wonder they were of no long continuance.
AGUIRRA (Jofeph Sasnz de), a Benedi£l!ne, and Their tenets coincide in a great meafure with thofe of
one of the moft learned men of the 17th century, was the Abelians, Gnoftics, Cerdonians, and other preach-
born March 24. 1630. He was cenfor and fecretary ers of chaftity and abftinence.
of the fupreme council of the inquifition in Spain, and AGYRTiE, in antiquity, a kind of ftrolling im-
interpreter of the feriptures in the univerfity of Sala- poftors running about the country, to pick up money
manca. He printed three volumes in folio upon Phi- by telling fortunes at rich mens doors, pretending to
lofophy, a commentary upon Ariftotle’s ten books of cure difeafes by charms, facrifices, and other religious
Ethics, and other pieces. He died at Rome Auguft myfteries; alfo to expiate the crimes of their deceafed
19. 1699. anceftors, by virtue of certain odours and fumigations t
AGUE, in botany, a fynonime of the hedyfarum. to torment their enemies, by the ufe of magical verfes
See Hedysarum. and the like. The word is Greek AyvgUi, formed of
AGUR. The xxxth chapter of the Proverbs be- the verb ayv(», I congregate', alluding to the practice
gins with this title : “ The words of Agur, the fon of Charletans, who gather a crowd about them,
of Jakeh which, according to the fignification of Agyrtec, among the Greeks, amount to the fame
the original terms, may be tranflated, as the Vulgate with JEriifcatorei among the Latins, and differ not
has it, Verba congregantis, filii vomentis ; which tranf- much from Gypfxes among us.
lation Le Clerc condemnsj fuppofmg thefe to be pro- AHAB, fon of Omri king of Ifrael, fucceeded his
per names, which ought not to be tranflated. Thefe father A. M. 3086, and furpaffed all his predeceffors
words are rendered by Lewis de Dieu: “ The words in impiety and wickednefs. He married Jezebel the
of him who has recollected himfelf, the fon of obe- daughter of Ethbaal king of the Zidonians, who in-
dience.” The generality of the fathers and commen- traduced the idols of Baal and Aftarte among the If-
tators will have it, that Solomon deferibes himfelf un- raelites, and engaged Ahab in the worfliip of thefe
der the name of Agur the fon of Jakeh ; others con- falfe deities. God, being provoked by the fins of
jefture that Agur, as well as Lemuel (in chap. xxxi. 1.) Ahab, fent the prophet Elijah to him (1 Kings xvii.
were wife men who lived in the time of Solomon,- and 1, /ef.) who declared to him, that there would be a
were his interlocutors in the book of Proverbs; an opi- famine of three years continuance. The dearth having
nion which F. Calmet thinks is without the leaft fhew lafted three years, the prophet defired Ahab to gather
of probability, this book being nothing like a dia- all the people to mount Carmel, and with them the
logue. This laft expofitor thinks it probable, that prophets of Baal: when they were thus affembled,
Agur was an infpired author different from Solomon, Elijah caufed fire to defeend from heaven upon his fa-
whofe fentences it was thought fit to join with thofe of crifice, after which he obtained of God that it ftiould.
this prince, becaufe of the conformity of their mat- rain; and then the earth recovered its former fertility,
ter. Six years after this, Ben-hadad king of Syria (chap,
2
AHA [ 331 ] AHA
xx.) laid fiege to Jerufalem. But God, provoked at
this proud Syrian, fent a prophet to Ahab, not only
to affure him of victory, but to inftruft him likewife
in what manner he was to obtain it. Ahab was order¬
ed to review the princes of the provinces, which he
found to be a choice company confifting of 232 young
men, who were to command the people in Samaria,
•amounting to about 7000 men : with this fmall army
Ahab was direfted to fall upon the great hoft of the
•Syrians, and that at noon-day, while Ben-hadad and
the 3 2 kings that accompanied him were drinking and
making merry. Ben-hadad having notice that they
were marching out of the city, ordered them to be
brought before him alive, whatever their deixgns were :
but the young men, followed by this fmall army, ad¬
vanced, and killing all that oppofed them, fuch a pa¬
nic feized the Syrian troops, that they began to fly;
and even Ben-hadad himfelf mounted his horfe and fled
with his cavalry ; which Ahab perceiving, purfued
them, killed great numbers of them, and took a con-
fiderable booty. After this the prophet came to Ahab,
to animate him with frefh courage, and to caution him
to keep upon his guard ; affuring him, that Ben-hadad
would return againft him the year following. Ac¬
cording to this prediction, at the end of the year he
returned and encamped at Aphek, with a refolution
to give the Ifraelites battle. Both-armies being ranged
in order of battle for feven days fucceffively, at length,
upon the feventh day, a battle enfued, wherein the If¬
raelites killed 100,000 of the Syrians, and the reft fled
to Aphek; but as they were preffing to get into the
city, the walls of Aphek fell upon them and killed
27,000 more. Ben-hadad throwing himfelf upon the
mercy of Ahab, this prince received him into his own
chariot, and made an alliance with him. The. year
following, Ahab defiring to make a kitchen-garden near
his palace (chap, xxi.), requefted of one Naboth, a
citizen of Jezreel, that he would fell him his vineyard,
becaufe it lay convenient for him. But being refufed,
he returned in great difcontentment to his houfe,
threw himfelf upon the bed, turned towards the wall,
and would eat nothing. Jezebel his wife coming in,
aflced the reafon of his great concern ; of which being
informed, (he procured the death of Naboth, and Ahab
took pofleffion of his vineyard. As he returnedfrom Jez¬
reel to Samaria, the prophet Elijah met him, and faid,
“ Haft thou killed and alfo taken pofleffion ? Now faith
the Lord, In the place where dogs licked up the blood
of Naboth, fhall dogs lick thy blood, even thine. As
for Jezebel, of her the Lord fpake, faying, The dogs
lhall eat Jezebel by the way of Jezreel.” Ahab, hear¬
ing thefe and other denunciations, rent his clothes,
put fackcloth upon his.flelh, and gave other indications
of his forrow and repentance. But his repentance was
neither fmcere nor perfevering. Two years after thefe
things, Jeholhaphat king of Judah came to Samaria
to vifit Ahab (chap, xxii.) at a time' when he was
preparing to attack Ramoth-gilead, which Ben-hadad
king of Syria unjuftly with-held from him. The
king of Ifrael invited Jehoftiaphat to accompany him
in this expedition; which that prince agreed to do,
but defired that fome prophet might firft be confulted.
Ahabthereforeaffembled the prophets of Baal, in number
about 400 ; who all concurred in exhorting the king to
march refolutely againft Ramoth-gilead. But Micaiah
being alfo confulted, at Jehofhaphat’sfuggeftion,prophe-
fied the ruin of Ahab. Upon this, Ahab gave orders to
his people to feize Micaiah, and to carry him to Amon
the governor of the city, and to Joafh the king’s fon ;
telling them in his name,. “ Put this fellow in prifon,
and feed him with the bread of affli&ion, and with the
water of afflidlion, until I come in peace.” But Mi¬
caiah faid, “ If thou return at all in peace, the Lord
hath not fpoken by me.” Ahab therefore and Jehoftia¬
phat marched up to Ramoth-gilead ; and the king of
Ifrael faid unto Jehofhaphat, “ I will difguife myfelf,and
enter into the battle, but put thou on thy robes :” for
he knew that the king of Syria had commanded two and
thirty captains that had rule over his chariots, faying,
“ Fight neither with fmall nor with great, fave only
with the king of Ifrael.” Thefe officers therefore having
obferved that Jehoftiaphat was dreffed in royal robes,
took him for the king of Ifrael, and fell upon him
with great impetuofity : but this prince feeing himfelf
prefled fo clofely, cried out; and the miftake being
difcovered, the captains of the king of Syria gave over
purfuing him. But one of the Syrian army ftiot a
random arrow, which pierced the heart of Ahab. The
battle lafted the whole day, and Ahab continued in his
chariot with his face turned towards the Syrians. la
the mean time, his blood was ftill ifiuing from his
wound, and falling in his chariot; and towards the
evening he died : whereupon proclamation was made
by found of trumpet, that every man ffiould return to
his own city and country. The king of Ifrael being
dead, was carried to Samaria and buried : but his cha¬
riot and the reins of his horfes were walked in the fifti-
pool of Samaria, and the dogs licked his blood, ac¬
cording to the word of the prophet. Such being the
end of Ahab ; his fon Ahaziah fucceeded him, in the
year of the world 3107.
AHjETULA, the trivial name of a fpecies of the
coluber. See Coluber.
AHASUERUS, or Artaxerxes, the huflband of
Efther; and according to archbiftiop Uflier and F. Cal-
met, the fcripture name for Darius, the fon of Hyftaf-
pes, king of Perfia ; though Scaliger will have Xerxes
to be the hufband of Efther, or the Ahafuerus of fcrip¬
ture ; and Dr Prideaux believes him to'be Artaxerxes
Longimanus. See Hiftory of Persia.
AHAZ, king of Judah, the fon of Jotham, re¬
markable for his vices and impieties. One of his fons
he confecrated, by making him pafs through and pe-
rifh by the fire, in honour of the falfe god Moloch ;
and he offered facrifices and incenfe upon the high
places, upon hills, and in groves. Rezin king of Sy¬
ria and Pekah king of Ifrael invaded Judea in the be¬
ginning of the reign of Ahaz ; and having defeated
his army and pillaged the country, they laid fiege to
Jerufalem. When they found that they could not
make themfelves mafters of that city, they divided their
army, plundered the country, and made the inhabitants
prifoners of war. Rezin and his part of the confede¬
rate army marched with all their fpoil to Damafcus;
but Pekah with his divifion of the army having at¬
tacked Ahaz, killed 120,000 men of his army in one
battle, and carried away men, women, and children,
without diftinftion, to the number of 200,000. But
as they were carrying thofe captives to Samaria, the
prophet Oded, with the principal inhabitants of the
T t 2 city.
Ahab
II
Ahaz.
AHA I 332 J AHA
city, came out to meet them; and by their remon-
ftrances prevailed with them to fet their prifoners at
, liberty. At the fame time, the Philiftines and Edo¬
mites invaded other parts of his land, hilled multitudes
of the people, and carried off much booty. In this
diftrelfed condition, Ahaz finding no other remedy for
his affairs, fent ambaffadors to Tiglath-pilefer king of
the Affyrians; and to engage him to his intereff, he
ilripped the temple and city of all the gold which he
could meet with, and "fent it as a prefent. Accor¬
dingly Tiglath-pilefer marched to the affiilance of Ahaz,
attacked Rezin and killed him, took his capital Damaf-
cus, deftroyed, it and removed the inhabitants thereof
to Cyrene.
The misfortunes of this prince had no influence to
make him better : on the contrary, in the times of
his greateft afflidlion, he facrificcd to the Syrian
deities, whom he looked upon as the authors of
his calamities, and endeavoured to render propitious
to him, by honouring them in this manner; He broke
in pieces the veffels of the houfe of God, (hut up the
gates of the temple, and erefted altars in ail parts of
jerufalem. He fet up altars likewife in all the cities of
Judah, with a defign to offer incenfe on them. At
length he died, and was buried in Jerufalem, but
not in the fepulchres of the kings of Judah his pre-
deceffors; which honour he was deprived of, on ac¬
count of his iniquitous courfe of life. Hezekiah his
fon fucceeded him in the year of the world 3278,
before Jefus Chrift 726.
AHAZ I AH, the fon and fucceffor of Ahab
king of Ifrael, reigned two years, part alone, and
part with his father Ahab, who ordained him his af-
fociate in the kingdom a year before his death. Aha-
ziah imitated his father’s impieties (1 Kings xxii. 52,
feq.), and paid his adoration to Baal and Altai te, the
vvorlhip of whom had been introduced in Ifrael by Je¬
zebel his mother. The Moabites, who had been al¬
ways obedient to the kings of the ten tribes ever fince
their feparation from the kingdom of Judah, revolted
after the death of Ahab, and refufed to pay the ordi¬
nary tribute. Ahaziah had not leifure or power to
reduce them (2 Kings i. 1, 2, See.) : for about the
fame time, having fallen through a lattice from the
top of his houfe, lie hurt himfelf confiderably, and
fent meffengers to Ekron, in order to confult Baal-
zebub, the god of that place, whether he _ fhould
recover of the indifpofition occafioned by this ac¬
cident. But the prophet Elijah went to Ahaziah,
and declared that he fliould not recover from his ill-
nefs: and accordingly he died in the year of the world
3108, and Jehoram his brother fucceeded to the
crown.
Ahaziah, king of Judah, the fon of Jehoram and
Athaliah, fucceeded his father in the kingdom of Ju¬
dah in the year,of the world 3119. He walked in the
ways of Ahab’s houfe, to which he was allied, his
mother being of that family. He reigned only one
year, being flain by Jehu the fon of Nimihi.
AHEAD, a fea-term, fignifying further onward
than the Ihip, or at any diftance before her, lying im¬
mediately on that point of the compafs to which her
ftem is dire died. It is ufed in oppofition to afiern,
which expreffes the fituation of any objedt behind the
ftvip. See Astern.
AHICCYATLI, in zoology, the Indian name of
a ferpent refembling the rattle-fnake, only it wants the
rattles. It is as fatal in the effedt of its poifon as any
known fpecies of ferpent.
AHIJAH, the prophet of Shilo. He is thought
to be the perfon who fpoke twice to Solomon from
God, once while he was building the temple (1 Kings
vi. 11.), at which time he promifed him his protec¬
tion ; and at another time (/V. xi. 6.) after his falling
into all his irregularities, when God expreffed his in¬
dignation with great threatenings and reproaches. A-
hijah was one of thofe who wrote the annals or hiftory
of this prince (2 Chr. ix. 29.). The fame prophet
declared to Jeroboam that he would ufurp the king¬
dom (1 Kings xi. 29, &c.), and that two heifers fliould
alienate him from the Lord, meaning the golden calves
eredted by Jeroboam, one at Dan, the other at Bethel.
About the end of Jeroboam’s reign, towards the year
of the world 3046, Abijah the fon of that prince fell
fick ; upon which Jeroboam fent his wife to this pro¬
phet to inquire what would become of the child. The
queen therefore went to Ahijah’s houfe in Shilo, difgui-
fed: But the prophet, upon hearing the found of her feet,
faid, “ Come in, thou wife of Jeroboam, why feigneft
thou thyfelf to be another ? for I am fent to thee with
heavy tidings.” Then he commanded her'to go and
tell Jeroboam all the evil that the Lord had declared he
would bring upon his houfe for his impieties ; that fo
foon as fne would enter into the city her fon Abijah
fliould die, and fliould be the only one of Jeroboam’s
houfe that, fliould come to the grave or receive the
honours of a burial. Ahijah in all probability did not
long furvive the time of this laft prophecy ; but with
the time and maimer of his death we are not ac¬
quainted.
AHITOPHEL, a native of Gillo, was for fomc
time the counfellor of king David, whom he at length
deferted, by joining in the rebellion of Abfalom. This
prince, upon his being preferred to the crown by the
greateft part of the Ilraelites, fent for Ahitophel from
Gillo (2 Sam. xv. 12.) to aflift him with his advice in
the prefent ftate of his affairs: for at that time Ahi-
tophel’s counfels were received as the oracles of God.
himfelf (chap. xvi. Nothing gave David more
unealinefs than this event; and when Huflrai his friend
came to wait on him and attend him in his flight, he
intreated him to return rather to Jerufalem, make a.
fliow of offering his fervices to Abfalom, and endea¬
vour to fruftrate the prudent meafures which fliould
be propofed by Ahitophel. When Abfalom was come
to Jerufalem, he defired Ahitophel to deliberate with
his other counfellors upon the meafures which were
proper for him to take. Ahitophel advifed him in the
firft place to abufe his father’s concubines ; fo that when
his party Ihould underftand that he had diflionoured
his father in this manner, they might conclude -that
there were no hopes of a reconciliation, and therefore
efpoufe his intereft more refolutely. A tent, therefore,
being prepared for this purpofe upon the terrafs of
the king’s palace, Abfalom, in the fight of all lira el,
lay with his father’s concubines. The next thing A-
hitophel propofed was in the terms following : “ Let
me now choofe out 12,000 men, and I will arife and
purfue after David this night, and I will come upon
him while he is. weary and weak-handed, and I will make
him
A H U [ 333 ] A J A
.Ahmella him afraid, and all the people that are with him (hall flee,
j II. and I will finite tlie king only ; and I will bring back all
Ai~* , the people unto thee; the man whom thou feekeft is as if
all returned; fo all the people {hail be in peace.” This
advice was very agreeable to Abfalom and all the elders
of Ifrael. However, Abfalom delired Huftiai to be call¬
ed to have his opinion. Hufhai being come, and hear¬
ing what advice Ahitophel had given, faid, The coun-
fel which Ahitophel has given is not good at this time;
what, for the prefent, in my opinion, may do better,
is this : Let all Ifrael be gathered unto thee, from Dan
even to Beerflieba, as the fand that is by the fea for
multitude, and put thyfelf in the midit of them, and
wherever David is, we may fall upon him, and over¬
whelm him with our numbers, as the dew falleth upon
the ground. This lalt advice being more agreeable to
Abfalom and all the elders of Ifrael, was preferred ;
upon *which Ahitophel faddled his afs, went to his
houfe at Gillo, hanged himfeif, and was buried in the
fepulchre of his fathers. He forefaw, without doubt,,
all that would happen in confequence of Hufhai’s ad¬
vice, and was determined to prevent the death which
he had deferved, and which David would probably
have, in flitted on him, as foon as he fiiouldbe refettled
on his throne.
AHMELLA, in botany. See Bidens.
AHOLIBAH and Ahoi.ah, are two feigned names
made ufe of by Ezekiel (xxiii. 4.) to denote the two
kingdoms of Judah and Samaria. Aholah and Aho-
libnh are reprefented as two fitters of Egyptian extrac¬
tion. Aholah Hands for Samaria, and Aholibah for
Jerufalem. The firft fignifies a ; and the fecond,,
my tent is in her. They both proftituted themfelves
to the Egyptians and AflVrians, in imitating their
abominations and idolatries: for which reafon they
were abandoned to thofe very people for whom they
had fhown fo paffionate and fo impure an affe&ion ;
they were carried into captivity, and reduced to the
fevereft fervitude.
AHOUAI, in botany, a fynonime and alfo the
trivial name of afpeciesof Gerbera.
A-HULL, in the fea-language, the fituation of a
{hip when all her fails are furled on account of the vio*-
lence of the ftorm, and when having lafhed her helm
on the lee-fide, {he lies nearly with her fide to the wind
and fea, her head being fomewhat inclined to the di-
redfion of the wind.
AHUN, a town in France, in the Upper Marche
and generality of Moulins, and is a royal jurifdidtion.
It is feated on the river Creufe, near a Benedictine ab¬
bey of the fame name, eight miles fouth-eaft of Gue-
rct, 30 north-eaft of Lomages, and 55 fouth-eaft of
Moulins. E. Long. 2. 8. N.,Lat. 49. 5.
AHUYS, a town of Sweden. It is fmall, but very
ftrong by its fituation, and has a good port. It is in
the principality of Gothland, in the territory of Blec-
kingy, near the Baltic fea, about j8 miles from Chrif-
tianftadt. E. Long. 14. 10. N. Lat. 56. 20.
AI, (anc. gepg.) a town in Judea, to the north of
Jericho, called A'v t by Jofephus, and the inhabitants
Ainatce. Joftiua having fent a detachment of 3000
men againtt Ai, God permitted them to be repulfed on
account of Achan’s fin, who had violated the anathema
pronounced againft the city of Jericho. But after the
expiation of this offence, God commanded Joftiua
(chap, viii.) to march with the whole army of the If-
raelites againft Ai, and treat this city and the kingdom
thereof as he had treated Jericho, with this difference,
that he gave the plunder of the town to the people.
Joftiua fent by night 30,000 men to lie in ambufti be¬
hind Ai; having firft well inftrudted thofe who had the
command of them in what they were to do; and the
next day, early in the morning, he marched againft the
city with the remainder of his army. The king of Ai
perceiving them, fallied haftily out of the town with all
his peopk, and fell upon the forces of the Ifraelites; who
upon the firft. onfet fled, as if they had been under fome
great terror...
As foon as Joftiua faw the enemy all out of the gates,.
he raifed his ftiield upon the top of a pike, which was the
fignal given to the ambufeade; whereupon they imme¬
diately entered the place, which they found without
defence, and fet fire to it. The people of A.i percei¬
ving the fmoke afeending, were willing to return, but
difeovered thofe who had fet fire to the city in their
rear, while Joftiua and thofe who were with him turn¬
ing about, fell upon them, and cut them in pieces.
The king was taken alive, and afterwards put to-
death.
The chevalier Folard obferves, that Joftma’s enter-
prife on Ai, excepting in fome particulars of military-
art, is very like that of Gibeah, which is fcarce any
thing more than a copy of it. It would appear, fays
that writer, by the feripture account, that Joftiua was
not the author of the ftratagem made ufe of by him:
for when God diredls himfelf to Joftma, he fays, ‘ Go
4 up againft Ai» lay an ambufeade behind the town ; I
4 have delivered the king and the people of it into thine
4 hands:’ yet notwithftanding this, God might leave
the whole glory of the invention and execution of it to
him, as to a great general.. 4 Joftiua arofe,’ fays the
facred author, 4 and all the people of war, to go up a-
4 gainft Ai (verfe 3.) ; and Juftiua chofe 00130,000
4 mighty men of valour, and fent them away by night.’
Folard remarks, that there is a manifeft contradiction
between this verfe and the 12th, wherein it is faid,
that Joftiua chofe out 500 men, whom he fent to lie in,
ambufti, between Bethel and Ai. How is this to be
reconciled ? Calmet fays, that Mafius allows but 5000
men for the ambufeade, and 25,000 for the attack of
the city, being perfuaded that an army of 6oo;coo
men could only create confufion on this occafion, with¬
out any neceflity for, or advantage in, fuch numbers :
but the generality of interpreters, continues Calmet,.
acknowledge two bodies to be placed in ambufeade,,
both between Bethel and Ai; one of 25,000, and the:
other of 5000 men.
With regard to the fignal Joftiua made to that part
of his army which lay in ambufeade, the learned Fo¬
lard embraces the opinion of the Rabbins, who believe
what is called the ftiield to be too fmall to ferve for a
fismal: hence they make it to be the ftaff of one of
their colours: from this, our author concludes, that
the whole colours were ufed on the occafion; for in -
the Afiatic ftyie, which is very near the poetic, the
part is oftentimes to be taken for the whole.
AJALON, (anc. geog.) a town of the tribe of,
Dan, one of the Levitical. Another in the tribe-
of Benjamin, in whofe valley Joftma commanded the:
moon to ftand ftill, being then in her decreafe, and;.
A I G [ 334 1 A I G
Ajan confequently to be feen at the fame time with the
_. AJAN, a coaft and country of Africa, has the ri¬
ver Quilmanci on the fouth ; the mountains from which
that river fprings, on the weft; Abyffinia, or Ethio¬
pia, and the ftraight of Babelmandel, on the north;
and the eaftem, or Indian ocean, on the eaft. The
coaft abounds with all neceflaries of life, and has plenty
of very good horfes. The kings of Ajan are often at
war with the emperor of the Abyffins ; and all the pri-
foners they take they fell to the merchants of Cambaya,
thofe of Aden, and other Arabs, who come to trade
in their harbours, and give them in exchange, coloured
cloths, glafs-beads, raifins, and dates; for which they
alfo take back, befides flaves, gold and ivory. The
whole fea-coaft, from Zanguebar to the ftraight of
Babelmandel, is called the coaft of Ajan; and a confi-
derable part of it is ftyled the Defert-coaft.
AJAX, the fon of Oileus, was one of the principal
generals that went to the fiege of Troy ; he raviftied
.Caflandra the daughter of Priam, even in the temple
of Minerva, where fhe thought to have found fanc-
tuary. It is faid, he made a ferpent of fifteen feet
long fo familiar with him, that it eat at his table, and
followed him like a dog. The Locrians had a Angular
.veneration for his memory.
Ajax, the fon of Telamon, was, next to Achilles,
the moft valiant general among the Greeks at the fiege
of Troy: he commanded the troops of Salamis, and
performed many great adlions, of which we have an
account in the Iliad, in Dittys Cretenjii, and in the 23d
book of Ovid’s Metamorphofes. He was fo enraged
that the arms of Achilles were adjudged to Ulyffes,
-that he immediately became mad. The Greeks paid
great honours to him after his death, and erefted a
magnificent monument to his memory upon the pro¬
montory of Rhetium.
Ajax, in antiquity, a'furious kind of dance, in ufe
among the Grecians ; intended to reprefent the mad-
pefs of that hero after bis defeat by Ulyfies, to whom
the Greeks had given the .preference in his conteft for
Achilles’s arms. Lucian, in his treatife of Dancing,
fpeaks of dancing the Ajax.—There was alfo an annual
feaft called Ajantia. Aixrftia, ,confecrated to that prince,
and obferved with great folemnity in the illand of Sa¬
lamis, as well as in Attica ; where, in memory of the
valour of Ajax, a bier was expofed, fet out with a
complete fet of armour.
AJAZZO, a fea-port town of the ifland of Corfi-
oa, in the Mediterranean, with a bifhop’s fee. Long.
g6. 35. Lat. 41. 40.
Ajazzo, a fea-port town of Natolia, in the pro¬
vince of Caramania, anciently Silefia, feated on the
coaft of the-Mediteranean, 30 miles north of Antioch
and 50 weft of Aleppo, where the city of Iflus anci¬
ently flood, and near which Alexander fought his fe-
•cond battle with Darius." Long. 33. 10. Lat. 37. o.
AICHSTAT, a town of Germany, in Franconia,
pnd capital of a bilhopric of the fame name. It is
remarkable for a curious piece of workmanfhip, called
the fun of the Holy Sacrament, which is in the church:
it isofmaffy gold, of great weight, and is enriched
with 350 diamonds, 1400 pearls, 250 rubies, and o-
ther precious ftones. This place is moderately large,
and feated in a valley on the river Altmul, 10 miles N.
of Newburgh, and 37 S. of Nuremberg. E. Lon.n.
xo. N. Lat. 49. o. The bifhopric is 45 miles in length
and 17 in breadth ; and the biftiop is chancellor of the
church of Mayence or Mentz.
AICUROUS, a fpecies of parrot. See Psittacus.
AID, in a general fenfe, denotes any kind of aflift-
ance given by one perfon to another.
Aid, in law, denotes a petition made in court to
call in help from another perfon who has intereft in
land, or any other thing contefted.
Am-dt-camp, in military affairs, an officer employ.-
ed to receive and carry the orders of a general.
Aid, Auxilium, in ancient cuftoms, a fubfidy paid
by vaffals to their lords on certain occafions. Such were
the aid of relief, paid upon the death of fhe Lord
Mefne to his heir; the aid cheval, or capital aid, due
to the chief lord on feveral occafions, as, to make his
eldeft fon a knight, to make up a portion for marry¬
ing his daughter, &c.
AIDS, in the French cuftoms, certain duties paid
on all goods exported or imported into that kingdom^
Court of Aids, in France, a fovereign court efta-
blilhed in feveral cities, which has cognizance of all
caufes relating to the taxes, gabelles, and aids, impo-
fed on feveral forts of commodities, efpecially wine.
Aids, in the manege, are the fame with what fqme
writers call cherifsings, and ufed to avoid the neceffity
of corredtions.—The inner heel, inner leg, inner rein,
&c. are called inner aids; as the outer heel, outer leg,
outer rein, &c. are called outer aids.
A ID AN, a famous Scottifh bifhop of Lindisfarne,
or Holy Ifland, in the 7th century, was employed by
Ofwald king of Northumberland in the converfion of
the Englifh, in which he was very fuccefsful. He died
in 651.
AIGHENDALE, the name of a liquid meafure
ufed in Lancafhire, containing feven quarts.
AIGLE, a bailiwick in the territory of Romand
in Swifferland, confifts of mountains and valleys, the
principal of which are the Aigle and Bex. Through
thefe is the great road from Vallais into Italy. When
you pafs by Villeneuve, which is at the head of the
lake of Geneva, you enter into a deep valley three miles
wide, bordered on one fide with the Alps of Swiffer¬
land, and on the other with thofe of Savoy, and crofted
by the river Rhone. Six miles from thence you meet
with Aigle, a large town, feated on a wide part of the.
valley, where there are vineyards, fields, and meadows.
The governor’s caftle is on an eminence that overlooks
the town, and has a lofty marble tower. This govern¬
ment has nine large parifties; and is divided into four
parts, Aigle, Bex, Olon, and Ormont. This laft is
among the mountains, and joins to Rougement. It
is a double valley, abounding in pafture-lands. Ivor-
na, in the diftridf of Aigle, was in part buried by jhe
fall of a mountain, occafioned by an earthquake inji 584.
Aigle, a fmall town, in France, in Upper Norman¬
dy, twenty-three miles from D’Evereux, and thirty-
eight from Rouen. It is furrounded with walls and
ditches, has fix gates, three fuburbs, and three parifties.
It trades in corn, toys, and more particularly in needles
and pins. E. Long. •. 5. N. Lat. 4S. 35.
AIGUILLON, a fmall town of France in the pro¬
vince of Guienne, fituated at the conflux of the rivers
Qaronne and Lot.
Aid
. H.
Aiguillo
AI-
Ai^nifce
II
Ailred.
AIL E 335 1 AIR
AIGUISCE, in heraldry, denotes a crofs with its
four ends fharpened, but fo as to terminate in obtufe
angles.—It differs from the crofs fitchee, in as much
as the latter tapers by degrees to a point, and the for¬
mer only at the ends.
AILANA, Ailath, or Aheloth, anciently a
town of Arabia Petrxa, fituated near the Sinus Ela-
nites of the Red Sea. It was allb called Elath, and
Elatb, (Stephanus, Strabo, Moies.) The fame with
El an a.
AILE, in law, a writ which lies where a perfon’s
grandfather, or great-grandfather, being feifed of
lands, &c. in fee-fimple, the day that he died, and a
Itranger abates and enters the fame day, and difpofftfles
the heir of his inheritance.
AILESBURY, Aylesbury, or Alesbury, a bo¬
rough town in Buckinghamfhire, confiding of about
400 houfes. It confifts of feveral ftreets, though the
houfes are not very contiguous : thefe lie round about
the market-place, in the middle of which is a conve¬
nient hall, where the feffions are held, and fometimes
the affizes for the county. It fends two members to
Parliament; has a market on Saturdays; and three
fairs for cattle, viz. on the Saturday before Palm-
funday, June 14th, and September 25th. It is fxxty
miles fouth-eaft of Buckingham, and forty-four north-
weft of London. W. Long. o. 40. N. Lat. 51. 40.
AILMER, or ASthelmare, Earl of Cornwall and
Devonftiire, in the reign of king Edgar. It is not
known of what family he was. His authority and
riches were great, and fo alfo in appearance was his
piety. He founded the abbey of Cerne, in Dorfet-
fhire ; and had fo great a veneration for Eadwald, the
brother of St Edmund the martyr, who had lived a
hermit in that country, near the filver well, as they
called it, that, with the affiftance.of Archbilhop Dun-
ftan, he tranflated his relics to the old church of
Cernel. In 1016, when Canute, the fon of Suane, in¬
vaded England, and found himfelf ftoutly oppofed by
that valiant Saxon prince Edmund Ironfide, the fon
of iEthelred, this Earl Ailmer, with that arch traitor
Eadric Streone, Earl of Mercia, and Earl Algar, join¬
ed the Dane againll their natural prince, which was
one great caufe of the Saxons ruin. He did not long
furvive this; and we find mentioned in hiftory only one
fon of his, whofe name was aEthelward, Earl of Corn¬
wall, who followed his father’s maxims, and was pro¬
perly rewarded for it. For in 1018, Canute reaping
the benefit of their treafons, and perceiving that the
traitors were no longer ufeful, he caufed the infamous
Eadric Streone, and this Earl iEthelward, to be both
put to death.
AILRED, or Ealred, abbot of Revefby in Lin-
colnfnire, in the reigns of Stephen and Henry II. He
was born in 1109* of a noble family, and educated in
Scotland with Henry the fon of king David. On his
return to England, he became a monk of the Ciftertian
order, in the monaftery of Revefby, of which he after¬
wards was made Abbot. He died on the 12th of Ja¬
nuary 1166, aged 57, and was buried in his mona¬
ftery. “ He was (fays Leland) in great efteem du¬
ring his life ; celebrated for the miracles wrought after
his death ; and admitted into the catalogue of faints.”
He was author of feveral works ; moll of which were
publilhed by Gilbo the Jefuit at Douay, 1631 part
of them may be alfo found in the "Bibliotheca Cifiertien-
Jis, and Bibliotheca Patrum. His principal woncs is the
Speculum charitatis. Leland, Bale, and Pits, mention
feveral manufcripts which never were publiihed.
AILSA, an infulated rock on the weftern coaft of
Scotland, between the ftiores of Airlhire and Cantire.
It is two miles in circumference at the bafe, is accef-
fible only at one place, and rifes to a great height in a
pyramidical form. A few goats and rabbits pick up
a fubfiftence among the ftiort grafs and furze ; but the
importance of the rock confifts in the great variety and
boundlefs numbers of birds, by which it is frequented,
particularly the gannets or folan-geefe, whofe young
are ufed at the bell tables, and bring a good price.
Other birds are caught for their feathers. The rock
is rented from the Earl of Caffilis at L. 3.3 per annum.
The depth of water around the bafe is from 7 to 48
fathoms. It is furrounded with excellent banks, well
flocked with cod and other white filh.
AINSWORTH (Dr Henry), an eminent noncon-
formift divine, who, about the year 1590, diftinguilh-
ed himfelf among the Brownifts ; which drew upon
him fuch troubles that he was obliged to retire to
Holland, and became minifter of a church at Amfter-
dam. His ikill in the Hebrew language, and his ex¬
cellent Annotations on the Holy Scriptures, which are
ftill highly efteemed, gained him great reputation. He
alfo wrote feveral pieces in defence of the Brownifts,
and feveral other works.
Ainsworth (Robert), born at Woodyale in Lan-
caftiire in 1660, was mafter of a boarding-fchool at
Bethnal-green, from whence he removed to Hackney,
and to other places in the neighbourhood of London.
After acquiring a moderate fortune, he retired, and
lived privately till the time of his death, which happen¬
ed in 1743. are indebted to him for the beft La¬
tin and Englifh Didlionary extant: he publifhed it in
quarto 1736 ; and in' 1752, the fourth edition, under
the care of Dodlor Ward of Greftiam College, and the
Rev. William Younge, was enlarged to two vols folio.
AIR, in natural philofophy, a thin, fluid, elaftic,
tranfparent, ponderous, compreflible, and dilatable bo¬
dy, furrouSding the .terraqueous globe to a confider-
able height. See Aerology, Atmosphere, and'.
Pneumatics.
Impregnation of Water nnith Fixed Air, and nuith
Sulphureous A.ik. See Mineral Waters.
Air, in Medicine, &c. makes one of the fix non¬
naturals.—From obfervations on bleeding in rheuma-
tifms, and after taking cold, it is evident, the air can
enter with all its qualities, and vitiate the whole tex¬
ture of the blood, and other juices.—-From the palfies,
vertigoes, and other nervous affe&ions caufed by damps,
mines, &c. it is! evident, that air thus qualified can re¬
lax and obftrudl the whole nervous fyftem. Arid from
the colics, fluxes, coughs, and confumptions produced
by damp, moift, and nitrous air, it is evident it can
corrupt and fpoil the noble organs, &c.-
Circulation of Avt in Rooms. To render the circu¬
lation of air fenfible, let the air of a room be heated by
a ftrong fire, whilft the air of a contiguous room is cold;
then let the door between thefe two rooms be opened,
in which cafe the hot air of one room being lighter, .
will pafs through the upper part of the opening of the
door into.the cold room; and, on the contrary, the
cold-
A I R [ 33<5 ] ^ AIR
cold air of the other room being heavier, will pafs into “ For the fire would no fooner have warmed any
the former room through the lower part of the open- particles of air within the room,, than thefe would be
ing; accordingly, it will be found, that applying a greatly expanded, and rife immediately upwards, fo as
lighted candle at the top, in the middle, and at the to fill the higher parts of the room with rarefied air;
lower part of the opening between the two rooms, a and as other particles would be fuccefiively heated and
ftrong current of air will appear to pafs from the hot rarefied in their turn, by their expaniive force they
into the cold room near the top ; a contrary current would prefs upon the fides of the apartment in every
of air will appear to pafs from the latter into the for- place, fo as to force the lightell particles through the
mer room near the lower part of the faid opening ; opening left for that purpofe in the top of the room ;
whilft in the middle there is little or no motion at all, by which means the fouleft air would be gradually
as may be clearly perceived by the direction of the drawn off, without defcending again into the lower
flame of the candle. regions to the annoyance of the company.”
It is for the fame reafon that when the fire is lighted But in order to admit frelh air into t|he room, “ Let,”
in a chimney, a ftrong current of air is occafioned to fays he, “ another opening be made in the ceiling of
enter the room, which may be felt by applying the the room, having a communication with a fmall pipe
hand near the key-hole, or other fuch fmall openings, that ftiould lead from thence either to the outfide of
if the doors and windows are lhut; for the air over the wall, or to any other part of the building that might
the fire being'heated, becomes lighter, and afcends in- be judged more convenient, where it fhould be bent,
to the chimney, confequently other colder air muft and conduced downwards, till it reached the ground ;
fupply its place, which forces its way through all the where it fhould be left open, to communicate with the
fmall openings it can find. * Were a room with a fire external air.—In this fituation the cool external air
in it to be perfectly clofed, excepting the chimney, the would be forced in at the lower opening of the tube,
air in it would foon become unwholefome for refpira- and made to afcend into the apartment in proportion
tion, and the fire would be foon extinguiftied, befides to the quantity that efcaped towards the higher regions
other inconveniences. Hence it appears, that thofe by means of the ventilator. And as that weighty air
perfons miftake who expedt to keep the air of a room would no fooner enter the room, than it would tend
fweet and wholefome, efpecially for convalefcents, by towards the floor by its own natural gravity, it would
accurately flopping all the fmalleft openings that ad- gradually mix with the heated air in its defcent—be-
mit freflr air. When the current of air that enters in- come, in fame meafure, warmed by that means, and
to a room is on fome fide of it where it falls imme- equally difperfed through the room, fo as flowly and
diately upon the perfons who fit in the room, then it imperceptibly to reach the candles and the company in
unay be offenfive, efpecially to delicate conftitutions. the room, and fupply them with a fufficient quantity
In that cafe, fuch opening fhould be clofed: but at the of frelh and vvholefome air, without the inconveniences
fame time another opening ftiould be made for admit- to which the company are fubjefted by the ufual way
ting frelh air, in another more convenient part ; for a of admitting frefti air (a). For if it enters near the
circulation of air, efpecially in rooms where a fire is floor of the apartment, it is hurried along in a rapid un¬
kept, is not only falutary and ufeful, but is abfolutely divided ftream towards the fire-place, and ftriking upon
neceffary. the legs and inferior parts of the body, affects them
In an ingenious publication, intitled, a/ PrafficrJ with a ftrong fenfation of cold. To overcome the ef-
Treatife an Chimneys, there are the following remarks fedfts of this, large fires muft be kept; by which other
relating to the propereft method of admitting air into parts of the body are wanned to an extraordinary de-
a room, and of expelling the contaminated air. The gree, which is produdtive of moft of thofe diforders
author, directing to make a vent-hole near the top of that are pernicious to the young, and often prove fatal
-the room, in order to expel the heated and contami- to the old, during the winter-feafon, in thefe cold re-
nated air, “ this,” fays he “ might be done by means gions.
of a fmall tube opening into the room, either in or “ Thus might our apartments be kept conftantly,
near the ceiling; which might either be carried to the and moderately, and equally warm, at a moderate ex¬
top of the building, or be made to communicate with pence, without endangering our health on the one
the external air by a fmall perforation through the hand, by refpiring a confined, ftagnant, and putrid air,
wall at the roof of the room ; by means of either of or, on the other hand, by fubjetting ourfelves to fuch
which, a proper circulation would be eftablilhed, and danger of catching colds, conftimptions, and rheumatic
the foul air be carried off. complaints, by being expofed to fuch exceedingly un-
N° 9. equal
(a) Such readers as have been little accuftomed to fpeculations of this fort, will be at a lofs to comprehend
in what manner two holes, both of them in the roof pf the room, and communicating with the air, without an y
valve, or other contrivance, for opening or clofing of themfelves, ftiould yet anfwer the two very oppofite pur-
pofes ; one, of conftantly bringing cool air into the room without emitting any warm air—and the other, of as
conftantly emitting warm and admitting no cool air. They will plcafe to advert, that the one of thefe tubes
communicates with the atmofphere at the bottom of the houfe, and the other towards the top: the opening of
the one is beneath the level of the room, that of the other above it. Now, as the air is more denfe at the fur-
face of the ground than at any height above it, the warm rarefying air will naturally iffue at that opening where
it meets with leaft refiftance, which muft invariably be through that which opens to the external air at the great -
eft height; and as the cool air will naturally be preffed into the room by that opening where the air is moft
weighty, this muft invariably be by that which is neareft the furface of the earth.
AIR [ 337 I AIR
Air equal degrees of heat and cold, as are -unavoidable
’ . I! where our apartments are fo open as to admit a ready
' Air-gun.' paffage t0 tjje external air during the winter-feafon.
“ The reader will eafdy perceive, that all that has
been here faid has a reference only to thofe apartments
in cold climates, and rigorous weather, where fire to
warm them becomes neceifary. In warmer regions, or
during the fummer-feafon, there can be no objection to
the wheel-ventilator in the window.—It is a Ample
contrivance, and a fafe and effectual mean of preferring
the air in our apartments fweet and wholefome at that
feafon.”
It is a vulgar error among many people, to believe
that fire purifies the contaminated air, by deftroying
the noxious particles mixed with it; and for this rea-
fon they think, that the fire kept in a room where the
air is tainted, purifies the room, by rendering the air
in it again fit for refpiration. Indeed, a fire kept in a
room or apartment where the air is tainted, as is the
cafe with hofpitals, goals, and the like, does certainly
purify the apartment, and the practice is very ufeful;
but this effect is only becaufe the fire promotes the
circulation of the air, and dries the dampnefs of rooms,
furniture, &c.: fo that it is not the infected air that is
purified, but is new, frelh, and wholefome air, that by
the action of the fire has taken the place of the infect¬
ed air; which infected air, being rarefied by the heat,
has been expelled from the apartment. Fire and com-
buftion in general is fo far from purifying contami¬
nated air, that it actually contaminates a prodigious
quantity of it in a Ihort time ; fo that not only a com¬
mon fire, but even a lighted candle, when kept in a
well-clofed room, wherein the external air has not a
free accefs, inltead of purifying, renders the air of that
room noxious.
Infirument for afcertaining the Purity or Wholefome-
nefs of refpirable Air. See Eudiometer.
AIR Balloons, a general name given to bags of
any light fubftance filled with inflammable air, or other
permanently elaftic fluid, whofe fpecific gravity is con-
fiderably lefs than that of common atmofpheric air. The
confequence of their being filled in this manner is, that if
they are of any confiderable magnitude, they afcend in
the air to an amazing height; and will not only afcend
in this manner by themfelves, but carry up along with
them great weights, and continue to rife till they at¬
tain an height in which the circumambient air is of the
fame fpecific gravity with themfelves. In this fitua-
tion they will either float or be driven in the direction
of the wind or current of air in which they are expo-
fed, remaining in thefe elevated regions till the fluid
efcapes by the burfting of the bags from the fuperior
elafticity of the fluid, or by its gradual evaporation
through the pores of the envelope. The hiftory, prin¬
ciples, &c. of thofe machines are detailed under the ar¬
ticle Aerostation.
AiK-Bletdder, in fillies. See Comparative Ana¬
tomy, chap. iii. and Ichthyology.
i Plate VII Aiu-Gun, a pneumatic machine for exploding bul¬
lets, &c. with great violence.
The common air-gun is made of brafs, and has two
barrels ; the infide barrel A, fig. 8. which is of a fmall
bore, from whence the bullets are exploded) and a large
barrel ECDR on the outfide of it. There is a fyringe
SMNP fixed in the ftock of the gun, by which the
Vol. I. Part I.
air is injefled into the cavity between the two barrels Air-gun.
through the valve E P. The ball K is put down into ' v~““
its place in the fmall barrel, with the rammer, as in any
other gun. At S L is another valve, which, being
opened by the trigger O, permits the air to come be¬
hind the bullet, fo as to drive it out with great force.
If this valve be opened and (hut fuddenly, one charge
of condenfed air may be fufficient for feveral difcharges
of bullets ; but if the whole air be difcharged on one
fingle bullet, it will drive it out with a great force.
This difcharge is effe&ed by means of a lock, fig. 9,
placed here as ufual in other guns ; for the trigger be¬
ing pulled, the cock will go down and drive the lever
O, fig. 8. which will open the valve, and let in the air
upon the bullet K.
Air-guns of late years have received very great im¬
provements in their conltruftion. Fig' 10. is a repre-
fentation of one made by the late Mr B. Martin of
London, and now by feveral of the mathematical in-
ftrument and gun makers of the metropolis. For fim-
plicity and perfection it exceeds any other heretofore
contrived. A is the gun-barrel, with' the lock, Hock,
ram-rod, and of the fize and weight of a common
fowling-piece. Under the lock, at h, is a round Heel
tube, having a fmall moveable pin in the infide, which is
puflied out when the trigger a is pulled, by the fpring-
work within the lock ; to this tube L a hollow copper-
ball c fcrews, perfectly air-tight. This copper ball is
fully charged with condenfed air by the fyringe B
(fig. 7.) previous to its being applied to the tube b of
fig. 10. It is then evident, that if a bullet be rammed
down in the barrel, the copper ball fcrewed fall at £,
and the trigger a be pulled, that the pin in b will, by
the aftion of the fpring-work within the lock, forcibly
ftrike out into the copper ball; and thereby pufhing in
fuddenly a valve within the copper ball, let out a por¬
tion of the condenfed air; which air will ru(h up thro’
the aperture of the lock, and forcibly aft againft the
bullet, driving it to the diftance of 60 or 70 yard*
or further. If the air is ftrongly condenfed at every
difcharge, only a portion of the air efcapes from the
ball; therefore, by re-cocking the piece, another dif¬
charge may be made; and this repeated to the amount
of 15 or 16 times. An additional barrel is fometimes
made, and applied for the difcharge of (hot, inftead of
the one above defcribed.
The air in the copper ball is condenfed by means of
the fyringe B (fig.7.), in the following manner: The
ball c is fcrewed quite clofe on the top of the fyringe
at bf at the end of the fteel pointed rod: a is a flout
ring through which paffes the rod k : upon this rod
the feet ufe to be formerly fet; then the hands are to
be applied to the two handles i fixed on the fide of
the barrel of the fyringe. Now by moving the barrel
B fteadily up and down on the rod a, the ball c will
become charged with condenfed air; and it may be ea-
fily known when the bail is as full as poffible, by the
irrefiftible adlion that the air makes againft the pifton
when you are working the fyringe. At the end of the
rod k is ufually a four-fquare hole, which witli the rod
ferves as a key to fallen the ball c fall on the fcrew b
of the gun and fyringe clofe to the orifice in the ball c.
In the infide is fixed a valve and fpring, which gives
way for the admiflion of air ; but upon its emiflion
comes clofe up to the orifice, (hutting up the internal
A I R
Air-^un. air. The pifton-rod works air-tight, by a collar of
v leather on it, in the barrel B ; it is therefore plain,
when the barrel is drawn up, the air will rufh in at the
hole h. When the barrel is pufhed down, the air there¬
in contained will have no other way to pafs from the
prefliire of the pifton but into the ball c at top. The
barrel being drawn up, the operation is repeated, until
the condenfation is fo ftrong as to refill the adlion of
the pillon.
Sometimes the fyringe is applied to the end of the
barrel C (fee lig. x i.); the lock and trigger Ihut up in
a brafs cafe*/; and the trigger pulled, or difcharge made,
by pulling the chain b. In this contrivance there is a
round chamber for the condenfed air at the end of the
fyringe at e, and it has a valve a&ing in a fimilar man¬
ner to that of the copper ball. When this inftrument
is not in ufe, the brafs cafe d is made to Hide off, and
the inft'rument then becomes a walking-ftick; from
which circumftance, and the barrel being made'of cane,
brafs, &c. it has received the appellation of the Air-
cane. The head of the cane unfcrews and takes off at
«, where the extremity of the pifton-rod in the barrel
is Ihown : an iron rod is placed in a ring at the end of
this, and the air condenfed in the barrel in a fimilar
manner to that of the gun as above; but its force of
adlion is not near fo ftrong and permanent as that of
the latter.
The Magazine AiR-gun was invented by that inge¬
nious artift L. Colbe. By this contrivance ten bullets
are fo lodged in a cavity, near the place of difeharge,
that they may ba drawn into the Ihooting-barrel, and
fucceflively difcharged fo fall as to be nearly of the
fame ufe as fo many different guns.
Fig. 12. reprelents the prefent form of this machine,
where part of the ftock is cut off, to the end of the in-
jedling fyringe. It has its valve opening into the ca¬
vity between the barrels, as before. K K is the fmall
Ihooting-barrel, which receives the bullets from the
magazine- ED, which is of a ferpentine form, and>
doled at the end D when the bullets are lodged in it.
The circular part abc, is the key of a cock, having
a cylindric hole through it, / i, which is equal to the
bore of the fame barrel, and makes a part of it in the
prefent fituation. When the lock is taken off, the fe-
veral parts R, T, W. &c. come into view, by which
means the difcharge is made by pufhing up the pin P/>,
which raifes and opens a valve V, to let in the air againft
the bullet I, from the cavity F F; which valve is im¬
mediately Ihut down again by means of a long fpring
ef brafs N N. This valve V being a conical piece of
brafs, ground very true in the part which receives it,
will of itfelf be fufficient to confine the air.
To make a difcharge, you will pull the trigger ZZ,
which throws up the leer y ay and difengages it from
the notch a, upon which the ftrong fpring WW moves
the tumbler T, to which the cock is fixed. This, by
its end u, bears down the end v of the tumbling lever
Pv, which, by the other end m, raifes at the fame time
the fiat end of the horizontal lever Qj and by this
means, of courfe, the pin Pp, which Hands upon it, is
puIhed up, and thus opens the valve V, and difeharges
the bullet. This is all evident from a bare view of the
figure.
To bring another bullet to fucceed that marked I,
■ inftamaneoufly, turn the cylindric cavity of the key of
A I R
the cock, which before made part of the barrel R K, Air-gun
into the fituation i k, fo that the part i may be at K j . II.
and hold the gun upon your Ihoulder, with the bar- Air P1Pe»-i
rel downwards and the magazine upwards, by which
means that bullet next the cock will fall into it out of
the magazine, but go no farther into this cylindric
cavity than the two little fprings //, which detain it.
The two circles reprefent the cock-barrel, wherein the
key abovementioned turns upon an axis not reprefent.-
ed here, but vifible in fig. 13. This axis is a fquare
piece of Heel, on which comes the fquare hole of the
hammer H, fig. 14.; by which the cylindric cavity mens-
tioned is opened to the magazine. Then opening the
hammer, as in that figure, the bullet is brought into its
proper place near the difcharge-valve, and the cylindrie
cavity of the key of the cock again makes part of the
inward barrel KK.
It evidently appears how expeditious a method this
is of charging and difeharging a gun; and were the
force of condenfed air equal to that of gun-powder,
fuch an air-gun would anfwer the end of feveral guns.
In the air-gun, and all other cafes where the air is
required to be condenfed to a very great degree, it will
be requilite to have the fy.ringe of a fmall bore, viz.
not exceeding half an inch in diameter ; becaufe the
preffure againft every fquare inch, is about 1.5 pounds*
and, therefore againft every circular inch about 12
pounds. If therefore the fyringe be one inch in dia¬
meter, when one atmofphere is injected, there •will be
a refillance of 12 pounds againft the .pifton ; and when
10 are injedled, there will be a force of 120 pounds to
be overcome ; whereas 10 atmofpheres a£t againft the
circular half-inch pifton (whofe area is only one-fourth
part fo big) with only a force equal to 30 pounds j
or 40 atmofpheres may be injefted with fuch a fyringe,
as well as 10 with the other. In ftiort, the facility of-
working will be inverfely as the fquares. of the diame¬
ter of the fyringe.
Am-Jacket, a fort of jacket made of leather, in
which are feveral bags, or bladders, compofed of the
fame materials, communicating with each other. Thefe
are filled with air through a leather tube, having a brafs
ftop-cock accurately ground at the extremity, by which
means the air blown in through the tube is confined in
the bladders. The jacket mull be wet, before the air
be blown into the bags, as otherwife it will immediate¬
ly efcape through the pores of the leather. By the
help of thefe bladders, which are placed near the bread*,
the perfon is fupported- in the water, without making
the efforts ufed in fwimming.
Am- Pipes, an invention for drawing foul air out of
Ihips, or any other clofe places, by means of fire*
Thefe pipes were firft found out by one Mr Sutton, a
brewer in London ; and from him have ,got the name
of Sutton's Air-pipes. The principle on which their
operation depends is known to every body,, being in»
deed no other than that air is neeeffary for the fup-
port of fire; and, if it has not accefs from the plai¬
ces moft adjacent, will not fail to come from thofe
that are more remote. Thus, in a common furnace,
the air enters through the afh-hole; but if this is do*
fed up, and a hole made in the fide of the furnace, the
air will rufh in with great violence through that holei
If a tube of any length whatever is inferted in this hole,
the air will rufh through the tube into the fire, and of
coa-
1 338 1
T g IT
AIR . T 339 ] AIR
Air-P'P*8, eonfequence there will be a continued circulation of who uf'd all his intereft for that parpofe, was lhame- Air-pipes-
air in that place where the extremity of the tube is laid, fully negledled. v
Mr Sutton’s contrivance then, as communicated to the A machine capable of anfwering the fame purpofe
Royal Society by Doftor Mead, amounts to no more was invented by Mr Defaguliers, which he called the
than this.—“ As, in every fhip of any bulk, there is Jhip's lungt. It conlifted of a cylindrical box fet up on
already provided a copper or boiling-place proportion- its edge, and fixed to a wooden pedeftal. From the
hble to the fize of the veffel; it is propofed to clear the
bad air, by means of the fire already ufed under the
upper edge of the box iffued a fquare trunk ©pen at the
end, and communicating with the cavity of the box.
faid coppers or boiling-places for the neceffary ufes of Within this box was placed a cylindrical wheel turning
the fhip.
“ It is well known, that, under every fuch copper or
boiler, there are placed two holes, feparated by a
grate; the firft of which is for the fire, and the other
for the a fires falling from the fame ; and that there is
alfo a flue from the fire-place upward, by vwhich the
fmoke of the fire is difcharged at fome convenient place
©f the fhip.
“ It is alfo well known, that the fire once lighted in
thefe .fire-places, is onlypreferved by the conftant draught
of air through the forementioned two holes and flue;
and that if the faid two holes are clofely flopped up,
the fire, though burning ever fo brifkly before, is im¬
mediately put out.
“ But if, after fhutting up the abovementioned holes,
another hole be opened, communicating with any o-
ther room or airy place, and with the fire ; it is clear,
the faid fire muil again be raifed and burn as before,
there being a like draught of air through the fame as
there was before the flopping up of the firft holes;
this cafe differing -only from the former in this, that
the air feeding the fire will mow be fupplied from ano-
the place.
“ It is therefore propofed, that, in order to clear the
holds of fhips of the bad air therein contained, the two
holes abovementioned, the fire-place and afh-place, be
both clofed up with fubflantial and tight iron-doors ;
and that a copper or leaden pipe, of fufficient fize, be
laid from the hold into the afh-place, for the draught
of air to come in that way to feed the fire. And thus
it feems plain, from what has been already faid, that
there will be, from the hold, a conftant difcharge of
the air therein contained; and confequently, that that
air, fo difcharged, mufl be as conilantly fupplied by frefh
air down the hatches or fuch other communications as
are opened into the hold ; whereby the fame mufl be
continually frefhened, and its air rendered more whole-
fome and fit for refpiration.
“ And if into this principal pipe fo laid into the
hold, other pipes are let in, communicating reipective-
ly either with the well or lower decks; it mull follow,
that part of the air, coniumeS in feeding the tire, muil
be reipectiveiy drawn out of all fuch places to which the
communication ihall be fo made.”
This account is fp plain, that no doubt can remain
on an axis. - It was divided into 12 parts, by means of
partitions placed like the radii of a circle. Thefe par¬
titions did not extend quite to the centre, but left an
open fpace of about i8 inches diameter in the middle ;
towards the circumference, they extended as far as pof-
fible without interfering with the cafe, fo that the
wheel might always be allowed to turn freely.—Things
being thus cifcumflanced, it is plain, that if the wheel
was turned towards that fide of the box on which the
trunk was, every divifioh would pufh the air before it,
and drive it out through the trunk, at the fame time
that frefh air would come in through the open fpace at
the centre, to fupply that which was thrown out thro’
the trunk. By turning the wheel fwiftly, a flrong blafl
of air would be continually forced out thro’ the fquare
trunk, on the fame principles on which a common fan¬
ner winnows corn. If the wheel is turned the oppofite
way, a draught of air may be produced from the trunk
to the centre. If this machine, then, ik placed in
room where a circulation of air is wanted, and the trunk
made to pafs through one of the walls ; by turning the
wheel fwiftly round, the air will be forced with great
velocity out of that room, at the fame time that frefh
air will enter through any chinks by which it can have
accefs to fupply that which has been forced out.
It is evident, that the circulation which is promoted
by this machine, is entirely of the fame kind with that
produced by Mr Sutton’s; the turning of the wheel in
Mr Defagulier’s machine being equivalent to the rare-
fadlion of the air by fire in Mr Sutton’s: but that the
latter is vallly fuperior, as adling of itfelf, and without
intermiffion, requires no arguments to prove. Mr Sut¬
ton’s machine has yet another conveniency, of which no
other contrivance for the fame purpofe can boafl j
namely, that it not only draws out putrid air, but de-
flroys it by caufing it pafs through fire; and experience
has abundantly fhown, that th6ugh putrid air is thrown
into a great quantity of frefh air, it is fo far from lo-
fing its pernicious properties, that it often produces
noxious difeafes. We do not fay, indeed, that putrid
air becomes falutary by this means; but it is undoubt¬
edly rendered lefs noxious than before; tho’ whether it
is equally innocent with the fmoke of a fire fed in the
common way, we cannot pretend to determine.
Befides this machine by Mr Defaguliers, the venti-
concerning the efficacy of the contrivance: it is evi- lators of Dr Hales, already mentioned, and thofe
dent, that, by means of pipes of this kind, a conftant
circulation of frefh air would be occafioned thro’ thofe
places where it would otherwife be moll apt to llagnate
and putrefy. Several other contrivances have been ufed
for the fame purpofe ; and Dodtor Hales’s ventilators,
by iome unaccountable prejudice, have been reckoned
fuperior in efficacy and even limplicity to Mr Sutton’s
machine, which at its firll invention met with great
• See Swf- oppofition and even when introduced by Dr Mead,
called 'wind-fails. are likewife ufed for the fame purpofe.
The former of which is an improvement of the Heffian-
bellows*: the other is a contrivance-for throwing frefh * See Vtr,
air into thofe places where putrid air is apt to lodge; i’.a or.
but this has the lafl-mentioned inconvenience in a
much greater degree than any of the others, as the
blafl of frefh air throws out that which was rendered
putrid by flagnation, in fuch a manner as to contami¬
nate all around it. See Wiub-&i//r.
;U u 2 Aits
A I R
Air-trunk Am-Trunk, is alfo a contrivance by Doftor Hales
II to prevent the ftagnation of putrid effluvia in jails,
Air-mafts. Qther placeg wi1ere a great number of people are
»'’ ■ Growcieci together in a fmall fpace. It confifts only of
a long fquare trunk open at both ends; one of which is
inferted into the ceiling of the room, the air ,of which
is required to be kept pure; and the other extends a
good way beyond the roof. Through this trunk a
continued circulation is carried on : and the reafon is,
that the putrid effluvia which do fo much mifchief when
colle&ed, being much lighter than the pure atmofphere,
arife to the top of the room ; and, if they there find a.
vent, will continually go out through it. Thefe effluvia
arife in very confiderable quantity, being calculated by
the late DrKeil at no lefs than 39 ounces from one man
in, 24 hours.
Thefe trunks were firft made trial of by Mr Yeoman,
over the Houfe of Commons, where they were nine
inches wide within; and over the Court of King’s-bench
in Wdlminfter-hall, where they were fix inches wide.
They are fometimes made wider, and fometimes nar¬
rower : but the wider they are the longer they ought
to be, more effe&ually to promote the afcent of the va¬
pour. The reafon why vapours of this kind afcend
more fwiftly through a long trunk than a fflort one, is,
that the preiTure of fluids is always according to their
different depth, without regard to the diameter of their
bafis, or. of the veffel which contains them; and, upon
this principle, a gallon of water may be made to fplit
aflrong calk. See Hydrostatics. When the co¬
lumn of putrid effluvia is long and narrow, the differ¬
ence between the column of atmofphere preffing on the
upper end of the trunk, and that which preffes on the
lower end, is much greater than if; the column of pu¬
trid effluvia was fhort and wide; and coniequendy the
afcent is much fwifter.—One pan of a fingle pair of
fcales, which was two inches in diameter, being held
within one of thefe trunks over the Houfe of Commons,
the force of the afcending air made it rife fo as to re¬
quire four grains to reftore the equilibrium, and this
when there was no perfon in the houfe; but when it
was full, no lefs than 12 grains were requifite to re-
flore the equilibrium ; which clearly Ihows that thefe
trunks muff be of real and very great efficacy.
Am-Pump, a machine by which the air contained in
a proper veffel may be exhautted or drawn out. See
the article Pneumatics.
Am-Sacs, in birds. See Comparative Anatomy,
chap. ii.
AiR-Shafts, among miners, denote holes or ftiafts
let down from the open air to meet the adits and fur-
niih frelh air. The damps, want, and impurity of air
which occur, when adits are wrought 30 or 40 fathoms
long, make it neceffary to let down air-fhafts, in order
to give the air liberty to play through the whole work,
and thus difcharge bad vapours, and furnilh good air
for refpiration : the expence of which lhafts, in regard
of their vaft depths, hardnefs of the rock, drawing of
water, &c. fometimes equals, nay exceeds, the ordinary
charge of the whole adit.
Sir Robert Murray deferibes a method, ufed in the
coal-mines at Liege, of working mines without air-
fliafts.
When the miners at Mendip have funk a groove,
they will not be at the charge of an air-ftiaft till
A I R
they come at ore; and for the fupply of air have Air-thrcadj
boxes of elm exaftly clofed, of about fix inches in the fl
clear, by which they carry it down about twenty fa- , Air-
thorns. They cut a trench at a little diftance from
the top of the groove, covering it with turf and rods
difpofed to receive the pipe, which they contrive to
come in fideways to their groove, four feet from the
top; which carries down the air to a great depth.
When they come at ore, and need an air-fhaft, they
fink it four or five fathoms diftant, according to the
convenience of the breadth, and of the fame faftiion
with the groove, to draw as well ore as air.
Air-Tbreads% in natural hiffory, a name given to
the long filaments, fo frequently feen in autumn float¬
ing about in the air.
Thefe threads are the wmrk of fpiders, efpecially of
that fpecies called the long-legged field-fpider; which,
having mounted to the fummit of a buffi or tree, darts
from its tail feveral of thefe threads, till one is produced
capable of fupporting the creature in the air: on this
it .mounts in queft of prey, and frequently rifes to a very
confiderable height. See Aranea.
AiR-VeJfels, are fpiral dudts in the leaves, &c. of
plants, fuppofed to be analogous to the lungs of ani¬
mals, in fupplying the different parts of a plant with air.
See the article Plants.
Air, in mythology, was adored by the Heathens un¬
der the names of Jupiter and Juno ; the former repre-
fenting the fuperior and finer part of the atmofphere,
and the latter the inferior and groffer part. The augurs
alfo drew prefages from the clouds, thunder, light¬
ning, &c.
Air, in painting, &c. denotes the manner and-very
life of adtion ; or it is that which expreffes the difpofi-
tion of the agent.—It is ibmetimes alfo ufed in afyno-
nymous fenfe with gefture or attitude.
Air, in mufic, is taken in different fenfes. It is
fometimes contrafted with harmony; and, in this fenfe,
it is fynonymous with melody in general.— Its proper
meaning is, A tune, which is fet to words, or to ftiort
pieces of poetry that are called fongs.
In operas, we give the name of air to fuch pieces of
mufic as are formed with meafures and cadences, to di-
llinguifh it from the recitative ; and, in general, every
piece of mufic is called an air, which is formed for the
voice, or even for inftruments, and adapted to ftanzas,
whether it forms a whole in itfelf, or whether it can be
detached from any whole of which it forms a part, and
be executed alone.
If thefubjedt admits of harmony, and is fet in parts,
the air is, according to their number, denominated a
duett, a trio, a quartet to, &c. We need not follow
Rouffeau, and the other philologifts, in their endeavours
to inveftigate the etymon of the word air. Its deriva¬
tion, though found and afeertained, would contribute
little to illuftrate its meaning in that remote fenfe, to
which, through a long continuance of time, and the
various viciffitudes of language, it has now paffed. The
curious may confult the lame article in the DUiionnaire
de Mufique by M. Rouffeau.
In modern mufic, there are feveral different kinds of
airs, each of which agrees to a certain kind of dancing,
and fiom thefe dances the airs themfelves take their
fpecific names.
The airs of our operas, are, if we may be permitted
the
[ 34° ]
A I R
the exnrefiion, the canvafs or fubftratum upon w iich
are painted all the pictures of imitative mufic ; melody
is the defign, and harmony the colouring; every pictu-
refq.ue objeft felefted from the moft beautiful parts of
nature, every refte&ed fentiment of the human heart,
are the models which the artift imitates^ whatever gains
attention, whatever interefts the foul, whatever charms
the ear, or caufes emotion in the heart, thefe are the
obje&s of his imitation. • See Imitation.- An air
which delights the ear, and difcovers the learning of
the compofer ; an air in vented by genius, and compofed
with tafte; is the nobleft effort of mufic: it is this
which explores the compafs,.and difplays the delicacy,
of a beautiful voice; it is in this where the charms of a
well-conducted fymphony fhine ; it is by this, that the
paffions, excited and inflamed by nice gradations, reach
and agitate the foul through the avenues of external
fenfe. After hearing a beautiful air, the mind is ac-
quiefeent and ferene: the ear is fatisfied, not difgufted:
it remains imprefled on the fancy, it becomes a part of
our eflence, we carry it with us, we are able to repeat
it at pleafure: without the ability acquired by habit to
breathe a Angle note of it, we execute it in our ima¬
gination in the fame manner as we heard it upon the
theatre: one fees the feene, the adtor, the theatre ;
one hears the accompaniments and the applaufes. The
real enthuflafl in mufle never forgets the beautiful airs
which he has heard ; when he choofes, he caufes the
opera to recommence.
The words to which airs are adapted, are not always
rehearfed in regular fucceffion, nor fpoken in the fame
manner with thofe of the recitative ; and though, for
ordinary, they are very fhort, yet they are interrupted^
repeated, tranfpofed,|at the pleafure of the artift. They
do not conilitute a narrative, which once told is over :
they either delineate a pidlure, which it is neceffary to
contemplate in different points of view; or infpire a fen¬
timent in which the heart acquiefces with pleafure, and
from which it is neither able nor willing to be difen-
gaged; and the different phrafes of the air, are nothing
elfe but different manners of beholding the fame image.
This is the reafon why the fubjedl of an air fhould be
one. It is by thefe repetitions properly placed, it is
by thefe redoubled efforts, that an impreflion, which at
flrft was not able to move you, at length fhakes your
foul, agitates you, tranfports you out of yourfelf: and
it is likewife upon the fame principle, that the runnings,
as they are called, or thofe long, mazy, and inarticu-
lated inflexions of the voice, which, in pathetic airs,
frequently feem, though they are not always fo, im¬
properly placed; whilft the heart is affected with a fen¬
timent exquifltely moving, it often expreffes its emo¬
tions by inarticulate founds, more ftrongly and fenflbly
than it could do by words themfelves.
The form of airs is of two kinds. The fmall airs
are often compofed of two flrains, which ought each of
them to be fung twice; but the important airs in ope¬
ras are frequently in the form of rondeaus.
Air, ox Ayr, in geography, a town of Scotland, capital
of an extenflve. county of the fame name. It Hands on
the river Air, and was formerly a place of good trade,
and feat of fifheries; all of which have vanifhed, and the
people now live by one another. Air appears, from hi-
fiory and other documents, to have been a conflderable
place at the time of the Norman conqueft. The vouchers
A X R
of its antiquity are corroborated by an elegant building, Aira
called the Crop, which hath efcaped the deftruXive . 0
rage of the laft and preceding century. The date on , Airinj?'
this fragment of antiquity is 1055, confequently it
hath Hood in its place above 730 years; and it is to
be wilhed, that the majority of the inhabitants may
unite in preferring it from being deftroyed by perfons
who have exprelfed a ftrong defire to that purpofe. In
15:57, the tax levied upon Air was L. 236 Scots; upon
Glafgow only L. 202. In 1771, Air was aflefled at
15 s. Sterl. and Glafgow at L. 18, 10s. In 1 751, the
pickled herrings exported from Air were 6624 barrels;
Ance the year 1777, none. Thefe revolutions appear the
more extraordinary, when we conAder the very advan¬
tageous Atuation of Air both by land and water; the
fertility of the country; the riches of the fea 4 its
contiguity to the weftern Aflieries on one Ade, and to
Glafgow on the other; the large returns for cattle,
grain, and coal; the ample revenues of the town ; and
particularly the conveniency of its harbour for Afhing-
veflels of every conftruXion.—About a mile north from
the town there is a lazar-houfe, commonly called The
King's Chapel, which King Robert de Bruce fet apart
for the maintenance of lepers.
AIRA, in botany: A genus of the triandria digy’-
nia clafs ; and in the natural method ranking under the
4th order, Gramina. The charaXers are : The calyx’
is a two-flowered double-valved glume : The corolla is
two-valved, and no rudiment of a flower between the
florets : The Jlamina conflft of three capillary filaments
the length of the flower; the antherae are oblong, and
forked at both ends: The piftillum is an egg-fhaped
germen ; the ftyli are two, briftly, and expanding; the
ftigmata are pubefeent: There is no pericarpium ; the
including corolla grows to the feed : The feed is egg-
fliaped and covered. There are 14 fpecies of the aira,.
nine of which are natives of Britain. The Engliflr
name is Hair-grafs. See the general article Grass.
AIRANI, in church-hiftory, an obfeure feX of A-
rians, in the fourth century, who denied the confubftan-
tiality of the Holy Ghoft with the Father and the Son.
They are otherwife called Airani/la; and are faid to
have taken their name from one Airas, who diftinguifh-
ed himfelf at the head of this part}-, in the reigns of
Valentinian and Gratian.
AIRE, a town of France, in Proper Gafcony,. of
which it is the capital, with a biflrop’s fee. It is feated
on the river Adour, on the declivity of a mountain.
E. Long. o. 3. N. Lat. 43. 47.
Aire, a llrbng town in the Netherlands, in the
county of Artois, with a callle. It was taken by the
French in 1710, and was confirmed to them by the
treaty of Utrecht. It is feated on the river Lis, 22
miles fouth of Dunkirk, and communicates with St
Omer’s by a canal cut from the river Aa. E. Long.
2. 31. N. Lat. 50. 38.
AIRING, a term peculiarly ufed for the exercifing
horfes in the open air. It purifies the blood; purges the
body from grofs humours; and, as the jockies exprefs
it, teaches the horfe how to make Ins wind rake equally,
and keep time with the other motions of his body. It
alfo flrarpens the ftomach, and keeps the creature hun¬
gry ; which is a thing of great confequence, as hunters
and racers are very apt to have their llomach fall off,
either from want of. exercife, or from the too violent
exer- •
[ 341 3
A J U [ 342 ] A I X
exercife which they are often expofed to. If the horfe
be over fat, it is befl to air him before fun-rife and
j after fun-fetting ; and in general, it is allowed by all,
that nothing is more beneficial to thofe creatures than
early and late airings. -Some of our modern managers,
however, difpute this: they fay, that the cold of thefe
times is too great for tjie creature; and that if, in par*
ticular, he is fubjedlto cattarrhs, rheums, or the like
complaints, the dews and cold fogs, in thefe early and
late airings, will be apt to increafe all thofe diforders.
Nature, we fee, -alfo points out the fun-beams as of
great ufe to thefe animals j thofe which are kept hardy
and lie out all night, always running to thofe places
where the funlhiae comes, as foon as it appears in a
morning. This ftiauld feem to recommend thofe airings
that are to be made before fun-fct, and a little time
after fun-rife. As to the caution, fo earneftly in¬
culcated by Markham, of ufing thefe early and late
airings for fat horfes, it is found unneceifary by many:
for they fay, that the fame effeft may be produced by
airings at warmer times, provided only that they are
made longer; and that, in general, it is from long air¬
ings that we are to expedt to bring a horfe to a perfect
wind and found courage.
AIRvS, in the manege, are the artificial motions of
taught horfes; as the demivolt, curvet, capriole, &c.
AIRY, or Aery, among fportfmen, a term expref-
fing the neft of a hawk or eagle.
/hur Triplicity, among aftrologers, denotes the three
figns, gemini, libra, and aquarius.
AISNE, a river of France, which rifes in Cham¬
paign, and runs W. by Soifons in the Ifle of France,
falling in to, the. river Oife, a little above Campeigne.
AITOCZU, a. coafiderable river of Lelfer Afia,
which, arifing in the mountain Taurus, falls into the
fouth part of the Euxine.fea.
.AJUGA, Bugle: A genus of the gymnolpermia
order, -belonging to the didynamia clafs of plants ; and
in,the natural method ranking under the 43d order,
yifperifilia. The characters are: The calyx is a fliort
-perianthium, mor.ophyllous and perfdlent: The corolla
is monopetalous and grinning:; 'TXinJlamina conlift of
four eredt Tubulated filaments ; the anthene are -dimi¬
diated : The pijhllum has a four-cleft germen, a fili¬
form ftylus, and two {lender ftigmata. There is no ps-
rlca-pium ; the calyx converging, and containing the
feeds in i ts bofom: The feeds are four, and oblong. The
Species enumerated by Linnaeus are, /. The orienta-
Iis, with inverted flowers, which is a native of the eaft.
i. The genevenfis, with woolly leaves and hairy cups,
is a native of. Swifferland and -of the fouthern parts of
Europe. ,3. The pyramidalis, or mountain-bugle, with
a fquare pyramidal fpike and blue flowers, is a native
of Sweden, Germany, SwifTerland, and the hilly parts
of Britain. Sheep and goats eat it; cows are not fond
of it; horfes and fwine refufe it. 4. The reptans, com¬
mon or paflure bugle, with creeping fuckers, and blue,
-red, or white blofibms, in long leafy fpikes, is a native
of the fouthern parts of Europe, and is met with in
woods and moift places in many parts of Britain. The
roots are aftringent, and flrike a black colour'with vi¬
triol of iron.
Culture, T. he firrt: fpecies is propagated by fowing
the feeds foon after they are ripe, in a pot filled with
loamy earth, and placed in a fliady fituation till autumn;
when it mull be removed under a frame, and protefted Alu»
from the frofts. In the fpring, after the plants are come
up, let them be tranflated each into a feparate pot, and
in fummer placed under a fhady fituation. The other , -
forts are eafily propogated by -their fide-fhoots, and
fucceed beft in a moift fliady fituation.
AIUS locutios, the name of a deity to whom
the Romans eredted an altar.—The words are Latin,
and fignify “ a fpeaking voice.”—The following ac¬
cident gave occafion to the Romans creeling an altar to
the Aius Locutius. One M. Seditius, a plebian, ac-
quainted-the tribunes, that, in walking the ftreets by
night, he had heard a voice over the temple of Vefta,
giving the Romans notice that the Gaids were coming
againft them. This intimation was however negle&ed ;
but after the truth was confirmed by the event, Camil¬
las acknowledged this voice to be a new deity, and erec¬
ted an altar to it under the name of the Aius Lacutius.
AJUTAGE, or Adjutage, a kind of tube fitted
to the mouth of the vefiel through which the water of
a fountain is to be played. To the different form and
ffrufture of ajutages, is owing to the great variety of
fountains. See Fountain and Hydrostatics.
AIX, a fmall, but ancient town in the duchy of Sa¬
voy, with the title of a marquifate. It is feated on the
lake Bourget, at the foot of a mountain, between
Chamberry, Annecy, and Rumilly. There is here a
triumphal arch of the ancient Romans, but it is almoft
entirely ruined. The mineral waters bring a great
number of ftrangers to this place. The place was o-
riginally called Aqua Gratiana, from the hot baths
built there by the Emperor Gratian. E. Long. 7.10.
N. Lat. 45. 40.
Aix, an ancient city, the capital of Provence, in
France. It is an archbifhopric ; and has a parliament,
a court of aids, a chamber of accounts, a fenefchal’s
jurifdiftion, a generality, and an univerfity. It has
that air of iilence and gloom fo commonly charafteriilic
of places deftitute of commerce or iuduftry : It is,
however, a well-built city; and moft like Paris of any
place in the kingdom, as well for the largenefs of the
buildings, as in refpeft of the politenefs of the inhabi¬
tants. It is embellifhed with abundance of fine foun¬
tains, and feveral beautiful fquares. The preachers
fquare is on the fide of a hill; it is about 160 yards in
length, and is furrounded with trees, and houfes built
with ftone three {lories high. The town-hall is at one
end of the city, and is diftributed into feveral fine a-
partments: the two lowed are takeh up by the board
of accounts, and by the fenefchal; that above is defign-
ed for the feffions of parliament. The hall of audience
is adorned with the pi&ufes of the kings of France on
horfeback. The hotel of the city is a handfome build¬
ing, but hid by the houfes of the narrow ftreet in which
it is placed. The cathedral church is a Gothic ftruc-
ture, with tombs of feveral earls of Provence, and fome
good pictures by French maflers. The Corfe, or Orbi-
telle, is a magnificent walk, above 300 yards long,
formed by a triple avenue of elms, and two rows of re¬
gular and {lately houfes. The church of the fathers of
the oratory is a handfome building ; and not far from
thence is the chapel of the blue penitents, which is full
of paintings. The convent of preachers is very fine;
in their church is a lilver ftatue of the Virgin Mary al¬
moft as big as the life. There are other churches and
buildings
1 343 ]
eleclor palafiru
A I X
in the quality of the duke of Ju-
A I X
Aix. buildings which contain a great number of rarities.
The baths without the city, which were difcovered not
long fince, have good buildings, raifed at a vaft ex¬
pence, for the accommodation of thofe who drink the
waters. Although Aix was the firft Roman fettlement
in Gaul, it is not remarkable for ancient remains. The
warm fprings from which it is now known and fre¬
quented induced Sextus Calvinus to found a colony
here, to which he gave the name of Aqute Sextice.
They were fiippofed to poffefs particular virtues in cafes
of debility ; and feveral altars have been dug up facred
to Priapus, the infcriptions on which indicate their gra¬
titude to that deity for his fuppofed fuccbur and affift-
ance. E. Long. 5. 32. N. Lat. 43. 32.
Aix, a fmall inland on the coaii of France, between
the ifle of Oleron and the continent. It is twelve
miles north-weft of Rochfort, and twelve fouth-fouth-
weft of Rochelle. W. Long. 1. 4. N. Lat. 46. 5.
Aix la chapelle, a fine city of Germany, in the
circle of Weftphalia and duchy of Juliers.
All authors are agreed about its antiquity, it being
mentioned in Csefar's Commentaries and the Annals
ef Tacitus. The Romans had colonies and fortrefles
there, when they were at war with the Germans; but
the mineral waters and the hot bath fo increafed its
fame, that, in procefs of time, it was advanced to the
privileges of a city, by the name of Aqusegranii, that
‘ is, the waters of Granius t that which it has now, of
Jlix la Chapelle, was given it by the French, to di-
ftinguifh it from the other Aix. It isfo called, on ac¬
count of a chapel built in honour of the Holy Virgin
by Charlemagne;- who having repaired, beautified, and
enlarged the city, which was deftroyed by the Huns
in the reign of Attila in 451, made it the ufual
place of his refidence. The town is feated in. a
valley furrounded with mountains and woods, and yet
the air is very wholefome. It may be divided into the
inward and outward city. The inward is fncompaffed
with a wall about three quarters of a league in circum¬
ference, having ten gates; and the outward wall, in
which there are eleven gates, is about a league and a
half in circumference. There are rivulets which run
through the town and keep it very clean, turning fe¬
veral mills; befides twenty public fountains, and many
private ones. They have- ftone-quarries in the neigh¬
bourhood, which-furnilh the inhabitants with proper
materials for their magnificent buildings, of which the
ftadt-houfe and the cathedral are the chief. There
are likewife thirty parochial or collegiate churches.
The market-place is very fpacious, and the houfes round
k are ftately. In the middle, before the ftadt-houfe,
is a fountain of blue ftones, which throws out- water;
from fix pipes, into a marble bafon placed beneath,
thirty feet in circumference. 0n the top of this foun¬
tain, is placed the ftatue of Charlemagne, of brafs, gilt;
holding a fceptre in his right-hand, and a globe in his
left. The ftadt-houfe is adorned with the ftatues of
all the emperors fince- Charlemagne. This- fabric has
three ftories, the upper of which is one entire room
of 162 feet in length and'60 in breadth. In this the
new-eledted emperor formerly entertained all. the elees¬
ters of the empire.
Aix la chapelle is a free imperial city, and chan¬
ges its magiftracy every year on the eve of St John
Baptift. The . mayor is. in the nomination-of the
3r
liers, as proteftor of the city. This place is famous
for feveral councils and treaties of peace concluded
here; particularly thofe between France and Spain in
1668, and between Great Britain and France in 1748.
The hot fulphurous waters for which this place has
fo long been celebrated, arife from feveral fources, which
fupply eight baths conftrufted in different parts of the
town. Thefe waters near the fources are clear and pel¬
lucid ; and have a ffrong fulphureous fmell refembling
the wafhings of a foul gun ; but they lofe this frrjell by
expofure to air. Their tafte is faline, bitter, and uri¬
nous. They do not contain iron. They are alfo neu¬
tral near the fountain, but afterwards are manifeftly
and pretty ftrongly alkaline, infomuch that clothes are
waftied with them without foap.—On the vaults above
the fprings and aqueducts of- thefe waters is found, e-
very year, when they are opened, a quantity of fine
white-coloured flowers of fulphur, which has been fub-
limed from the waters^
The heat of the water of the hotteft fpring, by Dr
Lucas’s account, raifes the quickfilver of Fahrenheit’s
thermometer to : 36-—by Monf. Monet’s account, ,to
146—and the heat of the fountain, where they com¬
monly drink, by Dr Lucas’s, account, to 112.
Dr Simmons has given the following account of their
feveral temperatures, as- repeatedly obferved by himfelf
with a-thermometer conftru&ed by Nairne.
The fprtng which fupplies the Emperor’s bath •
(Bain de PEmpcreur), the New Bath (Bain
Neuf), and the Queen of Hungary’s bath (Bain
de la Reme Hongrie), - - ~ 127^
St Quirin’s bath (Bain de St Shtirin), - 112
The Rofe bath (Bain de la Rofe), and the Poor’s
bath (Baindes Pauvrts), both which are fup-
plied by the fame fpring,, - - - 112^
Charles’s bath (Bain de Charles}, and St Cor¬
neille’s bath (Bain de-St Corneille'), - - 112?
The fpring ufed for drinking is in the High Street,
oppofite to Charles’s bath; the heat of it at the
pump is - - 1060-
Dr Lucas evaporated the water of the hotteft fpring
(of the Emperor’s Bath), and obtained 268 grains of
folid matter from a gallon, compofed of 15 grains of
calcareous earth, 10 grains of felenites, and 243 grains,
of a faline matter made up of natrbn and fea fait. They
are at firft naufeous and harfti, but by habit become
familiar and agreeable. At firft drinking,. alfo, they
generally affect the head. Their general operation is -
by ftool and urine, without griping or diminution of
ftfength ; ■ and they alfo -promote perfpiration.
The quantity to- be drank-us^an alterative is to be
varied according to-the conftitution and other circum-
ftances.of the patient. In general, it is beft to begin.,
with a quarter or half a pint in the morning, and in-* -
creafe the dofe afterwards-to, pints, as may be found
convenient. The water is beft drank at the fountain,-
When it, is required to purge, it IhouldBc drank in
large and often-repeated draughts.
In regard- to bathing, this alio muft be determined-
by the age, fex; ftrength, &c. of the patient, and by
the feafonr The degree of-heat of the bath fttould like*
wife be confidered. The tepid ones are in general the.
beft, though there are fome cafes in which the hotter,
ones are moft proper. But even in thefe,. it is beft to
be£ia*
A K E [ 344 ] A K E
begin with the temperate baths, and increafe the heat
gradually.
Thefe waters are efficacious in difeafes proceeding
from indigeftion and from foulnefs of the ftomach and
bowels. In rheumatifms; in the fcurvy, fcrophula,
and difeafes of the Ikin; in hyfteric and hypochondrial
diforders; in nervous complaints and melancholy; in the
ftone and gravel; in paralytic complaints; in thofc evils
which follow an injudicious ufe of mercury; and in
many other cafes. They ought not, however, to be
given in heftic cafes where there is heat and fever, in
putrid diforders, or where the blood is diffolved, or the
conftitution much broken down.
The time of drinking, in the firft feafon, is from the
beginning of May to the middle of June ; and, in the
latter feafon, from the middle of Auguft to the latter
end of September.
There are galleries or piazzas under which the com¬
pany walk during the time of drinking, in order to
promote the operation of the waters.—The poor’s bath
is free for every body, and is frequented by crowds of
poor people.
It is fcarcely neceffary to add, that there are all
kinds of amufements common to other places of public
refort; but the (harpers appear more fplendid here than
elfewhere, affuming titles, with an equipage fuitable to
them.—Aix la Chapelle is 2 i miles from Spa, 36 from
Liege, and 30 from Cologne. E. Long. 5. 48. N.
Lat.51.5y.
AIZOON, called by Mr Miller fanper-vives though
the name Aizoon has been by fome writers applied to
the houfe-leek, and alfo to the aloes : A genus of the
pentagynia order, belonging to the icofandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
13th order, Succulent#. The characters are : The ca¬
lyx is a fingle-leaved perianthium, divided into five feg-
ments, and perfiftent: There is no corolla: The Jhx-
mlna confift of very numerous capillary filaments ; the
antherae are fimple : The piftillum has a five-cornered
germen above, with five fimple ftyli; and the ftigmata
are fimple. The pericarpium is a bellied, retufe, five-
cornered capfule, having five cells and five valves: The
Jeeds are many and globular.—Linnaeus mentions three
fpecies; the canarienfe, hifpanicum, and paniculatum.
The firft is a native of the Canary iflands, the fecond
of Spain, and the third of the Cape of Good Hope.
They may all be raifed in this country on hot-beds;
but as they are not remarkable either for beauty or any
other property, it appears unneceffary to take further
notice of them.
AKENSIDE (Mark), a phyfician, who pub-
lilhed in Latin “ ATreatife upon the Dyfentery,” in
1764, and a few pieces in the firft volume of the “ Me¬
dical TranfaCtions” of the college of phyficians, print¬
ed in 1768; but far better known, and to be diftin-
guiflied chiefly hereafter, as a poet. He was born at New-
caftle-upon-Tyne, November 9.1721; and after being e-
ducated at the grammar-fchool in Newcaftle, was fent
to the univerfities of Edinburgh and Leyden ; at which
laft he took his degree of Doftor in Phyfic. He was af¬
terwards admitted by mandamus to the fame degree at
Cambridge; elefted a fellow of the college of phyfi¬
cians, and one of the phyficians at St Thomas’s Ho-
fpbal; and, upon the eftabliffiment of the queen’s houfe-
tioid, appointed one of the phyficians to her majefty.
N°9.
That Dr Akenfide was able to acquire no other kind Akenfide.
of celebrity than that of a fcholar and a poet, is to be L—v—''
accounted for by the following particulars in his life
and conduCt, related by Sir John Hawkins.—Mr Dy-
fon and he were fellow-ftudents, the one of law and the
other of phyfic, at Leyden; where, being of conge¬
nial tempers, a friendftiip commenced between them
that lafted through their lives. They left the univer-
fity at the fame time, and both fettled in London: Mr
Dyfon took to the bar, and being poffeifed of a hand-
fome fortune, fupported his friend while he was endea¬
vouring to make himfelf known as a phyfician ; but in
a fhort time, having purchafed of Mr Hardinge his
place of clerk of the houfe of commons, he quitted
Weftminfter-hall; and for the purpofe of introducing
Akenfide to acquaintance in an opulent neighbourhood
near the town, bought a houfe at North-End, Hamp-
ftead ; where they dwelt together during the fummer-
feafon, frequenting the long-room, and all clubs, and
affemblies of the inhabitants.
At thefe meetings, which, as they were not feleft,
muft be fuppofed to have confifted of fuch perfons as
ufually meet for the purpofe of goffiping, men of
wealth, but of ordinary endowments, and able to talk
of little elfe than news, and the occurrences of the day.
Akenfide was for difplaying thofe talents which had
acquired him the reputation he enjoyed in other com¬
panies : but here they were of little ufe to him; on the
contrary, they tended to engage him in difputes that
betrayed him into a contempt of thofe that differed in
opinion from him. It was found out that he was a
man of low birth, and a dependent on Mr Dyfon; cir-
cumftances that furnifhed thofe whom he offended with
a ground of reproach, that reduced him to the necef-
fity of afferting in terms that he was a gentleman.
Little could be done at Hampftead after matters had
proceeded to this extremity : Mr Dyfon parted with
his villa at North-End, and fettled his friend in a fmall
. houfe in Bloomftmry-fquare ; affigning for his fupport
fuch a part of his income as enabled him to keep a
chariot.— In this new fituation Akenfide ufed every
endeavour to become popular, but defeated them all,
by the high opinion he everywhere manifefted of him¬
felf, and the little condefcenfion he Ihowed to men of
inferior endowments; by his love of political contro-
verfy, his authoritative cenfure of the public councils,
and his bigotted notions rcfpefting government; fub*
jefts foreign to his profeffion, and with which fome of
the wifeft of it have thought it prudent not to concern
themfelves. In the winter evenings he frequented
Tom’s coffee-houfe in Devereux-court, then the refort
of fome of the moft eminent men for learning and in¬
genuity of the time ; with fome of whom he became
intangled in difputes and altercations, chiefly on fub-
jefts of literature and politics, that fixed on his cha-
radter the ftamp of haughtinefs and felf-conceit, and
drew him into difagreeable fituations. Hence many,
who admired him for his genius and parts, were ihy of
becoming his intimates.
The value of that precept which exhorts us to live
peaceably with all men, or, in other words, to avoid
creating enemies, can only be eftimated by the reflec¬
tion on thofe many amiable qualities againft which the
negledt of it will preponderate. Akenfide was a man
of religion and ftridt virtue ; a philofopher, a fcholar,
l and
A K O [ 345 ] ALA
A?c«nude an(j a fjne p0et. His converfation was of the moft de-
Akond h’ghtful kind ; learned, inflructive, and without any
■ < affectation of wit, cheerful and entertaining.
Dr Akenfide died of a putrid fever, June 23. ! 770 ;
and is buried in the parifh-chureh of St James’s, Weft-
minfter.
His poems, publifhed foon after his death in 4to and
8vo, confift of “ The Pleafures of Imagination,” two
books of “ Odes,” a “ Hymn to the Naiads,” and
fome “ Infcriptions.” “ The Pleafures of Imagina¬
tion,” his capital work, was firft publifhed in 1 744 ;
and a very extraordinary production it was from a man
who had not reached his 23d year. He was afterwards
fenfible, however, that it wanted revifion and correc¬
tion ; and he went on reviling and corre&ing it for
feveral years : but finding this tafk to grow upon his
hands, and defpairing of ever executing it to his own
fatisfaction, he abandoned the purpofe of correcting,
and refolved to write the poem over anew upon a fome-
what different and enlarged plan. He finifhed two
books of his new poem, a few copies of which were
printed for the ufe of the author and certain friends;
of the firft book in 1757, of the fecond in 1765. He
finifhed alfo a good part of a third book, and an in-
trodution to a fourth; but his moft munificent and ex¬
cellent friend, conceiving all that is executed of the new
work, too inconfiderable to fupply the place, and fu-
perfede the republication of the original poem, and yet
too valuable to be with-held from the public, hath
caufed them both to be inferted in the collection of his
poems.
AKIBA, a famous rabbin, flourifhed a little after
the deftruction of Jerufalem by Titus. He kept the
flocks of a rich citizen of Jerufalem till the 40th year
of his age, and then applied himfelf to ftudy in the
academies for 24 years; and was afterwards one of the
greateft mafters in Ifrael, he having 24,000 fcholars.
He declared for the impoftor Barcochebas, -whom he
owned for the Mefiiah; and not only anointed him king,
but took upon himfelf the office of his mafter of the
horfe. The troops which the emperor Hadrian fent
againft the Jews, who under the conduct of this falfe
Meffiah had committed horrid maffacres, exterminated
this facffipn. Akiba was taken, and put to death with
great cruelty. He lived 120 years; and was buried
with his wife in a cave upon a mountain not far from
Tiberias, and his 24,000 fcholars were buried round
about him'upon the fame mountain. It is imagined he
invented a fuppofititious work under-the name of the
patriarch Abraham.
AKISSAT, the ancient Thyatira, a city in Nato-
lia, in Afia, fituated in a plain 18 miles broad, which
produces plenty of cotton and grain. The inhabitants,
who are reckoned to be about yooo, are faid to be all
Mahometans. The houfes are built of nothing but
earth or turf dried in the fun, and are very low and ill
contrived : but there are fix or feven mofques, which
are all of marble. There are remarkable infcriptions
on marble in feveral parts of the town, which are part
of the ruins of ancient Thyatira. It is feated on the
river Hermus, 50 miles from Pergamos. E. Long. 28.
■|; 30. N. Lat. 38. 5c-.
AKOND, an officer of juftice in Perfia, who takes
cognizance of the caufes of orphans and widows; of
contrafts, and other civil concerns. He is the head of
Vol. I. Part I.
the fchool of law, and gives leftures to all the fubaltern Ait
officers; he has iiis deputies in all the courts of the II
kingdom, who, with the fecond fadra, make all con-, 3 '3 er~,
ti adts.
AL, an Arabic particle prefixed to words, and fig-
nifying much the fame with the Englifti particle the :
Thus they fay, alkermes, alkoran, &c. i. e. the ker-
mes, the koran, &c.
Al, or Ald, a Saxon term frequently prefixed to the
names of places, denoting their antiquity ; as Aldbo-
rough, Aldgate, &c»
ALA, a Latin term properly fignifying a wing;
from a refemblance to which feveral other things are
called by the fame name : Thus,
Ala, is a term ufed by botanifts for the hollow of a
ftalk, which either the leaf, or the pedicle of the leaf, .
makes with it; or it is that hollow turning, or fihus,
placed between the ftalk or branch of a plant and the
leaf, whence a new offspring ufually iffues. Sometimes
it is ufed for thofe parts of leaves otherwife called lobej,
or nvirgs.
ALAI (the plural number) is ufed to fignify thofe
petals or leaves of papilionaceous flowers, placed be¬
tween thofe others which are called the vexillttm and
carina, and which make the top and bottom of the
flowers. Inftances of flowers of this ftrufture are feen
in thofe of peafe and beans, in which the top leaf or
petal is the vexillum, the bottom the carina, and the
fide ones the alae.
Alze is alfo ufed for thofe extremely flender and
membranaceous parts of fome feeds, which appear as
wings placed on them ; it likewife fignifies thofe mem¬
branaceous expanfions running along the ftems of fome
plants, which are therefore called alaledJlalks.
Al;e, in anatomy, a term applied to the lobes of the
liver, the cartilages of the noftril, &c.
Alje, in the Roman art of war, were the two wings
or extreme parts of the army drawn up in order of
battle.
ALABA, one of the three fmalleft diftricls of Bif-
cay in Spain, but pretty fertile in rye, barley, and
fruits. There are in it very good mines of iron, and
it had formerly the title of a kingdom.
ALABANDA (anc. geogl), atowmof Caria, near
the Meander, fituate beneath eminences refembling af-
fes with pack-faddles, which gave rife to the jeft ; and
between Amyzo to the weft and Stratonice to the
eaft. Under the Romans they enjoyed aflifes, or a
convention of jurifdiftion, by Pliny reckoned the fourth
in order ; hence the proverb in Stephanus, expreffing
their happinefs. It was built by Alabandus, whom
therefore they deemed a god. The people were called
Alahandi, Alabandenfes, Cicero ; and Alalandeis, after
the Greek manner, in coins of Auguftus and Claudius;
they were alfo called Alabandeni (Livy)‘.
ALABARCHA, in antiquity, a kind of magi-
ftrate among the Jews of Alexandria, whom the em¬
perors allowed them to elect, for the fuperintendency
of their policy, and to decide differences and difputes
which arofe among them.
ALABASTER (William), an Englifli divine, was
born at Hadley in the county of Suffolk. He was one
of the doftors of Trinity college in Cambridge ; .and
he attended the earl of Effex as his chaplain in the ex
pedition to Cadiz in the reign of queen Elizabeth. It
X x is -
ALA [ 346 ] ALA
AlaT>after Is faid, that his firft refolutions of changing his religion- gites of Pliny, is- found in Greece ; and is of a foft AlaBafters.
 ' w’ere occafioned by his feeing the pomp'of the churches loofe open texture, pretty heavy, and nearly of the co-1 v'—
of the Roman communion, and the refpeft with which lour of honey. This fpecies has likewife been found
the priefts feemed to be treated amongft them; and. in Germany, France, and in Derbyfhire in England,
appearing thus to waver in his mind, he foon found 3. Variegated, yellsw, and reddifh alabafter. This fpe-
perfons who took advantage of this difpofition of his, cies is the common alabafter of the ancients, and is fo.
and of the complaints which he made of not being ad- foft that it may be cut with a knife : It is remarkably
vanced according to his deferts in England, in fuch a bright, and almoft tranfparent; admits of a fine polifti*
manner, that he did not fcruple to go over to the Po- and confifts of large angular fparry concretions. It is
pifti religion, as foon as he found that there was no not proof againft water; it ferments violently with.
ground-to hope for greater encouragement in his own aqua-fortis, and burns to a pale yellow. The colour
country. However that matter is, he joined himfelf 0f this fpecies is a clear pale yellow refembling amber,
to the Romifti communion, but was difappointed in and variegated with undulated veins ; fame of which
his expectations. He was foon difpleafed at this; he are pale red, others \yhiti(h, and others of a pale brown,
could not reconcile himfelf to the difcipline of that ft was formerly brought from Egypt, but is now to be
church, which made no confideration of the degree's met with in feveral parts of England. The alabafters
which he had taken before. It is probable too that are frequently ufed by ftatuaries for fmall ftatues, vafes, . ■
he could not approve of the worfhip of creatures, which and cdumns. After being calcined and mixed with
proteftants are ufed to look upon with horror. Upon water, they may be caft in any mould like plafter of
this he returned to England, in order to refume his Paris. See Gypsum.
former religion. He obtained a prebend in the cathe- Alabafter, Mr Boyle obferves, being finely powder-
dral of St Paul, and after that the reftory of Therfield ed, and thus fet in a bafon over the fire, will, when
in Hertfordftiire. He was well flailed in the Hebrew hot, affume the appearance of a fluid, by rolling in
tongue ; but he gave a wrong turn to his genius by waves, yielding to the fmalleft touch, and emitting
ftudying the Cabala, with which he was ftrangely in- vapour ; all which properties it lofes again on the de -
fatuated. He gave a proof of this in a fermon which parture of the heat, and difcovers itfelf a mere inco-
he preached upon taking his degree of doctor of herent powder. The finenefs and clearnefs of this
divinity at Cambridge. He took for his text the be- ftone renders it in fome meafure tranfparent; whence
ginning of the firft book of Chronicles, Adam, Seth, ft has been fometimes alfo employed for windows.
Enos ; and having touched upon the literal fenfe, he There is a church at Florence ftill illuminated by ala-
turned immediately to the myftical,. aflerting, that bafter-windows ; inftead of panes of glafs, there are
Adam fignified misfortune and mifery, and fo of the reft, flabs of alabafter near 15 feet high, each of which
His verfes were greatly efteemed. He wrote a Latin forms a Angle window, through which the light is con-
tragedy, intitled Roxana; which, when it was afted in veyed. The countries in Europe which abound moil
a college at Cambridge, was attended with a very re- in alabafter are Germany, toward Coblentz ; the pro-
markable accident. There was a lady who was fo ter? vince of Maconnois, in the neighbourhood of Cluni
rifled at.the laft word uf the tragedy, Sequar, Sequar, in France ; Italy, toward Rome ; where that of Mon-
which was pronounced with a very (hocking tone, that taiout is particularly remarkable not only for its white-
Ihe loft her fenfes all her lifetime after. Alabafter was nefs, but alfo for the bignefs of its blocks, fome
living in 1630.' T&\s apparatus in Revelatisnem Jefu 0f which are fo large, that ftatues as big as the
Cbrifti was printed at Antwerp, in > 607,. As for his life may eafily be cut out of them. F. Labat, in his
Spiraculumtubarum, feu forts SpiritualiumExpvfitionum journey to Italy, obferves, that there are quarries of jj
ex teqhivocis Pentaglotti fgnificationibus,. and his Ecce alabafter in the neighbourhood of the village called de
Sponfus venit, feu tuba pulchntudinis, hoc efi demonjira- la Toffa, near CivitaVecchia: there is alfo alabafter
tio quod non fit illicitum nec impofibile computare du- to be found in fome places of Lorrain ; but it is not
rationem mundi iff tempus fecundi advcntus Chrifti, they much efteemed. A new manufa&ure of baffo relievos,
were printed at London. We may judge from thefe from a Angular fpecies of fa&itious alabafter, has been
titles what the tafte and genius, of the author was. fome time ago eftablifhed by M. Letapie, af the baths
Alabaster, in natural hiftory, a fpecies of that of St Philip in Tufcany. The dream at thefe baths
genus of ftones whofe bafe is calcareous earth. It depofites a peculiar kind of fand, which, when col-
differs from marble in being combined, not with the lefted and condenfed in the cavities of any body em-
aerial, but with vitriolic acid; therefore, when mixed ployed to oppofe its current, acquires the nature, hard.
with any acid, no effervefcence appears. It is foluble nefs, and colour of alabafter, and affumes the forms of
in about 500 times its weight of water at the tempera- thofe cavities in which it is thus lodged,
ture of 60. It is fufiblc alone in a long-continued Alabaster, in antiquity, a term ufed for a vafe
porcelain heat, or by the blow-pipe. Specific gravity wherein odoriferous liquors were anciently put. The
1.87. Texture granular,, with (hining particles. In reafon of the denomination is, that veffels for this pur-
compofition, and confequently in its chemical proper- pofe were frequently made of the alabafter-ftone, which
ties, it does not differ from gypfum, felenite, and pla- Pliny and other ancients reprefent as peculiarly pro¬
ffer of Paris. per for this purpofe. Several critics will have the box
There are three fpecies of alabafter. 1. The fnow- mentioned in the Gofpels as made of alabafter to have-
white ftiining alabafter, or lygdinum of the ancients, been of glafs : And though the texts fay that the wo-
is found in Taurus, in pieces large enough to make man broke it, yet the pieces feem miraculoufly to have
difties, or the like. It cuts very freely, and is capable been united, fince we are told the entire box was pur-
of a fine polifh. 2. The yellowilh alabafter, or phen- chafed by the emperor Conftantine, and preferved as
2. a
ALA [ 347 ] ALA
&lat>a- a relic of great price. Others will have it, that the
name alalafler denotes the form rather than the matter
Alamandtis box : In this view they define alabafter by a
u_—v~ box without a handle, deriving the word from the pri¬
vative «, and anfa, handle.
Alabafter is alfo faid to have been ufed for an an¬
cient liquid meafure, containing ten ounces of wine,
or nine of oil. In this fenfe, the alabafter v\%s equal
to half the fextary.
ALABASTRUM dendroide, a kind of lamina¬
ted alabafter, beautifully variegated with the figures of
ftirubs, trees, &c. found in great abundance in the pro¬
vince of Hohenftein.
ALADINISTS, a feft among the Mahometans,
anfwering to free-thinkers among us.
ALADULIA, a confiderable province of Turky,
in Afia, in that part called Natolia, between the moun¬
tains of Antitaurus, which feparate it from Amafia
on the north, and from Carimania on the weft. It has
TneMediterranean fea on the fouth; and the Euphrates,
or Frat, on the eaft, which divides it from Diarbeker.
It comprehends the Lefler Armenia of the ancients,
and the eaft part of Cilicia. Formerly it had kings of
its own ; but the head of the laft king was cut off by
Selim I. emperor of the Turks, who had conquered the
country. It is now divided into two parts: the north,
comprehended between Taurus, Antitaurus, and the
Euphrates, is a beglerbeglic, which bears the name of
Maraih, the capital town ; and the fouth, feated be¬
tween mount Taurus and the Mediterranean, is united
to the beglerbeglic of Aleppo. The country is rough,
ragged, and mountainous; yet there are good paftures,
and plenty of horfes and camels. The people are har¬
dy and thievifh. The capital is MaJatigah.
ALAIN (Chartier), fecretary to Charles VII. king
of France, born in the year 1386. He was the author
of feveral works in profe and verfe; but his moft
famous performance was his Chronicle of King Charles
VII. Bernard de Girard, in his preface to the Hi-
ftory of France, ftyles him “ an excellent hiftorian,
who has^given an account of all the affairs, particulars,
ceremonies, fpeeches, anfwers, and circumftances, at
which he was prefent himfelf, or had information of.”
Giles Coroxet tells us, that Margaret, daughter to
the king of Scotland, and wife to the dauphin, puf¬
fing once through a hall where Alain lay afleep, fhe
flopped and kiffed him before all the company who at¬
tended : fome of them telling her, that it was ftrange
fhe fhould kifs a man who had fo few charms in his
perfon, fhe replied, “ I did not kifs the man, but the
.mouth from whence proceed fo many excellent fayings,
fo many wife difcourfes, and fo many elegant expref-
fions.” Mr Fontenelle, among his Dialogues of the
Dead, has one upon this incident, between the prin-
•cefs Margaret and Plato. Mr Pafquier compares Alain
to Seneca, on account of the great number of beauti¬
ful fentences interfperfed throughout his writings.
ALAIS, a confiderable town of France, in the
province of Languedoc, fituated on the river Gardon,
at the foot of the Cevennes. The Jefuits had a college
in this place; and a fort was built here in 1689. It is
34 miles north of Montpellier, and 340 from Paris.
E. Lon. 4. 20. N. Lat. 44. 8.
ALAMANDUS (Lewis), in Yrench. Jleman, arch-
bifhop of Arles, and cardinal of St Cecilia, was one of
the greateft men of the fifteenth century. The cardi- Alamannf
nal prefided in the council of Bafil, which depofed Eu- , H
genius IV. and ele&ed the antipope Felix V. He is at”° e-j
much commended by iEneas Sylvius, as a man extreme¬
ly well formed for prefiding in fuch affemblies, firm and
vigorous, illuftrious by his virtue, learned, and off an
admirable memory in recapitulating all that the ora¬
tors and difputants had faid. One day, when he ha¬
rangued againft the fuperiority of the pope over the
council, he diftingui/hed himfelf in fuch an eminent
manner, that feveral perfons went to kifs him, while
others preffed- even to kifs his robe. They extolled to
the Dries his abilities and genius, which had raifed
him, though a Frenchman, to a fuperiority over the
Italians, notwithflanding all their natural fubtlety and
fineffe. There is no need of aflring, whether Pope
Eugenius thundered againft the prefident of a council
which depofed him. He deprived him of all his dig¬
nities, and treated him as a fon of iniquity. How¬
ever, notwithftanding this, Lewis Alamandus died in the
odour of fanftity, and performed fo many miracles af¬
ter his death, that at the requeft of the canons and
Celeftine monks of Avignon, and the folicitation of the
cardinal of Clermont legate a latere of Clement VII.
he was beatified by that pope in the year tyzy.
ALAMANNI (Lewis) was born at Florence, of
a noble family, on the 28th of 0<flober 1495. He
was obliged to fly his country for a confpiracy againft
Julius de Medici, who was foon after chofen pope un¬
der the name of Clement VII. During this voluntary
baniftiment, he went into France ; where Francis I.
from a love to his genius and merit, became his patron.
This prince employed him in feveral important affairs,
and honoured him with the collar of the order of St.
Michael. About the year 1540, he was admitted a
member of the Inflammati, an academy newly ere&ed
at Padua, chiefly by Daniel Barbaro and Ugolin Mar-
telli. After the death of Francis, Henry duke of Or¬
leans, who fucceeded him in 1537, flrowed no lefs fa¬
vour to Alamanni; and in the year 1551, fent him'as
his ambaffador to Genoa : this was his laft journey to
Italy ; and being returned to France, he died at Am-
boife on the 18th of April 1556, being in the 61 ft
year of his age. He left many beautiful poems, and
other valuable performances, in the Italian language.
We have alfo fome notes of his upon Homer’s Iliad
and Odyffey ; thofe upon the Iliad were printed in the
Cambridge edition of Homer in 1689, and Jolhua
Barnes has alfo inferted them in his fine edition of
Homer in 1711.
ALAMODALITY, in a general fenfe, is the ac¬
commodating a perfon’s behaviour, drefs, and actions,
to the prevailing tafte of the country or times in which
he lives.
Ala modality of writing, is defined the accommo¬
dation of mental produftions, both as to the choice of
fubjecft and the manner of treating it, to the genius or
tafte of the times, in order to render them more ac¬
ceptable to the readers.
ALAMODE, a phrafe originally French, import¬
ing a thing to be in the fafhion or mode. The phrafe
has been adopted not only into feveral of the living
languages, as the Englifli and High-Dutch, but fome
have even taken it into the Latin. Hence we meet
with Alamodkiu and Alamodalitas.
Xx 2
Alamobe,
ALA L 348 ] ALA
A’amode Alamode, in commerce, a thin glofiy black filk,
II chiefly ufed for womens hoods and mens mourning
t Al^fcarfs.
1 ALAMOS (Balthafar), a Spaniih writer, born at
Medina del Campo in Caftile. After having ftudied
the law at Salamanca, he entered into the fervice of
Anthony Perez, fecretary of ftate under Philip II. He
was in high efteem and confidence with his maker, up¬
on which account he was imprifoned after the difgrace
of this minifler. He was kept in confinement 11 years,
when Philip III. coming to the throne, fet him at li¬
berty, according to the orders given by his father in
his will. Alamos continued in a private capacity, till
the duke of Olivarez, the favom-ite of Philip IV. cal¬
led him to public employments. Pie was a man of wit
as well as judgment, but bis pen was fuperior to his
tongue. He died in the 88th year of his age. His
Spaniih tranflation of Tacitus, and the aphorifms which
he added in the margin, gained him great reputation.
This work was publilhed at Madrid in 1614; and was
to have been followed, as mentioned in the king’s pri¬
vilege, with a commentary, which however has never
yet appeared. The author compofed the whole du¬
ring his imprifonment.
ALAN (Cardinal William), was born at Roflal in
Lancalhire, in the year 1532. He went to Oxford
at the age of 15, and in 1550 was eledfed fellow'of
Oriel college. In 1556, being then only 24 years old,
he was chofen principal of St Mary’s hall, and one of
the pro&ors of the univerfity. In 1558 he was made
canon of York ; but, upon queen Elizabeth’s accef-
fion to the throne, he left England, and fettled at Lou¬
vain in an Englilh college, of which he became the
chief fupport. In -1565 he vifited his native country;
but, on account of his extreme activity in the propa¬
gation of the Roman Catholic religion, he was obli¬
ged to fly the kingdom in 1568. He wxrnt firfi: to
Mechlin, and then to Do way, where he was made doftor
of divinity. Soon after, he was appointed canon of
Cambray, and then canon of Rheims. He was crea¬
ted cardinal on the 28th of July, 1587, by the title of
St Martin in Montibus ; and obtained from the king of
Spain a rich abbey in the kingdom of Naples, and af¬
terwards the biflroprick of Mechlin. It is fuppofed to
have been by the advice and inftigation of this prieft,
that Philip II. attempted to invade England. He died
on the 20th of Oftober 5594, aged 63 ; and was bu¬
ried in the Englifli college at Rome. He was a man
of confiderable learning, and an elegant writer. He
wrote many books in defence of the Romifli religion.
The moll remarkable are, 1. si defence of the '11 mar¬
tyrs in one year. Tho. Alfield was hanged for bring¬
ing, and publifhing, this and other of Alan’s works,
into England, in the year 1584. 2. A declaration of
the Jentence of Sextus V. &c. A work intended to ex¬
plain the pope’s bull for the excommunication of queen
Elizabeth, and to exhort the people of England to
take up arms in favour of the Spaniards. Many thou-
fand copies of this book, printed at Antwerp, wrere
put on board the Armada ; but the enterprife failing,
they were afterwards deftroyed. 3. Of the nvorjhip
due to faints and their relifts 1583. This treatife w'as
aniwered by Lord Burleigh, and is efteemed the moft
elegant of the Cardinal’s writings.
ALAND, an ifland of the Baltic fea, between
4
Sweden and Finland, fubjefl to the former. It lies Alaraf
between 17 and 19 degrees of E. long, and between iL .
59 and 61 degrees of Lat. at the entrance of the gulph can^
of Bothnia. _
ALARAF, in-the Mahometan theology, the par¬
tition wall that feparates heaven from hell. The word
is plural, and properly written al araf; in the Angular
it is written al arf It is derived from the Arabic
verb arafa, to diftinguifll. Al araf gives the denomi¬
nation to the. feventh chapter of the alcoran, wherein
mention is made of this wall. Mahomet feems to-have
copied his al araf, either from the great gulf of fepa-
ration mentioned in the New Teftament, or from the
Jewifli writers, who alfo fpeak of a thin wall dividing
heaven from hell. Mahometan writers differ extremely
as to the perfons who are to be found on al araf. Some
take it for a fort of limbus for the patriarchs, pro¬
phets, &c. others place here fuch whofe goo ' .d ^vil
works fo exactly balance each, other, that th. x*
neither reward nor punifliment. Others imag.,/
intermediate fpace to be pofleffed by thofe who, going 10
war without their parents leave, and fuffering martyrdom
there, are excluded paradife for their difobedience, yet
efcape hell becaufe they are martyrs.
ALARBES,. a name given to thofe Arabians who
live in tents, and diftinguifll theftifelves by their drefs
from the others who live in towns.
ALARES, in Roman antiquity, an epithet given
to the cavalry, on account of their being placed in the
two wings of the army.
ALARIC, a famous general of the Goths. He
entered Thrace at the head of 2-0,000 men, and laid
wafle all the country through which he palled. He
marched next to Macedonia and Theffaly : the Thef-
falians met him near the mouth of the river Peneas,
and killed about 3000 of his army; neverthelefs he ad¬
vanced into Greece, and after having ravaged the whole
country, returned to Epirus, loaded with immenfe
fpoils • after Haying here five years, he refolved to turn
his arms to the weft. He marched through Pannonia ;
and, finding little refiftance, entered Italy, under the
confullhip of Stilicho and Aurelianus, A.D.400. After
various battles and treaties, he at laft took Rome by
treachery, and permitted his foidiers to plunder it; this
happened A. D. 409. Alaric, having laid wafte a great
part of Italy, intended to pafs into Sicily; but a ftorm
obliging him to land again, he befieged the city of
Cofenza; and having took it, he died there in 411,
eleven years after be firft entered Italy.
ALARM, in the military art, denotes either the
apprehenfion of being fuddenly attacked ; or the notice
thereof, fignified by firing a cannon, firelock, or the
like. - Falfe alarms are frequently made ufe of, to har-
rafs the enemy, by keeping them conftantly under
arms. Sometimes alfo this method is taken to try the
vigilance of the piquet-guard, and what might be ex¬
pected from them in cafe of real danger.
Ai.ARM-Btll, that rung upon any fudden emergency,
as a fire, mutiny, or the like.
Alarm- Fofy or alarm-place, the ground for draw¬
ing up each regiment in cafe of an alarm. This is other-
wife called the rendezvous.
Alarm, in fencing, is the fame with what is other-
wife called an appeal, or challenge.
ALASCANI, in church-hiftory, a fe£t of Antilu-
therans.
ALA [ 349 I A L A
Alafco therans, wKofe diftinguifhing tenet, befides their deny-
r II ing baptifm, is faid to have been this, that the v/ords,
JAIauda ^ my body, ln the inftitution of the eucharift, are
" not to be underftood of the bread, but of the whole
aftion, or celebration of the fupper. They are faid to
have taken the name from one Joannes a Lafco, a Po-
liih baron, fuperintendant of the church of that coun¬
try, in England. See the next article.
ALASCO (John), a Polifh nobleman of the 16th
century, who, imbibing the reformed opinions, was ex¬
pelled his country, and became preacher to a Proteftant
congregation at Embden ; but forefeeing perfecution
there, came to England about the year 1551, while the
reformation was carrying on under Edward the VI.
The publication of the Interim driving the Proteftants
to fuch places as afforded them toleration, 380 were
naturalized here, and obtained a charter of incorpora¬
tion, by which they were erected into an ecclefiatlical
eilablifhment, independent on the church of England.
The Auguftine friars church was granted them, with
the revenues, for the maintenance of Alafco as fuper¬
intendant, with four afliftant minifters, who were to be
approved by the king : and this congregation lived
undiflurbed until the acceffion of Queen Mary, when
they were all fent away. They were kindly received
and permitted to fettle at Embden ; and Alafco at laft,
after an abfence of 20 years, by the favour of Sigif-
mund, returned to his own country, where he died in
1560. Alafeo was much efteemed by Erafmus, and
the hiftorians of his time fpeak greatly in his praife :
we have of his writing, De Ctzna Domini liber ; Epijiola
continens fummatn Controverjix de Ccena Domini, fsV.
He had fome particular tenets, ; and his followers are
called Alafcani in church-hiilory.
ALATAMAHA, a large river of North America,
which, rifing in the Apalachian mountains, runs fouth-
eaft through the province of Georgia, and falls into the
Atlantic ocean, below'the town of\ Frederica.
ALATERNUS, in botany, the trivial name of a
fpeciesof the rhamnus. See P^hamnus.
ALAVA, a diftriCl of Spain, about 20 miles in
length, and 17 in breadth, containing very good iron
mines. Vi&oria is the capital town.
ALAUDA, or I.ark, in ornithology, a genus of
birds of the order of pafferes ; the characters of which
are thefe: The beak is cylindrical, fubulated, ftraight;
and the two mandibles or chaps are of equal fize: The_-
tongue is bifid, and the hinder claw is ftfaight, and'
longer than the tee. There are 28 fpecies of the
alauda, of which the following are the moil remark¬
able. 1. The arvenfis, or common (ky-lark. This and
the wood-lark are the only birds that fing as they fly ;
this raifmg its note as it foars, and lowering it till it
quite dies away as it- defeends. It will often foar to
fach a Height* that we are charmed with the mafic
when we.lofe fight of the fongfter ; it alfo begins its
fong before, the earlieft dawn. Milton, in his Allegro,
moft beautifully expreffes thefe circumftances ; and bi-
fiiop Newton obferves, that the beautiful feene that
Milton exhibits of rural cheerfulnefs, at the fame time
gives us a fine pi&ure of the regularity of his life, and
the innocency of his own mind : thus he deferibes him-
felf as in a fituation
To hear the lark begin his flight,
And finging ftartle the dull night,
From his watch-tow’r in the Ikies,
Till the dappled dawn doth rife.
It continues its harmony feveral months, beginning
early in the fpring, on pairing. In the winter they
afiemble in vaft flocks, grow very fat, and are taken in
great numbers for our tables. They build their neft
on the ground, beneath fome clod, forming it of hay,
dry fibres, &c. and lay four or five eggs.—The place
thefe birds are taken in the greateft quantity, is the
neighbourhood of Dunftable : the feafon begins about
the 14th of September, and ends the 25th of Fe¬
bruary ; and during that fpace, about 4000 dozen
are caught, which fupply the markets of the metro¬
polis. See 'Snv.D-Catching. Vaftly greater numbers
than the above, however, are at times caught in dif¬
ferent parts of Germany, where there is an excife
upon them. Keyfler fays* that the exeife alone pro¬
duces 6oco dollars (about, L.900 Sterling) every year
to the city of Leipfic ; whofe larks are famous all over-
Germany as having the moft delicate flavour. But it
is not only at Leipfic that they are taken in fuch num
bers, but alfo in the country about Naumburg, Merfe-
burg, Halle, and other parts.— 2. The pratenfis, or
tit-lark, has the two outward feathers of the wing
edged with white, and frequents the meadows. It is
found frequently in low marfhy groundslike other
larks, it builds its neft among the grafs, and lays five
or fix eggs. Like the wood-lark, it fits on trees ; and
has a moft remarkable fine note, finging in all fitua-
tions, on trees, on the ground, while it is fporting in
the air, and particularly in its defeent. This bird,
with many others, fuch as the thrufh, black-bird, wil¬
low-wren, &c. become filent about midfummer. and
refume their notes in September : hence the interval
is the moft mute of the year’s three vocal feafons,
fpring, fummer, and autumn. Perhaps the birds are
induced to fing again as the autumnal temperament re-
fembles the vernal.—-3. The arborea, or wood-lark, is
a native of Europe, and is diftinguiflied by an annular
white fillet about the head. It is inferior in fize to
the fky-Iark, and is of a ftiorter thicker form ; the co¬
lours are paler, and its note is lefs fonorous and lefs
varied, though not lefs fweet. It perches on trees,
and whiftles like the black-bird. It will fing in the
night; and, like the common lark, will fing as it flies.
It builds-on the ground, and makes its neft on the out-
lide with mofs, within of dried bents, lined with a few
hairsi It lays five eggs, dulky and blotched with deep
brown marks, darkeft at the thicker end. The males
of this and the laft are known from the females by theim
fuperior fize. But this fpecies is not near fo numerous
as that of the common kind. 4- The campeftris, has
one half of its chief feathers of the wings brown, ex¬
cept two in the middle which are white, and the throat
and breaft are yellowifh.—5. The trivialis, whofe chief
feathers on the tail are brown, only half of the outer-
moft is w’hite, and the fecond is white at the end, in the
ftiape of a wedge; there is likewife a double whitifh.
line on the wungs. It is a native of Sweden, and per¬
ches on the top of trees.—6. The criftata: the chief
tail-feathers are black, but the two outermoft are edged
with white, and the head is crefted. It is a native of
Europe. It fings well, like the fky-lark; lays four
or five eggs; and is faid to hatch twice in a year.—•
7. The fpinoletta:. the chief tail-feathers are black, ,
ALA [ 350 ] ALA
only the outermoft two are obliquely half white.
It is a native of Italy.—8. The alpeftris: the chief
wing-feathers are half white, the throat yellow, and it
has a black ftreak under the eyes and on the breaft. It
inhabits North America, where it is migratory. It
’vifits the neighbourhood of Albany the beginning of
May, but goes farther north to breed. In winter
it comes in vaft flocks into Virginia and Carolina, re¬
turning North in fpring. It feeds, during its flay in the
more fouthern parts, on oats and. other grain; and
while at Albany, on the grafs -and the buds of fprig-
birch. It runs into holes ; whence the natives of thefe
laft parts have given it the name of chi-chup-pi-fue. The
Englifli call it the ortalon, and reckon it delicious eating.
By fome it is called frioiu bird, as being very plenty
in that feafon. It is frequently caught in great num¬
bers by means of horfe-hair fpringes placed in fome
bare place, the fnow being fcraped away, and a lit¬
tle <chaff ftrewed about. It is always feen on the
ground, and has little or no fong. This bird is not
peculiar to North America: we hear of it in Ger¬
many alfo; and is in plenty throughout Ruffia and
Sibiria, going northward in fpring.—9. The magna,
is yellow on the belly, with a crooked black ftreak on
the bre'aft, and the three fide-feathers of the tail white.
It is a native of Africa and America.—10. The New
Zealand lark (Plate XVI.) is feyen and a half inches
in length: the bill is half an inch, of a pale alh-colour,
with the upper part black : the upper parts of the bo¬
dy are duflcy, edged with pale aih-colour: the breaft
and belly are white; the legs reddilh afti-colour, and
the claws black. It inhabits Charlotte Sound, and is
called kogoo arourt.
ALAUTA, a confiderable river of Turkey in Eu¬
rope, which, after watering the north-eaft part of Tran-
fylvania and part of Wallachia, fails into the Danube
almoft oppofne to Nieopolig.
ALAY, dignifying in the Turkifli language “ The
Triumph,” a ceremony which accompanies the affem-
bling together the forces of that vaft empire upon the
breaking out of a war. It confifts of the moft infipid
buffoonery, and is attended with adls of the moft
ihocking barbarity. That which took place upon oc-
cafion of the late jvar between the Porte and, Ruffia is
defcribed by Baron Tott in his Memoirs as follows.
“ It confifts in a kind of mafquerade, in which each
trade fucceffively prefents to the fpedlators the mecha¬
nical exercife of its refpe&ive art. The labourer draws
his plough, the weaver handles his (buttle, the joiner
his plane ; and thefe different charadlers, feated in
cars richly ornamented, commence the proceffion, and
precede the ftandard of Mahomet, when it is brought
out of the feraglio to be carried to the army, in order
to infure viftory to the Ottoman troops.
“ This banner of the Turks, which they name
Sandjak-Ckeriff, or The Standard of the Prophet, is
fo revered among them, that, notwithstanding its re¬
putation has been fo often tarniftied, it (till retains
their implicit confidence, and is the facred fignal unto
which they rally. Every thing proclaims its fandtity.
iNone but the emirs are allowed to touch it; they are
its guards, and it is carried by their chief. The Muf-
Mmen alone are permitted to look upon it. If touch¬
ed by other hands, it would be ttefiled; if feen by
other eyes, profaned. In (hort, it is encompaffed by
the moft barbarous fanaticifm.
“ A long peace had unfortunately caufed the ridicu-
loufnefs, and efpecialiy the danger* of this ceremony
to be forgotten. The Chriftians imprudently crowd¬
ed to fee it; and the Turks, who, by the fituation of
their houfes, could make money of their windows,
began to profit by the advantage; when an emir, who
preceded the banner, proclaimed with a loud voice,
‘ Let no infidel dare to profane with his prefence the
holy ftandard of the prophet; and let every Mufful-
man who perceives an unbeliever make it known under
pain of reprobation.’
“ From that moment no afylum was to be found;
even thofe became informers, who, by letting out their
houfes, had rendered themfelves accomplices in the
crime. A religious fury feized on every mind, and
put arms in every hand; the more atrocious the cruelty,
the more was it meritorious. No regard was paid to
fex or age; pregnant women, dragged by the hair,
and trodden under feet by the multitude, perilhed in
the moft deplorable manner. Nothing was refpected
by thefe monfters; and under fuch aufpices the Turks
commenced the war.”
ALB, or Alee, in the Romifh church, a veftment
of white linen hanging down to the feet, and anfwering
to the furplice of the Englifti clergy. In,the ancient
church, it was ufual, with thofe newly baptized, to
wear an alb, or white veftment; and hence the Sunday
after Eafter was called dominica in albis, on account of
the albs worn by thofe baptized on eafter-day.
Alb is alfo a name of a Turkifli coin, otherwife
called afper. See As per.
ALBA (anc. geog.), a town of the Marfi in Italy,
fituated on the north-fide of the Lacus Fucinus, ftill
retaining in its name. It Hands upon an eminence,
and is noted in Roman hiftory for being the (late pri-
fon where captive princes were (hut up, after being
barbaroufly dragged through the ftreets of Rome at
the chariot wheels of a triumphant conful. Perfes
king of Macedon terminated his wretched career in this
confinement, with his fon, the laft hope of an illuftri-
ous line of kings. Syphax the Numidian, and Bitui-
nus king of the Averni, were alfo condemned to this
gaol by the particular clemency of the fenate, which
fometimes indulged its favage difpofition by putting its
captives to death.
Alba being fituated in the centre of Italy, amidft
difficult mountainous paffes, and far from all means of
efcape, was efteemed a moft proper place for the pur-
pofe of guarding prifoners of importance. Artificial
ftrength was added to its natural fecurity by fortifica¬
tions, which remain to this day in a ftate that proves
their ancient folidity. For the entertainment of the
garrifon, which vvas required in a place of fuch confe-
quence, an amphitheatre was erefted, of which the
ruins are ftill valuable, as well as the foundations of a
temple, and other buildings of Roman times.
Lucius Viteliius, brother to the emperor of that name,
had a villa near this place, famous for the variety and
excellence of its fruit-trees, which he had brought from
Syria. His gardens were the nurferies where feveral
of the moft delicious ftone-fruits, that are now fo com¬
mon in Europe, were firft cultivated and multiplied.
ALB [ 35i ] ALB
It mud have been neceffary at Alta to /belter trees became a convert to the Chriftian religion. It is ge- Alban,
tranfplanted from Afia, and to treat them with great nerally agreed, that Alban fuffered martyrdom during Albanenfeso
tendernefs and care, in order to rear them to perfec- . the great perfecution under the reign of Dioclefian; ;
tion: for the climate of this high region is extremely but authors differ as to the year when it happened
rigorous in winter; the cold feafon lafts long, and is Bede and others fix it in 286; fome refer it to the year
 : .j ....vi, —a r„ii,. „r 296; but Ufferius reckons it amongft the events of 303.
accompanied with violent ftorms of wind and falls of
fnow. The lake has been often frozen entirely over.
Firma, or Album, in our old cuftoms, deno¬
ted rent paid in filver, and. not in corn, which was
called black-mail.
Alba Ttrra, one of the numerous names for the
philofopher’s done.
Alba Regalis. See Stul Weissenburgh.
Alba Helviorum, or Albaugujla, (anc. geog.), af¬
terwards called Vivarium, now Viviers, in the fouth-
eaft of Languedoc, on the Rhone. In the lower age
the inhabitants were called Albenfes, and their city
Civitas Albenfium, in the Notitia Galliae. E. Long.
4. 45. Lat. 44. 50.
The ftory and circumftances relating to his martyrdom*
according to Bede, are as follows. Being yet a pagan
(or at lead it not being known that he was a Chriftian),
he entertained Amphibalus in hia houfe. The Roman
governor being informed thereof, fent a party of fol*
diers to apprehend Amphibalus; but Alban, putting
on the habit of his gueft, prefented himfelf in his ftead,
and was carried before that magiftrate. The governor
having a fired him of what family he was ? Alban re¬
plied, “ To what purpofe do you inquire of my fa¬
mily ? if you would know my religion, I am a Chri¬
ftian.” Then being afked his name, he anfwered,
My name is Alban; and I wor/hip the only true and
Alba Julia (anc. geog.), now Weijfenburg, a town living God, who created all things.” The magiftrate
of Tranfylvania, on the river Marifnis, or Merifch, to replied, “ If you would enjoy the happinefs of eternal
the weft of Hermanftat, fuppofed to be called Alba life, delay not to facrifice to the great gods.” Alban
Julia, after Julia Domna the mother of Caracalla.
There are, however, feveral infcriptions found at or
near Weiffenburg, which bear Col. Apul. that is
Colonia Apulenfts, without the leaft mention of Alba
Julia, though infcribed after Caracalla’s time. Add,
that Ulpian, reciting the colonies of Dacia, calls this
anfwered, “The facrificesyou offer are made to devils;
neither can they help the needy, or grant the petitions
of their votaries.” His behaviour fo enraged the go¬
vernor, thatjhe ordered him immediately to be behead¬
ed. In his way to execution, he was ftopped by a ri¬
ver, over which was a bridge fo thronged with fpefta-
colony Apulenfis, and neither Alba nor Julia. Whence tors that it was impofiible to crofs it; the faint, as
there is a fufpicion, that Alba Julia is a corruption of we are told, lifted up his eyes to heaven, and the ftream
Apulum. It was alfo called Apulum Augujlum. E. was miraculoufly divided, and afforded a paffage for
Long. 25. o. Lat. 46. 46. himfelf and a thoufand more perfons. Bede does not
Alba Longa (anc. geog.), a colony from Lavi- indeed give us the name of this river; but, notwith-
nium, in Latium, eftabli/hed by Afcanius the fon of ftanding this omiffion, the miracle, we fuppofe, will'
uEneas, at the foot of the Mens Alban us: called Alba, not be the lefs believed. This wonderful event convert-
from a white fow found by JEneas, which farrowed ed the executioner upon the fpot, who threw away his
30 white pigs on that fpot; which circumftance was in- drawn fword, and, falling at St. Alban’s feet, defired
terpreted to portend the building of a city there in he. might have the honour to die with him. Thisfud-
30 years after (Propertius). The epithet Longa was
added on account of its length. It was the royal refi-
den converfion of the headfman occafioning a delay
the execution till another perfon could, be got to
dence till the building of Rome, as was foretold by perform the office, St Alban walked up to a neigh-
Anchifes (Virgil); was deftroyed by Tullius Hoftilius,
all but the fane or temple ; and the inhabitants were
tranfplanted to Rome (Strabo).
Alba Fompeia (anc. geog.), on the river Ceba, now
Ceva, in Liguria, the birth-place of the emperor Per-
tinax ; a colony either eftabli/bed at firft by Pompey,
or re-eftabliffied by him after having been before fettled
by Scipio. The inhabitants, were called Alpcnfes Pom-
f eiani. At this day the town is fimply called Alba,
without any epithet.
ALBAHURIM, figura fexdecirn laterum, a figure
of great importance according to aftrological phyfi-
cians, who built their prognoftics on it. „
ALBAN (St) is faid to have been the firft perfon
who fuffiered martyrdom for Chriftianity in. Britain.;
bouring hill, where he prayed for water to quench his
thirft, and a fountain of water fprung up under his
feet: here he was beheaded, on the 2 3d of June. The
executioner is faid to have been a fignal example of di¬
vine vengeance; for as foon as he gave the fatal ftroke,
his eyes dropt out of his head. We may fee the opinion
of Mr Milton in regard to this narrative, in his Hi-
ftory of England. His words are thefe, fpeaking of
St Alban, “ The ftory of whofe martyrdom, foiled
and worfe martyred with the fabling zeal of fome idle
fancies, more fond of miracles than apprehenfive of
the truth, deferves no longer digreffion.” Between
4 or 500 years after St. Alban’s death, Offa, king of
the Mercians, built a very large and /lately monaftery
to his memory; and the town of St Albans in Hert-
he is therefore ufually ftyled the protomartyr of this ford/hire takes its name from our protomartyr.
ifland. He was born at Verulam, and flouri/hed to¬
wards the end of the third century. In his youth he
took a journey to Rome, in company with Amphiba¬
lus a monk of Caerleon, and ferved feven years as a
fOldier under the emperor Dioclefian. At his return
. home, he fettled in Verulam; and, through the exam¬
ple and inftruftions of Amphibalus, renounced the er¬
rors,of paganifm, in which he had been educated, and
ALBANA (anc. geog.), afea-port town of Alba¬
nia, on the Cafpian fea, between the rivers Cafius and
Albanus; now called Bachu, or Bachy, giving name to
the Cafpian fea, viz. Mar de Baku. E. Long, 49. o,
Lat. 40. o.
ALBANENSES, in church-hiftory, the fame with
Albigenfes, according to fome; according to others,
different.. Thofe, however, who are for diftinguifhing
them,
Albani.
ALA [ 352 ] ALA
them, attribute the fame opinions to both ; only ma¬
king the Albanenfes to have been prior in refpeft of
time, as having been found towards the clofe of the
eighth century ; whereas the Albigenfes appeared not
tiil the twelfth. See Albigenses.
ALBANI, in Roman antiquity, a college of the
falii, or prieftsof Mars; fo called from mount Albanus,
the place of their refidence. See Salii.
Albani (Francis), a celebrated painter, born in
Bologna, March 17, J578. His father was a filk
merchant, and intended to bring up his fon to that
bufinefs; but Albani having a ftrong inclination to
painting, when his father died, devoted himfelf entirely
to that art, though then but twelve years of age. He
firft ftudied under Denys Calvert; Guido Rheni being
at the fame time under this mafter, with whom Albani
contrnfted a very great friendlhip. Calvert drew but
one profile for Albani, and afterwards left him entirely
to the care of Guido ; under whom he made great im¬
provement, his fellow-difciple intiru&ing him with the
utmoft humanity and good humour. He followed
Guido to the fchool of the Caraches : but a little af¬
ter their friendihip for each other began to cool;
which was owing perhaps to the pride-of Albani, who
could not bear to fee.Guido furpafs him, or to the jea-
loufy of Guido at finding Albani make fo fwift a pro-
grefs. They certainly endeavoured to eclipfe one ano¬
ther; for when Guido had-fet up a beautiful altar-piece,
Albani would oppofe to it fome fine picture of his:
thus did they behave for fome time, and yet fpake of
each other with the higheft efteem. Albani, after ha-
ving greatly improved himfelf under the Caraches, went
to Rome, wherejie continued many years, and married
in that city; but his wife dying in childbed, at the
earneft requeft of his relations he returned to Bologna,
where he entered again into the ftate of matrimony.
His fecond wife (Doralice) was well defcended, but
had very little fortune ; which he perfeftly difregarded,
;fo ftrongly was he captivated with her beauty and
good fenfe. Albani, befides the fatisfa&ion of poffef-
iing an aecomplifhed wife, reaped likewife the advan¬
tage of having a moll beautiful model; fo that he had
.now no occafion to make ufe of any other woman to
paint a Venus, the Graces, Nymphs, and other deities,
whom he took a particular delight in reprefenting.
His wife anfwered this purpofe admirably well; for
befides her bloom of youth, and the beauty of her per-
fon, he difcovered in her fo much modefty, fo many
graces and perfeftions, fo well adapted to painting,
that it was impofiible for him to meet with a more fi-
nifiied woman. She afterwards brought him feveral
boys, all extremely beautiful and finely proportioned ;
fo that fhe and her children were the originals of his
moft agreeable and graceful compofitions. Doralice
was fo conformable to his intentions, that file took a
pleafure in fetting the children in different attitudes,
holding them naked, and fometimes fufpended by
firings, when Albani would draw them in a thoufand
different ways. It was from them, too, that the fa¬
mous fculptors Flamand and Argaldi modelled their
little -Cupids.
Albani was of a happy temper and difpofition ; his
paintings, fays Malvafia, breathing nothing but con¬
tent and joy. Happy in a force of mind that con¬
quered every uneafinefs, his poetical pencil carried him
N° 9.
through the mofi agreeable gardens to Paphos and Ci- Albania,
theria: thofe delightful fcenes brought him over the
lofty Parnaffus to the delicious abodes of Apollo and
the Mufes; whence what Du Frefnoy fays of the fa¬
mous Giulio Romano may be juftly applied to Albani:
Taught from a child in the bright Mufes’ grots,
He open’d all the treafures of Parnaffus,
And in the lovely poetry of painting
The myft’ries of Apollo has reveal’d.
He died the 4th of October 1660, to the great grief
of all his friends and the whole city of Bologna. Mal¬
vafia has preferved fome verfes of Francifco de Lemene,
intended for his monument; the fenfe whereof is,
“ That the mortal remains of the illuftrious Albani,
he who gave life to (hade, lie interred in this tomb:
the earth never produced fo wonderful an artift, or a
hand equal to his immortal one; which gave co¬
lours to the foul, and a foul to colours. Prometheus
animated clay, and gave life by means of the fun ; but
Albani animated merely by the affiftance of fliade.”
He was very famous in his lifetime, and had been vi*
fited by the greateft painters. Several princes honour¬
ed him with letters; and amongft the reft King
Charles I. who invited him to England by a letter
figned with his own hand.
ALBANIA, a province of Turky in Europe, on
the gulph of Venice, bounded by Livadia on the fouth,
by Theffaly and Macedonia on the call, and on the
north by Bofnia and Dalmatia. The people are ftrong,
large, courageous, and good horfemen; but are faid
to be of a thievifh difpofition: the grand feignior pro¬
cures excellent foldiers from hence, particularly caval¬
ry, known by the name of Arnauts. There are feve¬
ral large towns in this province ; and the inhabitants
are almoft all Chriftians of the Greek church, and de¬
fcended from the ancient Scythians. Formerly it was
part of the kingdom of Macedonia. Their chief ma-
nufafture is carpets. The principal places are Durazzc,
Velona, Antivari, Scutari, Croya, Aleffo, Dibra, Dc!«
cigno, and Albanapoli. Long, from 28° to 310 E.
Lat. from 390 to 430 N.
Albania, a country of Afia, bounded on the weft
by Iberia; on the call by the Cafpian fea; on the north
by mount Caucafus; on the fouth by Armenia, and the
river Cyrus, now Kur; which, fpringing from the
Mofchian mountains that feparate Colchis from Arme¬
nia, and watering the country of Mdkan, receives the
Aragus and Araxes, and falls into the Cafpian fea
within a fmall diftance from the fouth'ern borders of
this country.—The whole country formerly called Al¬
bania, now goes under the names of Shirnvan and Rajl-
Georgia, and is exti-emely fruitful and pleafant. The
ancient hiftorians take notice of the Albanian men
being tall, ftrong-bodied, and, generally fpeaking, of
a very graceful appearance; far excelling all other na¬
tions in comelinefs as well as ftature. Modern travel¬
lers take no notice of the appearance of the men ; but
extol the beauty of the women, which feems to be un¬
noticed by the ancients. The Albanians were ancient¬
ly an independent and pretty powerful people; but
we find no mention made of their kings till the reign
of Alexander the Great, to whom the king of Alba¬
nia is faid to have prefented a dog of an extraordinary
fiercenefs and fize.—It does not appear that the Alba¬
nians
ALB [ 353 3 ALB
Albany, niaus were ever conquered by the Romans, even when
St Albany p0wer Was at its greateft height; though, when
J" " v they ventured to engage in war with that powerful em¬
pire, they were always defeated, as might naturally be
expe&ed.
At,BANG, a town of Italy, on a lake of the fame
name, in the Campagnio of Rome. It was called by
the ancients Albanum Pompeii, and built out of the
ruins of the ancient Alba Longo, which was deftroyed
by Tullus Hoftilius. It Hands within twelve miles
fouth-eaft of Rome, and for the pleafantnefs of its fi-
tuation is the fummer retirement of a .great many Ro¬
man princes. It is likewife the fee of a biihop, who is
one of the fix fenior cardinals. The town is famous
for its excellent wine, and the ruins of a maufoleum,
which, according to the tradition of the inhabitants,
was made for Afcanius. The profpect from the garden
of the Capuchins is extremely pleafant, taking in the
Campania of Rome, and terminating in a full view of
the Tufcan fea. Clofe by the town lies the Alban lake,
of an oval figure, and about feven miles in circumfe¬
rence, which, by reafon of the high mountains round it,
looks like the area of a great amphitheatre. It abounds
with excellent fifh, and over againft the hermitage it
is faid to be unfathomable. The mountain of Albano is
called Monte Cavo, on the top of which was a celebrated
temple dedicated to Jupiter and Juno. Near the Capu¬
chins there is another convent of Francifcans; and not
Far from thence the palace of Cardinal Barberini, re¬
markable for very pleafant gardens, with the ruins of
ancient baths, and feveral old fragments of Mofaic
work. E. Long. 13. 10. N. Lat. 41. 43.
There is likewife another town of the fame name in
the Bafilicate of the kingdom of Naples, remarkable
for the fertility of the furrounding territory, and for
the nobility of the inhabitants.
ALBANS (St), a market-town of Hertfordlhire,
is a very great thoroughfare, accommodated with good
inns, on the north-weft road from London, at the di-
ftance of 21 miles. This town fends two members to
parliament, gives the title of du&e to the noble family
of Beauclerc, and has one of the beft markets for
wheat in England. St Albans is feated near the
ruins of an ancient Roman city, by Tacitus called Ve-
rolam; and by the Saxons Watlingcejier, becaufe it is
feated on the road called Watlingjireet. Nothing now
remains of Verolam but the ruins of old walls; in the
fields adjacent to which they continue to find Roman
coins, as they formerly found teffellated pavements.
In memory of St Alban, Offa, king of the Mercians,
anno 795, erefted an abbey, calling it St Albans;
and near it the town of the fame name was afterwards
built. The church of the abbey is remaining to this
day: time and the weather have made it look like
ftone on the outfide; but if you break a bit off, the
rednefs of the brick immediately appears. When the
monafteries were diffolved, the townfmen paid L. 400
to prevent its being levelled with the ground, and have
•fince converted it into a parilh-church, which, for its
largenefs, beauty, and antiquity, claims a particular re¬
gard. It had a very noble font of folid brafs, in which
the children of the kings of Scotland were ufed to be
baptized; and was brought from Edinburgh, by Sir
Philip Lea, when that city was in flames ; but in the
times of the late civil wars, it was taken away. Not
Vol. I. Part I.
many years fince, a tomb was difeovered in this church,
faid to be that of Humphry Duke of Gloucefter: when
the leaden coffin was opened, the body was pretty en¬
tire, being preferved in a fort of pickle. There was
a ftately crofs in the middle of the town, as there were
in many other places where queen Eleanor’s body
refted when it was brought out of the north for in¬
terment at Weftminfter; but it has been demolilhed, as
fome fay, by the inhabitants. The market-days are
Wednefdays and Saturdays. W. Long. o. 12. N. Lat.
Albanu^
II
Albemarle.
51* 44-
ALBANUS mons (anc. geog.), now called Mont
Albano, 16 miles from Rome, near where Alba Longa
ftood.
Albanus mons (anc. geog.), to the north of Tf-
tria, called Albius by Strabo; the extremity of the
Alps, which, together with the mountains to the eaft,
joining it, called Montes Bebii, feparates the farther
Liburnia and Dalmatia from Pannonia.
ALBANY, a fortrefs belonging to the Britifii,
feated on the S. W. of Hudfon’s bay. W. Long. 84.
20. N. Lat. 53. 20.
Albany, a town of North America, the capital
of one of the ten counties of the province of New-
York, which goes by the fame name, is a well-built
place, confidering the country. Here the fachems, or
the kings of the Five Nations of Iroquois, met the
governors of the Britifli plantations, when they entered
into any treaty with them. W. Long. 44. 29. N. Lat.
42. 3o.
ALBARAZIN, a ftrong town, and one of the
moft ancient of the kingdom of Arragon in Spain. It
is feated upon an eminence, near the river Guadelquivir,
a little below its fource, and on the frontiers of Valen¬
cia and New Caftile. It is the feat of a biftiop, and
produces the beft wool in all Arragon. It is about
100 miles eaft of Madrid. E. Long. 2. 10. N. Lat.
4°. 32.
ALBARII, in antiquity, properly denoted thofe
who gave the whitening to earthen veffels, &c. In
which fenfe they ftood contradiftinguilhed from Dealba-
tores, who whitened walls.
ALBARIUM opus, in the ancient building, the
incruftation or covering of the roofs of houfes with white
plafter, made of mere lime. This is otherwife called
opus album. It differs from Tetloriurn, which is a com¬
mon name given to all roofing or ceiling, including
even that formed of lime and fand, or lime and marble;
whereas Albarium was reftrained to that made of lime
alone.
ALB ATI equi, an appellation given to fuch hor-
fes, in the games of the ancient circus, as wore white
furniture. .
ALBATROSS, in ornithology, a fpecies of the
diomedea. See Diomebea.
ALB AZIN, a town of Greater Tartar}', with a
ftrong caftle. It is fituated upon the river Amur, or
Yamour, and belongs to the Mufcovites. E.Long. 103.
30. N. Lat. 54. o.
ALBE, a fmall piece of money, current in Germany,
worth only a French fol and feven deniers.
ALBEMARLE, or Aumarle, a town of France,
in Upper Normandy, and in the territory of Caux,
from whence the noble family of Keppel takes the title
of Earl, The ferges of this town are in high efteem.
Y y It
ALB r 354 l ALB
Albemarle It is feated on the declivity of a hill, on the confines of
I! Picardy, 35 miles N. E. of Rouen, and 70 N. W. of
. ^rtus- paris. E, Long. 2. 21. N. Lat. 49. 50.
Albemarle, the moft northern part of the province
of North Carolina in America.
ALBENGUA, a town of Italy, in the territory of
Genoa. It is the fefe of a bilhop; and is a very ancient
fiandfome tovVn, but not well peopled bn account of the
infalubrity of the air. However, it is feated in a very
beautiful plain, which iVweH cultivated; and the outfide
of the town is furrounded with olive-trees. It is a fea-
port, about 38 miles S. W. of Genoa. E. Long. 8. 13.
N. Lat. 44. 4.
ALBERNUO, a kind of camblet, brought from
the Levant by the way of Marfeilles.
ALBERONI (Julius), the fon of a poor gardener
in the fuburbs of Placentia, born in 1664; w’ho, by
his great abilities and good fortune, rofe from this low
original, to the employment of firft minifter of ftate at
the court of Spain, and to the dignity of cardinal. He
roufed that kingdom out of the lethargy it had funk
into for a century paft; awakened the attention, and
railed the aftonilhmerit, of all Europe, by his projefts;
one of which was to fet the Pretender on the throne of
Great Britain. He was at length deprived of his em¬
ployment, and baniihed to Rome. He died in 1752,
at the great age of 89. His Tejlament Politique, col-
lefled from his memoirs and letters, was publifhed at
‘Laufanne in 1753.
ALBERT, Margrave of Brandenburg, and the laft
grand mafter of the Teutonic Order, laid afide the ha¬
bit of his order, embraced Lutheranifm, and conclu¬
ded a peace at Craco.w in 1525, by which he was ac¬
knowledged Duke of the eaft part of Pruffia (formerly
called for that reafon Ducal Pruffia'), but to be held
as a fief of Poland, and to defeerid to his male heirs.
See Prussia.
ALBERTI (Leone Battifia), wms^efeeuded from
a noble family in Florence; and was perfefitly acquaint¬
ed with painting, fctilpture, and architefiture. He
wrote of all three in Latin; but his ftudies did not per¬
mit him to leave any tiling Confiderable behind him in
painting. He was employed by pope Nicholas V. in
his buildings, which he executed in a beautiful man¬
ner; and his work on architedtiire, which confifts of ten
books, is greatly efteemed. He aHb wrote fome trea-
tifes of morality, and a piece on arithmetic. He died
in 1485.
ALBERTISTS, a feft of fchdlaftic's, fo named from
their leader Albertus Magnus.
ALBERTUS (Magnus), a Dominican friar, and
afterwards bifnop of Ratifbon, v/a's One of the moft
learned men and moft famous dodtors of the 13th cen-
tury. He is faid to have adted as a man-midwife ; and
fome have been highly offended tliat one of his pro-
feffion fhould follow fuch aq enqftoytnent.. A book
antitied De Natura Rerun, of which he * was reputed
the author, gave rife to this report. In this treatife
there are feveral inftrudtions for midwives, and fo much
/kill ftunvn in their art, that one would think the au¬
thor could not have arrived at it without having him-
felf pradtifed : but the advocate's for Albert fay he
was not the writer thereof, nor of that other piece De
Secretis Mullerian ; in which there are many phrafes
and expreffions unavoidable on fuch a fubjedt, which
gave great offence, and raifed a clamour againft the Alhertm
fuppofed author. It muft be acknowledged, however* A||)j
that there are, in his Comment upon the Mafter of Sen-1 „—>
tences, fome queftions concerning the pradticc of conju¬
gal duty, in which he has ufed fome words rather too
grofs for chafte and delicate .ears: hut they allege
what he himfelf ufed to fay in his own vindication,
that he came to the knowledge of fo many monffrous
things at confeffion, that it was impoffible to avoid
touching upon fuch queftions. Albert was certainly
it man of a moft curious and inquifitive turn of mind,
which gave rife to other accufations brought againft
him. They fay, that he laboured to find out the phi-
lofopher’s ftone ; that he was a magician; and that he
made a machine in the fhape of a man, which Was an
oracle to him, and explained all the difficulties he
propofed. He had great knowledge in the mathema¬
tics, and by his (kill in that feience might probably
have formed a head with fprings capable of articulate
founds; like to the machines.of Boetius, of which
Caffiodorus has faid, “ Metals lowe; the birds of Dio-
medes' trumpet in brafs ; the brazen ferpent liiffes ;
counterfeitedfwalloWschatter, and fuch as havenopropef
note, from brafs fend forth harmonious mufic.” John
Matthceus de Luna, in his treatife De Rerum hivcnto-
ribus, has attributed the invention of fire-arms to Al¬
bert ; but in this he is Confuted by Naude, in.his Apo-
logi; des Grands Hofnmes.' We are told, that Albert
was naturally very dull, and fo incapable of iriftruftion,
as to be upon the point of quitting the cloifter, from
defpair of learning what his habit required : but that
the Holy Virgin appeared to' him, and alked him in
which he chofe to excel, philofophy or divinity ?
that having chofen the former, fhe affured him he
fhould become incomparable therein; but that, as a
punifhment for not preferring divinity, he fhould fink,
before he died, into his former ftupidity. It is added,
that after this apparition he had an infinite deal of wit; •
and that he advanced in all the fciences with fo quick
a progrefs, as utterly aftoniffied his mafters : but that,
three years before his death, he flopped ffiort when
reading a divinity-leifture at Cologn ; and having in
vain endeavoured to recal his ideas, he found that the
Virgin’s prediftion was accomplifhed. “ It would be
very unneceffary (fays Bayle, after relating thefe par¬
ticulars) to obferve that they are fables. Thofe who
would believe me ne<fd not be told this, fince they
would judge in the fame manner of their own accord ;
and as for .fuch as think otherwife, they would not
alter their opinion by reading here that I am of a dif¬
ferent way of thinking.” Albert died at Cologn, No¬
vember 15. 1280. His works were printed at Lyojjs,
jn 1651, in 21 volumes in folio.
ALBERTUS, a gold coin, worth about 14 French
livres: it was coined during the adminiftration of Al¬
bertus archduke of Auflria.
ALBESIA, in antiquity, a kind of fhields other-
wife called Decumana. See Decumana.
ALB I, a city of France, the capital of the Albi-
geois, in Languedoc, and the fee of an archbifhop.
The cathedral is dedicated to St Cecilia, and has one of
the fineft choirs in the kingdom. Here is a very va¬
luable filver ffirine, of exquifite workmanffiip, of the
Mofaie kind : it contains the reliques of St Clair, the
firft bi/hop of this city. The chapel of this pretended '
faint
ALB
' E 355 1
ALB
faint is magnificent, and adorned with paintings. The
Tice is a fine large walk without the city : what diftin-
guifhes this from all others, is a terras above a deep
mall, which ferves inftead of a foffe ; it is bordered with
two rows of very fine trees, which are kept in excellent
order. There are four gates, through which you may.
view all the beauties of a delightful plain. At one end
of this is the convent of the Dominicans. The arch-
bifhop’s palace is very beautiful. The river wafhes its
Walls, and ferves both for an ornament and defence.
This city is feated on the river Tarn, 35 miles north-by¬
weft of Touloufe, and 250 fouth of Paris. E. Long,
o. 52. N. Lat. 43.. 56.
The Albigeois is a fmall territory about 27 miles in
length, and 26 in breadth, abounding in corn, woad,
grapes, faffron, plums, and (heep; and the inhabitants
drive a great trade in dried prunes, grapes, a coarfe fort
of doth, and wines’of Gaillac. Thefe wines are the
only forts hereabouts that are fit for exportation : they
ufelefs ; held the eucharift in abhorrence; .excluded the Albigenfes.
ufe of confeflions and penance ; maintained marriage ' v
unlawful; laughed at purgatory, prayers for the dead,
images, crucifixes, See.—There were likewife faid to be
two claffes of them: the Ferfed:, and the Believers. The
perfedf boafted of their living in continence, of eating
neither flelh, eggs, nor cheefe. The believers lived like
other men, and were even loofe in their morals; but
they were perfuaded they fliould be faved by the faith
of the perfect, and that none were damned who recei¬
ved impofition of hands from them. But from thefe
charges alfo they are generally acquitted by Prote-
ftants; who confider them as the pious inventions of
the Romilli church, vvhofe members deSm itmeiitorious
by any means to blacken heretics. .
However this be, the Albigenfes grew fo formidable,
that the Catholics agreed upon a holy league or croi-
fade againft them. They were at firft fupported by
Raimond, count of Touloufe. PopeTnnocent III. dcr
are carried down to Bourdeaux, and generally fold to firous to put a flop to their progrefs, lent a legate.in-
tlie Bi itiih. They have likewife feveral coal-mines.
ALBIGENSES, in chiirch-hiftory, a feft or party
of reformers, about Touloufe and the Albigeois in Lan¬
guedoc, who fprung up in the 12th century, and dif-
tinguifhed themfelves by their oppofition to the difei-
pline and ceremonies of the Romiftt church.
This feft had their name, it is fuppofed, either by
reafon there were great nujnbers of them in the diocefe
of Albi, or becaufe they were condemned by a coun¬
cil held in that city. In effeft, it does not "appear that
they were known by this nafhe before the holding of
that council. The Albigenfes were alfo called Albiani,
Albigefei, Albii, and Albanenfes, though fome diftin-
guilh thefe laft from them. Other names given to them
are, Henricians, Abelardijh, Bulgarians, &c. fome on
account of the qualities they affumed; others on that
of the country from whence it is pretended they were
derived ; and others on account of perfons of note who
adopted their caufe, as Peter de Brins, Arnold de
Brefle, Abelard, Henry, &c. Berengarius, if not Wick-
lift himfelf, is by fome ranked in the number. The
Albigenfes are frequently confounded with the Walden-
fes} from vyhom, howreyer, they differ in many refpehls,
both as being prior to them in point of time, as having
their origin in a different country, and as being char¬
ged with divers herefies, particularly Manicheifm, from
which the Waldsifes are exempt. But feveral Prote-
ftant writers have vindicated them from that imputa-.
tion. Dr Allix (hows, that a great number of Mani-
ehees did fpread over the wreftern countries from Bul¬
garia; and fettled in-Italy, Languedoc, and other
places, w here there were alfo Albigenfes; by which
means, being both under the imputation of herefy, they
came, either by ignorance or malice, to be confounded,
and called by the fame common name, though in rea¬
lity entirely different.
Other errors imputed to them by their opponents,
the monks of thofe days, wrere, That they admitted
tw-o Chrifts; one evil, who appeared on earth ; the o-
ther good, who has not yet appeared: That they de¬
nied the refurre&ion of the body ; and maintained hu¬
man fouls to be daemons imprifoned in our bodies, by
way of punifhment for their fins : That they condemn-
to their country ; which failing, - he ftirred up Philip
Auguftus* king of France, and the other princes and
great men of the kingdom, to make war upon them.
Upon this the count of Touloufe, who had fided with
them, made his fubmiffion to the pope, and went over
to the Catholics: but foon after, finding himfelf plun¬
dered by the croifaders, he declared war againft them,
and was. joined by the king of Arragon. His army
was defeated at the fiege of Muret, where he himfelf
W'as killed, and the defeat followed by the furrender of
the city of Touloufe, and the Conqueft of the greatett
part of Languedoc and Provence. His fon Raimond
futiceeded him ; who agreed with the king and the pope
to fet up the inquifitipn in his eftates, and to extirpate
the Albigenfes. In an affembly held at Milan, the
archbiihop of Touloufe drew up articles; agreeable to
which the count made a moft ample declaration againft
them, which he publifiied at Touloufe in 1253. From
this time the Albigenfes dwindled by little and little,
till the times of the reformation ; when fuch of them
as w^ere left fell in with the Vaudois, and became con-
formable to the dodftrine of Zuinglius and the difciples
of Geneva. *
Albigenses is alfo a name fometimes given to the
followers of Peter Vaud, - orWaldo ; and hence, fyno-
nyfnous with what we more properly call Waldenfes, or
Poor Men of Lyons. In this fenfe the word is applied
by Camerarius, Thuanus, and feveral other writers.
The reafon feems to be, that the two parties agreed in
their oppofition to the papal innovations and incroach-
ments, though in divers other refpefts faid to be dif¬
ferent enough. The biihop of Meaux labours hard’to
fuppprt a difiinftion between the two feels, alleging
that the Albigenfes were heretics and Manichees ; where¬
as the Mraldenfes were only fchifmatics, not heretics;
being found as to articles of faith, and only feparating
from the church of Rome on account of forms and
difeipline. Dr Allix endeavours to fet afide the dif-
tin£tion; and {hows, that both of them hold the fame o-
pinions, and were equally condemned and held for he¬
retics : and this not for points of faith, but for declaim-
ng againft the papal tyranny and idolatry, and hold¬
ing the pope to be the Antichrift ; which laft, accor-
ed all the facraments of the church; rejected baptifm as ding to M. de Meaux, conftitutes nothing lefs than
Y y 2 Manicheifm.
ALB
'Albinte- Manicheifm. In this fenfe the Lollards and Wick-
xnelnmi i;gites jn England were not only Albigenfes but Ma-
Albinos. nichees.
v——' ALBINTEMELIUM, Albintimilium, (Taci¬
tus;) or at full length, Albium Intemelium, (Pli¬
ny, Strabo) ; now Vintimiglia, fituated in the fouth-
weft of the territory of Genoa, near the borders of the
county of Nice, with a port on the Mediterranean, at
356 ] A.1- B
“ I am therefore of opinion, that we may confider Albinos,
thefe two lads as true albinos: for if they have not the 1
thick lips and flat nofes of the white negroes, it is be-
caufe they are albinos of Europe, not of Africa. This
infirmity affefts the eyes, the complexion, and the co¬
lour of the hair; it even diminiflies the ftrength, but
does not alter the conformation of the features. Be-
fldes, there are certainly in this malady various de-
the mouth of the rivulet Rotta, almoft about half-way grees: fome may have lefs ftrength, and be lefs able to
  —a o p-— v r   r— endure the light: but thefe circumftances in thofe of
Chamouni are marked with characters fufficiently ftrong
to intitle them to the unhappy advantage of being claf-
between Monaco and S. Remo. E. Long. 7. 40. Lat.
43- I7*
ALBIOECEj or Alebece, (Pliny, Strabo); o-
therwife called Reii yipollinares, from their fuperftitious fed with that variety of the human fpecies denominated
worfhip of Apollo ; alfo Civi/as Reienfium; now Riez, albinos.
in Provence, about 18 leagues to the north-eaft of Tou- “ When nature prefents the fame appearance often,
Ion, on the north fide of the rivulet Verdon; was ori- and with circumftances varied, we may at laft difcover
ginally a Roman colony, (Infcription.) It is fometimes c—" t —r ’  •’ •-
written Regiutn. The people were called Albiciy (Cse-
iar.) E. I.ong. 1. o. Lat. 43- 20
ALBINI, in antiquity, the workmen employed in
what was called Opus Albarium. They make a dif¬
ferent profeffion’ from the dealbatores or isihitemrs,
ALBINOS, the name by which the Portugucfe call
the white Moors, who are looked upon by the negroes
as monfters. They at a diftance might be taken for
Europeans; but, when you come near them, their
white colour appears like that of perfons affefted with
a leprofy.
In Savssure’s Voyages dans les Alpes, is the fol¬
lowing account of two boys, at Ghamouni, who have,
been called Albinos. “ The elder, who was at the end
of the year 1785 about twenty, or one-and-twenty years
of age, had a dull look, with lips fomewhat thick, but
nothing elfe in his features to diftinguilh him from o-
ther people. The other, who is two years younger,
is rather a more agreeable figure : he is gay and fpright-
!y, and feems not to want wit. But their eyes
fome general law, or fome relation which that appear¬
ance has with known caufes: but when a faft is fo
fingular and fo rare, as that of thofe albinos,, it gives
but little fcope to conjeftures; and it is very difficult
to verify thofe by which we attempt to explain it,
“ I at firft imagined that this difeafe might be referred
to a particular fort of organic debility ; that a relaxa¬
tion of the lymphatic veffels within the eye might fuf>
fer the globules of the blood to enter too abundantly
into the iris, the uvea, and even into the retina, which
might occafion the rednefs of the iris and of the pupil.
The fame debility feemed alfo to account for the into¬
lerance of the light, and for the whitenefs of the hair.
“ But a learned phyfiologift, M. Blumenbach, profef-
for in the univerfity at Gottingen, who has made many
profound obfervations on the organs of fight, and has
confidered with great attention the albinos of Chamou¬
ni, attributes their infirmity to a different caufe.
“ The ftudyof comparative anatomyhas fumifhed him
with frequent opportunities of obferving this pheno¬
menon ; he has found it in brutes, in white dogs, and
blue ; the iris is of a very diftinft rofe-colour: the pu- in owls; he fays, it is generally to be feen in the warm-
pil too, when viewed in the light, feems decidedly red; blooded animals ; but that he has never met with it in
■which feems to demonftrate, that the interior mem¬
branes are deprived of the uvea, and of that black
cous matter that ftiould line them. Their hair, their'
eye-brows, and eye-lalhes, the down upon their fkin,
were all, in their infancy, of the moft perfect milk-
thofe with cold blood.
“ From his obfervations, he is of opinion, that the
rednefs of the iris, and of the other internal parts of the
eye, as well as the extreme fenfibility that accompanies
this rednefs, is owing to the total privation of that
white colour, and very fine; but their hair is now of brown or blackifh mucus, that, about the fifth week
a reddifh caft, and has grown pretty ftrong. Their
fight too is fomewhat {Lengthened; though they ex-
aggerate to ftrangers their averfion for the light, and
after conception, covers all the interior parts of the eye
in its found ftate. He obferves, that Simon Pontius,.
half-fhut the eye-lids, to give themfelves a more extra¬
ordinary appearance. But thofe who, like me, have
feen them in their infancy, before they were tutored to
this deceit, and when too few people came to Cha¬
mouni to make this affectation profitable to them, can
atteft that then they were not very much offended with
his treatife de Coloribus Oculorum, long ago remark¬
ed, that in blue eyes the interior membranes were
lefs abundantly provided with this black mucus, and
were therefore more fenfible to the a&ion of light.
This fenfibility of blue eyes agrees very well, fays M.
Blumenbach, with northern people, during their long
twilight; while, on the contrary’, the deep black in
the light of day. At that time, they were fo little de- the eyes of negroes enables them to fupport the fplem
firous of exciting tire curiofity of ftrangers, that they
hid themfelves to avoid fuch; and it was neceffary to
do a fort of violence to them before they could be pre¬
vailed on to allow themfelves to be infpe&ed. It is al- learned phyfiologift fays, that it is owing to a fimila-
fo well known at Chamouni, that when they were of a
proper age they were unable to tend the cattle like the
other children at the fame age ; and that one of their
uncles maintained them out of charity, at a time of veffels contiguous to it, but contains no fat; like the
dor of the fun’s beam in the torrid zone.
“ As to the connexion between this red colour of:
the eyes and the whitenefs of the flun and hair, the fame
rity of ftrufture, confenfus ex fimilitudene fabric#. He
afferts, that this black mucus is formed only in the de¬
licate cellular fubftance, which has numerous blood-
life when others were capable of gaining a fubfiftcnce
fey their labour.
infide of the eye, the fkin of negroes,., the fpotted pa-
fete of feveral domeftic animals, &c. And, daftly, he
fayv
ALB [ 357 ] ALB
-Albinos, fays, that the colour of the hair generally correfponds
w-^ ' with that of the iris Gazette litt. de Gotingue, Oft.
1784.
“ At the very time that M. Blumenbach was reading
this memoir to the Royal Society of Gottingen, M.
Buzzi, furgeon to the hofpital at Milan, an eleve of
the celebrated anatomift Mofcaii, publilhed, in the 0-
pufcoli Scelti de Milan, 1784, t. vii. p. 11. a very in-
terefting memoir, in which he demonllrates by diffec-
tion what Blumenbach had only fuppofed.
A peafant of abbut 30 years of age died at the hof¬
pital of Milan of a pulmonary diforder. His body, be¬
ing expofed to view, was exceedingly remarkable by
the uncommon whitenefs of the ikin, of the hair, of the
beard, and of all the other covered parts of the body.
M. Buzzi, who had long defired an opportunity of dif-
fefting fuch a fubjeft, immediately feized upon this.
He found the iris of the eyes perfeftly white, and the
pupil of a rofe-colour. The eyes were diflefted with
the greateft poffible care, and were found entirely def-
titute of that black membrane which anatomifts call
the uvea; it was not to be feen either behind the iris,
or under the retina: within the eye there was only
found the choroid coat extremely thin and tinged, of a
pale red colour, by veflels filled with difcoloured blood.
What was more extraordinary, the Ikin, when detached
from different parts of the body, feemed alfo entirely
divefted of the re/e mucofum: maceration did not dif-
cover the leaft veftige of this, not even in the wrinkles
of the abdomen, where it is molt abundant and. moll
vifible.
“ M. Buzzi likewife accounts for the whitenefs of the
fkin and of the hair, from the abfence of the rete mu¬
cofum, which, according to him, gives the colour to the
cuticle, and to the hairs that are fcattered over it. Ar
mong other proofs of this opinion, he alleges a well-
known faft, that if the fkin of the blackeft horfe be
accidentally deflroyed in any part of the body, the hairs
that afterwards grow on that part are always white,
becaufe the rete mucofim which tinges thofe hairs is ne¬
ver regenerated with the fkin.
“The proximate caufe of the whitenefs of albinos, and
the colour of their eyes, feems therefore pretty evident¬
ly to depend on the abfence of the rete mucofum: But
what is the remote caufe ?
“In the firfl place, it feems probable that men affec¬
ted with this infirmity form no diflinft fpecies, for they
are produced from parent^ that have dark fkins and
black eyes. What is it then that deflroys the reie mu-
cofum in fuch perfons ? M. Buzzi relates a fingular
faft, which feems to throw fome light on this fubjeft.
“A woman of Milan, named Calcagni, had fev.en fons.
The two eldeil had brown hair and black eyes; the
three next had white fkins, white hair, and red eyes
the two lafl refembled the two eldeft. It was faid that
this woman, during the three pregnancies that produ¬
ced the albinos, had a continual and immoderate appe¬
tite for milk, which fhe took in great quantities.: but
that when fhe was with child of the other four chil-
• dren, fhe had no fuch defire. It is not however afcer-
tained, that this preternatural appetite was not itfelf
the effeft of a certain heat, or internal difeafe, which
deflroyed the rete mucofum in the children before they
were born.
‘‘ The. albinos.of Chamouni are alfo the offspring of
parents with dark fkins and black eyes. They have Albinwa-
thrce fillers by the fame father and mother, who are AjI^’UJI
alfo brunettes. One of them that I faw had the eyes . ^ ‘r
of a dark brown, and the hair almofl black. They
are faid, however, to be all afflifted with a weaknefs of
fight. When the lads are married, it will be curious
to obferve how the eyes of their children will be for¬
med. The experiment would be particularly decifive
if they were married to women like themfelves. But
this faulty conformation feems to be more rare among
women than among men ; for the four of Milan, the
two of Chamouni, the one defcribed by Mauperitus,
the one by Helvetius, and almofl all the inflances of
thefe fingular produftions, have been of our fex. It is
known, however, that there are races of men and wo¬
men afiefted with this difeafe, and that thefe races per¬
petuate themfelves, in Guinea, in Java, at Panama, &c,_
“ Upon the whole, this degeneration does not feem
to be owing to the air of the mountains ; for though I
have traverfed the greatefl part of the Alps, and the
other mountains of Europe, thefe are the only indivi¬
duals of the kind that ever I met with.”
ALBINOVANUS, a Latin poet,.whom Ovid fur-
named the Divine. There is now nothing of his extant,
except an Elegy on Drufus, and another on the Death-
of Mecsenas.
ALBINUS (Bernhard Siegfred), a celebrated phy-
fician and anatomifl, was born, of an illuflrious fami¬
ly, at Francfort on the Oder in 1697. His father was
then profeflbr of the praftice of medicine in the univer-
fity of Francfort; but in the year 1702 he repaired to
Leyden, being nominated profeffor of anatomy and
furgery in that univerfity. Here his fon had an oppor¬
tunity of fludying under the mofl eminent mailers in
Europe, who, from the fingular abilities which he then
difplayed, had no difficulty in prognoflicating his fu¬
ture eminence. But while he was diflinguifhed in every
branch of literature, his attention was particularly
turned to anatomy and furgery. His peculiar attach¬
ment to thefe branches of knowledge gained him the
intimate friendfhip of Ruyfch and Rau, who at that
time flourifhed in Leyden ; and the latter, fo juflly ce¬
lebrated as a lithotomifl, is faid to have feldom per¬
formed a capital operation without inviting him to be
prefent. Having finifhed his fludies at Leyden, he
went to Paris, where he attended the leftures of Du-
Verney, Vaillant, and other celebrated profeffors. But
he had fcarce fpent a year there, when he was invited
by the curators of the univerfity of Leyden, to be a
lefturer in anatomy and furgery at that place. Though,
contrary to his own inclination, he complied with their
requelt, and upon that occafion was created Dr of
phyfic without any examination. Soon after, upon the
death of his father, he was appointed to fucceed him
as profeflbr of anatomy; and upon being admitted in¬
to that office on the 9th of November J72J, he deli¬
vered an oration, De vera via ad fabric# humani cor¬
poris coguitionem ducente; which was heard with uni-
verfal approbation. In the capacity of a profeffor, he
not only bellowed the greatefl attention upon the in-
flruftion of the youth entrufted to his care, but in the
improvement of the medical art. With this view, he
publifhed many important difcoveries of his own ; and .
by elegant editions, turned the attention of phyficians
to w.orks of merit, which might othenvife have been
neglefte^K
ALB [ 358 ] ALB
negle&ed. By thefe means his fame \ras foon extend¬
ed over Europe ; and the focieties of London, Peterf-
burgh, and Harlem, cheerfully, received him as an af-
fociate. In 1745, was appointed profelfor of the
praftice of medicine at Leyden, and was fucceeded in
the anatomical chair by his brother Frid. Bern. Al-
binus. He was twice re ft or of the univerfity, and as
often he refufed that high honour when it was volun¬
tarily offered him. At length, worn out by long fer-
v'ice and intenfe ftudy, he died on the 9th of Septem¬
ber 1.770, in the 74th year of his age.
ALBION, the ancient name of Britain. j
AVto /h.BioN, a name given by Sir Francis Drake
to California.
ALBIREO, (in Aftronomy) a ftar of the third or
fourth magnitude, in the conftellation Cygnus.
. ALBIS, (in anc. geog.) now the Elbe, which di¬
vided ancient Germany in the middle, and was the
boundary of the ancient geography of Germany, fo far
as that country was known to the Romans : all beyond
they owned to be uncertain, no Roman except Drufus
and Tiberius having penetrated fo far as the Elbe. In
the year of the building of the city 744, or about fix
years before Chrift, Domitius Ahenobarbus, crofiing
the river with a few, merited the ornaments of a
triumph; fo glorious was it reckoned at Rome to have
attempted the paffage. In the following age, how¬
ever, the river that before occupied the middle of an¬
cient Germany, became its boundary to the north,
from the irruptions of the Sarmatie, who poffeffed
themfelves of the Tranfalbin Germany. The "Elbe
rifes in the borders of Silefia, out of the Rifenberg,
runs through Bohemia, Mifnia, Upper Saxony, An¬
halt, Magdeburg, Brandenburg, Danneberg, Lauen-
burg, Holftein, and after being fwelled by many other
rivers, and paffing by Hamburg and Gluckftadt, falls
into the German, or North fea, to both which places
the river is navigable by large veffels.
ALBISOLA, a fmall town belonging to the repu¬
blic of Genoa : here is a porcelain manufafture, and fe-
veral country-houfes of the Genoefe nobility. It was
bombarded in 1745 by the Englilh. E. Long. 8. 20.
N. Lat. 44. 15.
ALBOGALERUS, in Roman antiquity,' a white
cap worn by the flamen dialis, on the top of w’hich was
an ornament of olive branches.
ALBORAK, amongft the Mahometan writers, the
beaft on which Mahomet rode in his journeys to hea¬
ven. The Arab commentators give many fables con¬
cerning this extraordinary vehicle. It is reprefented
as of an intermediate fhape and fize between an afs and
a mule. A place, it feems, was fecured for it in pa-
radife at the interceffion of Mahomet; which, how¬
ever, was in feme meafure extorted from the prophet,
by Alborak’s refufing to let him mount him when the
angel Gabriel was come to conduft him to heaven.
ALBORO, in zoology, a name by which the eryth-
rinus, a fmall red fifii, caught in the Mediterranean, is
commonly known in the markets of Rome and Venice.
ALBOURG, a town of Denmark, in North Jut¬
land, capital of the diocefe of the fame name, and a
bifhop’sfce. It has this name, which fignifies eel-town,
on account of the great number of eels taken here. It
is feated on a cabal, 10 miles from the fea, 30 north of
Wiburgh, and 50 north of Arhuys. It has an ex¬
3
change for merchants, and a fafe and deep harbour.
They have a confiderable trade in herrings and corn ;
and a manufaftory of guns, piftols, fuddles, and gloves.
E. Long. 29. 16. N. Lat. 56. 35.
ALBRICIUS, born at London, was a great phi-
lofopher, a learned and able phyfician, and well ver-
fed in all the branches of polite literature. He lived
in the 11th century, and wrote feveral works in La¬
tin, particularly, 1.. Of the origin of the gods. 2.
The virtues of the ancients. 3. The nature of poi-
fon, &c.
ALBUCA, Bastard stAr-of-Bethlehem : A
genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the hex-
andria clafs of plants ; and in the natural method
ranking under the 10th order, CoronarLe. The cha-
rafters are : The calyx is wanting : The corolla confiils
of fix oval oblong petals, which are perfiftent: The
fiamina con fill of fix three-fided filaments the length of
the corolla : Of thefe, three are fertile, with verfatile
antherie; three are barren, without antherss: The
pijlillum has an oblong three-fided germen ; the ftylus
is three-fided : The pericarpium is an oblong obtufe
triangular capfule, having three cells and three valves:
Theym/r are numerous,'flat, and incumbent. Of this
genus Linnaeus reckons only two
Species.- 1. The major, or liar-flower, with fpear-
Ihaped leaves. This is a native of Canada, and fome
other parts of North America: the root is bulbous;
from whence Ihoot up eight or ten long, narrow, fpear-
Ihaped leaves. In the centre of thefe arifes a flower-
llem, a foot or more in height, garnifhed with a loofe
fpike of greenilh yellow flowers. After the flowers are
pail, the germen fwells to a three-cornered capfule,
having three cells filled with flat feeds. 2. The minor,
or African liar-flower, is a native of the Cape of Good
Hope. This, hath alfo a pretty large bulbous root, from
which arife four or five narrow awl-lhaped leaves, of a
deep green colour; the flower-llem, which comes from
the center of the root, is naked, and'rarely rifes more
than eight or nine inches high, having five or llxgreen-
ifli-yellow flowers, growing almbll in the form of an
umbel at top : thefe are rarely fucceeded by feeds in
Britain.
Culture. The Canada albura is hardy; fo the roots
may be planted about four inches deep in a border of
light earth, where they will thrive and produce their
flowers late in the fummer: but as the feeds do not of¬
ten ripen in Britain, and the bulbs put out few off-
fets, the plants are not common in this country. The
African fort generally flowers twice a-year; firil in
March or April, and again in July or Augull ; and if
its roots are kept in pots filled with light earth, Ihtl-
tered under a hot-bed frame, they will flower even in
winter; but the bed method is to have a border in the
front of a green-houfe, or Hove, where the roots of
moll of the bulbous flowers may be planted in the full
ground, and fereened in winter from froft : in fuch fi-
tuations they'thrive much better, and flower llronger,
than when kept in pots
ALBUGINEA tunica, in anatomy, the third or
innermoll coat or covering of the telles ; it is likewife
the name given to one of the coats of the eye.
ALBUGINEUS, in anatomy, a term fometimes
applied to 'the aqueous humour of the eye.
ALBUGO, or Leucoma, in medicine, a dillemper
occafioned
r .
ALB [ 359 J A L C
; AHnim occa/ionec^ by a white opaque fpot growing on the cer-
II nea of the eye, and obitrudling vifion. See Medicine
(Index).
ALBUM, in antiquity, a kind of white table, or
regifter, wherein the names of certain magiftrates, pu¬
blic tranfa&ions, &c. were entered. Of thefe there
were various forts ; as the album decurionum, album /•-
rtatomw, album jud cu?n,"album pro;torts, &c.
Album Oecurionutn, was the regifter wherein the
names of the decunones were entered. This is other-
I wife called matriculatio decurionum.
Album Senatoruvi, the lift of fenators names, which
was firft introduced by Auguftus, and renewed yearly.
Album Judicutn, that wherein the names of the
perfons of thofe decuria who judged at certain times,
were entered.
Album 1’ratoris, that wherein the formula of all
aftions, and the names of fuch judges as the praetor
had ehofen to decide caufes, were written.
The high-prieft entered the chief tranfactions of each
year into an album, or table, which was hung up in his
houfe for the public ufe.
Album is alfo ufed, in later times, to denote a
kind of table, or pocket-book, wherein the men of
letters with whom a perfon has converfed, infcribe their
names with fome feritence or motto. -The famous Al¬
gernon Sydney being in. Denmark, was by the univer-
fity of Copenhagen prefented with their album, where¬
upon he wrote thefe Words :
  Manus hac inimica tyrannis
Enfe petit placidam fub libertate quietem.
Album Graciim, among phyficians, the white dung
of dogs, formerly prefcribed for inflammations of the
throat, &c. but now juftly defpifed.
ALBUMAZAR, a learned Arabian aftronomer in
the tenth century, who wrote a treatife. Of the Revolu¬
tion of the Tears.
ALBUMEN, the white of an egg. For its nature,
origin, and office, fee Egg.
The white of an egg, according to Boerhaave, makes,
an extraordinary menftruum. Being boiled hard in the
fliell, and afterwards fufpended in the air by a thread,
it refolves and drops down into an inf pid, fcentlefs, li¬
quor, which appears to be that anomalous unaccount¬
able menftruum fo much ufed by Paracelfus; and will,
though it contain nothing ffiarp, oleaginous, or fapo-
naceous, make a thorough folution of myrrh ; which
is more than either water, oil, fpirits, or even fire itfelf,
can effeift.
A little putrid white of egg taken into the ftomach,
©ccafions a naufea, horror, fainting, vomiting, diarrhoea,
and gripes ; it inflames the bile, excites heat, thirft, fe¬
ver ; and diffolves the humours like the plague. On
the contrary, the white of freffi-laid eggs, if taken
while warm from the hen, is extremely nourilhing to
the infirm : it may be taken in luke-warm milk ; but if
any other heat is applied to it, the nutritious quality
will be deftroyed. The frefh white of egg prevents
burns from rifing in blifters, if it is ufed immediately
after the accident : it mitigates inflammations of the
eyes, and preferves the face from fun-burning. In phar¬
macy, it is ufed as a medium to render balfams and tur¬
pentines, &c. mifcible with aqueous fluids; but as it
difagrees with many ftomachs when thus taken, a mu¬
cilage of gum arabic may fupply its place, it being as
good a medium in fimilar circumftances, and not apt to Albu-
offend the tendereft ftomach.—Whites of eggs are alfo <-lue'|clu*
ufeful for clarifying liquors; to which purpofe, being A|c;l_
mixed and incorporated with the liquors to be clan- —~v f
fied, and the whole afterwards boiled, the whites of
eggs are by this means brought together and harden¬
ed, and thus carry off the grofs parts of the liquor along
with them.
ALBUQUERQUE, a fmall city in Spain, in the
province of Eftremadura, is feated on an eminence, nine-
miles from the frontiers of Portugal. It is command¬
ed by an almoft impregnable fortrefs, built on a high
mountain, and ferving to defend the-town. It carries
on a great trade in wool and woollen manufadfures. It
was taken by the allies of Charles king of Spain, in
1705. W. Long. 7. o. N. Lat. 38. 52.
ALBURN, the Englifti name of a compound co-,.
lour, being a mixture of white and red, or reddifli
brown. Skinner derives the word, in this fenfe, from
the Latin, and the Italian bur no, from bruno,
brown.
ALBURNUM, the foft white fubftance which iij
trees is found between the liber or inner bark and the
wood, and in progrefs of time acquiring folidity, be¬
comes itfelf the wood. From its colour and compara¬
tive foftnefs, it has been ftyled by fome writers the fat
of trees, adeps arborum.
The alburnum is found in largeft quantities in trees
that are vigorous; though in fuch as languifh, or are
fickly, there is a great number of bed-s. In an oak
fix inches in diameter, this fubftance is nearly equal in
bulk to the wood. In a trunk of one foot diameter,
it is as one to three and a half; of two and a half feet
diameter, as one to four and a half, &c. but thefe pro¬
portions vary according to the health and conftitutiorv
of the trees.—The alburnum is frequently gnawed in
pieces by infedfs, which lodge in the fubftance, and are
noirrilhed from it.
ALBURNUS, in zoology, a fpeciesof the cyprinm.
of Linnaeus. . See Cyprinus.
ALCA, or Auk,-in ornithology, a genus of the
order of anferes. The beak of this genus is without
teeth, fhort, convex, compreffed, and frequently fur¬
rowed tranfverfely ; the inferior mandible is gibbous
near the bafe; the feet have generally three toes. The
- fpecies of the alca are 12 ; of which the moil remark¬
able are,
1. The impennis, northern penguin, or great auk,„
with a compreffed bill furrowed on each fide, and an
oval fpot on each fide of tire eyes. According to Mr
Martin, this bird breeds on the ifle of St Kilda ; ap¬
pearing there the beginning of May, and retiring the
middle of June. It'lays one egg, which is fix inches
long, of a white colour ; fome are irregularly marked
-with purplifh lines croffing each other, others blotched
with black, and ferruginous about the thicker end : it
the egg is taken away, it will not lay another that fea-
fon. Mr Macaulay informs us that it does not vifit
that illand annually, but fometimes keeps aw'ay for fe-
veral years together; and adds, that it lays its egg
clofe to the fea-mark, being incapable, by reafon of the
fhortnefs of its wings, to mount higher. The length
of this bird, to the end of its toes, is three feet r but
its wings are fo fmall, as to be ufelefs for flight; the
length, from the tip of the longeft quill-feathers to
A L C [ 360 ] A L C
Alca. tlie firft joint, being only four inches and a quarter.
'■J This bird is obferved by feamen never to wander be¬
yond foundings ; and according to its appearance they
direct their meafures, being then aflured that land is not
' very remote. It fometimes frequents the coafts of Nor¬
way, the Ferroe ifles, Iceland, Greenland, and New¬
foundland; and feeds much on the lump-fifh, father-lafli-
er, and other fiih of that fize. The young birds eat rofe-
root, and other plants. The old ones are very rarely feen
on Ihore, tho’ the young ones are not unfrequently met
with. It is a very fhy bird. It walks ill; but dives well,
and is taken in the manner ufed for the razor-bill and
puffin. The fkin between the jaws is blown into a blad¬
der, and ufed for the darts of the Greenlanders, as is
alfo that of fome other birds. The Ikin of the body is
fuppofed to be ufed by the Efquimaux Indians for gar¬
ments.
2. The alle, little auk, or black and white diver,
with a fmooth conical bill, a white ftreak on the belly
and wings, and black feet. The bulk of this fpecies
exceeds not that of a black-bird. It is not very
common in Britain, being only met with now and then.
It feems to be moll plentiful towards the north, being
met with in various parts as far as Spitzbergen. It is
common in Greenland, in company with the black¬
billed fpecies; feeds on the fame food ; and lays two
blueilh white eggs, larger than thofe of a pigeon. It
flies quick, and dives well; and is always dipping its
bill into the water while fwimming or at reft on the
water. It grows fat in the ftormy feafon, from the
waves bringing plenty of crabs and fmall fifti within its
reach ; but from its fize it is lefs fought after than the
others In Greenland it is called the Ice-bird, being
the harbinger of ice. This fpecies is fometimes feen
of a pure white.
3. The anftica, or puffin, with a comprefied bill
and four furrows ; the orbit of the eyes and temples
are white. The legs of this fpecies are very fmall;
and placed fo far behind as to difqualify it from Hand¬
ing, except quite eredl, refting not only on the foot,
* It attends but the whole length of the leg. This circumftance*
every one makes the rife of the -puffin from the ground very dif-
*xus 6 ge" ^cu^t> anc^ ^ meets with many falls before it gets on
wing ; but when that is effe&ed, few birds fly longer
or ftronger. Thefe birds frequent the coafts of feveral
parts of Great Britain and Ireland ;' but no place in
greater numbers than Prieftholm ifle, where their flocks
may be compared to fwarms of bees for multitude.
Thefe are birds of paflage ; they refort there annually
about the fifth or tenth of April, quit the place (almoft
to a bird), and return twice or thrice before they fettle
to burrow and prepare for ovation and incubation. They
begin to burrow the firft week in May ; but fome few
fave themfelves that trouble, and diflodge the rabbits
from their holes, taking poffeffion of them till their
departure from the ifle. Thofe which form their own
burrows, are at that time fo intent on the work as to
fuffer themfelves to be taken by the hand. This talk
falls chiefly to the fliare of the males ; who alfo affift
■in incubation. The firft young are hatched the begin¬
ning of July. The old ones Ihow vaft affedtion to¬
wards them.; and feem totally infenfible of danger in
the breeding feafon. If a parent is taken at that time,
and fufpended by the wings, it will in a fort of defpair
treat itfelf molt cruelly, by biting every part it can
N° 9. 1
reach; and the moment it is loofed, will never offer to Alca
efcape, but inftantly refort to its unfledged young: u-■nr"
this affedlion ceafes at the ftated time of migration,
which is moft pundlally about the nth of Auguft,
when they leave fuch young as cannot fly to the mercy
of the peregrine falcon, who watches the mouths of
the houfe for the appearance of the little -deferted puf¬
fins, which, forced by hunger, are compelled to leave
their burrows. They lay only one egg. The eggs dif¬
fer much in form : fome have one end very acute ; others
have both extremely obtufe ; all are white. Their flelh
is exceffively rank, as they feed on fea-weeds and filh,
efpecially fprats: but when pickled and preferved with
fpices, are admired by thofe who love high-eating. Dr
Caius tells, that, in his days, the church allowed them
in lent, inftead of fiflr: he alfo acquaints us, that they
were taken by means of ferrets, as we take rabbits: at
prefent, they are either dug out, or drawn from their
burrow's by a hooked ftick : they bite extremely hard ;
and keep fuch fall hold on whatever they faften, as not
to be ealily difengaged. Their noife, when taken, is
very difagreeable ; being like the efforts of a dumb per-
fon to fpeak. Thefe birds are alfo common in Ire¬
land ; on the ifland Sherries, three leagues N. N. W.
of Holyhead; and in the S. Stack, near Holyhead,
they breed in plenty. They inhabit Iceland and Green¬
land ; and breed in the extreme part of the iflands. It
is alfo found in the Ferroe ifles, where it is called
Lunda; and in the Farn ifles, where it is called Coulter-
neb, from the fhape of the bill. It goes alfo by vari¬
ous other names; fuch as Gulden-head, Bottle-nofe, and
Helegug, in Wales; at Scarborough, Mullet; and in
Cornwall, Pope. In America they are faid to frequent
Carolina in winter ; and have been met with in Sand¬
wich Sound by our late voyagers: the natives ornament
the fore parts and collar of their feal-fldn jackets with
the beaks of them ; and thofe of Aoonalaftika wear
gowns of their /kins, along with thofe of other birds.
On the coaft of Kamtfchatka and the Kurulfchi iflands
they are common, even on the Penfchinfki bay, almoft;
as far as Ochotka: the nations of the two firft wear the
bills about their necks faftened to ftraps; and, accor- .
ding to the fuperftition of thefe people, their lhaman
or prieft miift put them on with a proper ceremony, in
order to procure good fortune.
4. The torda, or razor-bill, with four furrow's on
the bill, and a white line on each fide running from the
bill to the eyes. Thefe birds, in company with the
guillemot, appear in our feas the beginning of Febru¬
ary ; but do not fettle on their breeding places till they
begin to lay, about the beginning of May. They inr
habit the ledges of the higheft rocks that impend over
the fea, where they form a grotefque appearance ; fit¬
ting clofe together, and in rows one above another.
They properly lay but one egg a-piece, of an extra¬
ordinary fize for the bulk of the bird, being three inches
long: it is either w'hite, or of a pale fea-green, irre¬
gularly fpotted with black : if this egg is deftroyed,
both the auk and the guillemot will lay another; if
that is taken, then a third: they make no neft, depo-
fiting their egg on the bare rock ; and though fuch
multitudes lay contiguous, by a wonderful inftinct each
diftinguifties its own. What is alfo matter of great
amazement, they fix their egg on the fmooth rock, with
fo exa£t a balance, as to fecure it from rolling off; yet
ftould
A L C [
fliould it be removed, and then attempted to be repla¬
ced by the human hand, it is extremely difficult, if not
impoffible, to find its former equilibrium. According
to Mr Latham, it is by means of a cement that the
bird fixed its egg. The eggs are food to the inhabi¬
tants of the coafts they frequent; which they get with
great hazard ; being lowered from above by ropes,
trufting to the ftrength of their companions, whofe
footing is often fo unfiable that they are forced down
the precipice, and perilh together. Thefe birds are
found in the north of Europe, alfo in Iceland, Green¬
land, and on the coaft of Labrador. In Europe they
extend along the White Sea into the Arctic Afiatic
fhores, and from thence to Kamtfchatka and the gulph
■of Ocliotka; It is the only one which reaches the inland
Baltic ; being found there on the Carls-Ozar ifles, near
Gothland, and the ifle of Bondon off Angermania.
5. The pica, or black-billed auk, has the bill of the
fame form with the torda, but is entirely black. The
cheeks, chin, .and throat, are white : in all other re-
fpe£ls it agrees with the former fpecies. Mr Latham
is of opinion that it is no other than the young of that
fpecies. Mr Pennant obferves, that it is fometimes
found on our coafts ; but, according to Mr Latham,
it is in the winter-feafon only, when the common fort
has quitted them. They are faid to be met with on
the coaft of Candia and other parts of the Mediterra¬
nean ; “ where, no doubt (Mr Latham obferves) the
complete old bird is likewife found, as I have been in¬
formed that they are common in the bay of Gibraltar,
where it is curious to fee .their activity under water
when purfuing the fifti; for, as the water in the bay
is fometimes clear for a great depth from the furface,
thefe birds may be often feen as it were flying after
their prey, with all the agility of a bird in the air,
turning in every direction after the fifti, with fuch
wonderful addrefs and dexterity as feldom to mifs their
aim.”
6. The cirrhata of Dr Pallas, or tufted auk, fome-
what bigger than the common puffin, and the colours
much the fame : the bill is an inch and three-quarters
in length, the fame in depth at the bafe, and crolfed
with three furrows : over each eye arifes a tuft of fea¬
thers four inches in length, which falls elegantly on
■each fide of the neck, reaching almoft to the back 4
and are white as far as they are attached to the head,
but afterwards of a fine buff yellow : the legs are of
a bright red ; the claws black. The female is princi¬
pally diftinguiftied by having the bill croffed only with
two furrows inftead of three. This fpecies inhabits
the ftiores of Kamtfchatka, the Kurile iflands, and
thofe intervening between Kamtfchatka and America.
In manners it greatly refembles the puffin ; living all
day at lea, but at no great diftance from the rocks ;
it comes on ftiore at night; burrows a yard •deep under
ground, and makes a neft, with feathers and fea-plants;
is monogamous, and lodges there the whole night with
its mate. It lays one white egg, the end of May or
beginning of June, which alone is thought fit to be
eaten, the flefh of the bird itfelf being infipid and
hard. It feeds on crabs, ftirimps, and fhell-fifli, which
lull it forces from the rocks with its ftrong bill. Pal¬
las remarks, that the Kamlfchatkan girls imitate the
tufts of thefe birds, which nature has fupplied them
Vql. I. Part I.
361 ] A L C
with, by placing a fimilar ftrip of the white fldn of
the glutton behind each ear, hanging down behind by t
way of ornament; and is a well-received prefent from
a lover to his miftrefs. The bills both of this and the
common puffin >vere formerly held by the natives as a
charm, and worn by the priefts as amulets ; indeed at
the prefent thefe have been feen fixed round their head-
dreffes, but fuppofed now to be only efteemed as mere
ornaments : the flcins are however made ufe of for
clothing, being fewed together. It is called in Kamt¬
fchatka, Muechagatka ; and in Ofchotka, Igilma.
7. The pfittacula, or perroquet auk, of Dr Pallas,
is about the fize of the little aukv. The bill is much
compreffed on the fides, in fhape convex both above
and below, and of a bright red colour : from the re¬
mote corner of each eye is a very flender tuft of fine
white feathers, hanging down the neck : the head and
upper part of the body are dulky ; the lower whitifti,
varied with black edges : the legs are of a dirty yel¬
low ; and the webs dulky. This fpecies is found at
Kamtfchatka, in the ifles towards Japan, and on the
weftern ffiores of America. They are fometimes feen
in flocks, but feldom far from land, except driven by
ftorms. Of nights they harbour in the crevices of
rocks. They lay an egg almoft the fize of a hen’s, of
a dirty white or yellowilh colour fpotted with brown ;
which they do about the middle of June, upon the
bare rock or fand, for they make no neft. Like moft
of the tribe, they are ftupid birds, as may be evinced
by the ridiculous method of catching them :—One of
the natives places himfelf under a loofe garment of fur,
of a particular make, with large open fleeves, among
the rocks, at evenings when the birds, returning to
their lodging-places at dufk, run under the fldrts, and
up the arm-holes, for ffieiter during the night; and
thus become an eafy prey. Their ftupidity likewife
■occafions them to fly aboard a ffiip at fuch times, mif-
taking it for a roofting-place ; whereby navigators have
been taught to avoid the danger of falling in too near
with land, either of evenings, or on approaching ftorms.
The eggs are efteemed good.
ALCiEUS, a famous ancient lyric poet, born at
Mitylene, in the ifland of Lefbos. Horace feems to
think him the inventor of this kind of poefy:
Now the Roman mufe infpire,
And warm the fong with Grecian fire. Francis,
He flourilhed in the 44th Olympiad, at the fame time
with Sappho, who was likewife of Mitylene. Alcaeus
was a great enemy to tyrants, but not a very brave fol-
dier. He was prefent at an engagement, wherein the
Athenians gained a vidlory over the Leftuans gand
here, as. he himfelf is faid to have confeffed in one of
his pieces, he threw down his arms, and faved himfelf
by flight. Horace, who, of all the Latin poets, moft
refembled Alcaeus, has made the like confeffion :
With thee I faw Philippi’s plain,
Its fatal rout, a fearful fcene !
And dropp’d, alas ! th’ inglorious ftiield.
Where valour’s felf was forc’d to yield ;
Where foil’d in dull the vanquifti’d lay,
And breath’d th’ indignant foul away. Francis,
The poetical abilities of Alcaeus are indifputed; and
Z z though
A L C [362
Alcseu?, though his writings were chiefly in the lyric ftrain, yet
A1<:aics' his mufe was capable of treating the fublimelt fubjedts
~v with a fuitable dignity. Hence Horace fays,
Alcsus ftrikes the golden firings,
And feas, and war, and exile, fijigs.
Thus while they flrike the various lyre,
The ghofts the facred founds admire :
But when Alaeus lifts the ftrain
To deeds of war and tyrants /lain,
In thicker crowds the fhadowy throng
Drink deeper down the martial fong. Francis.
Alcjeus, an Athenian tragic poet, and, as fome
ihink, the firft compofer of tragedies. He renoun¬
ced his native country Mitylene, and paffed for an A-
thenian. He left ten pieces, one of which was Pa-
fiphae, that which he produced when he difputed with
Ariftophanes, in the fourth year of the 97th Olympiad.
There is another Alcaeus mentioned in Jftutarch,
perhaps the fame whom Porphyrius mentions as a cum-
pofer of fatirical iambics and epigrams, and who
wrote a poem concerning the plagiarifm of Euphorus
the hiftorian. He lived in the 145th Olympiad.
We are told likewife of one Alc-EUs, a Meffenian,
who lived in the reign of Vefpafian and Titus. We
know not which of thefe it was who fuffered for his
lewdnefs a very fmgular kind of death, which gave oc*-
cafion to the following epitaph :
’AJkxari* rapoc &c.
This is Alcseus’s tomb ; who died by a radifh,.
The daughter of the earth, and punifher of Adulterers.
This punifhment infiifted on adtilterers, was thrufting
one of the largeft radilhes up the anus of the adulterer :
or, for want of radifhes, they made ufe of a fifh with
a very large head, which Juvenal alludes to :
$)uofdam machos et mugilis hit rat. Sal. x.
The mullet enters feme behind.
Hence we may underftand the menace of Catullus,,
yih ! turn is miferum, maliqite fall,,
Shi.m attracts peclibus, pattnte porta,
Percurrent raphar.ique magilefque. A/ujy xv.
Ah 1 wretched thou, and born to lucklefs fate,.
Who art difcover’d by the unfhut gate !
If once, alas ? the jealous hufband come.
The radifh or the fea-fifh is thy doom.
ALCAICS, in ancient poetry, a denomination gi¬
ven to feveral kinds of verfe, from Alcaeus, their in¬
ventor.
The firft kind confifts of five feet, viz. a fpondee, or
iambic; an iambic ; a long fyllable ; a daftyle ; ano¬
ther daftyle : fuch is the following verfe of Horace,
Qmnss j eo\dem cogimur, | omnium
Verfa\tur ttr\nu \ferius | ocyus ] •
Sors exitura.
The fecond kind coqiifts of two da&yles and two tro¬
chees : as, -
Exiii\um impoJi\tura) cymba.
Befides thefe two, which are called dactylic Alcaics,
there is another ftyled fimply Alcaic ; confifting of an
epitrite; a choriambus; another choriambus ; and a
bacchius: the following is of this fpecies,
Cur timet Jla'yum Tiberim tan\gerc, cur \ olivum ?
] A L C
Alcaic Ode, a kind of manly ode compofed of fe- Alcaic
veral ftrophes, each confifting of four verfes ; the two II
firft of which are always Alcaics of the firft kind ; the c^Mla‘.,
third verfe is a diameter hypercatalectic, or confift¬
ing of four feet and a long fyllable; and the fourth
verfe is an Alcaic of the fecond kind. The following
ftrophe is of this fpecies, which Horace calls minaces
Alcai cametue.
Non pojjidentem mult a vocaveris.
Re he beatum : rettius occupat
Nomen beati, qui deorum
Muneribus fapienter uti, £sV.
ALCAID, Alcayde, or Alcalde, in the polity
of the Moors, Spaniards, and Portuguefe, a magiftrate,,
or officer of juftice, anfwering nearly to the French
provoft and the Britiffi juftice-of-peace.—The alcaid
among the Moors is vefted with fupreme jurifdidlion,,
both in civil and criminal cafes.
ALCALA de Guadeira, a fmall town of Spain,
in Andalufia, upon the river Guadeira. Here are a-
bundance of fprings,, from whence they convey water
to Seville by an aquedudl, W. long. 6. 16. N. lat. , :
37* ‘5- . . I
Alcala de Henares, a beautiful and large city of
Spain-, in New Caftile, feated upon the river Henares,
which waffies its walls. It is built in a very agreeable
plain, and is of an oval figure.. The ftreets are hand-
fome and pretty ftraight; one of them is very long, run¬
ning from one end of the city to the other- The houfes
are well built; and there are feveral fquares, the largeft |
of which is an ornament to the city ; it is furrounded on
all fides with piazzas, where tradefmen, have their ihops,
to expofe feveral forts of commodities to fale, of which
there is as great plenty and variety as in moft towns of
Spain. The univerfity was founded by cardinal Xime-
nes, archbiffiop of Toledo, about the beginning of the
16th century. The land about Alcala is watered by
the Henares, well cultivated, and very fruitful, .while
that at a diftance is dry and fterile : it yields grain in
plenty, very good mufcat wine, and melons of a deli¬
cious kind. Without the walls is a fpring, the water
of which is fo pure and fo well tafted, that it is inclo- I
fed and ftuit up- for the king of Spain’s own ufe, from , |
whence it is carried to Madrid.—This city is 1 o miles -
fouth-weft of Guadalaxara, and 13 miles eaft of Ma¬
drid. W. long. 4. 20. N. lat. 40 30.
ALCALA-Realy. a fmall city of Spain, in Andalufia, J
with a fine abbey. It is built on the top of a high I
mountain, in a mountainous country; and the road to
it is incommodious, rough, and unequal; but to make
amends for this, here are feveral kinds of exquifitg fruit
and wine. W. Long. 4. 15. N. Lat. 37. 18.
ALCALY, .or. Alcali, or Alkali. See Che- ,
mis tr y, Index.
ALCANIS, a town of Atragon in Spain, feated ;|
on the river Gaudaloup, twelve miles from Cafpe. It
was formerly the capital of the kingdom of the Moors;
but being taken from them, it was made a commandery
of the order of Calatn\va. Here is a very remarkable
fountain, which throws up water through 42 pipes.
It is furrounded with gardens and fruit-trees, and de- j ||
fended with a good fortrefs. W. Long. p. 5. N. Lat.
41.0.
ALCANNA,
in commerce, a powder prepared from;
the..
A L C [ 363 ] A L C
Alcantara the leaves of the Egyptian privet, in which the people of
Akafiar Cairo drive a confiderable trade. It is much ufed by the
. ^ ' i Turkifh women to give a golden colour to their nails
and hair. In dyeing, it gives a yellow colour when
fteeped with common water, and a red one when in-
fufed in vinegar. There is alfo an oil extracted from
the berries of alcanna, and ufed in medicine as a
calmer.
ALCANTARA, a fmall, but very ftrong city of
Eftremadura, in Spain. It gives name to one of the
three orders of knighthood. It is feated on the banks
of the Tajo, or Tagus, 21 miles from Coria, in a
very fruitful foil, and is celebrated for its bridge over
that river. This was built in the time of the emperor
Ttajan, as appears by an infcription over one of the
arches, by the people of Lufitania, who were affefled
, to fupply the expence. It is raifed 20afeet above the
level of the water; and though it confifts but of fix
arches, is 670 feet in length, and 28 in breadth. At
the entrance of the bridge, there is a fmall antique
chapel hewn in a rock by the ancient Pagans, who de¬
dicated it to Trajan, as the Chrillians did to St Julian.
This city was built by the Moors-, on account of the
convenience of this bridge; which is at a place where
the Tajo is very deep, running between two high fteep
rocks: for this reafon, they called it Al-Cantara, which,
in their language, fignifies the Bridge;. It was taken
from them in 1214, and given to the knights of Cala-
trava, who afterwards affumed the name of Alcantara.
It was taken by the Earl of Galloway, in April, 1706,
and retaken by the French in November following.
It is 45 miles from Madrid, and 125 from Seville.
W. Long. 7. 12. N. Lat. 39. 30..
Knights of Alcantara, a military order of Spain,
which took its name from the above-mentioned city.
They make a very confiderable figure in the hiftory of
the expeditions againft the Moors. The knights of
Alcantara make the fame vows as thofe of Calatrava,
and are only diftinguifhed from them by this, that the
crofs fleur de lys, which they bear over a large white
cloak, is of a green colour. They poffefs 37 com-
manderies. By the terms of the furrender of Alcan¬
tara to this order,, it was ftipulated, that there fhould
be a confraternity between the two orders, with the
fame praftices and obfervances in both ; and that the
order of Alcantara fhould be fubjeft to be vifited by
the grand-mafter of Calatrava. But the former foon
feleafed themfelves from this engagement, on pretence
that their grand-mafter had not been called-to the elec¬
tion of that of Calatrava, as had been likewife ftipula¬
ted in the articles. After the expulfion of the Moors,
and the taking of Granada, the fovereignty of the or¬
der of Alcantara and that of Calatrava was fettled in
the crown of Caftile by Ferdinand and Ifabella.—In
1540, the knights of Alcantara fued for leave to mar¬
ry, wliich was granted them.
ALCAREZ, a fmall city of La Mancha, in Spain,
defended by a pretty ftrong caftle, and remarkable for
an ancient aqueduft. It Hands near the river Guarda-
mena, and the foil about it is very fruitful. They
have a breed , of little running-horfes, which are very
fleet and ftrong. It is 25 miles north of the confines
of Andalufia, 108 fouth of Cuenza, and 138 fouth by-
eaft of Madrid. W. Long. 1. 50. N. Lat. 38. 28.
ALCASSAR do SAL, a town of Portugal, in Eftre¬
madura, which has a caftle faid to be impregnable. It Akaflar,
is indeed very ftrong, both by art and nature, being Alcavala.
built on the top of a rock which is Exceedingly fteep on
all fides. Here is a falt-work which produces very fine
white fait, from whence the town takes its name. The
fields produce large quantities of a fort of rufhes, of
which they make mats, which are tranfported out of
the kingdom. W. Long. 9. 10. N. Lat. 38. 18.
Alcassar, a city of Barbary, feated about two
leagues from Larache, in Afga, a province of the king¬
dom of Fez. It was of great note, and the feat of the
governor of this part of the kingdom. It was built
by Jacob Almanzor, king of Fez, about the year x 180,
and defigned for a magazine and place of rendezvous
for the great preparations he was making to enter
Granada in Spain, and to make good the footing Jo-
feph Almanzor had got fame time before. It is faid
his father firft invaded Spain with 300,000 men, moft
of whom he was obliged to bring back to Africa to
quiet a rebellion that had broke out in Morocco. This
done, he returned to Spain again with an army, as is
faid, of 200,000 horfe and 300,000 foot. The city
is now fallen greatly to decay, fo that of fifteen mofques
there are only two that they make ufe of. The reafon,
probably, is the bad fituation of the toy n; for it Hands
fo low, that it is exceflively hot in fummer, and almoft
overflowed with water in the winter. This they affirm
to be owing to a curfe of one of their faints. Here
are a great number of ftorks, who live very familiarly
with the people, walking about the town, pofieffing
the tops of the houfes and mofques without molefta-
tion; for they efteem them facred birds, and account it
finful to difturb them. At prefent, the balhaw of Te-
tuan appoints a governor to this town, which is the'
laft of his dominions towards Mequinez. Near this city
there is a high ridge of mountains, running towards
Tetuan, whofe inhabitants were never brought entirely
under fubjeftion; and whenever it was attempted, they
revenged themfelves by infefting the roads, and robbing
and deftroying the travellers. When they were purfued,
they retired into their woody mountains, where none
could fafely follow them. Not far from hence is the
river Elmahaflen, famous for the battle fought between
Don Sebaftian king of Portugal and the Moors ; in
which the Portuguefe were defeated and their king
flain. W. Long. 12, 35. N. Lat. 35. 15.
ALCAVALA, in the Spaniffi finances, was at
firft a tax of ten per cent, afterwards of fourteen per
cent, and is at prefent of only fix per cent, upon the
fale of every fort of property, whether moveable or im¬
moveable ; and it is repeated every time the property
is fold. The levying of this tax requires a multitude
of revenue-officers fufficient to guard the tranfportation
of goods, not only from one province to another, but
from one ffiop to another. It fubjefts not only the
dealers in fome forts of goods, but thofe in all forts,
every farmer, every manufacturer, every merchant and
ffiopkeeper, to the continual vifits and examination of
the tax-gatlierers. Through the greater part of a
country in which a tax of this kind is eftabliffied, no¬
thing can be produced for diftant fale. The produce
of everyr part of the country muft be proportioned to
the confumption of the neighbourhood. It is to the
Alcavala, accordingly, that Uftaritz imputes the ruin
of the manufa&ures of Spain. He might have impu-
Z z 2 ted
A L C
C 364 ]
A L C
Aknzar ted to it likewife the declenfxon of agriculture, it being
. Jl impofed not only upon manufactures, but upon the
C^a' . rude produce of the land.
ALCAZAR leguer, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Fez, and in the province of Ilabat. It
was taken by Alphonfo, king of Portugal, in 1468 ;
but foon after that, it was abandoned to the Moors.
It is feated on the coaft of the ftraits of Gibraltar.
W. Long. 5. 30. N. Lat. 38. o.
ALCAZER, a town of Spain, in New Caftile, feat¬
ed on the river Guardamana, which has a fortrefs on
a high hill for its defence, and lies in a very fruitful
country. It is. 100 miles north-weft of Carthagena.
W. Long. 2. 10. N. Lat. 38. 15.
ALCE, Alces, or Elk, in zoology, the trivial
name of a fpecies of the cervus, belonging to the order
of mammalia pecora. See Cervvs.
ALCEA, the Holly-hock: A genus of the poly¬
which ftiould be carefully faved from thofe plants whofe Alcedo.
flowers are double and of the beft colours : for though —'v"
the duplicity of the flowers, as well as their colour, are
only accidental properties, yet the young plants will
produce nearly the fame kind of flowers with thofe
from which the feeds are taken, provided no plants with
Angle or bad-coloured flowers are permitted to. groiv'-
near them ; and as foo'n as fueh appear they ought to,
be removed from the good ones, that their farina: may
not fpread into the others, which would caufe them to
degenerate. The feeds ought to he gathered very dry,,
and remain in their capfules until fpringj but.care muft
be taken that no wet comes to them* in .winter,. other,
wife the covers would turn, mouldy,-and fpoil their con¬
tents.—Theyfhould be fown in drills, about the middle
of April, on a bed of light earth, and covered with
earth of the fame kind about half an inch deep. When
the plants have put out fix. or eight leaves, they ftiould
andria order, belonging to the monodelphia clafs of be tranfplanted into nurfery-beds, obferving to water
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
3 7th order, Columniferis. The characters are : The
j;alyx is a double perianthium, monophyllous and per-
fiftent; the exterior one fix-cleft, the interior half fivc-
cleft: The corolla confifts of five petals, coalefced at
the bafe, heait-ihaped inverfely, and expanding: The
Jlamina confift of numerous filaments, coalefced below1
into a five-cornered cylinder, loofe above, and inferted
into the corolla; the anthers are kidney-fhaped : The
piftiUum has a roundifli germen; a fiiort cylindric ftylus;
and numerous briltly ftigmata the length of the ftylus :
The pericarpium confifts of many arilli,.. jointed into a
verticillum about a columnar depreffed receptacle: The
feeds are folitary, reniform, and deprefled.
Species*- Although.Linnaeus mentions two diftinft
fpecies of this. genus, vizc the rofea and ficifolia, he
thinks,, that the latter may perhaps be only a va¬
riety of the former ; but Mr Miller affirms them to be
diftinft fpecies, whofe difference in the form of their
leaves always continues. The leaves of the firft fort
are roundifli, and cut at their extremities into angles ;
thofe of the fecond are deeply cut into fix or feven feg-
ments, fo as to refemble a hand. Cultivation produces
them until they have taken good root; after which
they will require - no farther cai-e, but to keep them
clean from weeds till October, when they fhould be
tranfplanted where they are to remain.
ALCEDO, or Kingsfisher, in ornithology, a ge¬
nus . of the order of pics. The alcedo has a long*
ftrait, thick, triangular bill; with a flelhy, plain, ftiort,
flat tongue.
Of this genus there are a great many fpecies, vvitlv
one or other of which almoft every part of the world
is furniffied. Moft of them frequent rivers, and live 00
fifli, the Angularity of catching which is admirable :
fometimes hovering over the wrater, where a flioal of
fmall fiflies is feen playing near the furface ; at other
times waiting with attention, on fome low branch
hanging over the water, for the approach of a Angle
one who is fo unlucky as to fwim that way ; in either
cafe dropping like a ftone, or rather darting with ra¬
pidity on his prey; when, feizing it croffwife in his bill,
it retires to a refting place to feaft on it; which it does
piecemeal, bones and all, without referve, afterwards
bringing up the indegiftible parts in pellets, like birds
of prey. The wings of moft of the genus are very fhort;
almoft an infinite variety of this plant, fuch as double- yet the birds fly rapidly, and with great ftrength. It
flowered, fingle-flowered, deep red, pale red, blackifh
red,, white, purple, yellow, and flelh-colour. The firft
fpecies is a native of China, the fecond grows alfo in
Iftria. Tho’ natives of warm countries, they are hardy
enough to thrive in the open air in Britain, and have
for many years been fome of the greateft ornaments in
gardens, towards the end of fummer;, but they have the
inconvenience of growings too large for fmall gardens,
and requiring tall flakes to fecure them from being
broken by ftrong winds. In large gardens, however,
when properly difpofed, they make a fine appearance;
for as their fpikes of flowers, grow very tall, there will
be a fucceffion of them on the fame Items more than two
months: the flowers on the lower part of the fpike ap¬
pear in July; and as their ftalks advance* new flowers
are produced till near the end of September.. When
planted in good ground, the ftalks will often rife to
the height of eight or nine feet; fo that near fix feet of
each will be garniflied with flowers, which, when double
a.nd of good colours, make a very beautiful appearance.
Culture-. The holly-hock is propogated by feeds.
may be remarked, that throughout this genus, blue, in
different ftiades, is the moft predominant colour.—The
fpecies found in the South Sea Iflands are held in a kind
of fuperftitious veneration by the natives of the places
they feverally inhabit, perhaps on account of their be¬
ing frequently feen flying about the morais or burial-
places. That which inhabits Otaheite, where it is
called Erooro, is accounted particularly facred, and not
allowed to be taken or killed.
I. The ifpida, or common kingsfiftier, is not much
larger than a fwallow; its fliape is clumfy; the bill dif-
proportionably long; it is two inches from the bafe to
the tip ; the upper chap black, and the lower yellow.
But the colours of this bird attone for its inelegant form:
the crown of the head and the coverts of the wings are
of a deep blackifh green, fpotted with bright azure: the
back and tail are of the moft refplendent azure; the
whole under-fide of the body is orange-coloured; a
broad mark of the fame paffes from the bill beyond
the eyes; beyond that is a large white fpot; the tail'
is Ihort, and conflils of , twelve feathers of a rich deep
blue;
A L C [ 365 ] A L C
Akedo. blue ; the feet are of a reddifli yellow, and the three
 'joints of the oUtmoft toe adhere to the middle toe,
while the inner toe adheres only by one.
From the diminutive fize, the flender ihort legs, and
the beautiful colours of this bird, no perfon would be
led to fuppofe it one of the moil rapacious little ani¬
mals that ikims the deep. Yet it is for ever on the
wing, and feeds on fiih ; which it takes in furprifing
quantities, when we confxder its fize and figure. It takes
its prey after the manner of the ofprey, balancing itfelf
at a certain diftance above the water for a confiderable
fpace, then darting into the deep, and feizing the fiih
with inevitable certainty. While it remains fufpended
in the air, in a bright day, the plumage exhibits a beau¬
tiful variety of the moil dazzling and brilliant colours.
This llriking attitude did not efcape the notice of the
ancients; for Iby cus, as quoted by Athen£eus,ilyles thefe
birds axxuovEx T-avutrixT^, the halcyons with expanded
wings. It makes its neil in holes in the fides of the
cliffs, which it fcoops to the depth of three feet; and
lays from five to nine eggs, of a moil beautiful femi-
tranfparent white. The female begins to lay early in
the feafon, and excludes her firil brood about the be¬
ginning of April. The male, whofe fidelity exceeds
even that of the turtle, brings her large provifions.of
fiih while ihe is thus employed ; and ftie, contrary to
moil other birds, is found plump and fat at that fea¬
fon. The male, that ufcd to twitter before this, now
enters the neil as quietly and as privately as poifible.
The young ones are hatched at the expiration of 20
days; but are feen to differ as well in their fize as in
their beauty.
This fpecies is the axxuavapav®-, or mute halcyon of
Ariilotle, which he defcribea with more precifion than
is ufual with that great philofopher. After his defcrip-
tiOn of the bird follows that of its neil ; than which
the moil inventive of the ancients have delivered no¬
thing that appears at firil fight more fabulous and ex¬
travagant. He relates, that it refembled thofe con¬
cretions that are formed by the fea-water; that it re¬
fembled the long-necked gourd; that it was hollow
within; that the entrance was very narrow, fo that,
faould it overfet,,the water could not enter; that it re-
fiiled any violence from iron, but could be broke with
a blow from the hand; and that it was compofed of the
bones of the or fea-needle. The neil had medi¬
cal virtues afcribed to it;.and from the bird was called
Haleyoneum. In a fabulous age, every odd fubilance
that was flung aihore received that name; a fpecies of
tubular coral, a fponge, a zoophite, and a mifcellane-
ous concrete, having by the ancients been dignified
I; *- Plin. li’-. with that title from their imaginary origin*; Yet much
xxxii. c. 8 of this feems to be founded on truth. The form of the
: Diofc lib. neft ;s jufily deferibed ; and the materials which Ari-
' C' ftotle fays, it was compofed of, are not entirely eff his
own invention. Whoever has feen the neil of the kings-
fiftier, will obferve it Itrewed with the bones and feales
of fifh; the fragments of the food of the owner and its
young.— On. the foundation laid by the philofopher,
lueceeding writers formed other tales extremely abfurd;
and the poets, indulging the powers of imagination’,
dreffed the llory in all the robes of romance. This neil
was a floating one :
Jotcubat halcyone pendentibus aequore nidi’s.
Ovid. Met. lib. xi.
It was therefore neceffary to place it in a tranquil fea, Akedo.
and to fupply the bird with charms to allay the fury "" " "v
of a turbulent element during the time of its incubation;
for it had, at that feafon, power over the feas and the
winds.
X’ ttXxuvoc (Ogneriwri to. y.v/4XTX, ruv r{ S-aXatrcav,
Tov T£ »o7ov, TOV t’ tupor, o{ tcr^ara pviuct xivsi
A'xxuovds-, yXauxctif rcu te pcx\irci
OjvjS-mv ifihuSiv. Theocrit. Idyl. vli. 1. 57.
May Halcyons fmooth the waves,'and calm the feas,
And the rough foutlyeall fink into a breeze ;
Ha'cyom, of all the birds that haunt the main,
Moll lov’d and honour’d by the Nereid train.
Fawkes.
Thefe birds were equally favourites with Thetis as with
the Nereids;
Diledlas Thetidi Halcyones. Virg. Georg. I. 399-
as if to their influence thefe deities owed a repofe in
the midll of the llorms of winter, and by their means
were fecured from thofe winds that difturb their fub-
marine retreats, and agitated even.the plants at the bot**
tom of the ocean.
Such are the accounts given by the Roman and Si¬
cilian poets. Ariilotle and Pliny tells us, that this
bird is moll common in the feas of Sicily : that it fat
only a few days, and thofe in the depth of winter; and
during that period the mariner might fail in full fecu-
rity ; for which reafon they were llyled Halcyon days.
Perque dies placidos hiberno tempore feptem
IncubaX Halcyone pendentibus aequoro nidis:
Turn via tuta maris : ventos cuftodit, et arcet
iEolus egreffu. Ovid. Met. lib. xiv
Alcyone^ comprefs’d,
Seven days fits brooding on her watery nell,
A wintry queen; her fire at length is kind,
Calms every llorm, and hulhes every wind.
Drydex.
In after-times, thefe words expreffed any feafon oF
profperity : thefe were the Halcyon days of the poets ;
the brief tranquillity, the feptem placidi diet, of human
life.
The poets^alfo made it a bird of fong. Virgil feems
to place it. in the fame rank with the linnet;
Littoraque Halyconem refonant, et Acantbida dumi.
Georg. III. 338.
And SIlius Italicus celebrates its mufic, and its float?
ing neil:
Cum fonat Halcyone. cantu, nidofque natantes
Immota gellat fopitis fluftibus unda. Lib. xiv. 275..
But thefe writers feem to have transferred to our fpe¬
cies, the harmony.that belongs to th.e vocal alcedo* ,* Ariis
one of the loll birds of the ancients. an*'
As the ancients have had their, fables concerning '
this bird, fo have the modern vulgar. It is an opi¬
nion, generally received among them, that the ffefh of
the kingsfilher will not corrupt, and that it will even
banilh all vermin. This has no better foundation than
that which is faid of its always pointing, when hung
up dead, with its breaft to the north. The only truth
which can be affirmed of this bird when killed is, that
its
A 1 C [3®6 ] A L C
Akedo. its fiefh is utterly unfit to be eaten ; while its beautiful and the claws blackifh. It inhabits Martinico and Alcedo,
■' » ' * plumage preferves its luftre longer than that of any o- Mexico-; at which laft it is called Ac^laladli. This Alchemiih,
ther bird we know. bird migrates into the northern parts of Mexico at -cer- "" v
This bird is found not only in Britain, but through- tain feafons only, and is fuppofed to come there from
out Europe, Afia, and Africa ; as fpecimens have been fome hotter parts.
received from both China, -Bengal, and Egypt. Be- [The jacainars are much allied to this genus, and
Ion alfo remarks his having met with it in Romania have been ranked under it by Linnseus : Their toes
and Greece; and Scopoli notices it as a bird of Car- are, howevtTj differently placed ; their food alfo is
jiiola, where he fays it remains the whole year as in different, being infedts alone, and not fifh; and their
England. Indeed It bears the rigours of the colder haunts are different, being moift woods, and not fliores
climates fo well, that among the Germans it has gain- or the banks of rivers.]]
cd the name of Eifzvogel, or Ice Bird: Olina fpeaks 5. The galbula, or green jacamar, is about the fize
alfo of its not regarding the ice and cold ; and Gmelin of a lark. The bill is black, of a fquare form, a little
affures us, that it is found even in Tartary and Sibe- incurvated and fharp at the point: the plumage in ge-
ria. But, however this may be, there are few winters neral, in the upper part of the body, is of a moft bril-
in which many of thefe birds do not perifh, apparently liant green, gloffed with copper and gold in different
from cold alone; as feveral have been found frozen lights : the belly, throat, and vent, are rufous: the
fliffby the fides of even running water, without the tail is compofed of ten feathers, and fhaped like a
leaft mark of violence about them. M. D’Aubenton wedge : the legs are of a greenifh yellow, very fhort
has kept thefe birds for feveral months, by means of and weak ; the claws are black. This fpecies is found
fmall fifh put into bafons of water, on which they have both in Guiana and Brafil, in the moifl woods, which
fed ; for on experiment they have refufed all other i it prefers to the more dry fpots, for the fake of infects,
kinds of nourrfhment. on which it feeds. It is feldom feen except fingle, as
2. The rudis, or Egyptian kingsfifher, as defcribed it is a very folitary bird, keeping for the moll part in
by Haffelquift, is the lize of the Royfton crow. The the thickeft parts; its flight quick, but fliort; perches
bill is blackifh, more than half an inch broad at the on branches of a middling height, where it fits all
bafe, and two inches in length: the head, fhoulders, night, and frequently part of the day, without ftir-
and back, are brown, marked with oblong ferruginous ring. Though thefe birds are folitary, yet they are
fpots : the throat is of a ferruginous white : the belly far from fcarce, as many may be met with. They are
and thighs are whitifh, marked with longitudinal broad- faid to have a fhort and agreeable note. The natives of
ifh cinereous fpots : upper ta]l coverts are quite white : Guiana call this bird Venetore, and the Creoles, Coiibri
the quills fpotted with white on the inner webs, chiefly desgrands hois. At Brafil their flefli is eaten by fome.
at the tips: the tail is afh-c'oloured : the legs are of a 6. The paradifea, or paradife jacamar, is of the -
pale green ; and the claws blackifh. It inhabits lower fame fize with the former, and has a fimilar bill: the
Egypt, about Cairo ; builds in fycamore and date trees ; throat, fore part of the neck, and under wing coverts,
and feetis on frogs, infefts, and fmall fifh, which laft it are white : the reft of the plumage is of a deep dull
meets with in the fields when they are overflowed. Its green, in fome lights appearing almoft black, in others
cry is not unlike that of the common crow. with a flight glofs of violet and copper bronze : the
3. Le taparara of Buffon is about the fize of a tail is compofed of twelve feathers of unequal lengths:
ftarling. The upper mandible of the bill is black, the the two middle ones longeft the legs are black : the
lower red : the hind part of the neck, the back, and toes are placed two before and two behind, and pretty
fcapulars, are of an elegant blue ; the rump and upper much united. It inhabits Surinam ; and like the
tail coverts' bright beryl-blue: the under parts of the others, it feeds oa infefts ; and fometimes, contrary
body are white ; the wing coverts blue; and the legs to them, frequents open places. It flies farther at a
red. Inhabits Cayenne and Guiana, at which laft time, and perches on the tops of trees : It is frequent-
place the natives call all the kingsfilher tribe by the ly found with a companion, not being quite fo folitary
name Taparara. In this part of South America, which a bird as the other. It alfo differs in the note, having
contains many rivers full of fifh, kingsfiftiers, as might a kind of foft whiftle often repeated, but not heard a
■be expe&ed, abound in vaft numbers : but what is re- great way off.
markable, they never herd together, always being Above 30 other fpecies have been defcribed by orni-
found fingle, except in breeding-time, which is about thologifts.
the month of September. They lay their eggs in the ALCHEMILLA, or Ladies-mantle : A genus
■holes of banks, like the kingsfifher of Europe. The of the monogynia order, belonging to the tetrandria
cry of this bird imitates the word Ca’-ac. clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking under
4. The torquata, or cinereous kingsfifher, is about the 35th order Senticofe. The calyx h a fingle-leav'd
the fize of a magpie, and fifteen inches and a half in perianthium, tubular, and perfiftent; the mouth flat,
length. The bill is three inches and a half long, and and eight-parted: There is no corolla. The Jlamina
brown ; the bafe of the lower mandible reddifh : the confift of four fmall erect fubulated filaments placed in
head is crefted : the upper parts of the head and body the mouth of the calyx ; the antherze are roundifh :
are blueifh afh ; the under parts cheftnut : the throat The piftillum has an egg-fhaped gertnen: Thc ftylus is
is whitifh, defeending down the neck, and paffmg be- filiform, the length of the ftamina, and inferted at the *
hind like a collar, ending towards the back in a point: bafe of the germ : The ftigma is globular. There is
the under tail coverts are of a. pale fulvous, tranfverfe- nopericarpium, but the neck of the calyx clofed. The
ly ftriated with black : leffer wing coverts varied with feed folitary, elliptical, and compreffed. Of this genus
blueifh, afh, black, and ydlowifh : the legs are fed ; there are three
4
Species.
A L C [367 J A L C
Akhcmift, Species. 1. The vulgaris, or common ladies-mantle,
Alchemy with leaves plaited like a fan, and yellowifh-green blof-
1,1 foms. It grows naturally in pafture-lands in this as well
as in moft other countries in Europe. The leaves difco-
ver to the tafte a moderate aftringency; and were for¬
merly much efteemed in fome female weakneffes, and in
fluxes of the belly. They are now rarelymade ufe of,tho’
both the leaves and roots might douhtlefs be of fervice
in cafes where mild aftringents are required. In the
province of Smolandia in Gothland, they make a tinc¬
ture of the leaves, and give it in fpafmodic or convul-
five difeafes. Horfes, flieep, and goats, eat it; cows
are not fond of it; fwine refufe it.— 2. The alpina, or
dnque-foil ladies-mantle, with finger-fhaped fawed
leaves, and greenifh bloflbms. It is a native of the
mountainous parts of Europe. Goats, and cows eat
it ; horfes,. Iheep, and fwine, refufe it.—3. The minor,
or leaft ladies-mantle, with five fmooth leaves growing
at a joint, and cut into many fegments. It grows na¬
turally in Sweden, Lapland, and other cold countries.
Eaten by cows and goats; refufed by horfes,. flieep,
and fwine.
Culture. Thefe plants have perennial roots, and an¬
nual ftalks. They are ealily propagated by parting of
their roots, or fowing their feeds in autumn. They
fliould have a moift foil and fhady fituation, and be
kept clean from weeds ; which is all the culture they
1, require.
ALCHEMIST, a practitioner in alchemy.
ALCHEMY, that branch of chemiftry which had
for its principal objects the tranfmutation of metals
into gold ; the panacea, or univerfal remedy ; .an alka-
faeft, or univerfal menftruum ; an univerfal ferment;
and many other things equally ridiculous.
Kircher, inftrudl"'*1’. in all the. fecrets of chemiftryj
has fully expofed t..e artifices and impoftures of alche-
mifts. An alchemift puts into a crucible the matter
which is to be converted into gold; this hefets on the
fire, blows it, ftirs it with rods ; and, after divers ope¬
rations, gold is found at the bottom of the crucible,
inftead of the matter firft put in : this there are a
thoufand ways of effecting, without any tranfmuta¬
tion. Sometimes it is done by dexteroufly dropping in
a piece of gold concealed between the fingers, fome-
times by calling in a little of the dull of gold or filver
difguifed under the appearance of fome elixir, or other
indifferent matter ; fometimes a crucible is ufed which
has a double bottom, and gold put between the two ;
fometimes the rod ufed to llir the-matter is hollow,
and filled with the dull of the metal defired ; at other
times there is metal mixed with the charcoal, the alhes
of the furnace, or the like. . Mr Harris very properly
diftinguilhes from alchemy and chemillry ; and de¬
fines the former to be ars fine arte, cujus principum ejl
nentiri, medium. labor are, et finis mcndicare; and the
Italians have a proverb, non ti fidiare al alchemifta po-
vero 0 medico amalato. The ruin which has attended
this delufion has, occafioned feveral Hates to make fe-
vere laws againft pretences to alchemy. The Romans,
formerly banilhed all fuch as profeffed it; and the fa-
cred canons likewife dire&ed the thunder of their cen-
fure againll them. Dioclefian and Casfar direded all
books which treated of this fubjedl to be burnt. Ry-
mer furnilhes us with a licence for praClifing alchemy,
with all kinds of metals and minerals, granted to one
Richard Carter in the 1476; R/ot. .fW.’tom. xii.
Neverthelefs, we have had fevere laws againfl; alchemy, A{cjHr
and multiplying of metals, as much fo as againft coin-1
ing itfelf.
ALCIAT (Andrew), a great lawyer, who flourifh-
ed in the 16th century, born at Milan. He mixed
much of polite learning in the explication of the laws,
and happily drove out the barbarity of language which
till-then had reigned in the leftures and writings of
lawyers ; for which Thuanus highly praifes him. He
publifhed a great many law-books, and fome notes
upon Tacitus. His Emblems have been much admired,
and tranflated into French, Italian, and Spanifti; and
feveral learned men have written commentaries on
them.
ALCIBIADES, an Athenian general. It was ;
the fate of this great man to live at a time when his
country was a feene of cpnfufion, The Greeks, grown
infolent from their oonquefts in Perfia, turned their
army againft each other, and bandied together under
the conduft of the two moft opulent ftates Athens and
Lacedasmon. Alcibiades, in the midft of an expedition
he had planned againft the enemy of his country, was
recalled home to anfwer fome charge of a private na¬
ture ; but fearing the violence of his enemy, inftead
of going to Athens, he offered his fervices at Sparta,
where they were readily accepted. By his advice the
Lacedaemonians made a league with Perfia, which gave
a very favourable turn to their affairs. But his credit
in the republic railing jealdufies againft him, he pri¬
vately reconciled himfelf to his country, and took a-
gain the command of an Athenian army. Here victory,
waiting as it were at his command, attended all his
motions. The lofs of feven battles obliged the Spar¬
tans to fue for peace. He enjoyed his triumphs, how¬
ever,..only a ftrort time at Athens. One unfuccefsfuf
event made him again obnoxious to the malice of his
citizens ; and he found it expedient to retire from A-
thens. In his ahfence the Spartans again took the lead,
and at the fatal battle of iEgos entirely fubdued the
Athenian power. Alcibiades, though an exile, endea¬
voured to reftore the power of his country ; of which
the Spartans having intelligence, procured him to be
affaffinated. He was a man of admirable accompliflr-
ments, but indifferently principled; of great parts;
and of an amazing verfatility of genius.
ALCINOUS, king of the Phanicians, in the ifland
now called Corfu, was fon of Naufithous, and grand-
fon of Neptune and Peribea. It is by his gardens this
king has chiefly immortalized his memory. He re¬
ceived Ulyffes with much civility, when a ftorm had
call him on his ccaft. The people here loved pleafure .-
and good cheer, yet were flcilful feamen ; and Alcinous .
was a good prince. .
ALCMAER, a city of the United Provinces, feat*
ed in North Holland, about four miles from the fea, .
15 from Haerlem, and, 18 from Amfterdam. It is a
handfome city, and one of the cleaneft in Holland.
The ftreets and houfes are extremely neat and regular,
and the public buildings very beautiful. It had for¬
merly two parifti-churches, dedicated to St Matthew
and St Lawrence. The latter had fo.high a tower,
that it ferved for a fea-mark to the veffels that were in
the open fea; but, in 1464, it tumbled down, and
damaged the other church fa much, that they were
both
A L C
[ 368 ]
A L G
Aleman both demolirtied in 1470, and one church was built in
_ under the command of Frederic of Toledo, fon of the
duke d’Alva, came to befiege it, after theythad taken
Haerlem in 1573 ; but were forced to raife the fiege,
after three months lying before it, as well on account
of the infeftion of the air as the ftout refillance of the
inhabitants and foldiers; even the women fignalizing
themfelves bravely in its defence. It is recorded in
the regifter of this city, that, in the year 1637, 120
tulips, with the off-fets, fold for 90,000 florins. The
Bale accordingly calls this nunnery fpiritualium mere- Alcohol
tricum canobium, “ a community of fpiritual harlots.” . H
Bilhop Alcock wrote feveral pieces; amonglt which are 1 c"ran-,
the following: 1. Mans Perfettionis. 2. In Pfalmos
Penitcntiales. 3. Homilia Vulgares. 4. Meditationes
Piie. £le died October 1. 1500; and was buried in
the chapel he had built at Kingfton upon Hull.
ALCOHOL, or Alkool, in chemiftry, fpirit of
wine highly rectifiedf. It is alfo ufed for any highly ^ gee
rectified fpirit.—Alcohol is extremely light and-inflam-(In-
mable : It is a ftrong antifeptic, and therefore‘employ- dex;, and
town has a very good trade in butter and cheefe, of ed to preferve animal fubftances.
Pharmecj,
which a vaft quantity is fold every year, and is efteem-
ed the belt in Holland. E. long. 4. 26. N. lat.
52. 28.
ALCMAN, a lyric poet, who flouriflied in the 27th
■Olympiad. He was born at Sparta; and compofed
feveral poems, of which only fome fragments are re¬
maining, quoted by Athenasus and fome other ancient
Alcohol is alfo ufed for any fine impalpable
powder.
ALCOHOLIZATION, the procefs of rectifying
any fpirit. It is alfo ufed for pulverization.
ALCOR, in aftronomy, a fmall liar adjoining to
the large bright one in -the middle of the tail of urfa
major.—The word is Arabic. It is a proverb among
writers. He was very amorous; accounted the father the Arabians, applied to one who pretends to fee fmall
of gallant poefy ; and is faid to have been the firft that
introduced the cuftom of finging love-fongs in com¬
pany. He is reported to have been one of the great-
eft eaters of his age ; upon which Mr Bayle remarks,
that fuch a quality would have been extremely incon¬
venient, if poetry had been at that time upon fuch a
footing as it has been often fince, not able to pro¬
cure the poet bread. He died of a ftrange difeafe;
for he was eat up with lice.
things, but overlooks much greater: Thou canjl fee Al-
cor, and not yet fee the full moon.
ALCORAN, or Al-koran, the feripture, or bible,
of the Mahometans. The word is compounded of the
Arabic particle al, and coran or Koran, derived from
the verb caraa or karaa, to read. The word therefore
properly fignifies, the reading; or rather, that which
ought to be read. By this name the Mahometans de¬
note not only the entire book or volume of the Koran,
ALCMANIAN, in ancient lyric-poetry, a kind of but alfo any particular chapter or fe&ion of it; juft as
verfe confifting of two daftyles and two trochees ; as,-
Virgini\bus pue\rifque | canto.
The word is formed from Aleman, the name of an an¬
cient Greek poet, in great efteem for his erotics or
amorous compofitions.
ALCME^IA, the daughter of Ele&ryo king of My-
r.enae, and wife of Amphitryon. Jupiter putting on the
Ihape of her hufband while he was abroad in the wars,
'begot Hercules upon her.: he made that night as long
as three ordinary ones.
ALCOCK (John), doftor of laws, and bhhop of
jEly jn the reign of king Henry VII. was born at Be-
the Jews call either the whole feripture, or any part of
it, by the name of Karah, or Mikra, words of the fame
origin and import.
Befides this peculiar name, the Koran is alfo honour¬
ed with feveral appellations commca to other books of
feripture : as, al Farkan, from the verb foraka, to
divide or diftinguijh; not, as the Mahometan doctors
fay, becaufe thofe books are divided into chapters or
feftions, or diftinguifli between good and evil; but in
the fame notion that the Jews ufe the word Perek, or
Pirka, from the fame root, to denote a feftion or por
tion of feripture. It is alfo called al Mojhaf, the vo
verly in Yorklhire, and educated at Cambridge. He was lume, and al Kitah, the book, by way of eminence, which
:firft -made dean of Weftminfter, and afterwards ap¬
pointed mafter of the rolls. In 1471, he was confe-
cratedbifhop of Rochefter: in 1476, he was tranflated
to the fee of Worcefter; and in i486, to that of Ely,
1 the room of Dr John Morton, preferred to the fee
anfwers to the Biblia of the Greeks; and al Dhikr, the
admonition, which name is alfo given to the Pentateuch
and Gofpel.
The Koran is divided into 114 larger portions of very
unequal length, which we call chapters; but the Ara-
of Canterbury, He was a prelate of great learning bians fowar, in the Angular Jura; a word rarely ufed
and piety ; and fo highly efteemed by king Henry,
-that he appointed him lord prefident of Wales, and
afterwards lord chancellor of England. Alcock found¬
ed a fchool at Kingfton upon Hull, and built the fpa-
cious hall belonging to the epifcopal palace at Ely.
He was alfo the founder of Jefus-college in Cambridge,
for a mafter, fix fellows, and as many fcholars. This
houfe was formerly a nunnery, dedicated to St Radi-
on any other occafion, and properly fignifying a row,
order, or a regular feries; as a courfe of bricks iu
building, or a rank of foldiers in an army ; and is the
fame in ufe and import with the Sura, or Tora, of the
Jews, who alfo call the fifty-three fedtions of the Pen¬
tateuch Scdarim, a word of the fame fignification.
Thefe chapters are not, in the manufeript copies, di-
ftinguiflied by their numerical order, but by particular
gund: and, as Godwin tells us, the building being titles, which are taken fometimes from a particular
greatly decayed, and the revenues reduced almoft to
nothing, the nups had all forfaken it, except two ;
whereupon bilhop Alcock procured a grant from the
crown, and converted it into a college. But Cambden
and others tell us, that the nuns of that houfe were
fo notorious for their incontinence, that king Henry
VII. and pope Julius II. confented to its difl'olution :
N° 10. *
matter treated, of, or perfon mentioned therein ; but
ufually .from the firft word of note, exaftly in the fame
manner as the Jews have named their Sedarim ; though
the word from which fome chapters are denominated
be very far diftant, towards the middle, or perhaps the
end, of the chapter; which feems ridiculous. But the
occafion of this appears to have been, that the yerfe or
paflage
-
A L C [ 3^9 ] A L C
A1, corah, pa flag e wherein-fuch ivord occurs, was, in point of
time, revealed and committed to writing-before the o-
ther verfes of the fame chapter which precede it in or¬
der 5 and the title being given to the chapter before it
was completed, or the pillages reduced to their prefent
order, the verfe from whence fuch title was taken did
not always happen to begin the chapter. SoSe chap¬
ters have two or more titles, occalioned by the difference
of the copies.
.Some of the chapters having been revealed at Mecca,-
and others at Medina, the noting this difference makes
a part of the title i but the reader will obferve, that fe*
veral of the chapters are faid to have been revealed part¬
ly at Mecca and partly at Medina ; and, as to others,
it is yet a difpute among the commentators to which
of the two places they belong.
Every chapter is fubdivided into fmaller portions, of
very unequal length alfo, which we ciiflomarily call
verfes : but the Arabic word is ayaf, the fame with the
Hebrew ototb, and figniftes fgru or wonders: fuch as
are the fecrets of God, his attributes, works, judge¬
ments, and ordinances, delivered in thofe verfes; many
of which have their particular titles alfo, impofed in
' the fame manner as thofe of the chapters.
Befides thefe unequal divifions of chapter and verfe,
the Mahometans have alfo divided their Koran into fix-
ty equal portions, wdiich they call Jlhzab, in the fin-
gular Hizb, each fubdivided into four equal parts;
which is alfo an imitation of'the Jews, who have an
ancient divifion of their Mifhma into fixty portions call¬
ed MaffiftotL But the Koran is more ufually divided
into thirty feftions only, named djza, from the lingu¬
lar Joz, each of twice the length of the former, and in
the like manner fubdivided into four parts-. Thefe divi¬
fions are for the ufe of the readers of the Koran in the
royal temples, or in the adjoining chapels where the
emperors and great men are interred. There are thir¬
ty of thefe readers belonging to every chapel, and each
reads his feefion every day; fothat the whole Koran is
read over once a-day.
Next after the title, at the head of every chapter,
except only the ninth, is prefixed the following folemn
form, by the Mahometants called the Bifmallah, In
THE NAME OF THE MOST MERCIFUL GOD ; which form
they conftantly place at the beginning of all their books
and writings in general, as a peculiar mark or diflin-
guifhing charadleriftic of their religion, it being Count¬
ed a fort of impiety to omit it. The Jews, for the
fame purpofe, make ufe of the form, In the name of the
Lord, or. In the name of the great God ; and the ea-
ftern Chriftians that of, In the name of the Father, and
of the Son, and of the Holy Ghof. But Mahomet
probably took this form, as he did many other things,
from the Perfian Magi, who ufed to begin their books
in thefe words, Benam Tezdan bakfhafhgher dadar;
that is, In the name of the moft merciful juft God.
There are twenty-nine chapters of the Koran, which:
have this peculiarity, that they begin with certain let¬
ters of the alphabet, fome with a Angle one, others Kith'-
more. Thefe letters the Mahometans believe to be
the peculiar marks of the Koran, and to conceal feve-
* Vol. I. Part I.
ral profound myfleries; the certain undetfianding of Alcoran.
which, the more intelligent confefs, has not been com-1 «  
municafed to any mortal, their prophet only excepted,
Notwithftanding which, fome will take the liberty of
guefling at their meaning by that fpecies of Cabala call¬
ed by the Jews Notar ikon, and fuppofe the letters to
Hand for as many words, expreffing the names and at¬
tributes of God, his works, ordinances, and decrees;
and therefore thefe myfterious letters, as well as the
verfes themfelves, feem in the Koran to be'calledfgns.
Others explain the intent of thefe letters from their na¬
ture or organ, or elfe from their value in numbers, ac¬
cording to another fpecies of the Jewilh Cabala called
Gematria; the uncertainty of which conjectures fuffi-
ciently appears from their difagreement. Thus, for
example, five chapters, one of which is the fecond, be¬
gins with thefe letters, A. L. M. which fome imagine
to Hand for Allah latiff magid, “ God is gracious and ,
to be glorified f or, Ana li minni, i. e. to me and from
me, viz; belongs all perfection, and proceeds all good ;
or elfe for Ana Allah alam, “ / am the mojl wife
Gob,” taking the firft letter to mark the beginning
of the firfl; word, the fecond the middle of the fecond
word, and the third the laft of the third word ; or for
Allah, Gabriel, Mohammed, the author, revealer, and
preacher of the Koran. Others fay, that as the letter
A belongs to the lower part of the throat, the firft: of
the organs of fpeech ; L to the palate, the middle or¬
gan ; and M to the lips, which are the laft organ ; fo
thefe letters'fignify that God is the beginning, middle,
and end, or ought to be praifed in the beginning, middle,
and end, of all bur words and aftions : or, as the total
value of thofe three letters, in numbers, is feventy-one,
they fignify, that, in the fpace of fo many years, the
religion preached in the Koran (hould be fully efta-
blifhed. The conjecture of a learned Chriftian is at
leaft as certain as any of the former, who fuppofes thofe
letters were fet there by the amanuenfis, for Amar ft
Mohammed,e. ai the command of Mohammed, as the
five letters prefixed to the nineteenth chapter feem to be
there written by a Jewifh feribe, for Cob yaas, i. e. Thus
he commanded. ' ,
The Koran is univerfally allowed to be written with,
the utmoft elegance and purity of language, in the dia¬
led of .the tribe of Koreifh, the moft noble and polite
of all the Arabians, but with fome mixture, tho’ very
rarely, of other dialects. It is confefledly the ftandard
of the Arabic tongue, and, as the more orthodox be¬
lieve, and are taught by the book itfelf, inimitable by
any human pen (though fome feCfaries have been of
another opinion), and therefore infilled on as a per
manent miracle, greater than that of railing the dead,
and alone fufficient to convince the wbrld of its divine
original.
And to this miracle did Mahomet himfelf chiefly
appeal for the confirmation of his million, publicly chal¬
lenging the moft eloquent men in Arabia, which was
at that time Hocked with thoufands whofe foie ftudy
and ambition it was to excel in elegance of ftyle and
compofition, to produce even a lingle chapter that might
be compared with it (a).
3 A
To
(a) As the compofition and arrangement of words, however, admit of infinite varieties, it can never be ab-
folutely faid that any one is the bell pofiible. In fad, Hamzah Benahmed wrote a book againft the Alcoran,
with at leaft equal elegance ; and Mofelema another, which even furpaffed it, and occafioned a defedion of a
great part of the Muffulmans. Journ. ds Scav. tom. xiii. p. 280. Ouvr. de Scav. Nov, 1708, p. 404.
A L e [ 370 ] A L C
Alcoran. To the pomp and harmony of expreflion fome aferibe
all the force and effeft of the Alcoran ; which they
confider as a fort of mufic, equally fitted with other fpe-
cies of that art to ravifli and amaze. In this Mahomet
fucceeded fo well, and fo ftrangely'captivated the minds
of his audience, that feveral of his opponents thought it
the effeft of witchcraft and enchantment, as he himfelf
complains.—Others have attributed the effedl of the
Alcoran to the frequent mention of rewards and punilh-
ments; heaven and hell occurring almoft in every page.
Some fuppofe, that the fenfual pleafures of paradife, fo
frequently fet before the imaginations of the readers of
the Alcoran, were what chiefly bewitched them. Tho’,
with regard to thefe, there is a great difpute whether
they are to be underftood literally or fpiritually. Se¬
veral have even allegorized the whole book.
The general defign of the Koran was to unite the
profeflbrs of the three different religions, then followed
in the populous country of Arabia (who for the moft
part lived promifeuoufly, and wandered without guides,
the far greater number being idolaters, and thq veil Jews
and Chriflians moftly of erroaeous and heterodox be¬
lief), in the knowledge and worfhip of one God, under
the fanftion of certain laws, and the outward figns of
ceremonies partly of ancient and partly of novel infti-
tution, enforced by the confideration of rewards and
punifhments both temporal and eternal; and to bring
them all to the obedience of Mahomet, as the prophet
and ambaffador cf God, who, after the repeated ad¬
monitions, promifes, and threats, of former ages, was
at lafl to eltablifh and propagate God’s religion on
earth, and to be acknowledged chief pontiff in fpiritual
matters, as well as fupreme prince in temporal.
The great doctrine then of the Koran, is the unity
of God ; to reflore which point Mahomet pretended
was the chief end of his miffion ; it being laid down
by him as a fundamental truth, That there never was,
nor ever can be, more than one true orthodox religion.
For, though the particular laws or ceremonies are only
temporary, and fubjedl to alteration, according to the
divine diredlion ; yet the fubftance of it being eternal
truth, is not liable to change, but continues immutably
the fame. And he taught, that, whenever this religion
became neglefted, or corrupted in effentials, God had
the goodnefs to re-inform and re-admonifh mankind
thereof, by feveral prophets, of whom Mofes and Je-
fus were the mofl diflinguilhed, till the appearance of
Mahomet, who is their feal, and no other to be expec¬
ted after him. The more effeftually to engage peo-
- pie to hearken to him, great part of the Koran is em¬
ployed in relating examples of dreadful punifhments
formerly inflicted by God on thofe who rejected and
abufed his meffengers; feveral of which llories, or
fome circumflances of them, are taken from the Old
and New Teflaments, but many more from the apocry¬
phal books and traditions of the Jews and Chriflians of
thofe ages, fet up in the Koran as truths in oppofition
to the feriptures, which the Jews and Chriflians are
charged with having altered : and indeed, few or none
of the relations or circumflances in the Koran were in¬
vented by Mahomet, as is generally fuppofed, it being
Cafy to trace the greatefl part of them much higher,
as the reft might be, were more of thofe books extant,
and was it worth while to make the inquiry.
The reft of the Alcoran is taken up in preferibing
neceffary laws and diredlions, frequent admonitions to
moral and divine virtues, the worfhip and reverence of
the Supreme Being, and refignation to his will. One
of their moft learned . commentators diftinguifhes the
contents of the Alcoran into allegorical and literal;
under the former are comprehended all the obfeure,
parabolital, and enigmatical paffages, with fuch as are
repealed, or abrogated ; the latter, fuch as are clear,
and in full force.
The mo ft excellent moral in the whole Alcoran, in¬
terpreters fay, is that in the chapter Vll Alraf, viz.,
Shew mercy, do good to all, and difpute not with the
ignorant; or, as Mr Sale renders it, Ufe indulgence,,
command that which is juft, and withdraw far from the
ignorant. Mahomet, according to the authors of the
Kefchaf, having begged of the angel Gabriel a more
ample explication of this paffage, received it in the fol¬
lowing terms: “ Seek him who turns thee out, give t©
“ him who takes from thee, pardon him who injures,
“ thee ; for God will have you plant in your fouls the
“ roots of his chief perfections.” It is eafy to fee
that this commentary is copied from the gofpel.—In
reality, tire neceffity of forgiving enemies, though fre¬
quently inculcated in the Alcoran, is of a later date
among the Mahometans than among the Chriftians;.
among thofe latter, than among the heathens; and to
be traced originally among the Jews. (See Exodus
xxxiii. 4, 5.) But it matters not fo much who had it
firft, as who obferves it beft. The caliph Haffan, fon
of Hali, being at table, a flave unfortunately let fall a
difli of meat reeking hot, which fealded him feverely.
The flave fell on his knees, rehearfing thefe words of
the Alcoran, “ Paradife is for thofe who reftrain their
“ anger.” I am not angry with thee, anfwered the
caliph.—“ And for thofe who forgive offences againft
them,” continues the flave. I forgive thee thine, re¬
plies the caliph’—“ But above all, for thofe who return
good for evil,” adds the flave. I fet thee at liberty,
rejoined the caliph ; and I give thee ten dinars.
There are alfo a great number of occafional paffages
in the Alcoran, relating only to particular emergencies..
For this advantage Mahomet had in the piecemeal me¬
thod of receiving his revelation, that whenever he hap¬
pened to be perplexed and gravelled with any thing, he
had a certain refource in fome new morfelof revelation.
It was an admirable contrivance of his, to bring down
the whole Alcoran at once, only to the loweft heaven,,
not to earth; fince, had the whole been publifhed at
once, innumerable objections would have been made,
which it would have been impoffible for him to folve :
but as he received it by parcels, as God faw fit they
fhould be publifhed for the converfion and inftruftiom
of the people, he had a fure way to anfwer all emer¬
gencies, and to extricate himfelf with honour from any
difficulty which might occur..
It is the general and orthodox belief among the Maho-
metants, that the Koran is of divine original; nay, that it
is eternal and uncreated, remaining, as fome exprefs it,
in the very effence of God: that the firft tranfeript has
been from everlafting by God’s throne, written on a table
of vaft bignefs', called the preferved table, in which are
alfo recorded the divine decrees paft and future : that
a copy from this table, in one volume on paper, was.
by the miniftry of the angel Gabriel fent down to the
loweft heaven, in the month of Ramadan, on the night
r
A L C
Alcoran, of power: from whence Gabriel revealed it to Maho-
by parcels, fome at Mecca, and fome at Medina,
at different times, during the fpace of 23 years, as the
exigency of affairs required; giving him, however,
the confolation to fhow him the whole (which they tell
us was bound in {ilk, and' adorned with gold and pre¬
cious ftones of paradife) once a-year ; but in the lafl
Year of his life he had the favour to fee it twice. They
fay, that few chapters were delivered entire, the moft
part being revealed piecemeal, and written down from
[ 371 1
A L C
efleem and reverence among the Muflelmaris. They Alcoran,
dare not fo much as touch the Alcoran without being J
iirft wafhed, or legally purified; to prevent which, an
infcription is put on the cover or label, Let none touch
hut they •who are clean. It is read with great care and
reipect; being never held below the girdle. They
fwear by it ; take omens from it on all weighty occa-
fions; carry it with them to war; write fentences of it
in their banners; adorn it with gold and precious ftones;
and knowingly fuffer it not to be in the poffeflion of any
time to time by the prophet’s amanuenfis in fuch a part of a different religion; Some fay that it is punifhable
of fuch and fuch a chapter, till they were completedj
according to the diredfions of the angel. The firft par¬
cel that was revealed is generally agreed to have been
the firft five verfes of the 96th chapter.
After .the new-revealed paffages had been from the
prophet’s mouth taken down in writing by his fcribe,
they were publifhed to his followers; feveral of whom
took copies for their private ufe, but the far greater
number got them by heart. 'The originals, when re¬
turned, were put promifcuoufly into a cheft, obferving
no order of time; for which reafon it is uncertain when
many'paffages were revealed.
When Mahomet died, he left his revelations in the
fame diforder, and not digefted into the method, fuch
with death, in a Chriftian, to touch it; others, that
the veneration of the Muffelmans leads them to con¬
demn the tranllating it into any other language as a
profanation : but thefe feem to be aggravations. The
Mahometans have taken care to have their fcripture
tranflated into the Perfian, the Javan, the Malayan,
and other languages; tho’, out of refpedt to the origi¬
nal, thefe verfions are generally, if not always, inter-
lineated.
By the advocates of Mahometanifm, the Koran, as
already obferved, has always been held forth as the Chrijlianhy
greateft of miracles, and equally ftupendous with theand
ad of raifing the dead. The miracles of Mofes and
Jefus, they fay, were tranfient and temporary ; but thatl>
of
as it is, in which we now find them. This was the. of the Koran is permanent and perpetual; "and there-
work of his fucceflbr Abu Beer; who, confidering that
a great number of paflages were committed to the me¬
mory of Mahomet’s followers, many of whom were
flain in their wars, ordered the whole to be collected,
not only from the palm-leaves and fkins on which they
had been written, and which were kept between two
boards or covers, but alfo from the mouths of fuch as
had gotten them by heart. And this tranfeript, when
completed, he committed to the cuftody of Haffa the
daughter of Omar, one of the prophet’s widows.
From this relation it is generally imagined that Abu
Beer was really the compiler of the Koran; though,
for aught appears to the contrary, Mahomet left the
chapters complete as we now have them, excepting fuch
fore far furpaffes all the miraculous events of preceding
ages. We will not detrad from the real merit of the
Koran : we allow it to be generally elegant, and often
fublime : but at the fame time we rejed with difdain
its arrogant pretence to any thing fupernatural; all the
real excellence of the work being eafily referable to na¬
tural and vifible caufes.
“ ln the language of Arabia, a language extremely
loved and diligently cultivated by the people to whom
it was vernacular, Mahomet found advantages which
were never enjoyed by any former or fucceeding im-
poftor. It requires not the eye of a philofopher to
difeover in every foil and country a principle of national
pride: and if we look back for many ages on the hi-
paflages as his fucceffor might add or corred from ftory of the Arabians, we fhall eafily perceive that prich
thofe who had gotten them by heart; what Abu Beer among them invariably to have coniifted in the know-
did elfe, being perhaps no more than to range the
chapters in their prefent order, which he feems to ha'/e
done without any regard to time, having generally
placed the longeft firft.
However, in the 30th year of the Hegira, Othman
being then caliph, and obferving the great difagree-
ment in the copies of the Koran in the feveral pro¬
vinces of the empire ; thofe of Irak, for example, fol¬
lowing the reading of Abu Mufa al Afhari, and the
Syrians that of Macdad Ebn Afwad ; he, by the advice
be tranferibed from that of Abu Beer, in Haifa’s care,
under the infpedion of Zeid Ebn Thabet, Abd’allah
Ebn Zobair, Said Ebn al As, and Ad’alrahman Ebn
ledge and improvement of their native language. The
Arabic, which has been juftly efteemed the moft copi¬
ous of the Eaftern tongues; which had exifted from
the remoteft antiquity; which had been embellilhed by
numberlefs poets, and refined by the conftant exercife
of the natives; was the moft fuccefsful inftrument which
Mahomet employed in planting his new religion among
them. Admirably adapted by its unrivalled harmonv,
and by its endlefs variety to add painting to expreflion,
. . , . and to purfue the imagination in its unbounded flight;
of the companions, ordered a great number of copies to 1t became in the hands of Mahomet an irrefiftible
be tranfrnbed fmm that r>f Abn TW,- In bT,rtV<, now. charm to blind the judgment, and to captivate the fan¬
cy of his followers.
“ Of that defeription of men, who firft compofed the
al Hareth the Makhzumite; whom he dire&ed, that, adherents of Mahomet, and to wbom the Koran was
wherever they difagreed about any word, they fhould addrefled, few, probably, were able to pafs a very ac-
write it in the dialed! of the Koreilh, in which it w'as at curate judgment on the propriety of the fentiments or
firft delivered. Thefe copies, when made, were dif- on the beauties of the diftion : but all could judge of
period in the feveral provinces of the empire, and the the military abilities of their le'ader ; and in the midft
old ones burnt and fupprefied. Though many things
in Haifa’s copy were corre&ed by the abovementioned
revifers, yet fome few various readings ftill occur.
In fine, the book of the Alcoran is held in the higheft
of their admiration it is not difficult to conceive, that
they would aferibe to his compofitions every imaginary
beauty of infpired language.
“ Fhe ftiepherd and the foldier, though awake to the
3 A 2 charms
A L C
[ 372 ] A I C
charms of thofe wild but beautiful compofitions, in
which were celebrated their favourite occupations of
love dr war, were yet little able to criticife any other
works than thoie which were addreffed to their ima¬
gination or the heart. To abftraft reafonings on the
attributes and the difpenfations of the Deity, to the
comparative excellencies of rival religions, to the con-
fiftency of any one religious fyilem in all its parts, and to
the force of its various proofs, they were quite inatten¬
tive. In fuch a fituation, the appearance of a work which
pofieffed fomething like wifdom and coiifiiience ; which
prefcribed the rules, and illuftrated the duties of life ;
and which contained the principles of a new and com¬
paratively fublime theology, independently of its real
and permanent merit, was likely to excite their afto-
niflrment, and to become the llandard of future com-
pofition.
“ In the fir ft periods of the literature of every country,
fomething of this kind has happened.. The father of
Grecian poetry very obvioufly influenced the tafte and
imitation of his countrymen. The modern nations of
Europe all poffefs fome original author, who, rifirig
from the darknefs of former ages, has begun the career
of compofition, and tin&ijred with the charafter of his
own imagination the ftream which has flowed through
Lis pofterity.
“ But the prophet of Arabia had in this refpedl ad¬
vantages peculiar to himfelf. His compofitions were
not to his followers the works of man, but the-.genuine
language of Heaven,, which had fent him.. They were
not confined therefore to that admiration which is fo
liberally bellowed on the earliell produftions of genius,
or to that fond attachment with which men every
where regard the original compofitions of their coun¬
try: but with their admiration they blended their piety.
To know and to.feel the beauties of die Koran, was
in fome refpedl to lhare in the temper of heaven ; and
he who was mod affedled with admiration in the peru-
fal of its beauties,, feemed moll, fitly the object of that
mercy which had given, it to ignorant man. The Ko¬
ran, therefore, became naturally and necelfarily - die
ftandard of talle. With a language thus hallowed in
their imaginations, they were too well fatisfied, either
to difpute its elegance or improve its Itrufture. In
fucceeding ages, the additional fandtion of antiquity,
or prefcription, was given to thefe compofitions which
their fathers had admiredand while the belief of its
divine original continues, that admiration, which has
thus become the tell and the duty of the faithful, can.
Beither be altered nor diminilhed..
“ When therefore we confider thefe peculiar advan¬
tages of the Koran, we have no reafon to be furprifed
at the admiration in which it is held. But if, defcend-
ing to a more minute invelligation of it, we confider
its perpetual inconfillence and abfurdity, vi e lhall in¬
deed, have caufe-for allcnilhment at that weaknefs of
humanity which could ever have received fuch compo¬
fitions as the work of the Deitv.
“ The firlt praife of all the produftiona of genius, is
invention j that quality of the mind, which, by the ex¬
tent and quicknefs of its views, is capable . of. the lar-
geft conceptions, and- of forming new combinations cvf
obje&s the. moll diflant and unufual. But the Koran
bears little imprefiion of this tranfcendent characler.
Its materials are wholly borrowed fiom the JewilKand
.4
Chrillian fcriptures, from the Talmudical legends and
apocryphal gofpels then current in the Eall, and frcm
the traditions and fables which abounded in Arabia.
The materials colle&ed from thefe feveral fources arc
here heaped together, with perpetual and needlef* repe¬
titions, without any fettled principleorvifibleconnectiom
“ When a great part of the life of Mahomet had been
fpent in preparatory meditation on the fyilem >he wa*
about to ellablilh, its chapters were dealt out flowly
and feparately during the long period of 23 years. Yet
thus defedlive in its llrudlure, and not 1'efs exception¬
able in its doftrines, was the work which Mahomet
delivered to his followers as the oracles of God.'.
“ The moll prominent feature of theKoran, that point
of excellence in which the partiality of its admirers has-
ever delighted to view it, is the fublime notion it gene¬
rally imprefles of the nature and. attributes of God. If
its author had really derived thefe. jull Conceptions
from the infpiration of that Being whom they attempt
to defcribe, they would not have been furrounded, as
they now are on. every fide, with error and abfurdity.
But.it might, eafily be proved, that whatever it jullly
defines of the divine attributes,,was borrowed from ouf
holy fcripture ; which even from itsfirll promulgation,,
but efpecially from the completion of the New Telia--
ment,, has extended the views and enlightened the un-
derjlandings of mankind; and thus furnilhcd them with
arms, which have too often been ineffectually turned
againll itfelf by its ungenerous enemies.
“ In this initance particularly, the copy is far below
the great original, both in the propriety of its images,
and the force of its deferiptions. Our holy fcriptures.
are the only c.ompofitions that can enable the dim fight
of mortality to penetrate into the invifible world, and
to behold a glimpfe of the Divine perfections. Accor¬
dingly, when they would reprefent to us the happinefs
of Heaven, they defcribe it, not by any thing minute
and particular, but by fomething general and great;
fomething, that without defeending to any determinate
object, may at onee by its beauty and immenfity ex.-
cite our wilhes^and elevate our affedlions. Though in
the prophetical and evangelical writings the joys that
ffiall attend us in a future Hate are often mentioned,
with ardent admiration, they are expreffed rather by
allufion than fimilitude, rather by indefinite and figurar
tive terms, than by any thing, fixed and determinate.
‘ Eye hath not feen, nor ear heard, neither have en¬
tered into the heart of man, the things which God
hath prepared for them, that love him.’ 1 £V. ii. 9.
What a reverence and allonilhment does this paffage
excite in every heaver of talle and piety ? What ener¬
gy, and at the fame time what fimplicity, in the expref-
fion? Howfublime, and at the .fame time how obfeure,.
is the imagery ?
“ Different was the conduct of Mahomet an his de-
feriptions of heaven and of paradife. Unaffilled by the
neceffary influence of virtuous intentions andDivine infpi- -
ration, be was neither defirous, nor indeed able, to exalt
the minds of men.to fublinw conceptions, or to ration¬
al.expedatjons. By attempting to explain what is in¬
conceivable, to defcribe what is ineffable, and to mate¬
rialize what in itfelf is fpiritual ; he ahfurdly and im-
pioufly aimed to fenfualize the purity of the Divine
elfence, Thus he fabricated a fyffem of incoherence,
a religion .qfto.epravity, totally repugnant indeed to:the
/ature.
AY
A L C [ 373 I A L C
^Icorap, Hature of that Beiqg, who, as he pretended, was its
isicoratiiUs 0bjei^ . but therefore more likely to accord with the
v‘ v appetites and conceptions of a corrupt and fenfual
age.
“ That we may not appear to exalt our Scriptures
thus far above the Koran by an unreafonable preference,
we lhall produce a part of the fecond chapter of the
latter, which is defervedly admired by the Mahometans,
who wear it engraved on their ornaments, and recite it
in their prayers. ‘ God! there is no God blit he ;
the living, the felf-fubfilling: neither (lumber nor deep
fei/.eth him : to him belongeth whatfoever is in hea¬
ven, and on earth. Who is he that can intercede with
him but through his good pleafure ? He knoweth that
whiih is pad, and that which is to come. His throne
is extended over heaven and earth, and the preferva*
tion of both is to him no burden. He is the high, the
mighty.’ Sale's. Kor. ii. p. 30. 4to edit.
“ To this defcription who can refufe the praife of
magnificence? Part of that magnificence, however, is to
be referred to that verfe of the Pfalmid, whence it was
borrowed, ‘ He that keepeth Ifrael, lhall neither dum¬
ber nor deep.’ Pfal. cxxi. 4.
“ But if we compare it with that other paflage of
the fame infpired Pfalmift, all its boafted grandeur is at
once obfcured, and loll in the blaze of a greater
light.
“ O my God, take me not away in the midft of my
days ; thy years are throughout all generations. Of
©Id had thou laid the foundations of the earth ; and
the heavens are the work of thy hands. They Ihall
perilh, but thou (halt endure : yea all of them Ihall wax
old, as doth a garmentas a vefture lhalt thou change
them, and they lhall be changed; but thou art the
fame, and thy years ‘lhall not fail.’
“ The Koran, therefore, upon a retrofpe&ive view
of thefe feveral circumftances, far from fupporting its
arrogant claim to a fupernatural work, dnks below the
level of many compofitions confeffedly of human origi¬
nal} and dill lower does it fall in our edimation, when
compared with that pure and perfect pattern which we
judly admire in the fcriptures of truth.-
“ It is therefore abundantly apparent, that no miracle
either was externally performed for the fupport, or is
internally involvedinthe compofition, of the Mahometan
revelation.”
Alcoran, >is alfo figuratively applied to certain o-
ther books full of impieties and impodures. —In this
fenfe we meet with the /ilccran of the Cordeliers,
which has made a great noife; wherein St Francis is
extravagantly magnified, and put- on a level with Jefus
Chrid. The Alcoran ,of the Cordeliers, is properly an
extract of a very fcarce book, inti tied, The conformity
of the life of the feraphic father St Francis with the life
of Chrid, publifhed in i 5 0, 410 ; fince, at Bologna,
in folio. Eralmus Albertus, being by the eltftor of
Brandenburg appointed to vifit a monadery of Fran-
cifcans, found this book ; and being ftruck with the
extreme folly and abfurdity of it, colledted a number
of curiofities out of it, and publilhed them under the
title of the Alcoran of the Franeifcans, with a preface
by Martin Luther.
ALCORANISTS, among Mahometans, thofewho
adhere dn£t?y to the letter or text of the alcoran, from
an oj inioa of its ultimate fuilickncy and pcrtcction.
The Perfians are generally Alcoranijls, as admitting Alcove,,
the Alcoran alone for their rule of faith. The Turks,, Alcumus^
Tartars, Arabs, &c. befides the Alcoran, admit a mul- " “ v
titude of traditions. The Alcoranids, among Maho¬
metans, amount to much the fame with the textuaries
among the Jews. The Alcoranids can find nothing
excellent out of the Alcoran ; are enemies of philofo-
phers, metaphyficians, and fcholadic writers. With-
them the Alccran is. every thing.
ALCO V E, among builders, a retfefs, or part of a
chamber feparated by an edrade, or partition of co¬
lumns, and other correfponding ornaments, in which
is placed a bed of date, and fometimes feats to enter¬
tain company; Thefe alcoves are frequent in Spain 4,
and the bed is railed two or three afcents, with a rail
at the foot.
ALCUINUS (Flaccus), an ecclefiaftlc of the
eighth century. Where he was born,, is a matter of
difpute ; but,, according to the mod probable opinion,
it was in Yorklhire. It is pretty certain, however, that
he was educated at York, under the direftion of arch-
bifhop Egbert, as we learn from his own letters, in
which he frequently calls that great.prelate his beloved
mader, and the. clergy of York the companions of his -
youthful dudies. As he futvived venerable Bede about
70 years, it is hardly poffible that he could have re¬
ceived any part of his education under him, as fome
writers of literary hidory have affirmed 5 and it is wor¬
thy of obfervation, that he never calls that,great man
his mader, though he fpeaks of him with the highefl
veneration. It is not well known to what preferments
he had attained in the church before he left England,
though fome fay he was abbot of Canterbury. The
occalion of his leaving his native country, was his be¬
ing fent on an embafly by Offa king of Mercia to the
emperor Charlemagne ; who contracted fo great an.
edeem and friendffiip for him, that he earneftly folici-
ted, and at length prevailed upon ihm, to fettle in his
court, and became his preceptor in the fciences. Al-
cuinus accordingly inftructed that great prince in rhe¬
toric, logic, mathematics, and divinity ; which ren¬
dered him one of his greateft favourites. “ He was
treated with fo. much kindnefs and familiarity (fays a
cotemporary writer).by the Emperor, that the other
courtiers.called him, by way of eminence, the emperor's
delight." Charlemagne employed bis learned favourite
to write feveral books againd the heretical opinions
of Felix Bifhop of Urgel in Catalonia, and-to defend
the orthodox laith againd that herefiareh, in the coun¬
cil of Francfort, A. 1). #94; which he performed to
the entire fatisfatiion of the Emperor and.council, ami
even to the conviction of Felix and his followers, who
abandoned their errors. The Emperor confultcd
chiefly with Aleuinus on all things relating to religion
arid learning; and, by his advice, did many great
tilings for the advancement of both. An academy
was edablifhed in the Imperial palace, over wdiich Al-
cuinus prelided, and in which the princes and prime-’
nobility were educated; and ocher acadamits were
eftabiilhed in the chief towns of Italy and France, at
his. mitigation, and under his irifperition. “ France
(fays one of our bed writers of literary hidory) is in-
dtbied to Alcuinus for all the polite learning it bead¬
ed of in that and the following ages. The univerlities
oi Fans, Tours, Fuiden, SoilLns, and many others,
A L C [ 374 J A L D
A'cuituis owe to him their origin and inereafe; thofe of whom
II . he was not the fuperior and founder, being at lead en-
lightened by his dodlrine and example, and enriched
'r~~ by the benefits he procured for them from Charle¬
magne.” After Alcuinus had fpent many years in the
mod intimate familiarity with the greateft prince of
his age, he at length, with great difficulty, obtained
leave to retire from court to his abbey of St Martin’s
at Tours. Here he kept up a conftant correfpondence
, by letters with Charlemagne ; from' which it appears,
that both the emperor and his learned friend were ani¬
mated with the mod ardent love to learning and reli¬
gion, and conftantly employed in contriving and exe¬
cuting the.noblefi: defigns for their advancement. He
compbfed many treatifes on a great variety of fubjects,
in a ftyle much fuperior in purity and elegance to that
of the generality of writers in the age in which he flou-
rifhed. Charlemagne often folicited him, with all the
warmth of a mod affectionate friend, to return to court,
and favour him with his company and advice ; but he
dill excufed himfelf; and nothing could draw him
horn his retirement in his abbey of St Martin in Tours,
where he died A. D. 804. His works were collected
and publifhed by Andrew du Chefrie in one volume fo¬
lio, Paris, 1617. They confid of, X. TraCts upon fcrip-
ture. 2. TraCts upon doCtriire,'difcipline, and mora¬
lity. 3. Hidorical treatifes, letters, and poems. Since
that edition, there has been publifhed an incredible num¬
ber of traCts, poems, &c. afcribed to this author, mod
of which, in all probability, were not his.
ALCYGN, the trivial name of a fpeciCS of alcedo.
See Alcedo.
ALCYONIUM, an obfolete name of a fubmarine
plant. It is alfo ufed for a kind of coral, or affroites,
frequently found foffile in England.
AlcvoniuM Stagnum (anc. geog.), a lake in the
territory of Corinth, whofe depth was unfathomable,
and in vain attempted to be difcOvered by Nerct. Thro’
this lake Bacchus is faid to have defcended to hell, to
Bring back Semele ; (Paufanias).
ALCYONIUS (Peter), a learned Italian, whoflou-
rifhed in the 16th century. He was well verfed in the
'Greek and Latin tongues, and wrote foitte pieces of
eloquence which met with great approbation. He
was correftor of the prefs a confiderable time for Al¬
dus Manutius, and is intitled to a fhare in the praifes
given to the editions of that learned printer. He pu¬
blifhed a treatife concerning banifhment, which con¬
tained fo many fine paffages intermixed with others
quite the reverfe, that it was thought he had tacked
to fomewhat of his own, feveral fragments of a treatife
of Cicero de gloria ; and that afterwards, in order to
fave himfelf from being deteCted in this theft, he burnt
the manufcript of Cicero, the only one extant. Pau-
lus Manutius, in his commentary upon thefe words of
Cicero, Librum tibi celeriter inittam de gloria, “ I
will fpeedily fend you my treatife on gloryhas the
following paffage relating to'this affair: “ He means
(fays he) Kis two books On Glory, which were handed
down to the age of our fathers; for Bernard Juftinian,
in the index of his books, mentions Cicero de Gloria.
This treatife, however, when Bernard had left his whole
library to a nunnery, could not be found, though
fought after with great care: nobody doubted but Pe¬
ter Alcyonius, who, being phyfician to. the nuiinery,
3
was entrufled with the library, had bafely Hole it. Aldbn-
And truly, in his treatife Of Baniffiment, fome things ro“gh
are found interfperfed here and there, which leem not Al lefrnaji
to favour of Alcyonius, but of feme higher author.” ——y—
The two orations he made after the taking of Rome,
wherein he reprefented very ftrongly the injuftice of
Charles V. and the barbarity of his foldiers, were ex¬
cellent pieces. There is alfo an oration afcribed to him,
on the knights who died at the fiege of Rhodes.
ALDBOROUGH, a fea-port town in Suffolk,
wuth a market on Saturdays. It is pleafantly iituated,
in a dale, between a high hill to the weftward, on
which its large old-built church Hands; the fea to the
eaft, and its rivet running fouth-weft. It is a large,
long, ordinary town, made up of two or three ftreets
of low houfes, running parallel to each other. A quar¬
ter of a mile to the fouth lies Slaughden, where they
have a commodious key, with warehoufes for fifii: more
foutherly itill, they have conveniences for drying their
north-fea fifh. Their employment in the filhery is their
chief bufinefs, which is confiderable in the feafons for
cajtching herrings and fprats ; and it is the ojily place
in England for curing red fprats. It is a town corpo¬
rate, and fends two members to parliament. Towards
the fea, it has fome pieces of cannon planted for its de¬
fence. It is 88 miles north-eatt from London. E. Long.
1. 32. N. Lat. 52. 50.
Aldborough, a market-town in the weft riding
of Yorkfhire, feated on the river Oufe, 15 miles north-
weft of York, and 200 miles north of London. It
fends two members to parliament. W. Long. o. 20.
N. Lat. 54. 15. It was anciently a Roman city, call¬
ed Ifurium Brigantium ; and feveral coins and monu¬
ments of the Saxons and Romans have been difcovered
there.
ALDEBARAN, in aftronomy, a ftar of the firft
magnitude, called in Englifti the bull’s eye, as making
the eye of the conftellation Taurus. Its longitude is
6 deg. 32 min. 9 fee. of Gemini, and its latitude 5 deg.
29 min. 40 fee. fouth.
ALDER-tree, in botany. See Betula.
ALDERHOLM, a pleafant ifland of Sweden, for¬
med by the three arms of a river running thro’ Gentle,
a town of Nordland, in Sweden. Here is a wharf, a
repofitory for planks and deals, two packing houfes, a
large cultomhoufe for taking toll of the fhips, an arfe-
nal for cannon, and a grenary.
ALDERMAN, in the Britilh policy, a magiftrate
fubordinate to the lord-mayor of a city or town-cor¬
porate. The number of thefe magiftrates is not limi¬
ted, but is more or lefs according to the magnitude of
the place. In London they are 26 ; ,each having one
of the wards of the city committed to his care. This
office is for life ; fo that when one of them dies, or re*
figns, a ward-mote is called, who return two perfons,
one of whom the lord-mayor and aldermen choofe to
fupply the vacancy. All the aldermen are juftices of the
peace, by a charter of 15 Geo. II. The aldermen of
London, &c. are exempted from ferving inferior offi¬
ces ; nor (hall they be put upon affizes, or ferve on ju¬
ries, lo long as they continue to be aldermen.
Alderman, among our Saxon anceftors, was a de<-
gree of nobility anfvvering to earl or count at prefent.
Alderman was alfo ufed, in the time of king
Edgar, for a judge or juftice. Thus we meet with
the
ALB
Jtfderncy, the titles of Aldermannui totius Anglia, aldermannus
Aidhe.m. regis, comitatus, civitatis, burgi, cafislli, hundredi
jjvf nxsapentachii, et novemdecimorum. According to
Spelman, the aldermannus totius Anglia feems to have
been the fame officer who was afterwards ityled c apt ta¬
ps jujliciarius Anglia, or chief-jultice of England; the
aldermannus regis feems to have been an occafional
magiilrate, anfwering to our juftice of affize ; and the
aldermannus comitatus, a magiftrate who held a middle
rank between what was afterward called the earl and
the /heriff; he fat at the trial of caufes with the bifhop:
the latter proceeding according to ecclefiaftical law,
and the former declaring and expounding the common
law of the land.
ALDERNEY, an ifland in the Britiffi channel, fub-
jeft to the crown of Great Britain. It is about eight
miles in compafs, and is feparated from Cape la Hogue,
in_ Normandy, by a narrow ftreight, called the Race of
Alderney, which is a very dangerous palfage in ftormy
weather when the two currents meet; otherwife it is
fafe, and has depth of water for the largeft (hips. Thro’
this ftreight the French fleet made their efcape after
their defeat at La Hogue, in 1692. It is a healthy
ifland, has but one church, is fruitful both in corn and
pafture, and is remarkable for a fine breed of cows. The
inhabitants, for their greater fafety, live together in a
town of the fame name. The number of houfes are
faid to be 200, and the inhabitants 1000. It has but
one harbour, called Crabby, which is at a good diftance
from the town; and is only fit for fmall veffels. To the
weft lie the range of rocks called the Ca/kets, fo dan¬
gerous to mariners. W. Long. 2. 17. N. Lat. 49. 50.
ALDHELM (St), bilhop of Shireburn in the time
of the Saxon Heptarchy. He is faid to have been the
fon of Kenred, brother to Irta, king of the Weft-
Saxons; but, in the opinion of William of Malmftmry,
his father was no more than a diftant relation to the
king. Having received the firft part of his education
in the fchool which one Macdulf, a learned Scot, had
fet up in the place where Malmlbury now Hands, he
travelled into France and Italy for his improvement.
At his return home, he ftudied feme time under Adrian
abbot of St Auguftine’s in Canterbury, the moft learn¬
ed profeflbr of the fciences who had ever been in Eng¬
land. In thefe different feminaries he acquired a very
uncommon ftock of knowledge; and became famous
for his learning,, not only in England, but, in foreign
countries : whence feveral learned men fent him their
writings for his perufal and correction; particularly
Prince Arcivil, a fon of the king of Scotland, who
wrote many pieces which he fent to Aldhelm, “ in-
treating him to give^ them the laft polifh, by rubbing
off their Scots ruft.” He was the firft Englifhman
who wrote in the Latin language, both in profe and.
I, verfe, and compofed a book for the inftruCtion of his
countrymen in the profody of that language. Befides
this, he wrote feveral other treatifes on various fubjeCIs;
fome of which are loft, and others publiftied by Martin
Delrio and Canifius. Venerable Bede, who fiourifhed
in the end of this and the beginning of the next cen¬
tury, gives the following character of Aldhelm : “ He
was a man of univerfal erudition, having an elegant
ftyle, and being wonderfully well acquainted with books,
both on philofophical and religious fubjeCls.” In fa£t,
tonfidering the cloud of ignorance by which he was
A L D
furrounded, and the great difficulty of acquiring know- Aldhtha.
ledge without proper inftru&ion, Aldhelm was a very AjJ[e|
extraordinary man. From one of his letters to Hedda ,
bilhop of Winchefter, concerning the nature of his ftu-
dies whilft at Canterbury, he appears to have been
indefatigably determined to acquire every fpecies of
learning in his power. For a copy of this curious
epiftle, fee Henry’s Hiftory, vol. ii. p. 320. King Al¬
fred the Great declared, that Aldhelm was the beft of
all the Saxon poets; and that a favourite fong, which
was univerfally fung in his time, near 200 years after
its author’s death, was of his compofition. When he '
was abbot of Malmftury, having a fine voice, and great
fkill in mufic as well as poetry, and obferving the
backwardnefs of his barbarous countrymen to liften to
grave inftruCtions, he compofed a number of little
poems, which he fung to them after mafs in the fweet-
eft manner; by which they were gradually iuftructed
and civilized. After this excellent perfon had govern¬
ed the monaftery of Malmftmry, of which he was the
founder, about 30 years, he was made biftiop of Shere-
burn, where he died A. D. 709.—He wrote, 1. De
otto vitiis principalibus. This treatife is extant in Bi- .
hliotbeca Patrum of Canifius. 2. ALnigmaticum verfus
mille. This, with feveral other of his poems, was.
publiftied, by Martin Delrio at Mentz, 8vo, 1601.
3. A book addreffed to a certain king of Northumber¬
land, named Alfrid, on various fubjetts. 4. De vita
monacborum. 5. De laude fanflorum. 6. De arithme-
tica. 7. De ajlrologia. 8. A book againft the mi-
ftake of the Britons concerning the celebration of Ea-
fter; printed by Sonius, 1576. 9. De laude virgi-
nitatis. Manufcript, in Bonnet-college, Cambridge. -
Publiftied among Bede’s Opufcula. Befides many fon-
nets, epiftles, and homilies in the Saxon language.
ALDPORT, an ancient name for Manchefter..
See Manchester.
ALDRED, abbot of Taviftock, was-promoted to
the biftiopric of Worcefter in the year 1046. He was
fo much in favour with King Edward the Confeffor,
and had fp much power over his mind, that he obliged
him to be reconciled with the worft of his enemies,.-
particularly with Swane fon of the earl Goodwin, who --
had revolted againft him, and came with an army to
invade the kingdom. Aldred alfo reftored the union -
and friendftiip between king Edward and Griffin-kingy
of Wales. He took afterwards1 a journey to Rome,
and being returned into England, in the year 1054,
he was fent ambaffador to the emperor Henry II.; he
ftaid a whole year in Germany, and was very honour¬
ably entertained by Herman archbifhop of Cologn,
from whom he learned many things relating to ecclefi¬
aftical difeipline, which on his return he eftabliftied in
his own diocefs. In the year 1058 he. went to Jeru-
falem, which no archbiftiop or biftiop of England had
ever done before him. Two.years after he returned to--
England; and Kinfius archbiftiop of York dying the
22d of December 1060, Aldred was elefted in his Head
on Chriftmas day following, and thought fit to keep
his biftroprick of Worcefter with the archbiftiopric of
Canterbury, as fome of his predeceffors had done. Al¬
dred went foon after to Rome, in order to receive the
Pallium from the Pope: He was attended by Tofton
earl of Northumberland, Gifo biftiop of Wells, and
Walter biftiop of Hereford. The pope received Tof¬
ton
[ 375 1
A L D [37
tfin fcry lionourably, and made him fit by him in the
fynod which he held againft the Simonifts. He grant¬
ed to Gifo and Walter their requeft, becaufe they were
tolerably well learned, and not accufed of limony. Bat
Aldred being by his anfwers found ignorant, and guil¬
ty of fimony, the pope deprived him very feve'rely of
all honoprs and dignities; fo that he was obliged to
return without the Pallium. On his way home he and
his three fellow-travellers were attacked by fome rob¬
bers, who took from them all that they had, though
they did not offer to kill them. This obliged them to
return to Rome; and the pope, either out of com-
paffion, of by the threatenings of the earl of Northum¬
berland, gave Aldred the Pallium ; but he was obli¬
ged to relign his bifhopric of Worcefter. However, as
the archbifhopric of York had been almoft entirely
ruined by the many invalions of foreigners, king Ed¬
ward gave the new archbifhop leave to keep twelve vil¬
lages or manors which belonged to the bifhopric of
Worcefter. Edward the Confeffor dying in 1066,
Aldred crowned Harald his fucceffor. He alfo crown-
-ed William the Conqueror, after he had made him
take'the following oath, viz. that he would protect the
holy churches of God and their leaders ; that he would
eftablifh and obferve righteous laws ; that he would en¬
tirely prohibit and fupprefs all rapines and unjuft
judgments. He was fo much in favour with the Con¬
queror, that this prince looked upon him as a father ;
and, though imperious in regard to every body elfe, he
yet fubmitted to obey this archbifhop: John Bromton
gives us an inftance of the king’s fubmiffion, which at
the fame time fhows the prelate’s haughtinefs.— It hap¬
pened one day, as the archbifhop was at York, that
the deputy-governor or lord-lieutenant going out of the
city with a great number of people, met the arch*
bifhop’s fervants, who came to town with feveral carts
and horfes loaded with provifions. The governor afk-
ed them to whom they belonged ; and they having an-
fwered they were Aldred’s fervants, the governor or¬
dered that all thefe provifions fhould be carried to the
king’s ftore-houfe. The archbifhop fent immediately
fome of his clergy to the governor, commanding him
to deliver the provifions, and to make fatisfaftion to St
Peter, and to him the faint’s vicar, for the injury he
had done them ; adding, that'if he refufed to comply,
the archbifhop "would make ufe of his apoftolic autho¬
rity againft him, (intimating thereby that he would ex¬
communicate him). The governor, offended at this
proud meffage, ufe<l the perfons whom the archbifhop
had fent him very ill, and returned an anfwer as haugh¬
ty as the meffage was. Aldred thereupon went to
London to make his complaint to the king; but in
this very complaint he a&ed with his wonted infolence ;
for meeting the king in the church of St Peter at
Weftminfter, he fpoke to him in thefe words; “ Hear-
“ ken, O William: when thou waft but a foreigner, and
“ God, to punifh the fins of this nation, permitted thee
“ to become mailer of it, after having filed a great deal
“ of blood, I confecrated thee, ,and put the crown
“ upon thy head with bleffings ; but now, becaufe
“ thou haft deferved it, I pronounce a curfe over thee,
“ inftead of a blefiing, fince thou art become the
“ perfecutor of God’s church, and of his minifters, and
M haft broken the promifes and the oaths which thou
N3 10.
S' ] A L D
“ madeil to me before St Peter’s altar.” The king, AMrtd,
terrified at thistdifcotirfe, fell upon his knees, and,A hi rich.
humbly begged the prelate to tell him, by what crime
he had deferved fo fevere a fentence. The noblemen,
who were prefent, were enraged againft the arch¬
bifhop, and loudly cried out he deferved death, or at
leaft banifliment, jor having offered fuch an injury to his
fovereign, and they preffed him with threatenings to
raife the king from the ground. But the prelate, un¬
moved at all this, anfwered calmly, “ Good men, let
“ him lie there, for he is not at Aldred’s but kt St
“ Peter’s feet; he muft feel St Peter’s power, fince he
“ dared to injure his vice-gerent.” Having thus re¬
proved the nobles by his epifcopal authority, he vouch-
fafed to take the king by the hand, and to tell him the
ground of his complaint. The king humbly excufed
himfelf, by faying he had been ignorant of the whole
matter; and begged of the noblemen to intreat the
prelate, that he might take off the curfe he had pro¬
nounced, and to change it into a bleffing. Aldred
was at laft prevailed upon to favour the king thus far;
but not without the promife of feveral prefents and fa¬
vours, and only after the king had granted him to
take fuch a revenge on the governor as he thought fit.
Since that time (adds the biftorian) none of the no¬
blemen ever dared to offer the leaft injury. It may be
queftioned, which was more furprifing here, whether the
archbifhop’s haughtinefs, who dared' to treat his fo¬
vereign after fo unbecoming a manner; or the king’s
ftupidity, who fuffered fuch infolence and audacioufnefs
from a prieft ?—The Danes having made an invafion in
the north of England in the year 1668, under the con-
duct of Harold and Canute the fons of king Swane,
Aldred was fo much afflidled at it, that he died of grief
the nth of September in that fame year, having be-
fought God that he might not fee the defolation of his
church and country.
ALDRICH (Robert), bilhop of Carlifle, was born
at Burnham in Buckinghamlhire about the year 1493,
and educated at Eaton-fchool; from whence, in 1507,
he was elected fcholar of King’s-college, Cambridge,
where he took his degree in. arts, and was afterwards
proctor of the univerfity. In 1525, he was appointed
mafter of Eaton fchool, then became fellow of that
college, and finally provoft. In 1529, he .went to
Oxford, where, being firft incorporated bachelor of
divinity, in the following year he proceeded doctor
in that faculty; in 1531, he wras made arch-deacon of
Colchefter; in 1534, canon of Windfor; and the fame
year, regiftrary of the order of the garter. He was
confecrated bhhop of Carlifie in the year 1537, and
died at Horncaftle in Lincolnflrire in 1556. He wrote,
J. Epijlola ad Gul.' Honnanum, in Latin verfe ; printed
in Horman’s Antihoffican, Lond. 1521, of which book
Pitts erroneoufly makes Aldrich the author. 2. Epi-
gr animat a varia. 3. Latin verfes, and another epijlle
to Herman, prefixed to the Vulgaria puerorum of that
author, Lond. 1519, qto. 4. Anfwers to certain que¬
ries concerning the dbufes of the mafs alfo about recei¬
ving the facr ament.
Aldrich (Dr Henry), an eminent Englifti divine
and philofopher, born at London in 1647, was edu¬
cated at Weftminfter fchool under tlte famous Dr Buf-
by, and admitted of Chrift-church college, Oxford.
He
A L D [ 377 1 A L D
Aldrich, He had a great fliare in the controverfy with the Pa-
■ —v—pifts in the reign of James II. and biihop Burnet ranks
him among thofe who examined all the points of po¬
pery with a folidity of judgment, clearnefs of argu¬
ment, depth of learning, and vivacity of writing, far
beyond any who had before that time written in our
language. He rendered himfelf fo confpicuous, that
at the revolution, when Maffey the popifh dean of
Chrill-church fled, his deanery was conferred on him.
In this llation he behaved in an exemplary manner, and
* that fabric owes much of its beauty to his ingenuity :
it was Aldrich who defigned the beautiful fquare call¬
ed Peck’water-^uadt anglsy which is efteemed an excel¬
lent piece of architefture. In imitation of his pre-
deceflbr Dr Fell, he publiftied, yearly, a piece of fome
ancient Greek author, as a prefent to the ftudents of
his houfe : he publiftied A Syjiem of Logic, with fome
other pieces ; and the reviling Clarendon’s Hiftory of
the Rebellion was intruded to him and biihop Spratt;
but it doth not appear that they made any additions,
or confiderable alterations in it, as has been aflerted by
Mr Oldmixon. Beiides his preferments above men¬
tioned, Dr Aldrich, was alfo reftor of Wem in Shrop-
Ihire. He was chofcn prolocutor of the convocation
in 1702. This worthy perlon died at Chrift-church
on the iqth of December 17x0. As to his charadter,
he was a mod univerfal fcholar, and had a tade for all
forts of learning, efpecially architecture. Sir John
Hawkins has favoured the public with feveral particu¬
lars relative to Dr Aldrich’s Ikill in mufic ; and on ac¬
count of the Dodtor’s eminence in this refpedt, Sir
John hath given his life, with his head prefixed. His
abilities as a mufician rank him, we are told, among
the greated maders of the fcience. He compofed many
fervices for the church, which are well known ; as are
alfo his anthems, nearly to the number of twenty. He
adapted, with great Ikill and judgment, Englilh words
to many of the notes of Paledrina, Cariffimi, Victoria,
and other Italian compofers for the church, fome of
which are frequently lung in our cathedrals as anthems.
By the happy talent which Dr Aldrich poflefled, of na¬
turalizing the compofitions of the old Italian maders,
and accommodating them to an Englidi ear, he in-
creafed the do res of our own church. Though the
DoCtor chiefly applied himfelf to the cultivation of fa-
cred mufic, yet, being' a man of humour, he could di¬
vert 'himfelf by producing pieces of a lighter kind.
There are two catches of his; the one, “ Hark the
bonny Chrid-church Bells,” the other intitled, “ a
Smoking Catch,” to be fung by four men fmoking
their pipes, which is not more diificult to fing than di¬
verting to hear. His love of fmoking was, it feems,
fo exceffive as to be an entertaining topic of difcourfe
in the univerfity. Such was Dr Aldrich’s regard for
the advancement of mufic, and the honour of its pro-
I. feffors, that he had formed a defign of writing a hiflo-
ry of the fcience; and the materials from which he
propofed to compile it are yet extant in the library of
his own college. It appears from thefe materials, that
he had marked down every thing which he had met
with concerning mufic and muficians ; but that he had
wrought no part of them into any kind of form.
Dj: Aldrich is of fome note as a Latin poet. In the
Muja Anglic ana, we find two elegant copies of verfes
by him ; one on the acceffion of King William III.
Vol.I. Parti.
and the other on the death of the Duke of Glouceder. Aldrich,
Sir John Hawkins hath preferved a humorous tranfla- Aldrovaa-
tion by him of the well-known Engliflt ballad, . “8~ ,
“ A foldier and a failor,
“ A tinker and a taylor,” &c.
The following epigram, intitled “ Caufa Bibendi,”
is likewife afcribedto Dr Aldrich:
“ Si bene quid memini, Gaufs font quinque bibendi,
“ Hofpitis Advontus ; prafens Sitis, atque futura ;
“ Aut Fini Bonitas; aut qua libet altera CaufaA
The epigram has been thus tranflated:
“ If on my theme I rightly think,
“ There are five reafons why men drink :
“ Good wine, a friend, becaufe I’m dry,
“ Or left I ftiould be by and by,
“ Or any other reafon why.”
The tranflation is not equal to the original. It is e»
vident, from the verfes cited and referred to, that Dr
Aldrich was of a very cheerful and pleafant turn of
mind. Indeed, he is always fpoken of as having been
a man of wit; and as one who, to his great talents and
virtues, joined thofe amiable qualities, which rendered
him the objeft of general affedtion, as well as of general
efteem and refpeft. Having never been married, he
appropriated his income to works of hofpitality and
benificence, and in encouraging learning to the utmoft
of his power, of which he was a moft munificent pa¬
tron, as well as one of the greateft men in England,
if confidered as a Chriftian or a gentleman. He had
always the intereft of his college at heart, whereof he
was an excellent governor. And, as he was remark¬
able for modefty and humility, concealing his name to
thofe feveral learned trafts he publiftied, fo at his death
he appointed to be buried without any memorial in the
cathedral; which his thrifty nephew complied with,
depofiting him on the fouth fide of biftiop Fell’s grave,
December 22, eight days after his deceafe ; which
happened in the 63d or 64th year of his age.
ALDROVANDUS (Ulyfles), profeffor of philo-
fophy and phyfic at Bologna, the place of his nativity.
He was a moft curious inquirer into natural hiftory,
and travelled into the moft diftant countries on purpofe
to inform himfelf of their natural productions. Minerals,
metals, plants, and animals, were the objefts of his
curious refearches; but he applied himfelf chiefly to
birds, and was at great expence to have figures of
them drawn from the life. Aubert le Mire fays, that
he gave a certain painter, famous in that art, a yearly
falary of 200 crowns, for 30 years and upwards; and
that he employed at his own expence Lorenzo Bennini
and Cornelius Swintus, as well as the famous engraver
Chriftopher Coriolanus. Thefe expences ruined his
fortune, and at length reduced him to the utmoft ne-
ceflity ; and it is faid that he died blind in an hofpita!
at Bologna, at a great age, in 1605. Mr Bayle ob-
ferves, that antiquity' does not furniih us with an in-
ftance of a defign fo extenfive and fo laborious as that
of Aldrovandus, with regard to natural hiftory ; that
Pliny has treated of more kinds of fobjefts, but only
touches lightly on them, faying but a little upon any¬
thing, whereas Aldrovandus has collected all he could
meet with. His compilation, or that compiled upon
3 B his
ALE [ 37S ] ALE
AMrovan- his plan, confifts of 13 volumes in folio, feveral of which
<]a were printed after his death. He himfelf pubh'fhed
^je his Ornithology, or Hi dory of Birds, in three folio vo-
t ^ lumes, in 1599 ; and his feven books Of Infefts, wliich
make another volume of the fame fize. The volume
Of Serpebts, three Of Quadrupeds, one Of Fifties,
that Of exanguious Animals, the Hiftory of Monitors,
with the Supplement Jo that of Animals, the treatife
Of Metals, and the Dendrology or Hiitory of Trees,
were publiihed at feveral times after the death of Al-
drovandus, by the care of different-perfons ; and Aldro-
vandus is the foie author only of the firit fix volumes of
this work, the reft having been finiihed and compiled
by others, upon the plan of Aldrovandus: a moft ex-
tenfive plan, wherein he not only relates what he has
read in naturalifts, but remarks alfo what hiftorians
have written, legiflators ordained, and poets feigned :
he explains alfo the different ufes which may be made
of the things he treats of, in common life, in medicine,
archite&ure, and other arts ; in ihort, he fpeaks of mo¬
rality, proverbs, devices, riddles, hieroglyphics, and
many other things which relate to his fubjedl.
ALDROVANDA, in botany, a genus of the pen-
tandria order, belonging to the pentagynia clafs of
plants; of which there is but one fpecies. The calyx
is divided into five parts ; the petals are five ; and the
capfule has five valves, with ten feeds. It is a native
of Italy and the Indies; and has no Englifh name.
ALDUABIS (anc. geog.), a river of Celtic Gaul,
which rifing from Mount Jura, feparating the Sequani
from the Helvetii, and running through the county of
Burgundy, or the Franche Comte, environs almoft on
* every fide the city of Befan5on ; and running by Dole,
falls into the Saone near Chalone. In Caefar it is call¬
ed Alduafdubis ; in Ptolemy, Dubis : now le Doux.
ALE, a fermented liquor obtained from an infufion
of malt, and differing from beer chiefly in having a lefs
proportion of hops. (See Brewing.). This liquor,
the natural fubftitute of wine in fuch countries as could
not produce the grape, was originally made in Egypt,
the fir ft planted kingdom, on the difperfion from the
eaft, that was fuppofed unable to produce grapes. And,
as the Noachian colonies pierced further into the weft,
they found, or thought they found, the fame defeft,
and fupplied it in the fame manner. Thus ■the natives
of Spain, the inhabitants of France, and the aborigines
of Britain, all ufed an infufion of barley for their ordi¬
nary liquor : and it was called by the various names of
Ctelia and Ceria in the firft country, Cerevifia in the
fecond, and Curvii in the laft ; all literally importing
only the Jirong water.
“ All the feveral nations (fays Pliny) who inhabit
the ifreft of Europe, have a liquor with which they in¬
toxicate themfelves, made of corn and water. The
manner of making this liquor is fomewhat different in
Gaul, Spain, and other countries, and is called by
many various names; but its nature and properties are
every where the fame. The people of Spain, in parti¬
cular, brew this liquor fo well, that it will keep good
a long time. So exquifite is the cunning of mankind,
in gratifying their vicious appetites, that they have
thus invented a method to make water itfelf intoxi-
cate.” The method in which the ancient Britons, and
other Celtic nations, made their ale, is thus deferibed
by Ifidorus and Orofius. “ The grain is fteeped in
water and made to germinate, by which its fpirits are
excited and fet at liberty ; it is then dried and grind¬
ed ; after which jt is infufed in a certain quantity of
water; which being fermented, becomes a pleafant,
warming, ftrengthenihg, and intoxicating liquor.”
This ale was moft commonly made of barley ; but fome-
times of wheat, oats, and millet.
Anciently the Welch and Scots had alfo two kinds
of ale, called common ale and fpiced ale ; and their va¬
lue was thus afeertained by law : If a farmer hath
no mead, he ftiall pay two calks of fpiced ale, or four
Calks of common ale, for one calk of mead.” By
this law, a calk of fpiced ale, nine palms in height,
and 18 palms in diameter, was valued at a fum of mo¬
ney equal in efficacy to L. 7 : ios. of bur prefent. mo¬
ney ; and a calk of common ale, of the fame dimen-
fibns, at a fum equal to L. 3 : 15 s. This is a fufficient
proof, that even common ale in this period was an ar¬
ticle of luxury among the Welch, which could only
be obtained by the great and opulent. Wine feems
to have been quite unknown even to the kings of Wales
in this period, as it is not fo much as once mentioned
in their laws ; though Giraldus Cambrenfis, who flou-
rilhed about a century after the conqueft, acquaints us,
that there was a vineyard in his time at Maenarper,
near Pembroke, in South Wales.
Ale was the favourite liquor of the Anglo-Saxons
and Danes, as it had been of their anceftors the an¬
cient Germans. Before their converfion to Chriftiani-
ty, they believed that drinking large and frequent
draughts of ale was one of the chief felicities which
thofe heroes enjoyed who were admitted into the hall
of Odin.
There are various forts of ale known in Britain,
particularly pale and brown the fonner is brewed from
malt llightly dried ; and is efteemed more vifeid than
the latter, which is made from malt more highly dried
or roafted.
Pale ale brewed with hard waters, as thofe of fpnngs-
and wells, is judged the moft wholefome, in regard the
mineral particles tend to prevent the cohefions of thofe
drawn from the grain, and enable them to pafs the pro¬
per fecretions the better; fofter waters, as thofe of ri¬
vers, and rain, feem better fuited to draw out the fub-
ftance of high-dried malts, which retain many igneous
particles, belt abforbed in a fmooth vehicle.
In Staffordftiire, they have a fecret of fining ale in
a very ftiort time. Plot conjectures it to be done by
adding alum, or vinegar, in the working.
Ale is prepared various ways, and of various ingre¬
dients, as of wheat, rye, millet, oats, barley, the ber¬
ries of the quick-bean, &c.
Some have found that the juice which bleeds from
the birch or fycamore is of great ufe on this occafion,
applied initead of water. It makes one buftiel of malt
go as far as four in the common way.
Some have a method of preparing ale, fo that it will
keep, carried to the Eaft or Weft Indies. The fecret
is, by maftiing twice with frefh malt; boiling twice ;
and, after (hipping it, putting to every five gallons two
new-laid eggs whole, to remain therein. It is faid,
that, in a fortnight’s time, the (hells will be diffolved ;
and the eggs become like wind-eggs ; and that after¬
wards the white would difappear and the yoke remain
untouched-
Ale
ALE [ 379 1 ALE
Ale. Ale is generally held to be more diuretic than beer, in
•'•v—”' regard it is fmoother, more foftening, and relaxing ;
fo that where urine is to be promoted by facilitating
the pafiage, ale is moft likely to effect it.
Ale is flatulent; and hence fometimes produces co¬
lics, and the cholera morbus: it is acefcent; but it does
not produce calcareous difeafes, as has been aflerted.
If malt-liquor, of any degree of ftrength, is be¬
come flat and tartifh, as it is ufed, it fliould be drawn
out of the caflc into a jug, in which as many drams of
powdered chalk is put as there are to be pints of liquor;
thus a new ferment will be raifed, a fprightly tafte will
be reftored to the liquor, and its acidity will be de-
ftroyed. Tart liquors of this kind are apt to produce
a dyfury, ftrangury, or a gonorrhoea ; in which cafes,
a fmall quantity of brandy may be taken.
The confumption of ale in thefe kingdoms is incre¬
dible. It was computed twenty years ago at the value
of four millions yearly, including Great Britain and
Ireland.
The duties on ale and beer make a principal branch
of the revenue in Britain. They were firft impofed
by the 12th of Car. II. and have been continued by
feveral fubfequent acts of parliament to firft Geo. III.
" which lays an additional duty of 3d. per barrel. In
the whole, the brewer of ale and beer for fale flrall pay
8s. for every barrel of either, above 6s. a barrel; and
for every barrel of 6s. or under, the fum of is. qd.
Medicated Ale's, thofe wherein medicinal herbs have
been infufed, or added during the fermentation. See
Pharmacy, (Index).
Gill Ale, is that in which the dried leaves of gill or
ground-ivy have been infufed. It is efteemed abfterfive
and vulnerary, and confequently good in diforders of
the breaft and obftrudtions of the vifcera.
Ar.E-Conner, an officer in London, who infpedts the
meafures ufed in public-houfes. There are four ale¬
conners, who are all chofen by the common council of
the city.
AhE-Houfes muft be licenfed by juftices. of the peace,
who take recognizances of the perfons licenfed, and of
their fureties, viz. 101. each, that they wiu not fuffer
unlawful gaming, nor other diforderly praftices in their
houfes. Every perfon, excepting thofe who fell ale
in fairs, neglecting to procure a licence, is liable to a
penalty of 40 s. for the firft offence, 4 I. for the fecond,
and 61. for the third, with all cofts. The licence is
granted on the firft of September, or within twenty
days after, at a general meeting of the juftices for the
divifion to which he belongs, upon his producing a
certificate to his character, unlefs, by living in a city
' or town-corporate, this laft circumftance is drfpenfed
with, and continues in force for one year only. Ale-
houfe keepers, felling ale in ftiort meafure, are liable to
a penalty not exceeding 40s. and not lefs than 10s. and
likewife'to a fine of 10s. for permitting tipling, &c.
By 29th Geo. II. c. 12. perfons keeping ale-houfes
in Scotland (hall be licenfed as in England, and the
juftices there (hall meet annually to licenfe ale-houfes ;
on each of winch licenfes a fee of 1 s. is payable to the
clerk' of the peace. Magiftrates of royal boroughs
(hall meet yearly for the like pnrpofe ; but where there
(hall not be a fufficient number of magiftrates to aft in
any royal borough, juftices may grant, licenfes, to be in
force for one year only. Ibid.
Perfons in Scotland convifted of keeping unlicenfed A’c
ale-houfes (hall forfeit for the firft offence 5 s. for the j|
fecond 10 s. for the third 20 s. and to be difqualified ; mean°fa°"
and for every fubfequent offence 40 s. to be levied by —y—
diftrefs and fale, one moiety to the informer, the other
to the poor of the parifli. Conviftion to be intimated
to the offender, an j certified to the clerk of the peace,
and recorded : but perfons aggrieved may appeal to
the quarter feffions. Ibid.
Licenfes for houfes on the military roads in Scot¬
land (hall be iffued on payment of 1 s. only to the clerk
of the peace : making out licenfes before the fame be
(lamped, is a penalty of 1 o 1. and making them con¬
trary to the intention of this aft, 5 1. and the fame
(hall be vacated, unlefs tjie duty and fine be paid, and
the receipt produced, and licenfe (lamped. Ibid.
ALE-Silver, a fax paid annually to the lord-mayor of
London, by all who fell ale within the city.
ALEA, in Roman antiquity, denotes in general all
manner of games of chance ; but, in a more reftrifted
fenfe, was ufed for a particular game played with dice
and tables, not unlike our backgammon.
ALEANDER (Jerome), cardinal and archbifliop
ofBrindifi, was born in 1480.; and diftinguiftied himfelf
at the beginning of the reformation, by the oppofition
he made to Luther: for being fent into Germany as
the pope’s nuncio in 1519, he afted, as occafibn ferved,
in the charafter both of ambaflador and doftor; and
declaimed three hours together againft Luther’s doc¬
trine before the diet of Worms, but could not prevent
that celebrated reformer from being heard in that diet.
He publiftied feveral works^ and died at Rome in 1542.
Aleander. (Jerome), a learned man of the feven-
teenth century, born in the principality of Friuli, of the
fame family with the preceding. When he went to
Rome, he was employed as fecretary under cardi¬
nal Oftavius Bandini, and difeharged this office with
great honour for almoft twenty years. He afterwards,
by the perfuafion of Urban VIII. who had a great e-
fteem for him, became fecretary to Cardinal Barberini,
whom he accompanied to Rome when he went there
in the charafter of legate a latere, and in whofe fer-
vice he died in 1631. He was one of the firft mem¬
bers of the academy of Humorifts, wrote a learned trea-
tife in Italian on the device of the fociety, and difplay-
ed his genius on many'different fubjefts. Barberini
gave him a magnificent funeral at the academy of Hu¬
morifts ; the academifts carried his corpfe to the grave;
and Gafpar Simeonibus, one of-the members, made his
funeral oration.
ALECTO, one of the Furies, daughter of Ache¬
ron and Night, or, as others would have it, of Pluto
and Proferpine.
ALECTO RIA, a (lone faid to be formed in the
gall-bladders of old cocks, to which the ancients a-
feribed many fabulous virtues. This is otherwife cal¬
led Alettorius Lapis, fometimes Aleclorolilhos, in Eng-
lifti the cock-Jlone. The more modern naturalifts hold
the akftorius lapis to be originally fwallowed down,
not generated in, the ftomach or gizzard of cocks and
capons. It is known that many of the fowl-kind make
a pfaftice of (wallowing pebbles, as it is fuppofed to
be of fervice in the bufinefs of trituration and digeftion.
ALECTOROMANTIA, in antiquity, a fpecies
of divination performed by means of a cock. This is
3 B 2 other-
ALE [ 380 ] ALE
othervvi'fe called Alettryomancy ; of which there appear a foundling. His father, informed of this circum- AlemBcrf.
to have been different fpecies. But that moft fpoken fiance, liflened to the voice of nature and duty, took'
of by authors was in the following manner : A circle meafures for the proper education of his child, and for
being defcribed on the ground, and divided into twen- his future fubfiftence in a flate of eafe and indepen-
ty-four equal portions, in each of thefe fpaces was dence.
written one of the letters of the alphabet, and on each He received his firfl education in the College of the
of the letters was laid a grain of wheat; after which, Four Nations, among the Janfenifts, where he gave
a cock being turned loofe in the circle, particular no- early marks of capacity and genius. In the firfl year
■ 1 <- -1 L  of his philofophical fludies, he compofed a Coramen-
t ice was taken of the grains picked up by the cock
becaufe the letters under them, being formed into a
word, made the anfwer defired. It was thus, accor¬
ding to Zonaras, that Libanius and Jamblicus fought
who fhould fucceed the emperor Valens; and the cock
eating the grains anfwering to the fpaces ©eoa, fe-
veral whofe names began with thofe letters, as Theo-
dotus, Theodifles, Theodulus, &c. were put to death j
which did not hinder, but promote, Theodofius to the
fucceflion. But the flory, however current, is but ill
fupported: It has been called in quellion by fome,
and refuted by others, from the filence of Marcellinus,
Socrates, and other hiftorians of that time.
A-LEE, in the fea-language, a term only ufed when
the wind, crofling or flanking the line of a fliip’s
_ courfe, prefles upon the mafts and fails fo as to make
her incline to one fide, w’hich is called the lee-fide r
hence, when the helm is moved over to this fide, it is faid
to be a-Ue, or hard-a-lee.
ALEGAMBE (Philip), a celebrated Jefuit, born
at Bruflels in 1592, diftinguiflied himfelf by publiihing
tary on the Epiftle of St Paul to the Romans. The
Janfeniils confidered this produftion as an omen that
portended to the party of Port-Royal a reftoration
to fome part of their ancient fplendor, and hoped to
find one day in M. d’Alembert a fecond PafcaL, To
render this refemblance more complete,, they engaged
their rifing pupil in the ftudy of the mathematics.; but
they foon perceived that his growing attachment to
this fcience was likely to difappoint the hopes they had
formed with refpedl to his future deftination : they,
therefore, endeavoured to divert him from, this line ;
but their endeavours were fruitlefs-
At his leaving college, he found himfelf alone and
unconnedled in the world ; and fought an afylum in
the houfe of his nunfe^. He comforted himfelf with the
hope, that his fortune, though not ample, would bet¬
ter the condition and fubfiftence of that family', which
was the only one that he could confider as his own 1
Here, therefore, he took up his refidence, refolving to
apply himfelf entirely to the ftudy of geometry : And
a Bibliotheque of the writers of his order, and died at here he lived, during the fpace of forty years, with the
Rome in 1652.
ALEGRETTE, a fmall town of Portugal, in A-
lentejo, on the confines of Port Alegre, on the river.
greateft fimplicity, difcovering the augmentation of his
means only by increafing difplays of his beneficence, con¬
cealing his growing reputation and celebrity from thefe
Caja, which falls into the Guadiana, a little below Ba- honeft people, and making their plain and uncouth
jadozj
■ the frontiers of Spanilh Eftremadura.. It manners the fubjeft of good-natured pleafantry and
is a very pretty town, and finely fituated ; feven miles philofophical obfervation. His good nurfe perceived
fouth-eaft of Port Alegre, and thirty north of Elvas,
W. Long. 5. 20. N. Lat. 39. 6«„
ALEIUS CAMPUS (anc. geog.}, a plain in Cili¬
cia, on this fide the river Pyramus, near the mountain
Chimera, famous for Bellerophon’s wandering and pe-
his ardent a&ivity; heard him mentioned as the writer
of many books ; but never took it into her head that
he was a great man, and rather beheld him with a kind
of compaffion. “ Tou ‘will never^ faid Are to him one
day, “ be any thing but a philofopher—and what is a
ri firing there, after being thrown off Pegafus; which is philofopher?—a fool, who toils and plagues himfelf during
the reafon of the appellationi.
ALEMANIA, or Allemania, fane.geog.) a name
of Germany, but not known before the time of the
Antonines, and then ufed only for a part. After the
Marcomanni and their allies had removed from the
Rhine,, a,rabble, or collection of people from all parts
of Gaul, as the term Alemanni denotes, prompted
his life, that people may talk ofhim when heisnomore.’
As M. d’Alembert’s fortune did not far exceed the
demands of neceflity, his friends advifed him to think
of a profefiion that might enable him to augment it.
He accordingly turned his views to the law, and took
his degrees in that line; but foon abandoned this
plan, and applied to the ftudy of medicine. Geome-
either by levity or poverty, occupied the Agri, called try, however, was always drawing him back to his for-
Decumates by Tacitus, becaufe they held them
tithe; now fuppofed to be the duchy of Wirtemburg.
Such appear to be the fmall beginnings of Alemania,
which was in after-times greatly enlarged : but ftill
it was confidered as a diftinft part; for Caracalla,
who conquered the Alemanni, affumed the furname both
of Alemannicus and Germanicus.
ALEMBDAR, an officer in the court of the Grand
Signior, who bears the green ftandard of Mahomet,
when the fultan appears in public on any folemn occa-
fion.
purfuits, and after many ineffe&ual efforts to refill
its attractions, he renounced all views of a lucrative,
profeffion, and gave himfelf over entirely to mathema¬
tics and poverty.
In the year 1741 he was admitted member of the
Academy of Sciences ; for which diftinguilhed literary
promotion, at fuch an early age, he had prepared the * rjie
way by correcting the errors of a celebrated work **1^ demon
which was deemed claffical in France in the line of gt-free of F.
ometry. He afterwards fet himfelf to examine, with Beinau.
deep" attention and afiiduity, what muft be the motion
ALEMBERT (John le Rond d’), an eminent of a body which paffes from one fluid into another
French philofopher, was born at Paris in 1717. He more denfe, in a direction not perpendicular to the
derived the name of John le Rond from that of the furface feparating the two fluids. Every one knows
church near which, after his birth, he was expofed as the phenomenon which happens in this cafe, and which,
aroufes-.
ALE [ 381 ] ALE
Alembert, amufes children under the denomination of Ducks and
V-—v 1 Drakes; but M. d’Alembert was the firft who explain¬
ed it in a fatisfa&ory and philofophical manner.
Two years after his election to a place in the acade¬
my, he publifhed his Treatife on Dynamics. The new
principle developed in this treatife confided in dta-
blifliing equality, at each inftaat, between the changes
that the motion of a body has undergone, and,the for¬
ces or powers which have been employed to produce
them ; or to exprefs the thing otherwife, in feparating
into two parts the a&ion of the moving powers, and
confidering the one as producing alone the motion of -
the body, in the fecond inftant, and the other as em¬
ployed to deftroy that which it had in the full.
So early as the year 1744, M. d’Alembert had ap¬
plied this principle to the theory of the equilibrium,
and the motion of fluids ; and all the problems before
folved by geometricians became, ia fome meafure, its
corollaries. The difeovery of this new principle was
followed by that of a new calculus, the firft trials of
which were publiflied in a Difcourfe on the general Theo¬
ry of the Winds, to which the prize-medal was adjudg¬
ed by the academy of Berlin in the year 1746, and
which was a new and brilliant addition to the fame of
M. d’Alembert. This new calculus of partial differ¬
ences he applied, the year following, to the problem of
vibrating chords, whofe folution, as well as the theory
of the ofcillations of the air and the propagation of
found, had been given but incompletely by the geome¬
tricians who preceded him, and thefe were his mailers
or his rivals.
In the year 1749 he furnifhed a method of applying
his principle to the motion of any body of a given fi¬
gure ; and he folved the problem of the preceflion of
the equinoxes, determined its quantity, and explained
the phenomenon of the nutation of the terreftrial axis
difeovered by Dr Bradley.
In 1752, M. d’Alembert publifhed a treatife on the
Reftjiance of Fluids, to which he gave the modeft title
of an Rffay ; but which contains a multitude of origi¬
nal ideas and new obfervations. About the fame time
he publifhed, in the Memoirs of the Academy of Ber¬
lin, Refearches concerning the Integral Calculus, which
is greatly indebted to him for the rapid progrefs it has
made in the prefent century.
While the ftudies of M. d’Alembert were confined
to geometry, he was little known or celebrated in his
native country*. His connexions were limited to a
fmall fociety of feleX friends : he had never feen any
man in high office except Meffrs d’Argenfon. Satis¬
fied with an income which furnifned him with the ne-
ceffaries of life, he did not afpire after opulence or ho¬
nours, nor had they been hitherto beftowed upon him,
as it is eafier to confer them on thofe who folicit them,
than to look out for men who deferve them. His
cheerful converfation, his fmart and lively failles, a hap¬
py knack at telling a flory, a Angular mixture of ma¬
lice of fpeech with goodnefs of heart, and of delicacy
of wit with fimplicity of manners, rendered him a plea-,
fmg and interefling companion, and' his company con-
fequently was much fought after in the fafhionable cir¬
cles. His reputation, at length, made its way to the
throne, and rendered him the objeX of royal attention
and beneficence.. He received alfo a penfion from go¬
vernment, which he owed to the friendfhip of Count Alembert.
d’Argenfon. ' » *
The tranquillity of M. d’Alembert was abated when
his fame grew more extenfive, and when it was known
beyond the circle of his friends, that a fine and enlight¬
ened talle for literature and philofophy accompanied
his mathematical genius. Our author’s eulogift aferibes
to envy, detraXion, and to other motives nearly as un¬
generous, all the difapprobation, oppofition, and cen-
fure that M. d’Alembert met with on account of the
publication of the famous Encyclopedical DiXionary of
Arts and Sciences, in conjunXion with Diderot. None
finely will refufe the well-deferved tribute of applaufc
to the eminent difplays of genius, judgment, and true
literary tafte, with which M. d’Alembert has enriched
the great work now mentioned. Among others, the
Preliminary Difcourfe he has affixed to it, concerning
the rife, progrefs, connexions, and affinities of all the
branches of human knowledge, is perhaps one of the
moil capital produXions of which the philofophy of the
prefent age can boaft. Nor will it be difputed, that Monthly
the mailer-builders of this new and ftupendous temple ^evu'"v fc:r
of fcience, for the worlhip of Nature, had alfo really ^ar'
in view the advancement of human knowledge, and the
improvement of the arts and fciences. This, no true,
no candid philofopher, will call in queftion. But that
in the inner court of this temple there was a confede¬
racy formed againll all thofe who looked higher than
nature, for the principal objeX of their veneration and
confidence, is a faX too palpable, nay too boldly avow¬
ed, to Hand in heed of any proof.
Some time after this, d’Alembert publilhed his Phi¬
lofophical, Hillorical, and Philological Mifcellanies.
Thefe were followed by the Memoirs of Chrillina Queen
of Sweden ; in which M. d’Alembert (bowed that he
was acquainted with the natural rights of mankind, and
was bold enough to aflert them. His Ejfay on the In-
tercourfe of Men of Letters with Perfons high in Rank
and Office, wounded the former to the quick, as it ex-
pofed to the eyes of the public the ignominy of thofe
fervile chains, which they feared to fhake off, or were
proud to wear. A'lady of the court hearing one day
the author accufed of having exaggerated the defpo-
tifm of the great, and the fubmiffion they require, an-
fwered flyly, If he had confulted me, I would have told
him fill more of the matter.
M. d’Alembert gave very elegant fpecimens of his
literary abilities in his tranflations of fome feleX pieces
of Tacitus. But thefe occupations did not divert him
from his mathematical ftudies : for about the fame time
he enriched the Encyclopedic with a multitude of ex¬
cellent articles in that line, and compofed his Refearch¬
es on fever al important Points of the Syftem ofthe Wor Id,
in which he carried to a higher degree of perfeXion
the folution of the problem of the perturbations of the
planets, that had feveral years before been prefented to
the Academy.
In 1759 he publiffied his Elements of Philofophy: a
work extolled as remarkable for its precifion and per- -
fpicuity ; in which, however, are fome tenets relative -
both to metaphyfics and moral fcience,.. that are far
from being admiffible..
The refentment that was kindled (and the difputes
that followed it) by the article Geneva, inferted in the
Encyclopedia,
ALE [ 382 ] ALE
Alembert Encyclopedic, are well known. M. d’Alembert did
Alembroth not -^eave t^l‘3 controverfy with flying colours.
. ^ .’Voltaire was an auxiliary in the conteft : but as, in
point of candour and decency, he had no reputation
to lofe ; and as he weakened the blows of his enemies,
ty throwing both them and the fpeftators into fits of
laughter, the iffue of the war gave him little uneafi-
•nefs. It fell more heavily on d’Alembert; and expofed
him, even at home, to much contradiction and oppofi-
iion.
It was on this occafion that the late king of Prufila
offered him an honourable afylum at his court, and the
place of prefident of his academy; and was not of¬
fended at his refufal of thefe diftinCtions, but culti¬
vated an intimate friendihip with him during the reft
of his life. He had refufed, fome time before this,
a propofal made by the emprefs of Ruffia to intruft
him with the education of the Grand Duke ;— a pro¬
pofal accompanied with all the flattering offers that
could tempt a man, ambitions of titles, or defirous of
making an ample fortune : but the objc&s of his am¬
bition were tranquillity and ftudy.
In the year 1765, he publiihed his Dijfertation on
the Dejiruftion of the Jefuits. This piece drew upon
him a fwarm of adverfaries, who confirmed the merit
.and credit of his work by their manner of attacking
•it.
Befide , the works already mentioned, he publifhed
nine volumes of memoirs and treatifes, under the title
of Opufcules ; in which he has folved a multitude of
problems relative to aftronomy, mathematics, and na¬
tural philofophy ; of which our panegyrift gives a par¬
ticular account, more efpecially of thofe which exhibit
new fubjefts, or new methods of inveftigation.
He publifhed alfd Elements of Mufc; and rendered,
at length, the fyftem of Rameau intelligible; but he
did not think the mathematical theory of the fonorous
body fufficient to account for the rules of that art.
He was always fond of mufic ; which, on the one
hand, is connected with the moft fubtle and learned
refearches of rational mechanics ; while, on the other,
•its power over the fenfes and the foul exhibits to phi-
lofophers phenomena no lefs lingular, and ftill more in-
■explicable.
In the year 1772 he was chofen fecretary to the
French academy. He formed, foon after this prefer¬
ment, the defign of writing the lives of all the deteafed
academicians, from 1700 to 1772 ; and in the fpace of
.three years he executed this defign, by compofing 70
reulogies.
M. d’Alembert died on the 29th of Oftober 1783.
There were many amiable lines of candour, modefty,
difintereftednefs, and beneficence, in his moral charac¬
ter ; which are defcribed, with a diffufive detail, in his
eulogium, by M. Condorcet, Hifl. de f Acad. Royale
des Sciences, 1783.
ALEMBIC, a chemical veffel, ufually made of glafs
or copper, formerly ufed for diftillation. The bottom
part, which contained the fubjett for diftillation, is
called, from its lhape, the cucurbit; the upper part,
which receives and condenfes the fteam, is called the
• head, the beak of which is fitted into the neck of a
receiver. Retorts, and the common <worm-Jlill, are
now more generally employed.
ALEMBROTH, in the writings of the alchemifts,
5
a word ufed for a fort of fixed alkaline fait, which had Alenio i
the power of the famous alkaheft, in diffblving bodies, U
opening the pores of moft or all known fubftances, and ,
thence, as well as by deftroying fulphurs, promoting
the feparation of metals from their ores.—It is alfo
ufed for a compound of corrofive mercury and fal am¬
moniac. See Chemistry.
ALENIO (Julius), a Jefuit, born at Brefcia in the
republic of Venice. He travelled into the eaftern
countries ; and arrived at Maca in 1610, where he
taught mathematics. From thence he went to the
empire of China, where he continued to propagate the
Chriftian religion for thirty-fix years. He was the
firft who planted the faith in the province of Xanfi,
and he built feveral churches in the province of Fokien.
He died in Auguft 1649, leaving behind him feveral
works in the Chinefe language.
ALENTEJO, a province of Portugal, between the
rivers of Tajo and Guadiana : the foil is very fertile,
and the inhabitants laborious and induftrious. The
principal town is Ebora.
ALENZON, a large handfome town of France, in
lower Normandy, with the title of a duchy. It is
furrounded with good walls, and flanked with towers.
The caftle was formerly a place of great confequence,
and has held out long fiegCs. It has but one parilh-
church, which has a bold and noble front. Among the
nunneries, that of St Clair ig moft remarkable. It is
feated on the river Sarte, in a vaft open plain, which
produces all forts of corn and fruit. Near it there are
quarries of ftone fit for building, wherein are found
a fort like Briftol ftones. The linen made at Alenzon .
is very good, and fells at Paris. It is 20 miles north
of Mans, 63 fouth-by-weft of Rouen, and 88 fouth-
weft of Paris. Lon. o. 10. N. lat. 48. 25.
ALEPPO, or Halab, the capital of the Pachalic,
and of all Syria, and the ordinary refid'ence of the pa¬
cha, is fituated in the vaft plain which extends from
the Orontes to the Euphrates, and which towards the
fouth terminates in the defert. It is built on eight
hills or eminences, on the higheft of which the caftle
is eredfed, and is fuppofed to be the ancient Beraea.
This mount is of a conic form, and feems in a great
meafure to be railed with the earth thrown up put of
a deep broad ditch which furrounds it. The fuburbs
to the north-north-eaft are next in height to this, and
thofe to the weft-fouth-weft are much lower than the
parts adjacent, and than any other part of the city.
The houfes are large and commodious, having terraces
on their tops, and generally fley-lights in form of a
dome to let the light into the rooms, which from their
-loftinefs, the gilding on the window-ftiutters,' cup-
board-doors, &c. have at firft entrance a very grand
and agreeable effedl. They are all fo equal in height,
that there are feldom any fteps to afcend or defcend in
going from one houfe to another ; while feveral large
vaulted ftreets increafe the facility of communication,
by affording a paffage to every part of the city free
from the embarraffment of the open ftreets. They are
carefully paved ; have gutters and a foot-pavement on
-each fide; and the middle of the ftreet is laid with
brick, the fmall end upwards, for the convenience of
the horfes. There is alfo a cleanlinefs obferved here
unknown to the other cities of Turkey, and which is
not attended with the trouble of our fcavengers, there
being
ALE [ 383 ] ALE
Aleppo, being afs-drivers who go about the city and take up
——v the rubbifh and dull, which each inhabitant is ob’iged
to fweep together ; and though the heat of the climate
renders this labour more eafy, the fame heat obliges
them to greater cleanlinel’s in order to preferve the fa-
lubrity of the air.
The moft^es in Aleppo are numerous, and fome few
of them magnificent. Before each of them is an area,
with a fountain in the middle, deiigned for ablutions
before prayers ; and behind fome of the larger there are
little gardens. There are many large khans, or cara-
vanferas, confilling of a capacious fquare, on all fides
of which are a number of rooms, built on a ground-
floor, ufed occalionally for chambers, ware-houfes, or
ftables. Above flairs there is a colonade or gallery on
every fide, in which are the doors of a number of fmall
rooms, wherein the merchants, as well ftrangers as na¬
tives, tranfaft moft of their bufmefs.
The bazars or market-places are long covered nar¬
row ftreets, on each fide of which are a great number
of fmall {hops, juft fufficient to hold the tradefman and
his goods, the buyer being obliged to Hand without.
Each feparate branch of bufinefs has a particular bazar,
which-is locked up, as well as the ftreets, an hour and
a half after fun-fet: but the locks are of wood, though
the doors are cafed with iron. The flaughter-houfes
are in the fuburbs, open to the fields. The tanners
have a khan to work in near the river. To the fouth-
ward in the fuburbs they burn lime ; and a little be¬
yond that there is a village where they make ropes and
catgut. On the oppofite fide of the river, to the weft-
ward, there is a glafs-houfe, where they make a coarfe
white glafs, in the winter only; for the greateft part of
this manufaclure is brought from a village 3.5 miles
weftward.
The fituation of Aleppo, befide the advantage of
a rich and fruitful foil, poflefies alfo that of a ftream
of frelh water, which never becomes dry. This rivu¬
let, which is about as large as that of the Gobelins at
Paris, or the New River near London, rifes in the
mountains of Aentab, and terminates fix leagues be¬
low Aleppo, in a morafs full of wild boars and pelicans.'
Near Aleppo, its banks, inftead of the naked rocks
which line them in the upper part of its courfe, are
covered with a fertile earth, and laid out in gardens,
or rather orchards, which, in a hot country, and efpe-
cially in Turkey, cannot but be delightful. The city
is in itfelf one of the moft agreeable in Syria, and is
perhaps the cleaneft and beft built of any in Turkey,
On whatever fide it is approached, its numerous mi¬
narets and domes prefent an agreeable profpedt to the
eye, fatigued with the continued famenefs of the brown
and parched plains. In the centre is an artificial moun¬
tain furrounded by a dry ditch, on which is a ruinous
. fortrefs. From hence we have a fine profpedt of the
whole city, and to the north difcover the fnowy tops
of the mountains of Bailan; .and on the weft, thofe
which feparate the Orontes from the fea ; while to the
fouth aud eaft, the eye can difcern as far as the Eu¬
phrates. In the time of Omar, this caftle flopped the
progrefs of the Arabs for feveral months, and was at
laft taken by treachery, but at prefent would not be
able to refill the feebleft aflault. Its flight wall, low,
and without a buttrefs, is in ruins; its little old tow¬
ers are in no better condition ; and it has not four can¬
non fit for fervice, not excepting a culverine nine Aleppo.,
feet long, taken from the Perfians at the fiege of'——"''T"-
Baflbra. Three hundred and fifty Janifaries, who
Ihould form the garrifon, are bufy in their Ihops, and
the aga fcarcely finds room in it to lodge his retinue.
It is remarkable that this aga is named immediately
by the Porte, which, ever fufpicious, divides as much
as poflible the different offices. Within the walls of
the caftle is a well, which, by means of a fubterrane-
ous communication, derives its water from a fpring a
league and a quarter diftant. In the environs of the
city, we find a number of large fquare Hones, on the
top of which is a turban of Hone, which are fo many
tombs. There are many riling grounds round it,,
which, in cafe of a fiege, would greatly facilitate the
approaches of the affailants. Such, among others, is-
that on which the houfe of the Derviches Hands, and
which commands the canal and the rivulet: Aleppo,
therefore, cannot be efteemed a place of importance
in war, though it be the key of Syria to the north ;•
but, confidered as a commercial city, it has a different
appearance. It is the emporium of Armenia and the
Diarbekar ; fends caravans to Bagdad and into Perfia
and communicates with the Perfian gulph and India,
by Baffora, with Egypt and Mecca by Damafcus, and
with Europe by Skandaroon (Alexandretta) and La-
takia. Commerce is there principally carried on by
barter. The chief commodities are raw or fpun cot¬
tons, clumfy linens fabricated in the villages ; ftlk Huffs-
manufactured in the city, copper, lour res (coarfe cloths)
like thofe of Rouen, goats hair brought from Natolia v
the gall nuts of the Kourdeftan, the merchandife of
India, fuch as lhawls and muflins, and piftachio nuts
of the growth of the neighbourhood. The articles
fupplied by Europe are the Languedoc cloths, cochi¬
neal, indigo, fugar, and fome other groceries, The
coffee of America, though prohibited, is introduced,,
and ferves to mix with that of Moka. The French
have at Aleppo a conful and feven counting-houfes ;
the Englilh and the Venetians two, and the merchants
of Leghorn and Holland' one. The emperor appoint¬
ed a conful there in 1784, in the perfon of a rich Jew
merchant, who lhaved his beard to affume the uniform
and the fword. Ruffia has alfo fent one very lately.
Aleppo is not exceeded in'extent by any city in
Turkey, except Cohftantinople and Cairo, and per¬
haps Smyrna. The number of inhabitants has been
computed at 200,000but in thefe calculations
certainty is impoffible. However, if we obferve
that this city is not larger than Nantes or Mar-
feilles, and that the houfes confift only of one ftory,
we ftiall perhaps not think it probable they exceed-
100,000. The people of this city, both Turks and.
Chriftians, are with reafon efteemed the moft civilized
in all Turkey ; and the European merchants no where
enjoy fo much liberty, or are treated with fo much re-
fpedl-
The air of Aleppo is-very dry a,nd. piercing, but at
the fame time very falubrious for all who are not trou¬
bled with afthmatic complaints.. The city, however,
and the environs, are fubjedl. to a Angular endemia!
dilbrder, which is called the ringworm or pimple of
Aleppo ; it is in fa6l a pimple which is at firft inflam¬
matory, and at length becomes an ulcer of the .fize of
the nail. The ufual duration of this ulcer, is one year
ALE [ 34 ] ALE
•Aleppo. It commonly fixes on the face, and leaves a fear which
v—disfigures almoft all the inhabitants. It is alleged that
every ftranger who refides there three months is at¬
tacked with it; experience has taught that the bell
mode of treatment is to make ufe of no remedy. No
reafon is affigned for this malady : but M. Volney fu-
fpefts it proceeds from the quality of the water, as it
is likewife frequent in the neighbouring villages, in
feme parts of the Diarbekar, and even in certain di-
ftrifts near Damafcus, where the foil and the water
have the fame appearances. Of the Chridian inhabi¬
tants the greater number are Greeks, next to them
the Armenians, then the Syrians, and laftly the Ma-
ronites ; each of whom have a church in the city called
yudida ; in which quarter, and the parts adjacent, moft
of them refide. The common language is the vulgar
Arabic, but the Turks of condition ufe the Turkifh.
Moft of the Armenians can fpeak the Armenian, fome
few Syrians underftand Syriac, and many of the Jews
Hebrew; but fcarce one of the Greeks imderftand a
word of Greek. The people in general are of a mid¬
dle ftature, and tolerably well proportioned ; but they
feem neither vigorous nor a&ive. Both fexes are hand-
fome' when young : but the beard foon disfigures the
men : and the women, as they come early to maturity,
alfo fade very foon ; females are generally married from
14 to 18 years of age, and many under 14. The
people of rank here are polite and affable, making al¬
lowances for that fuperiority which the Mahometan re¬
ligion inftrufts its votaries to affume over all who hold
a different faith. Their bread is generally of wheat
flour made into thin cakes, but very ill prepared, and
is generally eaten as foon as it comes out of the oven.
The principal people have fmall loaves of a finer flour,
which are well fermented and baked. Befides thefe,
there are a variety of bifeuits, moft of which are ftrew-
ed on the top with fome kind of feeds. The Euro¬
peans have very good bread, baked and prepared in the
French manner. All the inhabitants of both fexes
fmoke tobacco to great excefs; even the very fervants
have almoft conftantly a pipe in their mouths. Coaches
or carriages are not ufed here; therefore perfons of qua¬
lity rifle on horfeback in the city, with a number of
feryants v/alking before them, according to their rank :
‘ladies of the firft diftinflion are even compelled to walk
on foot in the.city, (or to any place at a moderate di-
ftance;; in longer journeys they are carried by mules,
in a kind of a couch clofe covered up. There are a
number of public bagnios in this city, which are ufed
by people of all ranks, except thofe of the higheftdiftinc-
tion, who commonly have baths and every other con¬
venience in their own houfes. Aleppo is 70 miles eaft
of Scandaroon, on the fea-coaft, and 175 north-by-eaft
of Damafcus. E. long. 37. 46. N. hit. 36. 12.
Aleppo {the Pacbalic of), one of the five govern¬
ments into which Syria is divided. It comprehends
the country extending from the Euphrates to the Me¬
diterranean, between two lines, one drawn from Scan¬
daroon to Beer, along the mountains ; the other from
Beles to the fea, by Mara and the bridge of Shoger.
This fpace principally confifts of two plains-; that of
Antioch to the weft, and that of Aleppo to the eaft:
the north and the fea coaft arc occupied by confidera-
bly high mountains, known to the ancients by the
names of Amanus and of Rhofus. In general, the
No ip. 2
foil of this government is fat and loamy. The lofty Aleppo,
and vigorous plants which ftioot up every where after
the winter rains prove its fertility, but its a&ual fruit-
fulnefs is but little. The greateft part of the lands lie
wafte ; fcarcely can we trace any marks of cultivation
in the environs of the towns and villages. Its princi¬
pal produce confifts in wheat, barley, and cotton, which
are found efpecially in the flat country. In the moun¬
tains, they rather choofe to cultivate the vine, mulber¬
ry, olive, and fig trees. The fides of the hills to¬
wards the fea-coaft are appropriated to tobacco, and
the territory of Aleppo to piftachios. The pafturage
is not to be reckoned, becaufe that is abandoned to the
wandering hordes of the Turkmen and Curds.
In the greater part of the pachalics the pacha is,
as his title imports, at once the viceroy and-tiarmcr-
general of the country ; but in that of Aleppo he does
not poffefs the latter office. This the Por-te has be¬
llowed on a mebaffel or colleclor, who is -immediately
accountable for what he receives. His leafe is only'
for a year. The prefent rent of his farm is 800 purfes
(above L.40,000) ; but to this mull be added the
price of the babouches (Turkilh flippers), or a prefent
of three or four thoufand pounds, to purchafe the fa¬
vour of the vifir and men in office. For thefe two
fums the farmer receives all the duties of the govern¬
ment ; which are, firft, The produce of import and
export duties on merchandife coming from Europe,
India, and Conftantinople, and on that exported in
exchange. Secondly, The taxes paid by the herds of
cattle brought every year by the Turkmen and Curds
from Armenia and the Diarbekar, to be fold in Syria.
Thirdly, The fifth of the falt-works of Djeboul. And
laftly, The miri, or land-tax. Thefe united may pro¬
duce about L. 60,000.'
The pacha, deprived of this lucrative branch of the
adminiftration, receives a fixed allowance of about
L.8300. This revenue has always been inadequate
to the expences ; for, befides the troops he is obliged
to maintain, and the reparation of the highways and
fbrtreffes, the expences of which he is obliged to de¬
fray, he is under the neceffity of making large pre-
fents to the minifters, in order to keep his place ; but
the Porte adds to the account the contributions he
may levy on the Curds and Turkmen, and his extor¬
tions from the villages and individuals; nor do the
pachas come Ihort of this calculation. Abdi Pacha,
who governed 13 or 14 years ago, carried off, at the
end of 15 months, upwards of L. 160,000, by laying
under contribution every trade, even the very cleaners
of tobacco-pipes ; and very lately another of the fame
name has been obliged to fly for fimilar oppreffions.
The former was rewarded by the divan with the com¬
mand of an army againft the Ruffians; but if the lat¬
ter has not enriched himfelf, he will be ftrangled as an
extortioner. Such is 1 the ordinary progrefs of affairs
in Turkey!
In confequence of fuch wretched government, the
greater part of the pachalics in tire empire are impo-
verilhed and laid wafte. This is the cafe in particular
with that of Aleppo. In the ancient deftars, or re-
gifters of impofts, upwards of 3200 villages were rec¬
koned ; but at prefent the collector can fcarcely find
400. Such of our merchants as have refided there
20 years, have themfelves feen the greater part of the
environs
ALE
Aleria environs of Aleppo become depopulated. The travel-
A ler meets with nothing but houfes in ruins, citterns
. e ia’ . rendered ufelefs, and fields abandoned. Thofe who
cultivated them are fled into the towns, where the po¬
pulation is abforbed, but where at leaft the individual
conceals himfelf among the crowd from the rapacious
hand of defpotifm.
ALERIA, Alalia, or Alaria, (anc. geog.), a
town of Corfica, fituated near the middle of the eaft
fide of the ifland, on an eminence, near the mouth of
the river Rotanus mentioned by Ptolemy; built by the
Phocseans (Diodorus Siculus.) Afterwards Sylla led
a colony thither. It is now in ruins, and called Aleria
Dijlrutta.
ALES (Alexander), a celebrated divine of thecon-
feffi'on of Augfbourg, born at Edinburgh the 23d of
April 1500. He foon made a confiderable progrefs
in fchool-divinity, and entered the lifts very early a-
gainft Luther, this being then the great controverfy
in faihion, and the grand field wherein all authors
young and old ufed to difplay their abilities. Soon
after, he had a fhare in the difpute which Patrick Ha¬
milton maintained againft the ecclefiaftics, in favour of
the new faith he had imbibed at Marpurgh. He en¬
deavoured to bring him back to the Catholic religion;
but this he could not effeft, and even began himfelf to
doubt about his own religion, being much affedted by
the difcourfe of this gentleman, and ftill more by the
conftancy he fhowed at the flake, where David Beton
archbifhop of St Andrew’s caufed him to be burnt.
Beginning thus to waver, he was himfelf perfecuted
with fo much violence, that he was obliged to retire
into Germany, where he became at length a perfedl
convert to the Proteftant religion. The change of
religion which happened in England after the marriage
of Henry VIII. with'- Anna Bullen, induced Ales to
go to London in 1535. He was highly efteemed
by Cranmer archbifhop of Canterbury, Latimer, and
Thomas Cromwel, who were at that time in high fa¬
vour with the king. Upon the fall of thefe favourites,
he was obliged to return to Germany; where the elec¬
tor of Brandenburgh appointed him profeffor of divi¬
nity at Francfort upon the Oder, in 1540. But lea¬
ving this place upon fome difguft, he returned to Leip-
fic, where he was chofen profefibr of divinity, and died
in March 1565. He wrote a Commentary on St John,/
on the Epiftles to Timothy, and on the Pfalms, &c.
ALESA, Al/esa, or Halesa, (anc. geog.), a
town of Sicily, on the Tufcan fea, built, according to
Diodorus Siculus, by Archonides of Herbita, in the
fecond year of the 94th Olympiad, or 403 years before
Chritt; fituated on an eminence about a mile from the
fea: now in ruins. It enjoyed immunity from taxes
under the Romans (Diodorus, Cicero). The inhabi¬
tants were called Aalefmi (Cicero, Pliny); alfo Aleftni,
and ALeftni.
ALESHAM, a fmall neat town in Norfolk. It is
15 miles N. of Norwich, and 121 N. E. by N. of
London. E. Long. o. 30. N. Lat. 52. 53. The town
confifts of about 400 pretty good houfes; but the
ftreets are narrow, though well paved.
ALESIA, (anc. geog.) called Alexia by Livy and
others; a town of the Mandubii, a people of Celtic
Gaul; fituated, according to Caefar, on a very high
hill, whofe foot was wafhed on two fides by two rivers.
Vol. L Part I.
ALE
The town was of fuch antiquity, that Diodorus Sicu- A|et
lus relates it was built by Hercules. It is fuppofed to Alexander,
be the city of Alife, in the duchy of Burgundy, not far . v-— -
from Dijon.
ALET, a town of France, in Lower Languedoc,
with a bifhop’s fee. It is remarkable for its baths, and
for the grains of gold and filver found in the ftream
which runs from the Pyrenean mountains, at the foot
of which it ftands. It is feated on the river Aude,
ly miles S. of Carcafibne, and 37 N. W. of Narbonne.
E. Long. 2. 5. N. Lat. 42. 59.
ALETRIS, in botany, a genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants, and in
the natural method ranking under the 10th order, £>•»
ronarite. The characters are : The corolla is monope-
talous, funnel-ftiaped, hexangular, much corrugated, fe-
miquinquefid, and perfiftent: The Jlamina confift of fix
fubulated filaments, the length of the corolla, and infert-
ed into the bafe of the divifions of the corolla ; the an-
theras are oblong and erect: The pijlillum has an ovate
germen; the ftylus fubulated, and the length of the
ftamina; the ftigma is tfifid: The pericarpium is an
ovated capfule, triquetrous, pointed, and triocular
The feeds are numerous. Of this genus botanical wri¬
ters enumerate five
Species. 1. The farinofa, a native of Virginia, and
other parts of North America. 2. The capenfis, a na¬
tive of the Cape of Good Hope. 3. The hyacinthoi-
des, or Guinea aloe. 4. The zeylanica, or Ceylon
aloe. 5. The fragrana, or tree-aloe, a native of Africa.
Of thefe only the firft is fo hardy as to outlive the win¬
ter in Britain, unlefs placed in a ftove; and even this
requires to be flickered under a frame. The flowers
appear in June or July, of a whitifli green colour. The
third and fifth produce fine fpikes of white flowers;
thofe of the third kind appearing in July, of the fifth
in March or April. By proper management the laft
kind becomes a ftately plant, rifing to the height of 12
or 14 feet; the flowers open wide in the evening, and
perfume the air of the ftove. Thefe fend out one or
two heads, or tufts, towards their tops, which may be
cut off; and after they have lain a week in the ftove to
heal the wounded parts, they may be planted for in-
creafe. The other fpecies feldom or never flower iii
this country, nor does their appearance otherwife me¬
rit notice.
ALETUM, or Aleta, (anc. geog.) a town of
Celtic Gaul, now extindt. From its ruins arofe St
Malo, in Brittany, at the diftance of a mile. Its ruins
are called Guich Aleth in the Britifh.
ALEUROMANCY, the fame with what was o-
therwife called alphitomantia, and criihomanthia, and
means an ancient kind of divination performed by
means of meal or flower.
ALEXANDER the great, king of Macedonia.'
His father Philip laid the plan of that extenfive empire,
which his fon afterwards executed.—Philip, having
made himfelf matter of Greece, began to call his eyes
upon Perfia, with a view to retaliate upon that haughty
empire the injuries of former times. It was the po¬
pular topic of the day. But this prince was cut off in
the midft of his enterprife. Such, however, was the
influence of Alexander in the aflembly of the Grecian
ftates, that ,he was created general of their combined
fbrces in the room of his father. Having made every
3 C needful
[ 385 ]
ALE
Alexander, needful preparation, at the head of
invaded Afia. The lieutenants of Darius, who was
then king of Perfia, oppofed him at the river Grani-
cus, where Alexander obtained a complete victory, af¬
ter which he purfued his march through Afia. At
Iffus, near Scanderoon, he was met by Darius in per-
fon, at the head of a prodigious army. Here he ob¬
tained a fecond viftory ; and took the camp of Darius,
together with his family, whom he treated with the
utmoft humanity. Contrary to all the maxims of war,
inftead of purfuing Darius, he made an excurfion into
Egypt; and, as far as appears, through no better mo¬
tives than thofe of vanity. Here he was acknowledged
to be the fon of Jupiter Ammon. In the mean time
Darius recruited his ftrength, and got together an ar¬
my fuperior to what he brought into the plain of Iffus.
Alexander having finifhed his Egyptian expedition, tra-
verfed Afia, and paffed the Euphrates. At Arbella, a
town in Affyria, he met Darius. Here a decifive bat-
[ 386 3 ^ ALE
veteran army he “ expofe myfelf for the fake of being celebrated by Alexander.
<£ you?” But Bayle affirms, that this was quite con ' r—
fiftent with the vaft unbounded extent of his ambition,
as he wanted to make all future time his own, and be
an objedt of admiration to the lateft poflerity; yet did
not expedt this from the conqueft of worlds, but from.
books. He was perfedlly in the right, fays Bayle;
“ for if Greece had not furnifhed him with good wri-
“ ters, he would long ago have been as much forgot->
“ ten as the kings who reigned in Macedon before;
“ Amphitryon.”
Alexander has been praifed upon die fcore of con-
tinency, yet his.life could not Turely be quite-regular;
in that refpedt. Indeed, the fire of his early youth ap¬
peared fo cold towards women, that his. mother fuf-
pedled him to be impotent;, and,, to fatisfy herfelf in
this point, did, with the confent of Philip, procure a.
very handfome courtezan to, lie with him, whofe car-
reffes, however, were all to no purpofe. His behaviour
tie was fought, which put all Perfia into the hands of afterwards to the Perfian captives {hows him to have had
Alexander. His ambition not being fatisfied with the a great command over himfelf in this particular. The
conqueft of that vaft country, he projefted an expedi- wife of Darius was. a finiffied beauty; her daughters
tion into India. Here he met with great oppofition
from Porus, a gallant prince, whom in the end he re¬
duced. Beyond the Ganges lay a country ftill unfub-
dued. He notified it to his army, that he propofed to
pafs the river. But thefe veterans, harraffed with the-
fatigues, and feeing no end of their labour, mutinied,
likewife were ali.beauties yet this young prince, who
had them in his power, not only beftowed on them all
the honours due to their high rank, but managed their
reputation with the utmoft delicacy. They were kept
as in a clayfter concealed from the world, and fecured
from the reach of every diffionourable (riot only at-
and refufed to march further. The difappointed chief tack,, but J imputation. He did not give the leaft han-
was therefore obliged to return. At Babylon he pro- die to fcandal, either by his vilits, bis looks, or his
pofed to receive ambaffadors, appoint governors, and- words: and for other Perfian dames his prifoners.
fettle his vaft monarchy; but his exceffes put an end to
his life in the midft of his defigns, and ’
his age.
The character of this hero is fo familiar tor every bo¬
dy, that it is almoft needlefs labour to draw it. All
the world knows, fays Mr Bayle, that it was equally
compofed of very great virtues and very great vices.
He had no^mediocrity in any thing but his ftature
in his other properties, whether good or bad, he was
all extremes. His ambition rofe even to madnefs. His
father was not at all miftaken in fuppofing the bounds
of Macedon too fmall for his fon : for how could Ma¬
cedon bound the ambition of a man, who reckoned
the whole -world too fmall a dominion ? He wept at
hearing the philofopher Anaxarchus fay, that there was
qually beautiful in face and ffiape, he contented him-
the flower of felf with faying gaily, that they gave indeed much
pain to his eyes. Tfuy amazon Thaleftris could not
obtain from him a compliance with her gallant requeft
till after a delay of thirteen days. In the mean time,
what are we to conclude from his caufing his favourite
miftrefs Pancafte to be drawn naked by Apelles, the/'
it is true he gave her to the painter, who fijll in love
with her ? What of that immoderate love of boys,,
which Athenaeus relates of him ? What of that prodi¬
gious number of wives and concubines which he kept ?
His exceffes with regard to wine were notorious,
and beyond all imagination ; and he committed, when
drunk, a thoufand extravagancies. It was owing to
wine, that he killed Clytus who faved his life, and.
1 infinite number of worlds : his tears were owing to burnt Perfepolis, one of the moft beautiful cities of
his defpair of conquering them all, lince he had not the Eaft: he did this laft indeed at the indigation of
yet been able to conquer, one. Livy, in a fhort di-
greffion, has attempted to enquire into the events which
might have happened, if Alexander, after the conqneft
of Afia, had brought his arms into Italy ? Doubtlefs
the courtezan Thais; but this circumftance made it.
only the more heinous. It is generally believed, that
he died by drinking immoderately : and even Plutarch*
'ho affeits to contradict it, owns that he did nothing
things might have taken a very different turn with him; but drink the whole day he was taken ill.
and all the grand projects, which fucceeded lo well a- In fhort, to firm up the character of this prince, we
gainfit an effeminate Perfian monarch, might eafily have cannot be of opinion, that his good qualities did
mifearried if he had to do with rough hardy Roman
armies. And yet the vaft aims of this mighty con¬
queror, if feen under another point of view, may ap¬
pear to have been confined in a very narrow compafs;
lince, as we are told, the utmoft wifh of that great
heart, for which the whole earth was not big enough,
was, after all, to be praifed by the Athenians : for it
any wife compenfate for his bad ones. Heroes make
a noife : their aftions glare, and ftrike the fenfes for¬
cibly ; while the infinite deftruClion and mifery they
occafion lies more in the (hade, and out of fight. One
good legiflator is worth all the heroes that ever did or
will exift. See Macedon.
ALEXANDER ab Alexandro, a Neapolitan
is related, that the difficulties winch he encountered in lawyer, of great learning, who flouriflred toward the.
eider to pafs the Hydafpes, fo ced him to cry cut,
** O Athenians, could you believe to what dangers I
end of the 15th ' nd beginning of the 16th century.
He followed the profeffion of the law firft at Naples,
afterwards
Alexander.
ALE C 387 ] ALE
afterwards at Rome: but he devoted all the time he
could fpare to the ftudy of polite literature; and at
length he entirely left the bar, that he might lead a
more eafy and agreeable life with the mufes. The par¬
ticulars of his life are to be gathered from his work in-
titled Genialiuvi Dierum; We are there informed, that
he lodged at Rome, in A houfe that was haunted; and
he relates many furprifing particulars about the gholt:
he fays alfo, that when he was very young, he went to
the lectures of Philelphus, who explained at Rome the
Tufculan queftions of Cicero ; he was there alfo when
Nicholas Perot and Domitius Calderinus read their
lectures upon Martial. The particular time when he
died is not known; but he was buried in the monaftery
of the Olivets. Tiraquea wrote a learned commentary
upon his work, which was printed at Lyons in 1587,
and reprinted at Leyden in 1673, with the notes of
Dennis Godfrey, Chriflopher Colerus, and Nicholas
Mercerus.
ALEXANDER (Neckham), an eminent Englifh
writer in the 12th and 13th centuries, born at St Al¬
bans in Hertfordfhire. In 12x5 he was made abbot of
Exeter, and died in 1227. He wrote feveral works,
which were never publilhed; but they are to be found
in manufcript in the libraries of England and other
countries.
ALEXANDER (Noel) an indefatigable writer of
the 17th century, born at Roan in Normandy, 1639.
After finifhing his ftudies at Roan, he entered into the
order of Dominican friars, and was profeffed there in
1655. Soon after he went to Paris, to go through a
courfe of philofophy and divinity in the great convent,
where he diftinguifhed himfelf fo, that he was appoint¬
ed to teach philofophy there, which he- did for 1 2
years. Mr Colbert fhowed him many marks of his e-
fteem ; and being determined to omit nothing to per-
feft the education of his fon, afterwards archbilhop of
Roan, he formed an afiemly of the moft learned per-
fons, whofe conferences upon ecclefiaftical hiftory might
be of advantage to him. Father Alexander was in¬
vited to this affembly, where he exerted himfelf with
fo much genius and ability, that he gained the parti¬
cular friendfliip of young Colbert, who fhowed him the
utmoft regard as long as he lived. Thefe conferences
gave rife to Alexander’s defign of'writing an eccle-
fiaflical hiftory ; for, being defined to reduce what was
material in thefe conferences to writing, he did it with
fo much accuracy, that the learned men who compo-
fed this affembly, advifed him to undertake a complete
body of church-hiflory. This he executed with great
affiduity, collecting and digefling the materials him¬
felf, and writing even the tables with his own hand.
Fie at laft completed his work in 1686. Towards the
latter part of his life, he was afflicted with the lofs of
his fight; a moft inexpreffible misfortune to one whofe
whole pleafure was in ftudy, yet he bore it with great
patience and refigaation. He died merely of a decay
of nature, 1724, in the 86th year of his age.
Alexander Severus, emperor of Rome, fucceed-
ed Heliogabalus about A. D. 222, when but 16 years
of age. His mother’s name was Mammaea, and by her
advice he in a great meafure regulated his conduft. He
applied himfelf to the reformation of abufes, the ftate
having been greatly difordered by the vicious conduCt
of his predeceffor; he was a moft ftriCt lover of juftice,
an encourager of learning and learned men, and fa* Alexa
vourable to the Chriftians. He made a fuccefsful ex¬
pedition againft the Perfians ; but endeavouring to re*
form his troops, which had grown very licentious un¬
der the late bad government, they murdered him at the
inftigation of Maximinus in the 29th year of his age,
together wuth his mother, A. D. 235.
Alexander VI. (Pope), had four baftards when
he was cardinal, for one of which he had fo great af-
fection, that he ftuck at nothing to raife him. De-
figning to poifon fome cardinals, he was poifoned him¬
felf, A. D. 1503. See Borgia.
Alexander VII. (Pope). See Chigi.
Alexander Bilhop of Lincoln in the reigns of
Henry I. and Stephen, was a Norman by birth, and
nephew of the famous Roger, bifliop of Salilbury, who
firft made him archdeacon of Salifbury, and afterwards,
by his intereft with the king, raifed him to the mitre.
Alexander was confecrated at C&nterbury, July 22.
1123. Having received his education under his uncle
the bilhop of Salifbury, and been accuftomed to a fplen-
•did way of living, he affefted fhow and ftate more
than was fuitable to his character, or confiftent with
his fortunes. This failing excepted, he was a man of
worth and honour, and every way qualified for his fta-
tion. The year after his confecration, his cathedral
church at Lincoln having been accidentally burnt down,
he rebuilt it, and fecured it againft the like accident
for the future by a ftone roof. This prelate increafed
the number of prebends in his church, and augmented
its revenues with feveral manors and eftates. In imi¬
tation of the barons and fome of the bifhops, parti¬
cularly his uncle the bilhop of Salifbury, he built three
caftles; one at Banbury, another at Sleaford, and a
third at Newark. He likewife founded two mona-
fteries ; one at Haverholm, for regular canons and nuns
together, the other at Tame for white-friars.' He wrent
twice to Rome in the years 1142 and 1144. The firft
time, he came back in quality of the pope’s legate,
for the calling a fynod, in which he publifhed feveral
wholefome and neceflary canons. In Auguft 1147,
he took a third journey to the pope, wfflo was then in
France ; where he fell fick through the exceffive heat
of the weather, and returning with great difficulty to
England, he died in the 24th year of his prelacy.
Alexander (William), earl of Stirling, an eminent
Scots ftatefman and poet in the reigns of James I. and
Charles I. wfflo, after travelling wuth the duke of Ar-
gyle as his tutor or companion, wTote a poetical com¬
plaint of his unfucctfsful love of fome beauty, under
the title of Aurora. He then removed to the court of
James VI. where he applied to the more folid parts of
poetry, forming himfelf upon the plan of the Greek
and Roman tragedians. In 1607, he publifhed fome dra¬
matic performances, intitled The Monarchic Tragedies,
dedicated to king James ; who was fo well pleafed with
them, as to call him his philofophical poet. After this,
he is faid to have written A fupplement to complete the
third part of Sir Philip Sidney’s Arcadia; and in 1613,
he produced a poem called Doovifday, or the Great Day
of Judgment. He was made gentleman-ufher to prince
Charles, and mafter of the requefts; was knighted; and
obtained a grant of Nova Scotia, where he projected
the fettlement of a colony, but afterv/ard fold it to the
French. In 1626, he was made fecretary of ftate for
3 C 2 Scotland;
ALE [ 388 ] ALE
Alfltander Scotland; was created firft. vlfcount, and then earl, of
Alexan Stirling ; and died in 1640.
drettal" Alexander I. (St), whom St Ireneus reckons the
tf fifth bilhop of Rome, fucceeded St Evariftus in the
year 109, and died in the year 119. There is no ac¬
count of his life ; and the epiftles which are attributed
to him are fuppofitious.
Alexander II. king of Scotland, fucceeded his fa¬
ther William in 1213, at 16 years of age. He made
an expedition into England, to oppofe the tyranny of
king John ; who returned the vifit, and was offered bat¬
tle by Alexander, but refufed it. He took the city of
Carlifle from Henrylll. which was afterwards exchan¬
ged for Berwick. Alexander died in 1249, in the 51ft
year of his age, and 35th of his reign ; and left for his
fucceffor, his ion 
Alexander III. who was crowned king of Scotland
in j 249. The Cummings, lords of Scotland, took arms
againll him; and taking him prifoner, confined him at
Striveling : but he was afterwards releafed by his fnb-
jedts. He married the daughter of Henry III. king
of England ; and was at length killed by a, fall from
his horfe, on the 10th of April 1290, after having
reigned 42, or according to others 37, years.
ALEXANDERS, in botany. See Smyrnium.
ALEXANDREA, (anc. geog.) a mountain of
Myfia, on the fea-coaft, forming a part of mount Ida,
where Paris gave judgment on the three goddeffes.
ALEXANDRETTA, by the Turks called Scav-
deroon; a town in Syria, at the extremity of the Me¬
diterranean fea. It is the port of Aleppo, from which
it is diftanc 28 or 30 leagues. It is now, properly
fpeaking, nothing elfe but a village, without walls, in
which the tombs are more numerous than the houfes,
and which entirely owes its exiilence to the road which
it commands. This is the only road, in all Syria, where
veffels anchor on a foiid bottom, without their cables
being liable to chafe : but in other refpedls it has many
inconveniences. It is infefted, during winter, by a pecu¬
liar wind, called by the French failors k Raguier, which,
rufhing from the fnowy fummits of the mountains, fre¬
quently forces ftiips to drag their anchors feveral
leagues: And when the fnow begins to cover the
mountains which furround the Gulph, tempeftuous
winds arife which prevent veffels from entering for three
or four months together. The road alfo to Aleppo
by the plain is infefted by Curd robbers, who conceal
themfelves in the neighbouring rocks, and frequently
attack and plunder the ftrongeft caravans. But the
worft circumftanee is the extreme unwholefomenefs of
the air, occafioned here by ftagnant waters and mephi¬
tic exhalations. It may be affirmed, that this every
year carries off one-third of the crews of the veffels
which remain here during the fummer; nay, ffiips fre¬
quently lofe all their men in two months. The feafon
for this epidemic diforder is principally from May to
the end of September: it is an intermitting fever of
the moft malignant kind ; and is accompanied with ob-
ftruftions of the liver, which terminate in a dropfy.
To this baneful epidemic, Alexandretta, from its fitu-
ation, feems to be irremediably condemned: for the
plain on which the town is built is fo low and fiat, that
the rivulets, finding no declivity,can never reach the lea.
When they are fwelled by the winter rains, the fea,
fwelled likewife by temp efts, hinders their difeharging
themfelves into it: hence their waters, forced to fpread
themfelves, form lakes in the plain- On the approach
of the fummer, the waters becoming corrupted by the
heat, exhale vapours equally corrupt, and which can¬
not difperfe, being confined by the mountains that en¬
circle the gulph. The entrance of the bay befide's lies
to the weft, which in thofe countries is the moft un¬
healthy expofure when it correfponds with 'the fea.
The labour neceffary to remedy this would be immenfe,
and after all infufficient; and, indeed, fuch an under¬
taking would be abfolutely impoffible under a govern¬
ment like that of the Turks. A few years ago, Mr
Volney informs us, the merchants of Aleppo, difguft-
ed with the numerous inconveniences of Alexandretta,
wilhed to abandon that port and carry the trade to La-
takia. They propofed to the Pacha of Tripoli to re¬
pair the harbour at their own expence, provided he
would grant them an exemption from all duties for ten
years. To induce him to comply with their requeft,
the agent they employed talked much of the advantage
which would, in time, refult to the whole country :
“ But what fignifies it to me what may happen in time,
replied the Pacha? I was yefterday at Marach; to¬
morrow, perhaps, I (hall be at Djedda: Why ftrould I
deprive myfelf of prefent advantages, which are certain,
for future benefits I cannot hope to partake?” The
European factors were obliged therefore to remain at
Skandaroon. There are three of thefe factors, two for
the French, and one for the Englifh and Venetians.
The only curiofity which they have to amufe ftrangers
with confifts in fix or feven marble monuments, fent
from England, on which you read: Here lies fuch a one,
carried off in the flower of his age, by the fatal effetts of
a contagious air. The fight of thefe is the more di-
ftreffing, as the languid air, yellow complexion, livid
eyes, and dropfical bellies of thofe who thow them,
make it but too probable they cannot long efcape the
fame fate. It is true, they have fome refource in the
village of Bailan, the pure air and excellent waters of
which furprizingly reftore the fick. The Aga, for
fome years paft, has applied the duties of the cuftom-
houfe of Alexandretta to his own ufe, and rendered
himfelf almoft independent of the Pacha of Aleppo.
The Turkifh empire is full of fuch rebels, who fre¬
quently die in peaceable poffeffion of theirmfurpations.
ALEXANDRIA, now Scanderia, by Athenseus
called x?Uir»; a city of Lower Egypt, and for a long
time its capital. This city was built by Alexander the
Great, foon after the overthrow of Tyre, about 333
years before Chrift. It is fituated on the Mediterra¬
nean, twelve miles weft of that mouth of the Nile
anciently called Canopicutn; and lies in E. Long. 30..
19. N. Lat. 31. 10.
Alexander is faid to have been induced to build this
city, on account of its being conveniently fituated for
a fine port; and fo fudden was his refolution, that af¬
ter he had direfted where every public ftru&ure was
to be placed, fixed the number of temples, and the dei¬
ties to whom they fhould be dedicated, &c. there were
no inftruments at hand proper for marking out the
walls, according to the cuilom of thofe times. Upon
this, a workman advifed the king to collect what meal
was among the foldiers, and to fift it in lines upon the
ground, whereby the circuit of the walls would be
fufficiently marked out. This advice was followed;
A’exar.
dretta
Alexandria
ALE [ 389 ] ALE
Alexandria, and the new method of marking out the walls was, by
* ~~J Ariftander, the king’s foothfayer, interpreted as a pre-
fage of the city’s abounding with all the neceffaries of
life. Nor was he deceived in his prediftion ; for A-
lexandria foon became the ftaple, not only for merchan-
dife, but alfo for all the arts and fciences of the Greeks.
Alexandria was a league and a half long, by one-
third in breadth, which made the circumference of
its walls about four leagues. Lake Mareotis bathed
its walls on the fouth, and the Mediterranean on the
north. It was interfecfed lengthwife by ftraight pa¬
rallel ftreets. This direftion left a free paffage to the
northerly wind, which alone conveys coolnefs and fa-
lubrity into Egypt. A ftreet of 2000 feet wide be¬
gan at the gate of the fea, and terminated at the gate
of Canopus. It w-as decorated by magnificent houfes,
by temples, and by public buildings. In this extenfive
range, the eye was never tired with admiring the marble,
the porphyry, and the obeli fits, which were deftined at
fome future day to embellifh Rome and Conftantinople.
This ftreet, the handfomeft in the univerfe, was inter-
fedfed by another of the fame breadth, which formed
a fquare at their jun&ion of half a league in circumfe¬
rence. From the middle of this great place, the two
gates were to be feen at once, and veffels arriving un¬
der full fail from the north and from the fouth.
A mole of a mile in length flretched from the con¬
tinent to the ifle of Pharos, and divided the great har-
•bour into two. That which is to the northward pre¬
ferred its name. A dyke drawn from the ifland to the
rock whereon was built the Pharos, fecured it from the
wefterly winds. The other was called Eunoflos^ or the
Safe Return. The former is called at prefent the new,
the latter the old harbour: a bridge that joins the
mole to thq city, ferved for a communication between
them.' It was raifed on lofty pillars funk into the fea,
•and left a free pafiage for (hips. The palace, which
advanced beyond the promontory of lochias, extended
as far as the dyke, and occupied more than a quarter,
of the city. Each of the Ptolemies added to its mag¬
nificence. It contained within its inclofure, the mu-
feum, an afylum for learned men, groves, and buildings
worthy of royal majefty, and a temple where the body
©f Alexander was depofited in a golden coffin. The
infamous Seleucus Cibyofactes violated this monument,
carried off the golden coffin, and put a glafs one in its
place. In the great harbour was the little ifland of
Anti-Rhodes, where Hood a theatre, and a royal place
of refidence. Within the harbour of Eunoftc s was a
fmaller one, called Kjbotos, dug by the hand of man,
which communicated with Lake Mareotis by a canal.
Between this canal and the palace was the admirable
temple of Serapis, and that of Neptune near the great
place where the market was held.' Alexandria extend¬
ed likewife along the fonthern banks of the lake. Its
eaftertt part prefented to view the gymnafium, with its
porticoes of more than 600 feet long, fupported by fe-
veral rows of marble pillars. Without the gate of Ca¬
nopus was a fpacious circus for the chariot races. Be¬
yond that, the fuburb of Nicopolis ran along the fea-
fhore, and fee me d a fecond Alexandria. A fuperb
amphitheatre was built there with a race-ground, for
the celebration of the quinquennalia.
Such is the defeription left us of Alexandria by the
ancients, and above all by Strabo..
The architeft employed by Alexander in this un- A’t-randra,
dertaking was the celebrated Dinocrates, who had —-v—J
acquired fo much reputation by rebuilding the temple
of Diana at Ephefus. The city was firft rendered
populous by Ptolemy Soter, one of Alexander’s cap¬
tains, who, after the death of the Macedonian monarch,
being appointed governor of Egypt, form affumed the
title of king, and took up his refidence at Alexandria,
about 304 years before Chrift.
In the 30th year of Ptolemy Spter’s reign, he took
his fon Ptolemy Philadelphus partner with him in the
empire ; and by this prince the city of Alexandria was
much embellifhsd. In the firft year of his reign the
famous watch-tower of Pharos was finifhed. It had
been begun feveral years before by Ptolemy Soter;
and, when finifhed, was looked upon as one of the
wonders of the world. The fame year, the ifland of
Pharos itfelf, originally feven furlongs diftant from the
continent, was joined to it by a caufeway. This was the
work of Dexiphanes, who completed it at the fame
time that his fon put the laft hand to the tower. The
tower was a large fquare ftruclure of white marble ; on
the top of which fires were kept conftantly burning,
for the direction of failors. The building coft 800
talents ; which, if Attic, amounted to L. ] 65,000 ; if
Alexandrian, to twice that fum.
The architect employed in this famous ftrufture
fell upon the following contrivance to ufurp the whole
glory to himfelf. — Being ordered to engrave upon it
the following infeription, “ King Ptolemy to the
Gods the Saviours, for the benefit of Sailorsinftead
of the king’s name he fubftituted his own, and then
filling up the hollowof the marble with mortar, wrote
upon it the above mentioned infeription. In proeefs
of time, the mortar being wore off, the following in¬
feription appeared: “ Sostratus the Cnidian, the
fon of Dexiphanes, to the Gods the Saviours, for the
benefit of Sailors.”
This year alfo was remarkable for the bringing of
the image of Serapis from Pontus to Alexandria. It
was fet up in one of the fuburbs of the city called
Rhacotis, where a temple was afterwards erected to his
honour, fuitable to the greatnefs of that (lately me¬
tropolis, and called, from the god worshipped there,
Serapeum. This ftruclure, according to Ammianus
Marcellinus, furpaffed In beauty and magnificence all
others in the world, except the capitol at Rome. ———
Within the verge of this temple was the famous Alex¬
andrian library. It was founded by Ptolemy Soter, for
the ufe of an academy he inftituted in this city ; and,by
continual additions by his fucceffors, became at laft the
fined library in the world, containing no fewer than ;
700,000 volumes. The method followed in collecting
books for this library, was, to feize allthofe which were
brought into Egypt by Greeks or other foreigners.
The books were tranferibed in the mufeum- by perfons .
appointed for that purpofe; the copies were then deli¬
vered to the. proprietors, and the originals laid up in
the library. Ptolemy Euergetes, having borrowed
from the Athenians the works of Sophocles, Euri¬
pides, and riEfchylus, returned them only the copies,.
which he caufed to be tranferibed in as beautiful a.
manner as poffible^ prefenting the Athenians at the
fame time with fifteen talents (upwards of L. 3000.
Sterling) for the exchange..
Aa
ALE I 39° 3 ALE
Alexandrl'a. As" the mufeum was at firft in that quarter oi the
1 v~*~' city called Brucbim, near the royal palace, the library
was placed there likewife ; but when it came to con¬
tain 400,000 volumes, another library, within the
-Serapeum, was erefted by way of fupplement to it,
and on that account called the daughter of the former.
In this fecond library 300,000 volumes, in procefs of
time, were depoiited ; and the two together contained
•the 700,000 volumes already mentioned. In the war
carried on by Julius Casfar again!! the inhabitants of
this city, the library in the Bruchion, with the 400,000
volumes it contained, was reduced to a!hes. The li¬
brary in the Serapeum, however. Hill remained; and
here Cleopatra depofited 200,000 volumes of the Per-
gamean library, which Marc Antony prefented her
with. Thefe, and others added from time to time,
rendered the new library at Alexandria more nume¬
rous and confiderable than the former ; and though it
was often plundered during the revolutions and troubles
of the Roman empire, yet it was again and again re¬
paired, and filled with the fame number of books.
For 293 years Alexandria was held in fubjedlion
by the Ptolemies. Here is a lift of thefe princes, with
the dates of their refpeftive reigns.
Ptolemy the fon of Lagus, furnamed Soter, reigned
39 years, and died in the year of the world 3720.
Ptolemy Philadelphus reigned 39 years, and died in
3758. Ptolemy Euergetes reigned 25 years, and died
in 3783. Ptolemy Philopator reigned 17 years, and
died in 3800. Ptolemy Epiphanes reigned 24 years,
and died in 3824. Ptolemy Philometor reigned 37
years, and died in 3861. Ptolemy Euergetes, or Phyf-
con, reigned 53 years, part with his brother Philome-
ter and part alone. He died in 3888. Ptolemy La-
thyrus reigned 36 year® fix months. He died in 3923.
Cleopatra, the daughter of Lathyrus and wife of A-
lexander I. reigned fix months. Alexander L the ne¬
phew of Lathyrus, was eftabliihed in 3924 and died
in 3943. Alexander II. the fon of Alexander I. was
difpoffeffed by the Alexandrians in 3939. Ptolemy
Nothus, or Auletes, the fen of Lathyrus, reigned 1 3
years, and died in 3953. Ptolemy, furnamed Z)/^-
Jius or Bacchus, reigned three years eight months, and
died in 3957. Cleopatra reigned from 3957, and kill¬
ed herfelf in 3974.
This city, as we have already obferved, foon became
extremely populous, and was embelliflied both by its
own princes and the Romans ; but, like moft other
noted cities of antiquity, hath been the feat of terrible
maflacres. About 141 years before Chrift, it was al-
moft totally depopulated by Ptolemy Phyfcon. That
barbarous monfter, without the leaft provocation, gave
free liberty to his guards to plunder his metropolis and
murder the inhabitants at their pleafure. The cruel¬
ties praftifed on this occafion cannot be exprefied; and
the few who efcaped were fo terrified that they fled
into other countries. Upon this, Phyfcon, that he
might not reign over empty houfes, invited thither
ftrangers from the neighbouring countries ; by whom
the city was repeopled, and foon recovered its former
fplendor. On this occafion many learned men having
been obliged to fly, proved the means of reviving learn¬
ing in Greece, Afia Minor, the iflands of the Archi¬
pelago, and other places, where it was almoft totally
loft.
The new inhabitants were not treated with much Verandrii.
more kindnefs by Phyfcon than the old ones had been } ——v~
for, on their complaining of his tyrannical behaviour,
he refolved on a general maffacre of the young men.
Accordingly, when they were one day affembled in the
gymnafium, or place of their public exercifes, he or¬
dered it to be fet on fire ; fo that they all perilh-
ed, either in the flames, or by the fwords of his mer¬
cenaries, whom the tyrant had placed at all the ave¬
nues.
Though Julius Casfar was obliged to carry on a
war for fome time again!! this ’city, it feems not to
have fuffered much damage, except the burning of
the library already mentioned. Before Ctefar left
Alexandria, in acknowledgment of the alfiftance he
had received from the Jews, he confirmed all their
privileges there, and even engraved his decree on a pil¬
lar of brafs. This, however, did not prevent the maf¬
facre of 50,000 of them in this city about the year of
Chrift 67.
The city of Alexandria feems to have fallen into de¬
cay foon after this, and to have forfeited many of its
ancient privileges, tho’ for what offence is not known ;
but when Adrian vifited Egypt, about the year 141,
it was almoft totally ruined. He repaired both the
public and private buildings, not only reftoring the
inhabitants to their ancient privileges, but heaping new
favours upon them 5 for wdiich they returned him their
folemn thanks, and conferred upon him what honours
they could while he was prefent; but as foon as he was
gone, they publilhed the moll bitter and virulent lam¬
poons again!! him.
The fickle and fatirical humour of the Alexandrians
was highly difliked by Adrian, though he inflidled no
puniflrment upon them for it; but when they lampoon¬
ed Caracalla, he did not let them efcape fo eafily.
That tyrant, in the year 215, when he vifited their
city, having become the fubjedl of their fooliflr fatires,
ordered a general maffacre by his numerous troops, who
were difperfed all over the city. The inhuman orders . ?
being given, all were murdered, without diftinction of
age or fex; fo that in one night’s time the whole city
floated in blood, and every houfe was filled with car-
cafes. The monfter w ho occafioned this had retired
during the night to the temple of. Serapis, to implore
the protection of that deity ; and, not yet fatiated with
flaughter, commanded the maffacre to be continued all
the next day; fo that very few of the inhabitants remain¬
ed. As if even this had not been fufficient, he ftripped
the city of all its ancient privileges ; fuppreffed the aca¬
demy ; ordered all ftrangers who lived there to depart;
and that the few who remained might, not have the fa-
tisfa&ion of feeing one another, he cut off all commu¬
nication of one ftreet with another, by walls built for
that purpofe, and guarded by troops left there.
Notwjthftanding this terrible difafter, Alexandria
foon recovered its former fplendor, as Caracalla was
murdered afliort time after. It was long efteemed the
fir!! city in the world, next to Rome ; and we may judge
of its magnificence, and the multitude of people con¬
tained in it, from the account of Diodorus Siculus,
who relates, that in his time (44 years before Chrift)
Alexandria had on its rolls 300,000 freemen. To¬
wards the middle of the fixth century, Amrou Ebn el
alas, Omar’s general, took it by ftorm, after a liege
ALE
Alexandria.of 14 months, and with the lofs of 23,000 men. He-
radius, then emperor of Conftantinople, did not fend
a fingle ihip to its affiftance. This prince affords an
example very rare in hiftory ; he had difplayed fome
vigour in the firft year of his reign, and then fuffered
himfelf to be lulled into idlenefs and effeminacy. A-
wakened fuddenly from his lethargy by the noife of
tiie conqueits of Cofroes, that fcourge of the eaft, he
put hhnfelf at the head of his armies, diftinguifhed
himfelf as a great captain from his very nrfl campaign,
laid wafte Perfia for feven years, and returned to his
capital covered with laurels : he then became a theo-
lo pan on the throne, loft all his energy, and amufed
himfelf the reft of his life with difputing upon Mono-
theifm, whilft the Arabs were robbing him of the finefl
provinces of his empire. Deaf to the cries of the un¬
fortunate inhabitants of Alexandria, as he had been to
thofe of the people of Jerufaiem, who defended them-
felves for two years, he left them a facrifiee to the for¬
tunate afcendant of the indefatigable Amrou. All
their intrepid youth periftied with their arms in their
hands.
The victor, aftonilhed at his conqueft, wrote to the
caliph, “ I have taken the city of the w^eft. It is of
an immenfe extent. I cannot defcribe to you how
many winders it contains. There are 4000 palaces,
4000 baths, 12,000 dealers in freih oil, 12,000 gar¬
deners, 40,000'Jews who pay tribute, 400 come¬
dians,” &c.
At this time, according to the Arabian hiftorians,
Alexandria confifted of three cities, vi". Menna, or the
port, which included Pharos, and the neighbouring
parts; Alexandria, properly fa called, where the mo¬
dern Scanderia now Hands.; and Nekita, probably the
Necropolis of Joftphus and Strabo.
that time John, fornamed the gra?nmarian, a
famous Peripatetic philofopher, being in the city, and
in high favour with Amrou Ehn al Aas the Saracen
general begged of him the royal library. Amrou re¬
plied, that it was not in his powmr to grant fuch a re-
queft; but that he would write to the khalif on that
head; fince,*without knowing his pleafure, he dared
not to difpofe of a fingle book. He accordingly wrote
to Omar, who was then khalif, acquainting him with
the requeft of his friend : To which the ignorant ty¬
rant replied, That if thofe .books contained the fame
doctrine with the koran, they could be of no ufe, fince
the koran contained all neceffary truths ; but if they
contained any thing contrary to that book, they ought
not to be fuffered ; and therefore, whateve- their con¬
tents were, he ordered them to be deftroyed. Purfuant
to this order, they were diftributed among the public
baths ; where, for the fpace of fix months, they ferved
to fupply the fires of thofe places, of which there was
I an incredible number in Alexandria.
After the city was taken, Amrou thought proper
to purfue the Greeks who had fled farther up the coun-
try ; and therefore marched out of Alexandria, leaving
but a very flender garrifon in the place. The Greeks,
who had before fled on board their (hips, being appri-
fed of this, returned on a-fudden, furprifed the town,
and put all the Arabs they found therein to the fword :
hut Amrou, receiving advice of what had happened,
fuddenly returned, and dri ve them out of it with great
{laughter; after which the Greeks were io intimidated,
4.
ALE
that he had nothing farther to fear from them.—A few Alexandria^
years after, however, Amrou being deprived of his -v—-11
government by the khalif Othman, the Egyptians were
fo much difpleafed with his difmiffion that they inclined'
to a revolt; and Conftantine the Greek emperor, having1
received intelligence of their difaffeftion, began to me-'
ditate the redinftion of Alexandria. For this purpofe,.
he fent one Manuel, an eunuch,, and his general, with
a powerful army, to retake that place ; which, by the
affiftance of the Greeks in the city, who kept a fecret
correfpondence with the imperial forces while at fea,
and joined them as foon as they had made a defcent,.
he elibeled, without any confiderable effufion of Chri-
ftian blood. The khalif, now perceiving his miftake,
immediately reftored Amrou to his former dignity.
This ftep was very agreeable to the natives ; who ha¬
ving had experience of the military Ik ill and bravery of
this renowned general, and apprehending that they
ffiould be called to an account by the Greeks for their
former perfidious conduft, had petitioned Othman to
fend him again into Egypt.—Upon Amrou’s arrival,
therefore, at Alexandria, the Copts or natives, with
the traitor Al-Mokawkas (who had formerly betrayed
to Amrou the fortrefs of Mefr) at their head, not only
joined him, but fupplied him with all kinds of provi-
ilons, exciting him to attack the Greeks without de¬
lay. This he did ; and, after a moft obftinate difpute
which lafted feveral days, drove them into the town,
where, for fome time, they defended themfelves with
great bravery,, and repelled the utmoft: efforts of the
befiegers. This fo exafperated Amrou, that he fwore,
“ If God enabled him to conquer tire Greeks, he would
throw down the walls of the city,, and make it as eafy
of accefa as a ba-ivdy-houfe, which' lies open to every
body.” Nor did he fail to execute this menace ; for-
having taken the town by ftorm, he quite difmantled
it, entirely demolifiring the walls and fortifications. TI12
lives of the citizens, however, wrere fpared, at leaft as
far as lay in the general’s power; but many of them
were put to the fword by the foldiers on their firft en¬
trance. In one quarter particularly, Amrou found
them butchering,the Alexandrians with unrelenting
barbarity ; to which, however, by his feafonable inter-
pofition, he put a* ftop, and^on that fpot erefted a
mofque, which he called the mofque of- mercy *
From this time Alexandria never recovered its for¬
mer fplendor. It continued under the dominion of the
khalifs till the year 9-24, when it was taken by the Ma-
grebians-, two years after its great church had been de¬
ftroyed by fire. This church was called by the Arabs
Al Kaifdria, or Crefarea ; and had formerly been a pa¬
gan temple, ere&ed in . honour of Saturn by the fa¬
mous queen Cleopatra,.
The city was foon after abandoned by the Magre-
biansi;. but in 928 they again made themfelves mailers
of it: their fleet being afterwards defeated by that be¬
longing to the khalif; Abul Kafem the Magrebian ge¬
neral retired from Alexandria, leaving there only a gar*
rifon of-300'men of which Thmaul, the khalif’s ad¬
miral, being apprifed, he in a few days appeared before
the town, and carried off the remainder of the inhabi¬
tants to an ifland in the Nile called Abukair. This
was done, to prevent Abul Kafem from meeting with
any entertainment at Alexandria, in cafe he fhould think
proper to. return. According to Eutychius, above
300,000
f 39i 1
A T. r. [ 39
a. 200,000 of the miferable inhabitants perifhed this year.
What contributed to raife Alexandria to fuch a pro¬
digious height of fplendor as it enjoyed for a long time,
was its being the centre of commerce between the eaft-
ern and weftern parts of the world. It was with the
view of becoming mailer of this lucrative trade, that
Alexander built this city, after having extirpated the
Tyrians, who formerly engrofled all the Eall-India
traffic. Of the immenfe riches which that trade afford¬
ed, we may form an idea, from confidering that the
Romans accounted it a point of policy to opprefs the
Egyptians, efpecially the Alexandrians ; and after the
defeat of Zenobia, there was a lingle merchant of Alex¬
andria who undertook to raife and pay an army out of
the profits of his trade. The Greek emperors drew
prodigious tributes from Egypt, and yet the khalifs
found their fubjedls in fo good circumltances as to fcrew
up their revenues to three hundred millions of crowns.
Though the revolutions which happened in the go¬
vernment of Egypt, after it fell into the hands of the
Mahometans, frequently affedled this city to a very great
degree ; yet Hill the excellence of its port, and the in¬
numerable conveniences refulting from the Eaft-India
trade, to whomfoever were mailers of Egypt, preferved
Alexandria from total deltrudlion, even when in the
hands of the moll barbarous nations. Thus, in the
13th century, when the barbarifm introduced by the
Goths, See. began to wear off from the European na¬
tions, and they acquired a tafte for the elegancies of
life, the old mart of Alexandria began to revive ; and
the port, though far from recovering its former mag¬
nificence, grew once more famous by becoming the
centre of commerce: but having fallen under the do¬
minion of the Turks, and the paffage round the Cape
of Good Hope being difeovered by the Portuguefe in
1499, a fatal blow was given to the Alexandrian com¬
merce, ahd the city has fince fallen into decay.
At prefent, the city of Alexandria is reckoned to have
about 14,000 or 15,000 inhabitants; a ftrange coi-
luvies of different nations, as well as from various parts
of the Turkilh empire. They are in general given to
thieving and cheating; and (like their predeceffors)
feditious -above all others, were they not kept in awe
by the feverity of their governmenf. The Britilh and
French carry bn a confiderable commerce with them,
and have each a conful refiding here.. Some Venetian
lliips alfo Tail thither yearly, but with French colours,
and under the prote&ion of France. The fubjedts of
thofe kingdoms which keep no conful here, are iubjedf-
ed to a tax by the. Grand Signior: but the Jews have
found out a method of indemnifying themfelves for
this difadvantage ; namely, by felling their commodities
cheaper than other foreigners can afford. They are al¬
fo, favoured by the farmers of the revenue ; who know,
that if they do not pay fome prfvate regard to them,
the Jews have it in their power to caufe fewer merchan--
dizes come into their port during the two. years that
their farm lafts.
The prefent city is a kind of peninfula fituated be¬
tween the two ports. That to the weftward was called
by the ancients the Pert us Eunojius, now the Old Port,
and is by far the bell; Turkiih veffels only are allowed
to anchor there: the other, called the New Port, is
for the Chriltians; at the extremity of one of the arms
of- which Hood the famous Pharos. The New Port.
■ N0io. x
2 ] ALE
the only harbour for the Europeans, is clogged up with Alexandra.
fand, infomuch that in llormy weather Ihips are liable 
to bilge ; and the bottom being alfo rocky, the cables
foon chafe and part; fo that one veffel driving againll
a fecond, and that againit a third, they ■are perhaps all
loft. Of this there was a fatal inftance 16 or 18 years
ago, when 42 veffels were dallied to pieces on the mole
in a gale of wind from thetnorth-weft, and numbers have
been fince loft there at different times. If it be a Iked
in Europe, Why do they not repair the New Port ?
the anfwer is, That in Turkey they deftroy every thing,
and repair nothing. The old harbour will be deftr.oy-
ed likewife, as the ballaft of veffels has been continu¬
ally thrown into it. for the laft 200 years. The fpirit
of the Turkiih government is to ruin the labours of
pall ages, and deftroy the hopes of future times, be-
caufe the barbarity of ignorant defpotifm never confi-
ders to-morrow.
' In time of war, Alexandria is of no importance;
no fortification is to be feen ; even the Farillon, with
its lofty towers, cannot be defended. It has not four
cannon fit for fervice, nor a gunner who knows how
to point them. The 500 jailifaries, who Ihould form
the garrifon, reduced to half that number, kno\v no¬
thing but how to fmoke a pipe. But Alexandria is a
place of which the conquelt would be of no value. A
foreign power could not maintain itfelf there, as the
country is without water. This mull be brought from
the Nile by the kalidj, or canal of 12 leagues, which
conveys it thither every year at the time of the inun¬
dation. It fills the vaults or refervoirs dug under the
ancient city, and this provifion mull ferve till the next
year. It is evident, therefore, that were a foreign
power to take poffeffion, the canal would be Ihut, and
all fupplies of waiter cut off. It is this canal alone
which connedls Alexandria with Egypt; for from its
fituation without the Delta, and the nature of the foil,
it really belongs to the deferts of Africa. Its environs
are fandy, flat, and fterile, without trees and without
houfes; where we meet with- nothing but the plant
which yields the kali, and a row of palm trees which
follows the courfe of the kalidj or canal.
The city is governed like others in the fame king¬
dom. (See Egypt.) It hath a fmall garrifon of fol-
diers, part of which are Janifaries and Affaffs; who are
very haughty and infolent, not only to ftrangers, but to
the mercantile and induftrious part of the people, tho’
ever fo confiderable and ufeful. The government is fo
remifs in favour of thefe wretches, that Mr Norden in¬
forms us, one of them did not hefitate to kill a farmer
of the cuftoms, for refufing to take lefs of him than
the duty impofed, and w-ent off unpuniffied ; it being
a common falvo among them, that what is done can¬
not be undone.
The prefent condition of Alexandria is very defpi-
cable, being now' fo far ruined, that the rubbhh in many
places overtops the houfes. The famous tower of Pha¬
ros has long fince been demolifhed, and a caftle, called
Farillon, built in its place. The caufeway which joined
the ifland to the continent is broken down, and its place
fupplied by a ilone-bridge of feveral arches.
Some parts of the old walls of the city are yet Hand¬
ing, and prefent us with a mafterpiece of ancient ma-
fonry. They are flanked, with large towers, about 200
paces diftant from each other, wfith fmall ones in the
middle.
ALE
[ 393 ] ALE
t if Alexandria, middle. Below are magnificent e&femates, wliich may
"" ‘ ferve for galleries to walk in. In the lower part of the
towers is a large fquare hall, whole roof is fupported
by thick columns of Thebaic flone. Above this are
feveVal rooms, over which there are platforms more
than 20 paces fquare. The ancient refervoirs, vaulted
with fo much art, which extend underthe whole town,
are almoft entire at the end of 2000 years.
Of Caefar’s palace there remain only a few porphyry
pillars, and the front, which is almoft: entire, and looks
very beautiful. The palace of Cleopatra was built
upon the walls facing the port, having a gallery on the
outfide, fupported by feveral fine columns. Not far
from this palace are two obelifks vulgarly called Cleo¬
patra's Needles. They are of Thebaic ftone, and co¬
vered with hieroglyphics. One is overturned, broken,
and lying under the fand ; the- other is on its pedeftal.
Thefe two obeli Acs, each of them of a Angle ftone, are
about 60 feet high, by feven foot fquare at the bafe.
Towards the gate of Rofetta, are five columns of
marble on the place formerly occupied by the porticoes
of the Gymnafium. The reft of the colonnade, tire
defign of which was difcoverable too years ago by
Maillet, has fince been deftroyed by the barbarifm of
the Turks.
But what moft engages the attention of travellers is
the Pillar of Pompey, as it is commonly called, fitua-
ted at a quarter of a league frofh the fouthern gate.
It is compofed of red granite. The capital is Corin¬
thian, with palm leaves, and not indented. It is nine
feet high. The flraft and the upper member of the
bafe are of one piece of go feet long, and 9 in diame¬
ter. The bafe is a fquare of about 15 feet on each
fide. This block of marble, 60 feet in circumference,
refts on two layers of ftone bound together with lead ;
which, however,- has not prevented the Arabs from
forcing out feveral of them, to- fearch for an imaginary
treafure. The whole column is 114 feet high. It is
perfectly well poliflied, and only a little fhivered on the
eaftern fide. Nothing can equal the majefty of this
monument; feen from a diftance, it overtops the town,
and ferves as a fignal for veflels. Approaching it
nearer, it produces an aftonifhment mixed with awe.
One can never be tired with admiring the beauty of
the capital, the length of the ftiaft, nor the extraordi¬
nary Simplicity of the pedeftal. This laft has been
fomewhat damaged by the inftruments of travellers,
who are curious to poffefs a relick of this antiquity;
and one of the volutes of the column was immaturely
brought down about twelve years ago, by a prank of
fome Engliflr captains, which is thus related by Mr
Irwin.
Thefe jolly fons of Neptune had been pufhing about
the can on board one of the fhips in the harbour, until
a ftrange freak entered into one of their brains. The
eccentricity of the thought occafioned it immediately
,|i to be adopted ; and its apparent impoflibility was but
IFoyagt and a fpur for the putting it into execution. The boat
monte, was'ordered ; and with proper implements for the at-
1 IP- 37°- tempt, thefe enterprifing heroes pufhed aftiore, to drink
a bowel of punch on the top of Pompey’s pillar .! At
the fpot they arrived; and many contrivances were
propofed to accomplifii the defired point. But their
labour was vain ; and they began to defpair of fuccefs,-
when the genius who ftruck out the frolic happily fug-
Vol. L Part I.
gefted the means of performing it. A man was dif- Alexandria,
patched to the city for a paper kite. The inhabitants -—V—"*
were by this time apprized of what was going forward,
and flocked in crowds to be witnefles.of the addrefs
and boldnefs of the Englifh. The governor of Alex¬
andria was told that thefe feamen were about to pull
down Pompey’s pillar. But whether he gave, them
credit for their refpeft to the Roman warrior, or to
the Turkifh government, he left them to themfelves ;
and politely anfwered, that the Englifli were too great
patriots to injure the remains of Pompey. He knew
little, however, of the difpofition of the people who
were engaged in this undertaking. Had the Turkifh
empire rofe in oppoiition, it would not perhaps at that
moment have deterred them. The kite was brought,
and flown fo directly over the pillar, that when it fell
on the other fide, the firing lodged upon the capital.
The chief obftacle was now overcome. A two-inch
rope was tied to one end of the firing, and drawn over
the pillar by the .end to which the kite was affixed.
By this rope one of the feamen afcended to the top ■;
and in lefs than an hour, a kind of fhroud wa£ con-
ftructed, by which the whole company went up, and
drank their punch amid the fhouts of the aftonifhed
multitude. To the eye below, the capital of the pil¬
lar does not appear capable of holding more than one
man upon it; but our feamen found it -could contain
no lefs than eight perfons very conveniently. It is
aftonifhing that no accident befel thefe madcaps, in a
fituation fo elevated, that would have turned a land-
man giddy in his fober fenfes. The only detriment
which the pillar received, was the Jofs of the volute be-
forementioned ; which came down with -a thundering
found, and was carried to England by one of the cap¬
tains, as a prefent to a lady who commiflioned him for
a piece of the pillar. The difcovery which they made
amply compenfated for this mifchief; as without their
evidence, the world would, not have known at this .
hour, that there was originally a ftatue on this pillar,
one foot and ancle of which are ftill remaining. The
ftatue muft have been of a gigantic fize, to have ap¬
peared of a man’s proportion at fo great an height.
There are circumftances in this ftory which might
give it an air of fi£Uon, were it not demonftrated be¬
yond all doubt. Befides the tellimonies of many eye-
witneffes, the adventurers themfelves have left us a to¬
ken of the fadt, by the initials of their names, which
are very legible in black' paint juft beneath the capital.
Learned men and travellers have made many fruit-
lefs attempts to. difcover in honour of what prince it
was ere&ed. The heft informed have concluded, that
it could hot be in honour of Pompey, fince neither
Strabo nor Diodorus Siculus have fpoken of it. The
Arabian Abulfeda, in his defcription of Egypt, .calls
it the Pillar of Severws. And hiftory informs usf, that f Vide Spay
this emperor “ vifited the city of Alexandria: That tian's L fe
he granted a fenate to its inhabitants, who until that "'f' '”’”er*s*
time, under the fubjedtion of a Angle Roman magi- 7’
ftrate, had lived without any national council, as under
the reign of the Ptolemies, when the will of the prince
was their only law : That he did not confine his be-
nefattions there ; he changed feveral laws in their fa¬
vour.” This column, therefore, Mr S a vary concludes
to have been eredled by the inhabitants as a mark of
their gratitude to Severus. And in a Greek infcrip-
3 D tion.
ALE
Alexandria, tion, now half effaced, but vifible on the weft fide
when the fun fhines upon it, and which probably was
legible in the time of Abulfeda, he fuppofes the name
of Severus to have been preferved. He further ob-
ferves, that this was not the only monument erefted to
[ 394 1
ALE
water of the fea, as pure and trarifparent as cryftal.
Seated on the ftone bench, the water rifes a little above
the waift; while the feet foftly repofe on a fine fand.
The waves of the fea are heard roaring againft the rock,
and foaming in the canal. The fwell enters, raifes you
him by the gratitude of the Alexandrians: for there is up, and leaves you ; and thus alternately entering and
ft ill feen in the midft'of the ruins of Antinoe, built by retiring, brings a continual frefh fupply of water, and
Adrian, a magnificent pillar, the infeription on which
is Hill remaining, dedicated to Alexander Severus.
On the fouth-weft fide of the city, at a mile’s di-
ftance, are fituated the catacombs, the ancient burial-
place of Alexandria; and although they cannot be
compared to thofe of the ancient Memphis, which the
Arabs will not permit to be vifited, in order to make
the better market of their mummies, it is probable
that, the method of embalming being the fame, the
form of thefe catacombs can only differ in their pro¬
portions.—The Baron de Tott, in deferibing thefe,
obferves, “ that Nature not having furnifhed this part
of Egypt with a ridge of rocks, like that which runs
parrallel with the Nile above Delta, the ancient inhabi¬
tants of Alexandria could only have an imitation by dig¬
ging into a bed of folid rock ; and thus they formed
Necropolis, or ‘ City of the Dead.’ The excavation
is from 30 to 40 feet wide, and 200 long and 25 deep,
and is terminated by gentle declivities at each end.
The two fides, cut perpendicularly, contain feveral
openings, about 10 or 12 feet in width and height,
hollowed horizontally ; and which form, by their dif¬
ferent branches, fubterranean ftreets. One of thefe,
which curiofity has difencumbered from the ruins and
fands that render the entrance of others difficult or im-
poffible, contains no mummies, but only the places
they occupied. The order in which they were ranged
coolnefs which is truly delicious under a burning
iky. This place is vulgarly called the Bath of Cleopa¬
tra. Some ruins announce that it was formerly orna¬
mented.
Alexandria is about 50 leagues' north of Cairo.
E. Long. 31. 15. N. Lat. 31. 12.
Alexandria, a ftrong and confiderable city of I-
taly, belonging to the Duchy of Milan, with a good
caftle, built in 1178 in honour of Pope Alexander III.
This pope made it. a biihopric, with feveral privileges
and exemptions^ Prince Eugene of Savoy took this city
in 1706, after three days fiege. The French took it in
1745 ; but the king of Sardinia, to whom it belongs
by the treaty of Utrecht, retook it in 1746. The for¬
tifications of the town are trifling, but the citadel is
confiderable. It is 15 miles fouth-eaft of Caffal, 35
north-by-weft of Genoa, and 40 fouth-by-weft of Mi¬
lan. E. Long. 8. 40. N. Lat. 44. 53. The country
about this town is called the /llexandrin.
Alexandria (anc. geog.), a city of Arachofia, call¬
ed alfo Alexandropolisy on the river Arachotus (Ste-
phanus, Ifidorus Characenus).—Another Alexandria
in Gedrofia, built by Leonatus, by order of Alex¬
ander (Pliny).—A tim'd. Alexandria in Aria, fituated
at the lake Arias (Ptolemy) ; but, according to Pli¬
ny, built by Alexander on the river Arius.—A fourth
in the Ba&riana (Pliny).—A fifth Alexandria, an
is ftill to be feen. Niches, 20 inches fquare, funk fix inland town of Carmania (Pliny, Ptolemy, Ammian),
feet horizontally, narrowed at the bottom, and fepa- —A fixth Alexandria, or Alexandropolis, in the Sog-
rated from each other by partitions in the rock, feven diana (Ifidorus Characenus).—A feventh in India,
or eight inches thick, divide into checkers the two at the confluence of the Acefines and Indus (Arrian),
walls of this fubterranean vault. It is natural to fup- —An eighth, called alfo Alexandretta, near the Sinus
pofe, from this difpofition, that each mummy was in- Ifficus, on the confines of Syria and Cilicia, now Scan-
traduced with the feet foremoft into the cell intended deroon (feeALEXANDRETTA), the port-town to Aleppo,
for its reception ; and that new ftreets were opened, —A ninth Alexandria of Margiana, which being de¬
in proportion as thefe dead inhabitants of Necropolis moliihed by the barbarians, was rebuilt by Antiochus
increafed.” This obfervation, he adds, which throws the fon of Seleucus, and called Antiochia of Syria (Pli-
a light on the catacombs of Memphis, may perhaps ny) ; watered by the river Margus, which is divided
likewife explain the vaft fize and multitude, as well as into feveral channels, for the purpofes of watering the
the different elevations, of the pyramids in the Higher country, which was called Tjotale. The city was fe-
and. Lower Egypt. venty ftadia in circuit, according to Pliny ; who adds,
About 70 paces from Pompey’s pillar is the khalis, that, after the defeat of Craffus, the captives were Con¬
or the canal of the Nile, which was dug by the ancient veyed to this place by Grades, the king of the Parthians.
Egyptians, to convey the water of the Nile to Alex- —A tenth, of the Oxiana, built on the Oxus by Alex¬
andria, and fill the cifterns under the city. On the ander, on the confines of Baftria (Pliny).—An ele-
fide of the khalis are gardens full of orange and lemon venth, built by Alexander at the foot of mount Paro-
trees, and the fields are full of caper and palm trees, pamifus, which was called Caucafus (Pliny, Arrian).
On the top of a hill is a tower, on which a centinel —A twelfth Alexandria in Troas, called alfo Troas and
is always placed, to give notice, by means of a flag, Antigonia (Pliny).—A thirteenth on the laxartes, the
of the {hips that are coming into the port. From this boundary of Alexander’s viftories towards Scythia,
hill may be feen the fea, the whole extent of the city, and the laft that he built on that fide,
and the parts round it. ALEXANDRIAN, in a particular fenfe, is ap-
In going along the fea-coaft, there is a large bafon plied to all thofe who prafeffed or taught the fciences
cut out of the rock that lines the fhore. On the fides in the fchool of Alexandria. In this fenfe, Clemens
of this, bafon, two beautiful faloons are hewn out by is denominated Alexandrians, though born at Athens,
the chifel, with benches that run acrofs them. A The fame may be faid of Apion, who was born at
canal made zig-zag, for the purpofe of flopping the Oafis; and Aroftarchus, by birth a Samothracian. The
fend by its different windings, conveys into them the chief Alexandrian philofophers were, Amonius, Plo-.
2. tinus*.
Alexandria, jj
Alexandtfc- !
I
ALE
Alexandra- tlnus, Origen, Porphyry, Jamblicus, Sopater, Maxi-
®u mus, and JDexlppus.
I Alexis. Alexandrian is more particularly underftood of a
—v—college of priefts, confecrated to the fervice of Alex¬
ander Severus after his deification. Lampridius relates,
that, notwithftanding Severus was killed by Maximin,
[ 395 1
A L F
family; that he had from his moll early years applied Alex'teml
himfelf to ftudy ; that he had learned the Greek, the
Latin, the Hebrew, the Chaldean, the Arabian, and, °r ' .
feveral other languages; that having an extreme cu-
riofity to be acquainted with the fecrets of nature, he
had collected as much as he could during his travels
the fenate profecuted his apotheofis; and, for regula- for 57 years,; that he piqued himfelf upon not
rity of worfliip, founded an order of priefts,
under the denomination of Akxandrini.
Alexandrian Library. Seep. 389, fupri
r fodales, municating his fecrets to any perfon; but that when
he was 82 years of age, having feen a poor man who
had died of a ficknefs which might have been cured
Alexandrian Manufcript, a famous copy of the had he communicated his fecret to the furgeon who
Scriptures, confifting of four volumes, in a large quar¬
to fize; which contains the whole Bible in Greek, in¬
cluding the Old and New Teftament, with the Apo¬
crypha, and fome fmaller pieces, but not quite com¬
plete. This manufcript is now preferved in the Britilh hawkers generally carry them, with other books, to the
took care of him, he was touched with fuch a remorfe
of confcience, that he lived almoft like a hermit: and
it was in this folitude that he ranged his fecrets in fuch
an order as to make them fit to be publilhed. The
Mufeum. It was fent as a prefent to King Charles I.
from Cyrillus Lucaris, patriarch of Conftantinople, by
Sir Thomas Rowe, ambafiador from England to the
Grand Signior,-about the year 1628. Cyrillus brought
it with him from Alexandria, where probably it was
written. In a fchedule annexed to it, he gives this
account : That it was written, as tradition informed
them, by Thecla, a noble Egyptian lady, about 1300
years ago, not long after the council of Nice. But
■this high antiquity, and the authority of the tradition
to which the patriarch refers, have been difputed;
nor are the moft accurate biblical writers agreed about
its age. Grabe thinks that it might have been written
before the end of the fourth century; others are of opi¬
nion, that it was not writ till near the end of the fifth
century, or fomewhat later.
Alexandrian, or Alexandrine, in poetry, a kind of
verfe confifting of twelve, or of twelve and thirteen fyl-
lables alternately; fo'called from a poem on the life of
country fairs. Thefe, however, contain only the feledl
remedies of Seignor Alexis of Piedmont; the entire
collection would make too large a volume for them.
ALEXITERIAL, among phyficians, a term of
much the fame import with alexipharmic; though fome-
times ufed in a fynonymous fenfe with amulet.
ALEYN (Charles), an Englifti poet in the reign of
Charles I. In 1631, he publifhed two poems on the
famous victories of Crefly and Poiftiers. He fucceeded
his father as clerk of the ordnance, and wascommiffary-
general of tlie artillery to the king at the battle of Edge-
hill. The next piece he wrote was a poem in honour
of Henry VII. and the vidtory that gained him the
crown of England. In 1639, the year before he died,
he tranflated the hiftory of Eurialius and Lucretia, from
the Latin epiftles of iEneas Sylvius.
ALFANDIGA, the name of the cuftomhoufe at
Liibon.
x  ALFAQLTES, among the Moors, the name ge-
Alexander, written in this kind of verfe by fome French nerally ufed for their clergy, or thofe who teach the
Ai.—‘ * -1 *■— —J Mahometan religion ; in oppofition to the Morabites,
who anfwer to monks among Chriftians.
ALFATERNA (anc.geog.), the laft town of Cam¬
pania, beyond Vefuvius (Diodorus) ; the fame with
Nocera, which fee. The inhabitants Alfaterni (Pli¬
ny),-
ALFDOUCH, a name given by the Moors to a
fort of vermicelli, which they make of flour and water,
Alexicacus, in antiquity, wasan attribute of Nep- and are very fond of in their entertainments.
poet. Alexandrines are peculiar to modern poetry, and
feem well adapted to epic -poems. They are fometimes
ufed by moft nations of Europe; but chiefly by the
French, whofe tragedies are generally compofed of A-
lexandrines.
ALEXICACUS, fomething that preferves the bo¬
dy from harm or mifchief. The word amounts to much
the fame as alexiterial.
tune, whom the tunny-fifhers ufed to invoke under this
appellation, that their nets might be preferved from the
ALFET, in our old cuftoms, denotes a caldron full
of boiling water, wherein an acufed perfon, by way of
, or fword-fifh, which ufed to tear them; and that trial or purgation, plunged his arm up to the elbow.
he might prevent the afliftance which it was pretended
the dolphins ufed to give the tunnies on this occafion.
ALEXIPHARMlCS, in medicine, are properly
remedies for expelling or preventing the ill effedls of
poifon: but fome of the moderns having imagined, that
the animal fpirits, in acute diftempers, were affedled
by a malignant poifon, the term has been underftood
ALFORD, a town in Lincolnfhire, with a market
on Tuefdays for provifions and corn ; and two fairs,
on Whit-Tuefday, and November 8. for cattle and
flieep. It is feated on a fmall brook that runs through
the town, and is a compaft place. A Lit fpring was
difcovered here in 1670, from the pigeons which flew
thither in great numbers to drink the water; thofe
to mean medicines adapted to expel this poifon by the birds being known to be fond of fait. It contains a
cutaneous pores, in the form of fweat. In this fenfe,
alexipharmics are the fame as fudorifics.
purging fait, together with a portion of fea-falt. It
ftrongly purgative. It is recommended as cooling.
ALEXIS, a Piedmontefe. There is a book of cleanfing, and attenuating. As a good remedy in the
Secrets,” which for a long time has gone under his
name. It was' printed at Bafil 1536, in 8vo, and
tranflated from Italian into Latin by Wecher; it has
alfo been tranflated into French, and printed feveral
times with additions. There is a preface to the piece,
wherein Alexis informs us, that he was born of a noble
fcurvy, jaundice, and other glandular obftrudlions. It
alfo promotes urine and fweat, and therefore is good
in gravelly and other diforders of the kidneys and blad¬
der ; and in complaints arifing from obftru&ed perfpi-
ration. Alford is fix miles from the fea, and 20 N.
of Bofton. E. Long. o. 15. N. Lat. 53. 30.
3 D 2 ALFRED,
A L F [ 396 ] A L F
AIfred- i ALFRED, or ^Elfred, the Great, king of Eng-
lancl, was the fifth and youngeft fon of ^Ethelwolf
king of the Weft Saxons, and was born at Wantage
in Berklhire in 849. He diftinguifhed himfelf, du¬
ring the reign of his brother Ethelred, in feveral en¬
gagements againft the Danes; and upon his death fuc-
ceeded to the crown, in the yean871, and the 22d of
his age. At his afcending the throne he found him¬
felf involved in a dangerous war with the Danes, and
placed in fuch circumftances of diftrefs as called for
the greateft valour, refolution, and all the other vir¬
tues with which he was adorned. The Danes had
already penetrated into the heart of his kingdom; and
before he had been a month upon the throne, he was
obliged to take the field againft thofe formidable ene¬
mies. After many battles gained on both fides, he was at
length reduced to the greateft diftrefs, and was entirely
abandoned by his fubje&s. In this fituation, Alfred,
conceiving himfelf no longer a king, laid afide all marks
of royalty, and took Ihelter in the houfe of one who
kept his. cattle. He retired afterwards to the ifle of
aEthelingey in Somerfetfhire, where he built a fort for
the fecurity of himfelf, his family, and the few faithful
fervants who repaired thither to him. When he had
been about a year in this retreat, having been inform¬
ed that fome of his fubjefts had routed a great army of
the Danes, killed their chiefs, and taken their magical
ftandard (a), he iffued his letters, giving notice where
he was, and inviting his nobility to come and confult
with him. Before they came to a final determination,
Alfred, putting on the habit of a harper, went into
the enemy’s camp, where, without fufpicion, he was
every where admitted, and had the honour to play be¬
fore their princes. Having thereby acquired, an exadt
knowledge of their fituation, he returned in great fe-
crecy to his nobility, whom he ordered to their refpec-
tive homes, there to draw together each man as great
a force as he could ; and upon a day appointed there
was to be a general randezvous at the great wood,
called Sefavood, in Wiltfhire. This affair was tranfac-
ted fo fecretly and expeditioufly, that, in a little time,
the king, at the head of an army, approached the
Danes, before they hfd the leaft intelligence of his de-
fign. Alfred, taking advantage of the furprife and
terror they were in, fell upon them, and totally defeat¬
ed them at iEthencJune, now Eddington. Thofe who
efcaped fled to a neighbouring caftle, where they were
foon befieged, and obliged to furrender at difcretion.
Alfred granted them better terms than they could ex-
pedt. He agreed to give up the whole kingdom of the
Eaft-Angles to fuch as would embrace the Chriftian re¬
ligion, on condition they fhould oblige the reft of their
-.countrymen to quit the ifland, and, as much as it was
in their power, prevent the landing of any more fo¬
reigners. For the performance thereof he took hofta-
ges; and when, in purfuance of the treaty, Guthrum
the Danifh captain came, with thirty of his chief offi¬
cers, to be baptized, Alfred anfwered for him at the
font, and gave him the name of Mthelfiane; and cer¬
tain laws were drawn up betwixt the king and Gu¬
thrum for the regulation and government of the Danes
fettled in England. In 884, a frefh number of Danes
landed in Kent, and laid fiege to Rochefter ; but the
king coming to the relief of that city, they were ob¬
liged to abandon their defign. Alfred had now great
fuccefs; which was chiefly owing to his fleet, an ad¬
vantage of his own creating. Having fecured the fea-
coafts, he fortified the reft of the kingdom with caftles
and walled towns; and he befieged and recovered from
the Danes the city of London, which he refolved to re¬
pair, and keep as a frontier (b).
After fome years refpite, Alfred was again called
into the field : for a body of Danes, being ' worfted in
the weft of France, came with a fleet of 250 fail on the
coaft of Kent; and having landed, fixed themfelves at
Apple-tree: Ihortly after, another fleet of 80 veffels
coming up the Thames, the men landed, and built a
fort at Middleton. Before Alfred marched againft the
enemy, he obliged the Danes, fettled in Northumber¬
land and Effex, to give him hoftages for their good
behaviour. He then moved towards the invaders, and
pitched his camp between their armies, to prevent their
junftion. A great body, however, moved off to Ef¬
fex; and croffing the river, came to Farnham in Surry,
where they were defeated by the king’s forces. Mean
while the Danes fettled in Northumberland, in breach
of treaty, and notwithftanding the hoftages given, e-
quipped two fleets; and, after plundering the northern
and fouthern coafts, failed to Exeter, and befieged it.
The king, as foon as he received intelligence, marched
againft them ; but before he reached Exeter, they had
got poffeffion of it. He kept them, however, blocked up
on all fides; and reduced them at laft to fuch extremi¬
ties, that they were obliged to eat their horfes, and were
even ready to devour each other. Being at length ren¬
dered defperate, they made a general fally on the be-
fiegers;
(a) “ This (fays Sir John Spelman) was a banner with the image of a raven magically wrought by the three
fillers of Hinguar and Hubba, on purpofe for their expedition, in revenge of their father Lodebroch’s murder,,
made, they fay, almoft in an inftant, being by them at once begun and finiflied in a noontide, and believed by the
Danes to. have carried great fatality with it, for which it was higlily efteemed by them. It is pretended, that
being carried in battle, towards good fuccefs it would always feem to clap its wings, and make as if it would;
fly ; but towards the approach of milhap, it would hang down and not move.” Life of Alfred, p. 6r.
(b) The Danes had poffeffed themfelves of London in the time of his father; and had held it till now as a>
convenient place for them to land at, and fortify themfelves in ; neither was it taken from them but by a clofe
fiege. However, when it came into the king’s hands, it was in a miferable condition, fcarce habitable, and all1
its fortifications ruined. The king, moved by the importance of the place, and the defire of ftrengthening his-
frontier againft the Danes, reftored it to its ancient fplendor. And obferving, that, through the confufion o£
the times, many, both Saxons and Danes, lived in a loofe diforderly manner, without owning any government^
he offered thenrnow a comfortable eftablifhment, if they would fubmit and become his fubjedts. This propofi-
tion was better received than he expefted ; for multitudes growing weary of a vagabond kind of life, joyfully
accepted fuch an offer. Chr.m. Sax. p. 88.
A L F [ 397 7 A L F
Alfred, fiegers ; but were defeated, though with great lofs on
the king’s fide. The remainder of this body of Danes
fled into Eflex, to the fort they had built there, and to
their fhips. Before Alfred had time to recruit him-
felf, another Danilh leader, whofe name was Laf, came
with a great army out of Northumberland, and de-
ftroyed all before him, marching on to the city of
Werheal in the* weft,- which is fuppofed to be Chefter,
where they remained the reft of that year. The year
following they invaded North-Wales; and after having
plundered and deftroyed every thing, they divided, one
body returning to Northumberland, another into the
territories of the Eaft-Angles ; from whence they pro¬
ceeded to Eflex, and took pofieflion of a fmall ifland
called Me rejig. Here they did not long remain : for-
having parted, fome failed up the river Thames, and
others up the Lea-road; where drawing up their fhips,
they built a fort not far from London, Which proved a
great check upon the citizens, who went in a body and
attacked it, but were repulfed with great lofs: at har-
veft-time the king himfelf was obliged to encamp with
a body of troops in the neighbourhood of the city, in
order to cover the reapers from the excurfions of the
Danes. As he was one day riding by the fide of the
river Lea, after fome obfervation, he began to think
that the Danifh fhips might be laid quite dry: this
- he attempted, and fucceeded; fo that the Danes de-
ferted their fort and fhips, and marched away to the
banks of the Severn, where they built a fort, and win-
- tered at a pla?e called Quatbrig (c). Such of the Da¬
nifh fhips as could be got off, the'' Londoners carried
into their own road; the reft they burnt and deftroyed.
Alfred enjoyed a profound peace during the three
laft years of his reign, which he chiefly employed in
eftablifhing and regulating his government, for the fecu-
rity of himfelf and his fucceffors, as well as the eafe and
benefit of his fubjetts in general. After a troublefome
reign of 28 years, he died on the i^th of October
A. D. 900; and was buried at Winchefter, in Hyde-
, abbey, under a monument of porphyry.
All our hiftorians agree in diftinguiftiing him as one
of the moil valiant, wifeft, and belt of kings that ever
reigned in England ; and it is alfo generally allowed,
that he not only digefted feveral particular laws ftill in
being, but that he laid the firft foundation of our pre-
fent happy conftitutiou. There is great reafon to be¬
lieve that we are indebted to this prince for trials by
juries ; and the doomfday book, which is preferved in
the exchequer, is thought to be no more than ano¬
ther edition of Alfred’s book of Winchefter, which
contained a furvey of the kingdom. It is faid alfo, that
he was the firft who divided the kingdom into fhjres:
what is aferibed to him is not a bare divifion of the
country, but the fettling a new form of judicature; for
after having divided his dominions into fhires, he fub-
divided each fhire inta three parts, called trythings.
There are fome remains of this ancient divifion in the
ridings of Yorkfhire,. the laths of Kent, and the three
parts of Lincolnfhire. Each trything was divided into Alfred,
hundreds or wapentakes ; and thefe again into tythings
or dwellings of ten houfeholders: each of thefe houfe-
holders flood engaged to the king, as a pledge for the
good behaviour of his family, and all the ten were mu¬
tually pledges for each other; fo that if any one of the
tything was fufpefted of an offence, if the head bo¬
roughs or chiefs of the tything would not be fecurity
for him, he was imprifoned ; and if he made his efcape,
the tything and hundred were fined to the king. .Each*
ftiire was under the government of an earl, under whom
was the reive, his deputy; fince, from his office, cal¬
led Jhire-reive, or Jheriff. And fo effectual were thefe
regulations, that it is faid he caufed bracelets of gold
to be hung up in the highways, as a challenge to rob¬
bers, and they remained untouched.
In private life, Alfred was the moft amiable man in
his dominions; of fo equal a temper, that he never
fuffered either fadnefs or unbecoming gaiety to enter
his mind ; but appeared always of a calm, yet cheerful
difpofition, familiar to his friends, juft even to his ene¬
mies, kind and tender.to all. He was a remarkable
ceconomift of his time, and Afferius has given us an
account of the method he took for dividing and keep¬
ing an account of it: he caufed fix wax-candles to be
made, each of 12 inches long, and of as many ounces
weight; on the candles the inches were regularly mark¬
ed, and having found that one of them burnt juft four-
hours, he committed them to the care of the keepers of
his chapel, who from time to time gave him notice *
how the hours went: but as in windy weather the
candles were wafted by the impreffion of the air on the
flame, to remedy this inconvenience, he invented lan-
thorns, there being then no glafs in. his dominions.
This prince, we are told, was 12, years of age be¬
fore a matter could be procured in the weftern kingdom,
to teach, him the alphabet; fueh was the ftate of learn¬
ing when Alfred began to reign. He had felt the mi-
fery of ignorance; and determined even to rival his co-
temporary Charlemagne in the encouragement of lite¬
rature. He is fuppofed to have appointed perfons to
read ledtures at Oxford, and is thence confidered as the
founder of that univerfity. By other proper eftablifti-
ments, and by a general encouragement to rtiemof abi¬
lities, he did every thing in his power to diffufe know¬
ledge throughout his dominions. Nor was this end
promoted more by his countenance and encouragement"
than by his own example and his writings. For not-
withftanding the latenefs of his initiation, he had ac¬
quired extraordinary erudition ; artd, had he not been,
illuftrious as-a king, he would have been famous as an -
author. His works are, I. Breviarutn quoddam collec-
tum ex Legibus Trojanorum, &c. lib. I. A Breviary col-
ledted out of the Laws of the Trojans, Greeks, Britons,
Saxons, and Danes, ih one Book. Leland faw this book
in the Saxon tongue, at Chrift-church in Hampfhire.
2. Viji-Saxoniun Leges, lib. I. The laws of the Weft-
Saxons, in one book. Pitts tells us, that it is in Bern
net-
(c) The king’s contrivance is thought to have produced the meadow between. Hertford and Bow; for at
Hertford was the Danilh £brt,: and from thence they made frequent excurfions on the inhabitants of London-..
Authors are not agreed as to the method the king purfued in laying dry the Danifh fliips: Dugdale fuppofea
that he did it by ftraitening the channel; but Henry of Huntingdon alleges, that he cut feveral canals, which
exhaufted its water.
A L G [ 398 ] A L G
Alfred net-College library, at Cambridge. ^.Injlituta quxdam,
. II lib. 1. Certain Inftitutes, in one. book. This is men-
^ ra‘, tioned by Pitts, and feems to be the fecond capitula¬
tion with Guthrum. 4. Contra judices iniquos, lib. I.
An Inventive againft Unjuft Judges, in one book. 5.
jdfia Magiftratuum fuorum, lib. I. Atts of his Ma-
giftrates, in one book. This is fuppofed to be the
book of judgments mentioned by Horne; and was, in
all probability, a kind of reports, intended for the ufe
of fucceeding ages. 6. Return fortune varix, lib- I.
The various Fortunes of Kings, in one book. 7. Dic~
ta fapisntum, lib. I. The Sayings of Wife Men, in
one book. 8. ParoboU et falesy lib. I. Parables and
pleafant Sayings, in one book. 9. Colie Clones chroni-
cor um. Collections of Chronicles, x 0. Epiftola ad IVulf-
Jigium Epifcopum, lib. I. Epiftles to Bilhop Wulfsig,
in one book. 11. Manuale meditationum. A Ma¬
nual of Meditations.—Befides thefe original works, he
tranflated many authors from the Latin, &c. into the
Saxoh language, viz. 1. Bede’s Hiltory of England,
2. Paulinus Orofinus’s Hiftory of the Pagans. 3. St
Gregory’s Paftoral, &c. The firlt of thefe, with his
prefaces to the others, together with his laws, were
printed at Cambridge, 1644. His laws are likewife
inferted in Spelman’s Councils. 4. Boethius ds Confela-
tione, lib. V. Boetius’s Confolations of Philofophy, in
five books. Dr Plot tells us, king Alfred tranflated
it at Woodftock, as he found in a MS. in the Cotton
Library. 5. JEfopi fabuLe, iEfop’s Fables : which he
is faid to have tranflated from the Greek both into Latin
and Saxon. 6. Pfalterium Davidicum, lib. I. David’s
Pfalter, in one book. This was the laft work the King
attempted, death furprifing him before he had finiftied
it; it was however completed by apother hand, and
publifhed at London in 1640, in quarto, by Sir John
Spelman. Several others are mentioned by Malmfbury;
and the old hiftory of Ely aflerts, that he tranflated
the Old and New Teftaments.
The life of this great king was firft written by Af-
ferius Menevenfis; and firft publilhed by Archbifhop
Parker, in the old Saxon character, at the end of his
edition of Haflingham’s hiftory, printed in 1674, f°l*
ALGA, in botany, the trivial name of the li¬
chen, fucus, and feveral other plants of the cryptogamia
ALGiE, flags; one of the feven families or na¬
tural tribes into which the whole vegetable kingdom is
divided by Linnteus, in his Philofophia Botanica. They
are defined to be plants, whofe root, leaf, and ftem are
all one. Under this defcription are comprehended all the Algagtola
fea-weeds, and fome other aquatic plants. In the fexual A
fyftem, they conftitute the 3d order of the 24th clafs , ^ ra’.
Cryptogamia ; in Tournefort, the fecond genus of the
fecond feftion, Marina:, autfluviatilcs, of the 17th clafs,
Afpermx vulgo habitx; and the 57th order in Linnae¬
us’s Fragments of a Natural Method. The difcove-
ries made in this part of the vegetable kingdom are
uncertain, and imperfedt; and the attempts, in parti¬
cular, to arrange flags by the parts of the fructifica¬
tion, have not been attended with great fuccefs. Dil-
lenius has arranged this order of plants from their ge¬
neral habit and ftructure; Michelius from the parts of
fruCtification.—Each has confiderable merit.
ALGAGIOLA, a fmall fea-port town in the ifland
of Corfica, fortified with walls and baftions. It was
almoft deftroyed by the malcontents in 1731, but has
fince been repaired. E. Long. 9. 45. N. Lat. 42. 20.
ALGAROT, in chemiftry, an Arabic term for an
emetic powder, prepared from regulus of antimony,
diflblved in acids, and feparated by repeated lotions in
warm water.
ALGAROTTI (Count), a celebrated Italian, was
born at Padua; but the year is not mentioned. Led
by curiofity, as well as a defire of improvement, he tra¬
velled early into foreign countries ; and was very young
when he arrived in France in 1736. Here he com-
pofed his “ Newtonian Philofophy for the Ladiesas
Fontenelle had done his Cartelian Aftronomy, in the
work intitled, “ The Plurality of worlds.” He was
noticed by the king of Pruffia, who gave him marks of
the efteem he had for him. He died at Pifa the 23d
of May, 1764; and ordered his own maufoleum, with
this infcription to be fixed upon it: “ Hie jacet Alga-
“ rottus, fed non omnis.” He is allowed to have been
a very great connoifleur in painting, fculpture, and ar¬
chitecture. He contributed much to the reformation
of the Italian opera. His works, which are nume¬
rous, and upon a variety of fubjeCts, abound with viva¬
city, elegance, and wit: a collection of them has late¬
ly been made, and printed at Leghorn.
ALGARVA, a province in the kingdom of Por¬
tugal, 67 miles in length and 20 in breadth ; bounded
on the W. and S. by the fea, on the E. by the river
Guadiana, and on the N. by Alentejo. It is veiy fer¬
tile in figs, almonds, dates, olives, and excellent wines;
befides, the fiftiery brings in large fums. The capital
town is Pharo. It contains four cities, 12 towns, 67
parifties, and 61,000 inhabitants.
ALGEBRA,
Definition A General method of computation, wherein figns
and etymo- and fymbols, commonly the letters of the alpha-
iugy‘ bet, are made ufe of to reprefent numbers, or any other
quantities.
This fcience, properly fpeaking, is no other than a
kind of fhort-hand, or ready way of writing down a
chain of mathematical reafoning on any fubjeCt what¬
ever ; fo that it is applicable to arithmetic, geometry,
aftronomy, menfuration of all kinds of folids, &c. and
the great advantages derived from it appear manifeftly
to arife from the concifenefs and perfpicuity with which
every propofition on mathematical fubjeCts can be writ¬
ten down in algebraic characters, greatly fuperior to the
tedious circumlocutions which would be neceflary were
the reafoning to be written in words at length.
With regard to the etymology of the word algelra,
it is much contefted by the critics. Menage derives
it' from the Arabic algiaharat, which fignifies the
reftitution of any thing broken ; fuppofing that the
principal part of algebra is the confideration of broken
numbers. Others rather borrow it from the Spanilh,
algebri/la, » perfon who replaces diflocated bones; ad-
History.
ALGEBRA.
399
ding, that algebra has nothing to do with fraction.
Some, with M. d’Herbelot, are of opinion, that alge¬
bra takes its name from Gebar, a celebrated philofo-
pher, chemift, and mathematician, whom the Arabs
call Giaber, and who is fuppofed to have been the in¬
ventor. Others from gefr, a kind of parchment made
of the Ikin of a camel, whereon Ali and Giafer Sadek
wrote, in myftic chara&crs, the fate of Mahomctanifm,
ami the grand events that were to happen till the end
of the world. But others, with more probability, de¬
rive it from geber ; a word whence, by prefixing the ar¬
ticle al, we have formed algebra ; which is pure Ara¬
bic, and properly fignifies the reduction of fractions to
a whole number. However, the Arabs, it is to be ob-
ferved, never ufe the word algebra alone, to exprefs
what we mean by it; but always add to it the word
macabelah, which fignifies oppofition and comparifon :
thus algebra-almacabelab, is what we properly call al- ■
gebra. ►
Some authors define algebra, The art of folving ma¬
thematical problems; but this is rather the idea of ana-
lyfis, or the analytic art. The Arabs call it, The art
of rejlitution and comparifon ; or, The art of reflation
and equation. Lucas de Burgo, the firft European
who wrote of algebra, calls it, Regula rei et cenfus ;
that is, the rule of the root and its fquare; the root
with them being called res, and the fquare cenfus. Ci¬
thers call it Specious Arithmetic ; and fome, Univerfal
Arithmetic.
It is highly probable that the Indians or Arabians
firft invented this noble art: for it may be reafonably
fuppofed/ that the ancient Greeks wrere ignorant of
It; becaufe Pappus, in his mathematical colle&ions,
where he enumerates their analyfis, makes no mention
of any thing like it; and, befides, fpeaks of a local
problem, begun by Euclid, and continued by Apol¬
lonius, which none of them could fully refolve ; which
doubtlefs they might eafily have done, had they known
any thing of algebra.
Diaphantus was the firft Greek writer of algebra ;
who publifhed 13 books about the year 800, though
only fix of them were tranflated into Latin, by XyJan-
der, in 1575 ; and afterwards, viz. anno 1621,. in
Greek and Latin, by M. Bachet and Fermat, with ad¬
ditions of their own. This algebra of Diaphantus’s
only extends to the folution of arithmetical indeter¬
minate problems.
Before this tranflation of Diaphantus came out, Lu¬
cas Pacciolus, or Lucas de Burgo, a Minorite friar,
publifhed at Venice, in the year 1494, an Italian trea-
tife of algebra. This author makes mention of Leo-
nardus Pifanus, and fome others, of whom he had learn¬
ed the art ; but we have none of their writings. He
adds, that algebra came originally from the Arabs, and
never mentions Diaphantus ; which makes it probable,
that that author was not then known in Europe. His
algebra goes no farther than fimple and quadratic equa¬
tions.
After Pacciolus appeared Stifelius, a good author ;
but neither did he advance any farther.
After him came Scipio Ferreus, Cardan, Tarta-
gilla, and fome others, who reached as far as the fo¬
lution of fome cubic equations. Bombelli followed
thefe, and went a little farther. At laft came Nun-
nius, Ramus, Schoner, Salignac, Clavius, &c. who all H'ftory.
of them took different courfes, but none of them went
beyond quadratics.
In 1590, Vieta introduced what he called his Specious
Arithmetic, which confifts in denoting the quantities,
both known and unknown, by fymbols or letters. He
alfo introduced an ingenious method of extracting the
roots of equations, by approximations; fince greatly
improved and facilitated by Raphfon, Halley, Maclau-
rin, Simpfon, and others.
Vieta was followed by Oughtred, who, in his Clavis
Mathematica, printed in 1631, improved Vieta’s me¬
thod, and invented feveral compendious characters, to
fhowthe fums, differences, reCtangles,fquares, cubes, &c.
Harriot, another Englifhman, cotemporary with
Oughtred, left feveral treatifes at his death ; and among
the reft, an Analyfis, or Algebra, which was printed
in 1631, where Vieta’s method is brought into a ftill
more commodious form, and is much efteemed to this
day.
In 1657, Des Cartes publifhed his geometry, where¬
in he made ufe of the literal calculus and the algebraic
rules of Harriot; and as Oughtred in his Clavis, and
Marin. Ghetaldus in his books of mathematical com-
pofition and refolution publifhed in 1630, applied
Vieta’s arithmetic to elementary geometry, and gave
the conftruftion of fimple and quadratic equations; fo
Des Cartes applied Harriot’s method to the higher
geometry, explaining the nature of curves by equations,
and adding the conftniftions of cubic, biquadratic,
and other higher equations.
Des Cartes’s rule for conftru&ing cubic and biqua¬
dratic equations, was farther improved by Thomas Ba¬
ker, in his Clavis Geometrica Catkdica, publifhed in
1684 ; and the foundation of fuch conftruCtions, with
the application of algebra to the quadratures of curves,
queftions de maximis et minimis, the centrobaryc me¬
thod of Guldinus, &c. was given by R. Slufius, in
1668; as alfo by Fermat in his Opera Mathematica,
Roberval in the Mem. de Mathem. et de Phyfque, and
Barrow in his Left. Geomet. In x 708, algebra was ap¬
plied to the laws of chance and gaming, by R. de Mont-
mort; and fince by de Moivre and James Bernouilli.
The elements of the art were compiled and publifhed
by Kerfey, in 1671 ; wherein the fpecious arithmetic,
and the nature of equations, are largely explained, and
illuftrated by a variety of examples : the whole fubftance
of Diaphantus is here delivered, and many things add¬
ed concerning mathematical compofition and refolution
from Ghetaldus. The like has been fince done by
Preftet in 1694, and by Ozanam in 1703 : but thefe
authors omit the application of algebra to geometry;
which deleft is fupplied by Guifnec in a French treatife
exprefsly on the fubjeft publifhed in 1 704, and 1’Ho-
pital in his analytical treatife of the conic feftions in
1707. The rules of algebra are alfo compendioufly
delivered by Sirlfaac Newton, in his Aritkmetica i'ni-
verfalis, firft publifhed in 1707, which abounds in fe-
left examples, and contains feveral rules and method*
invent<?d by the author.
Algebra has alfo been applied to the confideration*
and calculus of infinites; from whence a new and ex-
tenfive branch of knowledge has arifen, called the Doc¬
trine of Fluxions, or Analyfis of Infinites, or the Calcu¬
lus Dijfertntialis..
In*-
400 A L G E
PAR
Introduction.
Introduc- A Quantity which can be meafured, and is the
, objeft of mathematics, is of two kinds, Number
and Extenfion. The former is treated of in Arithme¬
tic', the latter in Geometry.
.Numbers are ranged in a fcale, by the continued re-
•petition of fome one number, which is called the Root;
and, in confequence of this order, they are conveni¬
ently expreffed in words, and denoted by characters.
The operations of arithmetic are eafily derived from
the eftablifhed method of notation, and the moft fimple
reafonings concerning the relations of magnitude.
Inveftigations by the common arithmetic are greatly
limited, from the want of characters to exprefs the
quantities that are unknown, and their different rela¬
tions to one another, and to fuch as are known. Hence
letters and other convenient fymbols have been intro¬
duced to fupply this defeCt; and thus gradually has
arifen the fcience of Algebra, properly called Univer-
fal Arithmetic.
In the common arithmetic too, the given numbers
difappear in the courfe of the operation, fo that gene¬
ral rules can feldom be derived from it; but, in alge¬
bra, the known quantities, as well as the unknown,
may be expreffed by letters, which, through the whole
operation, retain their original form; and hence may
be deduced, not only general canons for like cafes, but
the dependence of the feveral quantities concerned, and
likewife the determination of a problem, without ex¬
hibiting which, it is not completely refolved. This
general manner of expreffing quantities alfo, and the
general reafonings concerning their connections, which
may be founded on it, have rendered this fcience not
lefs ufeful in the demonftration of theorems than in
the refolution of problems.
If geometrical quantities be fuppofed to be divided
into equal parts, their relations, in refpeCt of magni¬
tude, or their proportions, may be expreffed by num¬
bers ; one of thefe equal parts being denoted by the
unit. Arithmetic., however, is ufed in expreffmg on¬
ly the conclufions of geometrical proportions ; and it
is by algebra that the bounds and application of geo¬
metry have beeh of late fo far extended.
The proper objeCfs of mathematical fcience are num¬
ber and extenfion ; but mathematical inquiries may be
inftituted alfo concerning any phyfical quantities that
-are capable of being meafured or expreffed by numbers
and extended magnitudes: And, as the application of
.algebra may be equally univerfal, it has been called
The fcience of quantity in general.
Definitions.
1. Quantities which are known are generally repre-
fented by the firft letters of the alphabet, as a, b, c,
&c. and fiich as are unknown by the laft letters, as
x,y, z, &c.
2. The fign 4- {flus) denotes, that the quantity be¬
fore which it is placed is to be added. Thus
«+£ denotes the fum of a and 4 ; 3-I-5 denotes the
fum of 3 and 5, or 8. When no fign is expreifed,
4- is underftood.
.N° IQ.
A.
Part I
I.
3. The fign — {minus') denotes, that the quantity be-Definitions
fore which it is placed is to be fubtradled. Thus ^
a—b denotes the excefs of a above b ; 6—2 is the
excefs of 6 above 2, or 4. Note, Thefe characters
+ and —, from their extenfive ufe in algebra, are
called the Jigns ; and the one is faid to be oppofite or
, contrary to the other.
4. Quantities which have the fign + prefixed to them
are called pofitive or affirmative and fuch as have
the fign — prefixed to them are called negative.
5. Quantities which have the fame fign, either -{- or
—, are alfo faid to have like Jigns, and thofe which
have different fignsare faid to have unlike figns. Thus
-\-a,ffib, have like figns, and -{-a,—c, are faid to
have unlike figns.
6. The juxtapofition of letters as in the fame word, ex-
preffes the produCt of the quantities denoted by thefe
letters. Thus ab expreffes the product of a and b ;
bed expreffes the continued' produdt of b, c, and d.
The fign X alfo expreffes the produdt of any two
quantities between which it is placed.
7. A number prefixed to a letter is called a numeral
coefficient, and expreffes the produCt of the quantity
by that number, or how often the quantity denoted
by the letter is to be taken. When no number is
prefixed, unit is underftood.
8. The quotient of two quantities is denoted by placing
the dividend above a fmall line and the divifor below
it. Thus ^ is the quotient of 18 divided by 3, or
6 ; -f- is the quotient of a divided by b. This ex-
preflion of a quotient is alfo called a frdttion.
9. A quantity is faid to be Jimple, which confiits of one
part or 'Term, as -\~a, —abc ; and a quantity is faid
to be compound, when it confifts of more than one
term, conne&ed by the figns ft- or —. Thus affib,
a—b-\-c, are1 compound quantities. If there are
two terms, it is called a binomial; if three, a trino¬
mial, &c.
10. Simple quantities, or the terms of compound
quantities, are faid to be like, which confift of the
fame letter or letters, equally repeated. Thus -{-ab,
—$ab, are like quantities; but -\-ab, and -{-aab,
are unlike.
u. The-equality of two quantities is expreffed, by
placing the fign = between them. Thus x-\-a ~b—c,
means that the fum of x and a is equal to the excefs
of b above c.
When quantities are confidered abftraftly, then -f-
and — denote addition and fubtradtion only, according
to Def. 2. and 3. and the terms pofitive and negative
exprefs the fame ideas. In that cafe, a negative quan¬
tity by itfelf is unintelligible. The fign -j- alfo is un-
neceflary before iimplc quantities, or before the lead¬
ing term of a compound quantity which is not nega¬
tive ; though, when* fuch a quantity or term is to be
added to another, + muft be placed before it, to ex¬
prefs that addition ; and hence in Def. 2. it is faid,
that -1- is underftood when no fign is expreffed.
In geometry, however, and in certain applications
of
5
Part I
wFundamen-
J al.opera-
A L G
of geometry and algebra, there may be an oppofition
or contrariety in the quantities, analogous to that of
addition and fubtraction ; and the figns + and — may
very conveniently be ufed to exprefs that contrariety.
In fuch cafes, negative quantities are underitood to
exift by themfelves ; and the fame rules take place in
operations into which they enter, as are ufed with re¬
gard to the negative terms of abftraft quantities.
CHAP. I.
Sect. i. Fundamental Operations.
The fundamental operations in algebra are the fame
as in common arithmetic, Addition, Subtraction, Mul¬
tiplication, and Divijion ; and from the various combi-
natioas of thefe four, all the others are derived.
E B R A, 401
terms in the quantities to be added may be united, fo Fumlamen*
as to render the expreffion of the fum more fimple. °Pera*
r tions.
Pr.ob. II. fo fubtrati Quantities. ' 
General Rule. Change the figns of the quantity to
be fubtrafted into the contrary figns, and then add
it, fo changed, to the quantity from which it was
to be fubtrafted (by Prob. I.) ; the fum arifing by
this addition is the remainder.
Examp. From 1a^—
Subtract +3 <2 ^ab-\-mb
Rem. -\-2a q.ab—16b c—mb
From — 7 + <3
Subt. za—4/^+9^—d
Prob. I. To add Quantities.
Simple quantities, or the terms of compound quanti¬
ties, to be added together, may be like tuith like
figns, like nuith unlike figns, or they may be unlike.
Cafe ). To add terms that are like and have like
figns.
Rule. Add together the coefficients, to their fum pre¬
fix the common fign, and fubjoin the common letter
or letters.
Examp. To 5 ah ^aa—ah
Add ^ab 7 a a—2 ah
  e^aa—5 ah
Sum gab 
i^aa—Sab.
Cafe 2. To add tenns that are like, but have unlike
figns.
Rule. Subtract the lefs coefficient from the greater;
prefix the fign of the greater to the remainder, and
fubjoin the common letter or letters.
Examp. —s,a Jr']hc —^ah
+7^ —if -^zah
—<— + be +3^
Cafe 3. To add terms that are unlike.
Rule. Set them all down,.pne after another, with their
figns and coefficients prefixed.
Examp. za + 3 5
—yr-i-S
—yr-fS
Compound quantities are added together, by uniting
the feveral terms of which they coniifl: by the pre¬
ceding rules.
r $ab—35.J—l zed
Examp. The fum of X^xy—ab + ty
^ ged—xy—mn
is ^ab~^cd-\-\^—mn-\-§xy
The rule for cafe 3. may be confidered as the gene¬
ral rule for adding all algebraical quantities whatfoever;
and, by the rules in the two preceding cafes, the like
Von. I. Part II.
Rem. 3a—$b-fc-\-S-\-d
When a pofitive quantity is to be fubtracled, the
ride is obvious from Def. 3. : In order to ffiow it, when
the negative part of a quantity is to be fubtra&ed, let
c—d be fubtrafted from a, the remainder, according
to the rule, is a—c-\-d. For if c is fubtra&ed from
a, the remainder is a—c (by Def. 3.) ; but this is too
fmall, becaufe c is fubtra&ed rnfiead of c—d, which is,
lefs than it by d; the remainder therefore is too final!
by d; and d being added, it is a—c+d, according to
the rule;
Otherwife If the quantity d be added to thefe two
quantities a and c-~d, the difference will continue the
fame ; that is, the excefs of a above c—d is equal to
the excefs of a+d above c—d+d; that is, to the ex¬
cels of a+d above c, which plainly is a-^d—c‘, and is
therefore the remainder required.
Prob. III. To multiply Quantities.
General Ride for the Signs. When the figns of the
two terms to be multiplied are like, the fign of the
produft is -f -; but, when the figns are unlike, the
fign of the produft is —.
Cafe r. To multiply two terms.
Rule. Find the fign of the pro duel by the general
rule ; after it place the produdl of the numeral co¬
efficients, and then fet down all the letters one after,
another, as in one word.
Mult. 4-<7 1 4-yi
By -\-b j —3c
+ab J —ty£c
The reafon of this rule is derived from Def. 6. and
from the nature of multiplication, which is a repeated
addition of one of the quantities to be multiplied as
often as there are units in the other. Hence alfo the
letters in two terms multiplied together may be placed
in any order, and therefore the order of the alphabet
is generally preferred.
Cafe 2. To multiply compound quantities.
—5 ax
—'jab
+ iS^bx
Rule. Multiply every term of the multiplicand by all
the terms of the multiplier, one after another, accord-
s ing to the preceding rule, and then colledt all the
produdls into one fum ; that fum is the product re¬
quired.
3 E Examp.
A
402
Fundamen¬
tal opera-
L G
Examp. Mult. 2^+3^ *»+*
By zax—4^ m—*
6aax-\-C)abx mm-\-mx
—%aby— \2lby —mx-
Prod. 6aax-\-gahx—Qaby—\2bby mm*—xx
Mult, a—b
By c—d
ac—eh
— ad-\~db
Prod, ac—cb—ad \-db
E
Of the general Rule for the Signs.
The reafon of that rule will appear by proving it, as
applied to the laft mentioned example of a—b multiplied
by c—d, in which every cafe of it occurs.
Since multiplication is a repeated addition of the
multiplicand as often as there are units in the multi¬
plier, hence, if a—b is to be multiplied by c, a—b
muft be added to itfelf as often as there are units in
£■, and the produfit therefore muft be ca—cb (Prob. I.).
But this produft is too great; for a—b is to be
multiplied, not bye, but bye—d only, which is the
excefs of e above d; d times a—b therefore, or da-—db,
has been taken too much 5 hence this quantity muft
be fubtrafted from the former part of the produo;, and
the remainder, which (by Prob. II.) is ca—cb—dafdb,
will be the true product required.
Def. 12. When feveral quantities are multiplied to¬
gether, any of them is called a faflor Of the produ£l.
13. The products ariling from the continual multi¬
plication of the fame quantity are called the powers
of that quantity, which is the root. Thus, aa, aaa,
aaaa, &c. are powers of the root a.
14. Thefe powers are expreffed, by placing above
the root, to the right hand, a figure, denoting how
often the root is repeated. This figure is called an
index, or exponent, and from it the power is denomi¬
nated. Thus,
BRA.
Part I.
ber of terms of a compound quantity, to denote thofe Fundamen-
which are underftood to be affe&ed by the particular P^'gPera* j|
fign connefted with it. T- .
Thus, in the laft example, it fhows that the terms
and —b, and alfo c and —d are all affedted by the
fign (X). Without the vinculum, the expreffioa
a—b'Ac—d would mean the excefs of a above be and
d; and a—bY.c—d would mean the excefs of the pro¬
duct of a-—b by c, above d. Thus alfo, a+bf ex-
prefies the fecond power of or the prodmft of
that quantity multiplied by itfelf; whereas a-\-bz would
exprefs only the fum of a and bx ; and fo of others.
By fome writers a_ parenthefis ( ) is ufed as a vincu¬
lum, and [a-\-by is the fame thing as a+by.
Prob. IV. To divide Quantities.
General Rule for the Signs. If the figns of the divifor
and dividend are like, the fign of the quotient is
ft- ; if they are unlike, the fign of the quotient is
This rule is eafily deduced from that given-in Prob.
III. ; for, from the nature of divifion, the quotient
muft be fuch a quantity as, multiplied by the divifor,
ihall produce the dividend with its proper fign.
From Def. 8. the quotient of any two quantities
may be expreffed, by placing the dividend above a line
and the divifor below it. But a quotient may often
be expreffed in a more fimple and convenient form, as-
will appear from the fallowing diftinflion of the
cafes.
Cafe I. When the divifor is fimple, and is a faclor
of all the terms of the dividend. This is eafily dif-
covered by infpeftion ; for then the coefficient of the
divifor meafures that of all the terms of the dividend,
and all the letters of the divifor are found in every
term of the dividend.
Rule. The letter or letters in the divifor are to be ex¬
punged out of each term in the dividend, and the
coefficients of each term to be divided by the co¬
efficient of the divifor; the quantity refulting is
the quotient.
« C tft Power of the root F or «
aa(~< k j zd ( a, and is other-Ja*
aaaT 0 *-■ *)3d wife expreffed 4a3
aaaay'^ Qqth ^ by Qa4, &c.
The 2d and 3d powers are generally called the
fquare and cubs; and the 4th, 5th, and 6th, are alfo
fometimes refpeftively called the biquadrate, furfolid,
and cubocube.
Cor. Powers of the fame root are multiplied by
adding their exponents, Thus, a3 Xa* =as, or aaaX
aazz. aaaa a, b3Xbz:b4.
Scholium.
Sometimes it is convenient to exprefs the multipli¬
cation of quantities, by fetting them down with the
fign (X) between them, without performing the ope¬
ration according to the preceding rules ; thus a'Xb is
written inftead of dlb ; and a—b X c—d expreffes the
produft of a—b, multiplied by c—d.
Def. 15. A vinculum is a line drawn over any num-
Ex. a) ab{b. 2 a ah) Oa^bc—\a'*bdm ($ac—2 dm
The reafon of this is evident from the nature of di¬
vifion, and from Def. 6. Note. It is obvious from
corollary to Prob. III. that powers of the feme root
are divided by fubtrafting their exponents.
Thus #*)tf3 (# a^ad (a4, hlio a'lb).allf' (abs.
Cafe II. When the divifor is fimple, but not a
faftor of the dividend.
Rule. The quotient is expreffed by a fradtion, accord¬
ing to Def. 8. viz. by placing the dividend above- a
line and the divifor below it.
Thus the quotient of o>abz divided by 'imbe is the?
fraftion
2mbc.
Such expreffions of quotients may often be reduced.
to a more limple form, as fliall be explained in the fe¬
cond part of this chapter.
Cafe HI. When the divifor is compound.
Rule.
Part I. A L G
fun 'amen- Rule I. The terms of the dividend are to be ranged
r,Pera' according to the powers of fome one of its letters ;
^ and thofe of the divifor, according to the powers
of the fame letter.
Thus, if is the dividend, and a-\-b the
divifor, they are ranged according to the powers of a.
2. The firfl: term of the dividend is to be divided by
the firft term of the divifor (obferving the general
rule for the ligns); and this quotient being fet down
as a part of the quotient wanted, is to be multiplied
by the whole divifor, and the produft fubtrafted
from the dividend. If nothing remain, the divi-
fion is finiflied : the remainder, when there is any,
is a new dividend.
Thus, in the preceding example, a1 divided by a,
gives a, which is the firft part of the quotient want¬
ed : and the product of this part by the whole divifor
a-\-b, viz. al-i-ab being fubtra&ed from the given di¬
vidend, there remains in this example ab-\-b*.
3. Divide the firft term of this new dividend by the
firft term of the divifor. as before, and join the quo¬
tient to the part already found, with its proper fign :
then multiply the whole divifor by this part of the
quotient, and fubtraft the produft from the new
dividend ; and thus the operation is to be continued
till no remainder is left, or till it appear that there
will always be a remainder.
Thus, in the preceding example, -\-ab, the firft
term of the new dividend divided by a, gives b; the
product of which, multiplied by a+b, being fubtradl-
ed from ab+b1, nothing remains, and a-\-b is the true
quotient. The entire operation is as follows.
a-^b") cFArZab-^-y1
«*+ ab
ab+bz
ab+P
3<r—b} 3a*—12a*—Pb+joab—2P
3a3 —arb
— 12a2 +ioab
— 12a2 -j-
-{-6ab—zb2
jfGab—2b2
l—a) x (i+a+a2+a3, &c.
1—a
+a
•\-a—a2
■\-ax
-\a2—a3
+a3, &c.
It often happens,' as in the laft example, that there
E B R A. 403
is ftill a remainder from which the operation may be Fandamen-
continued without end. This exprefiion of a quotient
is called an infinite feriet; the nature of which (hall t‘on!^
be confidered afterwards. By comparing a few of the
firft terms, the law of the feries may be difeovered,
by which, without any more divifion, it may be con¬
tinued to any number of terms wanted.
Of the General Rule.
The reafon of the different parts of this rule is evi¬
dent ; for, in the courfe of the operation, all the term*
of the quotient obtained by it are multiplied by all
the terms of the divifor, and the produbts are fuccef-
fively fubtrafted from the dividend till nothing re¬
main : that, therefore, from the nature of divifion,
muft be the true quotient.
Note. The fign ■— is fometimes ufed to exprefs the
quotient of two quantities between which it is placed:
Thus, a^+x2 -r-afi-x, expreffes the quotient of a2 fix2
divided by a-j-x..
$ 2. O F F RAC T I O N S.
Definitions.
1. When a quotient is expreffedby a fraftion, the di¬
vidend above the line is called the numerator; and
the divifor below it is called the denominator.
2. If the numerator is left than the denominator, it is
called a proper frattion.
3. If the numerator is not left than the denominator,
it is called an improper fratlion.
4. If one part of a quantity is an integer, and the o-
ther a fraftion, it is called a mixt quantity.
5. The reciprocal of a fraftion, is a fraftion whofe nu¬
merator is the denominator of the other; and whofe
denominator is the numerator of the other. The
reciprocal of an integer is the quotient of i divided
by that integer. Thus,
is the reciprocal of ~ ; and — is the reciprocal
of m.
The diftinftions in Def. 2, 3, 4, properly belong to
common arithmetic, from which they are borrowed,
and are fcarcely ufed in algebra.
The operations concerning fraftions are founded on
the following propofition:
If the divifor. and dividend be either both multiplied
or both divided by the fame quantity, the quotient is
the fame; or, if both the numerator and denominator
of the fraftion be either multiplied or divided by the
fame quantity, the value of that fraftion is the fame.
Thus, let —=zc, then 1~—c. For, from the nature
b nib
of divifion, if the quotient^ (=c) be multiplied by
the divifor b, the produft muft be the dividend a. Hence
^-Xb—^J lc~a, and likewife ma—mbe, and dividing
both by mb, 1~~c. Converfely, if ^~~c, then alfq
3 E 2 Cir*
404 A L G E
Fundamen- Cor. I. Hence a fraftion may be reduced to another
tal opera- 0£ fame value, but of a more Ample form, by di-
viding both numerator and denominator by apy com¬
mon meafure.
Thus, yoax—54«y_5*—9>'-
Mab 2b
%ab-\-6ac 45+3C.
2a
Cor. 2. A fradlion is multiplied by any integer, by
multiplying the numerator, or dividing the denomina¬
tor by that integer: and converfely, a fraction is di¬
vided by any integer, by dividing the numerator, or
multiplying the denominator by that integer.
Prob. I. To find the greatefi common Meafure of two
Quantities.
1. Of pure numbers.
Rule. Divide the greater by the lefs: and, if there is
no remainder, the lefs is the greateft common mea-
fur? required. If there is a remainder, divide the
laft divifor by it; and thus proceed, continually di¬
viding the lalt divifor by its remainder, till no re¬
mainder is left, and the laft divifor is the greateft
common meafure'required.
The greateft common meafure of 45 ahd 63 is 9 ;
the greateft common meafure of 187 and 391 -is 17.
Thus,
45)S$(I
45
18)45(2
36
9)<S(2
18
From the nature of this, operation, it is plain that
it may always be continued till there be no remainder.
The rule depends on the two following principles:
1. A quantity which meafures both divifor and re¬
mainder muft meafure the dividend.
2. A quantity which meafures both drvifor and di¬
vidend muft alfo meafure the remainder.
For a quantity which meafures two other quantities,
muft alfo meafure both their fum and difference; and,
from the nature of diviiion, the dividend coniifts of the
divifor repeated a certain number of times, together
with the remainder. By the firft it appears, that the
number found by this rule is a common meafure; and,
by the fecond, it is plain there can be no greater com¬
mon meafure; for, if there were, it muft neeeffarily
meafure the quantity already found lefs than itfelf,
which is abfurd.
When the greateft common meafure of algebraical
quantities is required, if either of them be fimple, any
common limple divifor is eafily found by infpedtion.
If they are both compound, any common fimple divi¬
for may alfo be found by infpedftion. But, when the
greateft compound divifor is wan'.ed, the preceding
ruk is to be applied; only.
‘ 187)391(2
374
17)187(11
.87
BRA. Part I,
2. The fimple divifdrs of each of the quantities are Fundamen-
to be taken out, the remainders in the feveral opera- ^?^°Pera'
tions are alfo to be divided by their fimple divifors, and ^ t
the quantities are always to be ranged according to the
powers of the fame letter.
The fimple divifors in the given quantities, or in the
remainders, do not affeft a compound divildr which is
wanted; and hence alfo, to make the divifion fucceed,
any of the dividends may be multiplied by a fimple
quantity. Befides the fimple divifors in the remainders
not being found in the divifors from which they arife,
can make no part of the common meafure fought; and
for the fame reafen, if in fuch a remainder there be
any compound divifor which does not meafure the di¬
vifor from which it proceeds, it may be taken out.
Examples.
c1—bl) ax—2ab-\-bl (1
ax — bz *
—2ab-\-2bx Remainder, which
divided by —lb is a—b') a1—bx (afib
ax—bx
If the quantities given are \ oab*zb', and
ya b—The fimple divifors be¬
ing taken out, viz. zbx out of the firft, it becomes
4«*—^ab-ifbx, and ^ab out of the ,feco.nd, it is
2^3—^b+ab1—})*. As the latter is to be divided by
the former, it muft be multiplied by 4, to make the
operation fucceed, and then it is as follows:
4«z—$ab-\-bx) 12a3—i2axb-\-$abx—4^ (3a
1 2a3—
$alb-\-abx—4^3
This remainder is to be divided by b, and the new
dividend multiplied by 3, to make the divifion pro¬
ceed. Thus,
^Jf-ab—^b1) 12a1—15^4-35’ (4
12a14-4^—l6bx
— lyab+iqb1
and this remainder, divided by —195, gives a—b, which
being made a divifor, divides -\-ab—s\.bx without a
remainder, and therefore a—S is the greateft compound
divifor: but there is a fimple divifor b, and therefore
a—by.b is the greateft common meafure required.
Prob. II. To reduce a Frattion to its lonvefi Tenns.
Rule. Divide both numerator and denominator by
their greateft common meafure, which may be found
by prob. I.
Thus, z^lc being the greateft common
meafure,
_ax Jrbx
alfo.
is—a>bx~
9a'b—9*-b'+ 3«^3—3^4-9*3 .±3^ the greateft
%axbx—\oabl 4~2i4 %ab—2bx
common meafure being a—bY,b, by Prob. 1.
Prob.
Part I.
: Fundamen¬
tal opera-
: tionf.
L G E B R A. 405
to the Form of a Cor. 2. A fraftion, whofe numerator is a compound Fundamen-
quantity, may be diftinguifhed into parts, by dividingta' °Pera*
„ , , ,1 • • , r the numerator into feveral parts, and fettinp- each over, ns' .
Rue. utipy e given in eger y any quan 1 y or tiie original denominator, and uniting the new frac-
a numerator, and fet that quant,ty under the pro- t;oM if nece|tl j b th(, {^s of their
duct tor a denominator. merators
Pros. III. To reduce an Integt
Fraction.
Thus, a~-
Thus,
o'—2ah 4* h*_ a*
bl
---b +-
Cor. Hence, in the following operations concerning
fractions, an integer may be introduced ; for, by this
problem, it may be reduced to the form of a fraction.
The denominator of an integer is generally made 1.
Prob. IV. To reduce Fractions nx>itb different Denovii*
nators to Fractions of equal Vdue, that Jball have
the fame Denominator.
Prob. VL To multiply Fractions.
Rule. Multiply their numerators into one another, to
obtain the numerator of the product; and the deno¬
minators, multiplied into one another, (hall give the
denominator of the product.
Rule. Multiply each numerator, feparately taken into a c~ ac a-\~b a—h a1—Ir
all the denominators but its own, and the produdls b'*'d~~bd. ~c * 'd~~~ ~cd
(hall give the new numerators. Then multiply all _ # _ _ ca
the denominators into one another, and the product For, if is to be multiplied by c, the produft is -jp i
(hall give the common denominator.
Example. Let the fra&ions be y f they
respectively equal to
b d f
adfbcf Ide.
Ilf bdf bdf
but if it is to be multiplied only by ^ the former pro¬
duct mud be divided by d, and it becomes ^-(Cor.2.
to the preceding problem.)
The reafon of the operation appears from the prece¬
ding propofition ; for the numerator and denominator
of each fraction are multiplied by the fame quantities;
and the value of the fractions therefore is the fame.
Prob. V. To add and fubtraCt Fractions.
Rule. Reduce them to a common denominator, then
add or fubtraft the numerators; and the fum or dif¬
ference fet over the common denominator is the fum
or remainder required.
E,. Add together C± % the fum
oaf bdj
From^ fubt. ~ the difference is —7- C
b d bd .
Or, let =m, and ~2~n- Then a—bm, and c—Jr:,
oaxCs ac-=.bdmnJ^x\ds{mnz=.') —
Prob. VII. To divide Fractions. ’
Rule. Multiply the numerator of the dividend by the
denominator of the divifor ; their product (hall give
the numerator of the quotient. Then multiply the
denominator of the dividend by the numerator of
the divifor, and their prodndt ihall give the denomi¬
nator.
Or, Multiply the dividend by the reciprocal of the di¬
vifor ; the produft will be the quotient wanted.
From the nature of divifion it is evident, that, when
feveral quantities are to be divided by the fame divi¬
for, the fum of the quotients is the fame with the quo¬
tient of the fum of the quantities divided by that com¬
mon divifor.
In like manner, the difference of two fractions ha¬
ving the fame denominator, is equal to the difference of
the numerators divided by that common denominator.
Cor. 1. By Cor. Prob. 3. integers may be reduced
to the form of fraftions, and hence integers and frac¬
tions may be added and fubtrafted by this rule. Hence
alfo what is called a mixt quantity may be reduced in¬
to the form of a fraction by bringing the integral part
into the form of a fraftion, with the fame denominator
as the fractional part, and adding or fubtrafting the
numerators according as the two parts are connected
by the figns -f or —.
Thus, b -j- an<I a—  =
d d 2a
la. ~~ za
Thus,
a\c f be c b
b )d\ad d'*'a.
For, if ^ is to be divided by a, the quotient is ;
c , . . a
but ^ is to be divided, not by a, but by j 5 therefore
the former quotient muff be multiplied by b, and it
. he
Or, let and g=n t then a=bm, and c=dn;
alfo ad — bdtn and bczzbdn; therefore
/ bdn \ n_bc
\bdm~ )m~ ad.
Scholium.
By thefe problems, the four fundamental operations
may be performed, when any terms of the original
quantities, or of thofe which arife in the courfe of the
operation, are fraftional.
Ex-
O-^
a6
f Propor-
Examplc.
an
' 6x*
s + x) a' + x1 («—.\' +
a l -\-ax
Prod. ~
zx
—> See.
~«X + X'
—ax—xz
6^x*
2al + _T“
E B R A. Part I.
Cor. i. Of four arithmetical proportionals, any three Of Pmpor-
being given, the fourth may be found. tl^n- .
Thus, let a, b, c, be-the i£t, 2d, and4th terms, and
let ,v be the 3d which is fought.
Then by def. a-\-czzb-\-x, and x—a+c—b.
Cor. 2. If three quantities be arithmetical propor¬
tionals, the fum of the extremes is double of the mid- .
die term ; and hence, of three fuch proportionals, any
two being given, the third may be found.
2. Of Geometrical Proportion.
Definition. If of four quantities., the quotient of the
firft and fecond is equal to t;he quotient of the third
and fourth, thefe quantities are faid to be in geometric
cal proportion. They are alfo called proportionals.
Thus, if <7, b, c, d, are the four quantities, then
and their ratio is thus denoted a : b : : c •. d.
Cor. Three quantities may be geometrical propor¬
tionals, viz. by fdppofing the two middle terms of the
four to be equal. If the quantities are a, b, c, then
ah
and the proportion is expreffed thus, a:b:c.
4- —&c.
1 a1 1
This quotient becomes a ferious, of which the law
of continuation is obvious, without any farther opera¬
tion.
In fuch cafes, when we arrive at a remainder of one
term, it is commonly fet down with the divifor below
it, after the other terms of the quotient, which then
becomes a mixt quantity. Thus the laft quotient is
alfo expreffed by a—
Ta + x
Prop. I. The product of the extremes of four quan¬
tities geometrically proportional is equal to the product
of the means; and converfely. t
Let a\b::c:d.
Then by Def.
and multiplying both by bd, ad—be.
a c
If ad—be, then dividing by bd, that is,
a-.b::c:d.
CHAP. II.
Ofi Proportion.
By the preceding operations quantities of the fame
kind may be compared together.
The relation ariling from this comparifon is called
ratio or proportion, and is of two kinds. If we confi-
der the difference of the two quantities, it is called
arithmetical proportion ; and if we confider their quo¬
tient, it is called geometrical proportion. This laft be¬
ing moft generally ufeful, is commonly called fimply
proportion.
j. Of Arithmetical Proportion.
Definition. When of four quantities the difference of
the firft and fecond is equal to the difference of the
third and fourth, the quantities are called arithmetical
proportionals.
Cor. Three quantities maybe arithmetically propor¬
tional, by fuppofing the two middle terms of the four
to be equal.
Prop. In four quantities arithmetically proportional,
the fum of the extremes is equal to the fum of .the
means.
Let the four be a, b, c, d. Therefore from Def,
tz—bzzc—d; to thefe add b-\~d and a-\-d—b-\-c.
Cor. 1. The product of the extremes of three quan¬
tities, geometrically proportional, is equal to the fquare
of the middle term.
Cor. 2. Of four quantities geometrically proportion¬
al, any three being given, the fourth may be found.
Ex. Let a, b, c, be the three firft; to find the 4th.
Let it be x, then a:b::c:x, and by this propofition,
ax—be
be.
and dividing both by a, x~ —.
This coincides with the Rule of Three in arithmetic,
and may be confidered as a demonftration of it. In
applying the rule to any particular cafe, it is only to
be obferved, that the quantities muft be fo connedted
and fo arranged, that they be proportional, according
to the preceding definition.
Cor, 3. Of three geometrical proportionals, any two
being given, the third may be found.
Prop. II. If four quantities be geometrically pro¬
portional, then if any equimultiples whatever be taken
of the firft and third, and alfo any equimultiples what¬
ever of the fecond and fourth; if the multiple of the
firft be greater than that of the fecond, the multiple of
the third will be greater than that of the fourth; and
if equal, equal ; and if lefs, lefs.
For, let a} b, c, d, be the four proportionals. Of
the
Part I. A L G
Of Equa- the fir(l and third, ma and me may reprefent any equl-
tlons' multiples whatever, and alfo nb, nd, may reprefent
v any equimultiples of the fecohd and fourth. Since
a:bt:c:d, ad—bc; and hence multiplying by mn,
mnad~mnbc't and therefore (Conv. Prop, i.)
ma: nb : : me: nd; and from 'the definition of pro¬
portionals, it is plain, that if ma is greater than nb,
me muft be greater than nd; and if equal, equal; and
iflefs, lefs.
Prop. III. If four quantities are proportionals, they
will alfo be proportionals when taken alternately or in-
verfely, or by compofition, or by divilion, or by con-
verfion. See Def. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. of Book V. of
Euclid, Simfon’s edition.
By Prop. II. they will alfo be proportionals accord-
ino to Def. 5. BookV. of Euclid; and therefore this
propofition is demonftrated by propofitions 16, B, 18,
17, E, of the fame book.
Qthenvife algebraically.
Let a '.b'.'.cvd, and therefore ad—bc.
Altern. a : c\:b : d
Invert. b: a •. id: c
Divid. a—b ib •.•. c—d: d
Comp. a-\-b ibii c-\-d: d
' Convert. a : a—b :: r : c—d
Tor fince ad—bc, it is obvious, that in each of thefe
cafes the product of the extremes is equal to the pro-
dudl of the means; the quantities are therefore pro¬
portionals. (Prop. 1.)
Prep. IV. If four numbers be proportionals, accord¬
ing to Def. 5. V. B. of Euclid, they will be geome¬
trically proportional, according to the preceding defi¬
nition.
\Ji, Let the four numbers be integers, and let them
be a, b, c, d. Then if b times a and b times c be ta¬
ken, and alfo a times b and a times d, fince ba the.
multiple of the firlt is equal to ab the multiple of the
fecond, be, the multiple of the third, muft be equal to
ad the multiple of the fourth. And fince be—ad, by
Prop. 1. a, b, c, and d, muft be geometrical propor¬
tionals.
zdly, If any of the numbers be fractional,, all the
four being multiplied by the denominators of the frac¬
tions, they continue proportionals, according to Def. 5.
B. V. Euclid (by Prop. 4. of that book) ; and the
four integer quantities produced being fuch. propor¬
tionals, they will.be geometrical proportionals, by the
firft part of this prop.; and therefore, being reduced
by divifion to their original form,, they manifeftly will,
remain proportionals, according to the algebraical de¬
finition.
CHAP. III.
Sect. I. Of Equations in general, arid cf the Solution
of fimple Equations.
Definitions.
I* An Equation may in general be defined to be a
propoiition afferting the equality of two quantities;
E B R A. 407
and is exprefled by placing the fign = between Of Equa-
them> , ti»n3- „
2. When a quantity Hands alone upon one fide of an
equation, the quantities on the other fide are faid to
be a value of it. Thus in the equation xzzb^-y—d,
x Hands alone on one fide, and b-^-y—d is a value
of it.
3. When an unknown quantity is made to ft'and alone
on one fide of an equation,, and there are only known
quantities on the other, that equation, is faid to be
refolved; and the value of the unknown quantity is
called a root of the equation.
4. Equations containing only one unknown quantity
and its powers, are divided into orders, according to
the higheft power of the unknown quantity to be
found in any of its terms.
If the higheft power of 1 1 ft, 1 The E- T Simple,
the unknown quanti- > 2d, >- quatfon Xfifiuadrat.
ty in any term be the J 3d,&c. J iscalled (^Cubic, 8ic.
But the exponents of the unknown quantity are fup*
pofed - to be integers, and the equation is fuppofed to
be cleared of fractions, in which the unknown quanti
ty, or any of its powers, enter the denominators.
Thus, x 4-^ = —^— is a fimple equation; 3.V—I2»
when cleared of the fraCtion by multiplying both
Tides by zx, becomes 6x2—5 = 24* a quadratic.
x3—2x4 rrx6—26 is an equation of the fixth order, &c»
As the general relations of quantity which may be
treated of in algebra, are almoft univerfally either that
of equality, or fuch as may be reduced to that of e-
quality, the doCtrine of equations becomes one of the
chief branches of the fcience.
The moft common and ufeful application of algebra
is in the inveftigation of quantities that are unknown,
from certain given relations to each other, and to fuch
as are known ; and hence it has been called the analy¬
tical art. The equations employed for expreffing thefe
relations muft therefore contain one or more unknown
quantities; and the principal bufinefs of this art will
be, the deducing equations containing only one un¬
known quantity, and refolving them.
The folution of the different orders of equations will
be fucceflively explained. The preliminary rules in the
following feClion are ufeful in all orders, and are alone
fufficient for. the folution of fimple equations.
$;i. Offmiple Equations, and iheir Reflation.
Simple equations are refolved by the four fundamen¬
tal operations already explained ; and the application
of them to this purpofe is contained'in the following
rules.
Rule 1. Any quantity maybe tranfpofed from one fide
of an equation to the other, by changing its fign.
Thus, if 3.V—10 = 2x4-5
Then, 3.V—2x= io-f-5 or x= 15
Thus alfo, qx-\-b—a-{-2x.
By tranfp. ^x—a—F.
This rule is obvious from prob. 1. and 2.; for it is-
equivalent to adding equal quantities to both fides of
the equation, or to fubtrading equal quantities from:
both fides.
Cor..
A.
Or
A L G E
Cor. The figns of all the terra's of an equation may
• be changed into the contrary figns, and it will continue-
to be true.
Ruk. 2. Any quantity by which the unknown quan¬
tity is multiplied may be taken away, by dividing
all the other quantities of the equation by it.
Thus, if ax—b
_b_
Alfo, if ihx■-(-nb — am
rib
.v-j ~a
7*=84
v_84=i
7
i+^16
1{i+-
r.3.
r.3.
R. i.
—+9 = 64
2o-f9\- = 64.v
20=55*
X~J5~
Part I,
Of Equa-
For if equal quantities are divided by the fame
quantity, the quotients are equal.
Rule 3. If a term of an equation is fractional, its de¬
nominator may be taken away, by multiplying all
the other terms by it.
Thus, —^bJf-c Alfo, if —7~<:
x=ab-\-ac ax—b=cx
And by tranf. ax—cx=b
b
And by div. x~ 
1 a—c
For if all the terms of the equation are multiplied by
the fame quantity, it remains a true propofition.
Corollary to the three lajl Rules.
If any quantity be found on both fides of the equa¬
tion, with the fame fign, it may be taken away from
both. (Rule 1.)
Alfo, if all the terms in the equation are multiplied
or divided by the fame quantity, it may be taken out
of them all. (Rule 2. and 3.)
Ex. If then 3x=b.
If zax^.^ahzziua^-a'1', then 2x-^-3bzzm-lca.
x 4 16 ,
If =—, then .v—4=16
3 3 3
Any Ample equation may be refolved by thefe rules
in the following manner. \Jl, Any fractions may be
taken away by R. 3. zdly, All the terms including
the unknown quantity, may be brought to one fide of
the equation, and the known terms to the other, by
R. 1. LaJUy, If the unknown quantity is multiplied
by any known quantity, it may be made to Hand alone
by R. 2. and the equation will then be refolved. Def. 3.
Examples offmple Equations refolved by thefe Rules.
I.
If 3x+5 = x + 9
R. i. 2x=4
^ + 26
R. 1. 5*- T~
5* 4*_
3
-H
N° 11
R.3. 3ox—15X—8x=8.
§ 2. Solution of ipu eft ions producing fmple Equations.
From the refolution of equations vve obtain the re-
folution of a variety of ufeful problems, both in pure
mathematics and phyfics, and alfo in the practical arts
founded upon thefe fciences. In this place, we con-
fider the application of it to thofr queitions where the
quantities are expreffed by numbers, and their magni¬
tude alone is to be confidered.
When an equation, containing only one unknown
quantity, is deduced from the queltion by the follow¬
ing rules, it is fometimes called a final equation. If it
be Ample, it may be refolved by the preceding rules;
but if it be of a fuperior order, it mull be refolved by
the rules afterwards to be explained. The examples in
this chapter are fo contrived, that the Anal equation
may be Ample.
The rules given in this feflion for the folution of
queftions, though they contain a reference to Ample
equations only, are to be confidered as general, and as
applicable to queftions which produce equations of any
order.
General Rule. The unknown quantities in the queftion
propofed mull be expreffed by letters, and the rela¬
tions of the’ known and unknown quantities con¬
tained in it, or the conditions of it, as they are call¬
ed, mull be exprelfed by equations. Thefe equa¬
tions being refolved by the rules of this fcience, will
give the anfwer of the queftion.
For example, if the queftion is concerning two num¬
bers, they may be called x and^>, and the conditions
from which they are to be invelligated mull be expref-
Able by equation?.
Thus, if it be required that the
Aim of two numbers fought
be 60, that condition is ex-
prelfed thus
If their difference mull be 24, then x—y=24
If their produft is 1640, then xy=i640
If their quotient muft be 6, then 6
If their ratio is as 3 to 2, then 7 2x_
Thefe are fome of the relations which are moft ea-
Aly expreffed. Many others occur which are lefs ob¬
vious ; but as they cannot be deferibed in particular
rules, the algebraical expreffion of them is beft explain¬
ed by examples, and muft be acquired by experience.
1 x+y=6o
5
. Part I. A L G E
i of Equa- A diftinft conception of the nature of the queftion,
tions- and of the relations of the feveral quantities to which
" u^v it refers, will generally lead to the proper method of
ftating it, which in effedt may be confidered only as a
tranflation from common language into that of alge¬
bra.
Cafe I. When there is only one unknown quantity to
be found.
Rule. An equation involving the unknown quantity
muft be deduced from the queftion (by the general
BRA. 409
added a half, a third part, and a fourth part of it- Of Equa-
felf, the fum will be 50. , tl”ns- ,
Let it be z; then half of it is —, a third of it -, &c.
2 3
Therefore, ——S°
234
242-{-12 z-f-8z-f-6z = 12 00
502= 1200
2=24.
If the operation be more complicated, it may be
rule). This equation being refolved by the rules of ufeful to regifter the feveral fteps of it, as in the fob
the laft fedtion, will give the anfwer. lowing
It is obvious, that, when there is only one unknown Examp. 2. A trader allows L. 100 per annum for the
quantity, there muft be only one independent equation expences of his family, and augments yearly that
contained in the queftion ; for any other would be un- ft°ch which is not fo expended by a
neceftary, and might be contradidlory to the former. third of it ; at the end of three years his original
Examp. 1. To find a number, to which if there be ftock was doubled. What had he at firft?
Let his firft ftock be
.Of which he fpends the firft year L. 100, and7
there remains 3
This remainder is increafed by' a third of it-7 , z 100-}_li
felf 5 3 3
The fecond year he fpends L. 100, and there 7 4g 4°° 100_4z~7OQ
remains 3 3 3
He increafes the remainder by one-third of7
it 3 .
The third year he fpends L. too, and there 7 r I^z 2800  162—3700
remains 3
He increafes it by one-third ^
But at the end of the third year his ftock is 7
doubled; therefore ‘ 3
R- 3-
By R. 1.
By R. 2.
Therefore his ftock was L. 1480; which being tried,
anfwers the conditions of the queftion.
Caf II. When there are two unknown quantities.
Rule. Two independent equations involving the two
unknown quantities, muft be derived from the que¬
ftion. A value of one of the unknown quantities
muft be derived from each of the equations: and
thefe two values being put equal to each other, a
new equation will arife, involving only one unknown
quantity, and may therefore be refolved by the pre¬
ceding rule.
Two equations muft be deduced from the queftion :
for, from one including two unknown quantities, it is
9
16z—3700 16z-
'3700_.^4Z—H^oo
27
tion, under two different forms, from which no folu-
tion can be derived.
Examp. 3. Two perfons, A and B, were talking of
their ages: fays A to B, Seven years ago I was juft
three times as old as you were, and feven years
hence I (hall be juft twice as old as you will be. I
demand their prefent ages.
Let the ages of A^
and B be refpec-)
tively
Seven years ago they 7
were
Seven years hence ?
they will be 3
plain, a known value of either of them cannot be ob- Therefore by Queft. 7
tained, more than two equations would be unneceffary; 1. and 2. 3
and if any third condition were affumed at pleafure, Alfo by Queft. 2.
moft probably it would be inconfiftent with the other and 3.
two, and a fpieftion containing three fuch conditions By 4. and tranfp.
would be abfurd. By 5. and tranfp.
It is to be obferved, however, that the two condi- By 6. and 7.
tions, and hence the two equations expreffing them, Tranfp. and 8.
muft be independent; that is, the one muft not be de- By 9. and 6. or 7.
ducible from the other by any algebraical reafoning: f . , ■
for, otherwife, there would in effed be only one equa- f 6 ^JpS ° ,van
Von. I. Parti. fwer the conditions.
x and/
x—7 and y—7
x-f-7 and/ + 7
.v—7 = 3X/—• 7 = 3/—21
*+7 = 2X/ +7 = 2/414
*=37—14
*=2/+7
3/—14=2/4-7
/ = 21
*=49
The ages of A and B then are 49 and 21, which an-
3 B
The
4io
Of Equa- Tlie operation might have been a little Ihortened by
, t'ons. fubtrafting the 4th from 5th, and thus 14=—'^ + 35;
v ' and hence ^=:2X. therefore (by 6th) (3^—14)
= 49.
Examp. 4. A gentleman diftributing money among
fome poor people, found he wanted 10s. to be able
to give 5s. to each; therefore he gives each 4s. on¬
ly, and finds he has 5 s. left.—To find the number
of fhillings and poor people.
If any queftion fuch as this, in which there are two
quantities fought, can be refolved by means of one let¬
ter, the folution is in general more fimple than when
two are employed. There muft be, however, two in¬
dependent conditions ; one of which is ufed in the no¬
tation of one of the unknown quantities, and the other
gives an equation.
Let the number of poor be 1 z
The number of (hillings will be 2 jz—lo
The number of fliillings is alfo 3 42 + 5
By 2. and 3. 4 jz—io = 4Z + 5.
Tranfp. 52=15.
The number of poor therefore is 15, and the num¬
ber of (hillings is (42-1-5=) 65, which anfwer the
conditions.
Examp. 5. A courier fets out from a certain place, and
travels at the rate of 7 miles in 5 hours; and 8 hours
after, another fets out from the fame place, and tra¬
vels the fame road, at the rate of 5 miles in 3 hours:
1 demand how long and how far the firlt muft travel
before he is overtaken by the fecond?
Let the number of hours 7
which the firft travelled be J
Then the fecond travelled
The firft travelled feven
miles in 5 hours, and >
therefore in y hours J
In like manner the fecond I
travelled in y—8 hours j
But they both travelled the "1
fame number of miles; >
therefore by 3. and 4. j
Mult.
Tranfp.
Divid.
E B R A.
(5:7: :y: )-^miles
(3 = 5^-8:)^=^
miles 3
5;y—4°_7y
3 5
257—200 — 2 ly
4^ = 200
y= 50
The firft then travelled 50 hours, the fecond
(y—8 =) 42 hours.
The miles traveiled by each (^-y=——-■^-= ^ 70.
• more unknown
Part L
independent equations may be derived from a queftion Of Equa.
as there unknown quantities in it, thefe quantities may , tions‘
be found by the refolution of equations. v
Examp. 6. To find three numbers, fo that the firft,
with half the other two, the fecond with one third
of the other two, and the third with one fourth of
the other two, may each be equal to 34.
Let the numbers be x, y, z, and the equations are
->'+—-=34
From the ift
From the 2d
From the 3d
From 4th and 5th
7th reduced
5 = 6, and reduced
8 and 9
10th reduced
By 8 and 5
-y—z
X~ 102 39>—2
x= 136—42—^
68—y—z
— 2—=102-3y-z
- I 3|5—z
o 3Z—34-T36—z
[ 2 5
ij 152—170=272—22
2j 172=442 or 2=26
31 y—22 and x= 10
Examp. 7. To find a number confiding of three places,
whofe digits are in arithmetical proportion; if this
number be divided by the fum of its digits, the quo¬
tient will be 48; and if from the number be fub-
traCted 198, the digits will be inverted.
Letthe 3 digits be
Then the number
If the digits be 1
inverted, itisj
The digits are
By queftion
By queftion
From 6 and tranf.
Divid. by 99
From 4
8 and 9
Tranfp.
Mult. 5.
Cafe III. When there are three
quantities.
Rule. When there are three unknown quantities, there
muft .be three independent equations arifing from the
queftion; and from each of thefe a value of one of Tranfp.
the unknown quantities muft be obtained. By com- 8and11fubft.it.
paring thefe three values, two equations will arife,
involving only two unknown quantities, which may
therefore be refolved by the rule for Cafe 2.
In like manner may the rule be extended to fuch
queftions as contain four or more unknown quantities;
and hence it may be inferred, That, when juft as many The number then is 432, which fucceeds upon trial.
for x and y
Tranfp.
Divid.
ioox-j- iqy-j-z
looz-f- iqy-fx
x+z=2y
1 oo.v -f-1 qy -}- 2
= 48
x+y+z
ioox-|-iqy+z—198=1002
+ i°y+*
99*=992 4-198
.V = Z + 2
= 2^—2
2y~Z = Z + 2
7=2+1
qqx + io7+z=48x+487+48z
52x = 387+47z
522+104=382+38+472
332=66
(z + i =
(2+2 =
) 3
) +
It
Part I. A L G
Of Equa- It fometimes happens, that all the unknown quan-
, tIons titles, when there are more than two, are not in all
' v " the equations expreffing the conditions, and therefore
the preceding rule cannot be literally followed. The
folution, however, will be obtained by fuch fubfttui¬
tions as are ufed in Ex. 7. and 9. or by fimilar opera¬
tions, which need not be particularly defciibed.
Corollary to the preceding Rules.
It appears that, in every queftion, there mull be as
many independent equations as unknown quantities;
if there are not, then the queftion is called indetermi¬
nate^ becaufe it may admit of an infinite number of
anfwers; fince the equations wanting may be aflumed
at pleafure. There may be other circumftances, how¬
ever, to limit the anfwers to one, or a precife number,
and which, at the fame time, cannot be direftly ex-
preffed by equations. Such are thefe; that the num¬
bers muft be integers, fquares, cubes, and many others.
The folution of fuch problems, which are alfo called
diophantine, (hall be confidered afterwards.
Scholium.
On many occafions, by particular contrivances, the
operations by the preceding ruks may be much abrid¬
ged. This however, muft be left to the Ikill and praftice
of the learner. A few examples are the following.
1. It is often eafy to employ fewer letters than there
are unknown quantities, by expreffing fome of them
from a fimple relation to others contained in the con¬
ditions of the queftion. Thus, the folution becomes
more eafy and elegant. (See Ex. 4. 5.)
2. Sometimes it is convenient to exprefs by letters,
not the unknown, quantities themfelves, but fome o-
ther quantities connefted with them, as their fum,.
difference, &c. from which they may be eafily derived.
(See Ex. 1. of chap. 5.)
In the operation alfo, circumftances will fuggeft a
more eafy road than that pointed out by the general
rules. Two of the original equations may be added
together, or may be fubtra£led; fometimes they muft
be previoufly multiplied by fome quantity, to render
fuch addition or fubtradlion effettual, in exterminating
one of the unknown quantities, or otherwife promo¬
ting the folution. Subftitutions may be made of the
values of quantities, in place of quantities themfelves,
and various other fuch contrivances may be ufed, which
will render the folution much lefs complicated. (See
Ex. 3. 7. and 9.)
Sect. II. General Solution of Problems.
In the folutions of the queftions in the preceding
E B R A. 411
part, the given quantities (being numbers) difappear Of EqUa.
in the laft conclufion, fo that no general rules for like dons,
cafes can be deduced from them. But if letters are
ufed to denote the known quantities, as well as the
unknown, a general folution may be obtained, becaufe,
during the whole courfe of the operation, they retain
their original form. Hence alfo the connexion of the
quantities will appear in fuch a manner as to difcover
the neceffary limitations of the data, when there are
any, which is effential to the perfect folution of a pro¬
blem. From this method, too, it is eafy to derive a
fynthetical demonftration of the folution.
When letters, or any other fuch fymbols, are em¬
ployed to exprefs all the quantities, the algebra is fome¬
times called Jpecious or literal.
Ex amp. 8. To find two numbers, of which the fum
and difference are given.
Let / be the given fum, and d the given difference.
Alfo, let x and y be the two numbers fought.
x—y — d
Wh,:nC' {l^'d+y
d+y—s-y
iyzzs—d
2
Thus, let the given fum be 100, and the difference 24.
The„, = (^=ii4=)62&/=(^=?=>3,
In the fame manner may the canon be applied to a-
ny other values of s and d. By reverfing the fteps in
the operation, is is eafy to fliow, that if ligand'
2
the fum of x and9- muft be /, and their dif¬
ference d.
Ex amp. 9. If A and B together can perform a piece
of work in the time a, A and C together in the.
time byax\d B and C together in the time c, in what
time will each of them perform it alone ?
Let A perform the work in the time x, B in y, and;
C in 2 ; then as the work is the fame in all cafes, it
may be reprefented by unity.
3 F 3 B*
By the quefiion
xj
Mult. 8 th bylf
Mult. 9th byi
zy
Add 10th,
nth, 12th,
From ijthfubt.
twice 10th
From ijthfubt,
twice 11 th
From I3thfubt.
twice 12 th
)-=
)-=
y
::r0-r =
A in a days
B'm a days
A in b days
C in £ days
B in c days
C m c days
= 1 and ay+axzzxy
——|-~r: I and
x z
—4-—= 1 and cz-j-cyzzzy
y z
abc , ale ,
x y
ale , abc
+ -——ac
abc , abc ,
y z
x y z
2 abc \ 1 j.o 2abc
 — ac-\-ab—be & z —   
z ac-\-ab—be
labc 1 , r 0 2abc
 =be+ab—ae Scy e= 
“ bc-\-ab—ac
2 abc
2 abc
— bc-\-ac—ab Sc x=z
bc+ac—ab
Example in numbers. X*et #=8 days, bzzcy days,
andczsxo ; then x—i^&y zz 17—, and z=zt-Z..
49 4i 31
It appears likewife that a, b, c, muft be fuch, that the
product of any two of them muft be lefs than the fum
of thefe two multiplied by the third. This is necef-
fary to give pofitive values of x, y, and z, which alone
can take place in this queftion. Befides, if x, y, and z
be affumed as any known numbers whatever, and if
values of a, b, and c be deduced from fteps 7th, 8th,
and 9th, of the preceding operation, it will appear,
that a, by and c will have the property required in the
limitation here mentioned.
If a, by and c were fuch, that any of the quantities,
Xy y, or z, became equal to o, it implies that one of
the agents did nothing in the work. If the values of
any of thefe quantities be negative, the only fnppofi-
tion which could give them any meaning would be,
that fome of the agents, inftead of promoting the
■work, either obftru&ed it, or undid it to a certain ex¬
tent.
Examp. 1 o. In queftion 5th, let the firft courier tra¬
vel p miles in q hours ; the fecond r miles in j- hours;
let the interval between their fetting out be at
Then by working as formerly,
qr—ps
BRA. Part I,
If particular values be inferted for thefe letters, a 9f lnvo^u*
particular folution will be obtained for that cafe. Let
them denote the numbers in Example 5. .
Then .v = =_A21i__XA_ = ^ 50.
\qr—ps 5X5 — 7X3 4 /
Here it is obvious, that qr muft be greater than ps,
elfe the problem is impoffible ; for then the value of
x would either be infinite or negative. This limita¬
tion appears alfo from the nature of the queftion, as
the fecond courier muft travel at a greater rate than
the firft, in order to overtake him. For the rate of
the firft courier is to the rate of the fecond as £ to —,
, • 9 J
that is, as ps to qr ; and therefore qr muft be greater
than ps.
Scholium.
Sometimes when there are many known quantities
in a general folution, it may fimplify the operation to
exprefs certain combinations of them by new letters,
ftill to be confidered as known.
CHAP. IV.
Of Involution and Evolution.
In order to refolve equations of the higher orders,
it is neceffary to premife the rules of Involution and
Evolution.
The reciprocals of the powers of a quantity may be
expreffed by that quantity, with negative exponents
of the fame denomination. That is, the feries ay 1,
—> —> ~y See. may be exprefied by aJ, a°ya—t,
a—% a—3, a—m. See.
For the rule for dividing the powers of the fame
root was to fubtradf the exponents; if then the index
of the divifor be greater than that of the dividend, the
index of the quotient muft be negative.
Thus, — z:
-3=n—Alfo, ^=-1.
—-—am—m — a?. And, — = 1. and fo on of others.
am am
Cor. 1. Hence any quantity which multiplies either
the numerator or denominator of a fraction, may be
tranfpofed from the one to the other, by changing the
fign of its index.
Thus, —zzxv—1. And —f—, &c.
y ' y3 y3*—1
Cor. 2. From this notation, it is evident that thefe
negative powers, as they are called, are multiplied by
adding, and divided by fubtrading their exponents.
Thus, a—aX«—%—a—y.
Or, _Lx-1 =-=*—*.
-zzax Or,
aiJa\a
I. Of
5
A L G E
BRA,
Part I.
Of Involu¬
tion and
Evolution.
I. Of Involution.
To find any power of any quantity is the bufinefs
of involution.
Cafe i. When the quantity is Ample.
Rule. Multiply the exponents of the letters by the in¬
dex of the power required, and raife the coefficient
to the fame power.
Thus, the 2d power of a is a'^—a1
The 3d power of 2a1 is 8a1y.* = 8a6
The 3d power of 3<t53 is 2h]aJX.ibiX~i=:2'iaib9.
For the multiplication would be performed by the
continued addition of the exponents ; and this multi¬
plication of them is equivalent. The fame rule holds
alfo when the figns of the exponents are negative.
Rule for the figns. If the fign of the given quantity
is -f-, all its powers mull be pofitive. If the fign
is —, then all its powers whofe exponents are even
numbers are pofitive ; and all its powers whofe ex¬
ponents are odd numbers are negative.
This is obvious from the rule for the figns in multi¬
plication.
The lall part of it implies the moll extenfive ufe of
the figns -}- and—, by fuppofing that a negative
quantity may exill by itfelf.
Cafe 2. When the quantity is compound.
Rule. The powers mull be found by a continual mul¬
tiplication of it by itfelf.
Thus, the fquare of x-j-- is found by multiplying
it into itfelf. The product is x*The cube
4
of x+f. is got by multiplying the fquare already
found by the root, &c.
Fractions are raifed to any power, by railing both
numerator and denominator to that power, as is evi¬
dent from the rule for multiplying fraftions in Chap. I.
$ 2' . .
The involution of compound quantities is rendered
much eafier by the binomial theorem ; for which fee
Chap. VI.
Note. The fquare of a binomial Confills of the
' fquares of the two parts, and twice the pro,du6t of
the two parts.
II. Of Evolution.
Evolution is the reverfe of involution, and by it
powers are refolved into their roots.
Def. The root of any quantity is expreffed by placing
before it (called a radicalfgri) with a fmall fi¬
gure above it, denoting the denomination of that
root.
Thus, the fquare root of a, is a ox a
j 
The cube root of lct is */be
The 4th root of a1#—-x3, is t/a^b—xJ
413
Of Involu-
The wth root of c1—dx, is Vcz—dx tion and
Kvnintimi.
General Rule for the Signs.
1. The root of any pofitive power may be either pofi¬
tive or negative, if it is denominated by an even
number; if the root is denominated by an odd num¬
ber, it is pofitive only.
2. If the power is negative, the rodt alfo is negative,
when it is denominated by an odd number.
3. If the power is negative, and the denomination of
the root even, then no root can be affigned.
This rule is eafily deduced from that given in invo¬
lution, and fuppofes the fame extenfive ule of the figns
-f- and —. If it is applied to ab ft raft quantities in
which a contrariety cannot be fuppofed, any root of
a pofitive quantity mull be pofitive only; and any root
of a negative quantity, like itfelf, is unintelligible.
In the laft cafe, though no root can be affined, yet
fometimes it is convenient to fet the radifcal fign before
the negative quantity, and then it is called an impojjible
or imaginary root.
The root of a pofitive power, denominated by an
even number, has often the fign r±r before it, denoting
that it may have either -j- or —.
The radical fign may be employed to exprefs any
root of any quantity whatever; but fometimes the root
may be accurately found by the following rules ; and
when it cannot, it may often be more conveniently ex-
preffed by the methods now to be explained.
Cafe I. When the quantity is fimple.
Rule. Divide the exponents of the letters by the in¬
dex of the root required, and prefix the root of the
numeral coefficient.
x. The exponents of the letters may be multiples of
the index of the root, and the root of the coefficient
may be extra&ed.
«
Thus, the fquare root of = = dta*
3V> 27a6 =3«t=3«i
VaAb1'
2. The exponents of the letters may not be multi¬
ples of the index of the root, and then they become
fradlions ; and when the root of the coefficient cannot
be extracted, it may alfo be expreffed by a fractional
exponent, its original index being underftood to be I.
Thus, ViGa’b1
3 V'y-zx3 = 7t«tx = 3 v' 7 XaTx.
As evolution is the reverfe of involution, the reafon
of the rule is evident.
The root of any fra&ion is found by extracting that
root out of both numerator and denominator.
Cafe II. When the quantity is compound.
1. To extraCt the fquare root.
Rule. 1. The given quantity is to be ranged accord¬
ing to the powers of the letters, as in divifion.
6 ^ Thus,
414 A L G E
Oflnvolu- Thus, in the example a1 -{-2ab-\-h'1, the quantities
tion and are range,i jn manner.
» VC’-U> ’°n'/ 2. The fquare root is to be extrafted out of the firft
term (by preceding rules), which gives the firft part
of the root fought. SubftraA its fquare from the
given quantity, and divide the firft term of the re¬
mainder by double the part already found, and the
quotient is the fecond term of the root.
Thus, in this example, the remainder is iah + b11 ;
and iab being divided by the double of the part
found, gives -\-b for the fecond part of the root.
3. Add this fecond part to double of the firft, and
multiply their fum by the fecond part: Subtract the
produtt from the laft remainder, and if nothing re¬
main, the fquare root is obtained. But, if there is
a remainder, it muft be divided by the double of the
parts already found, and the quotient would give the
third part of the root; and fo on.
In the laft example, it is obvious, that <7-}-£ is the
fquare root fought.
The entire operation is as follows.
a'1 -\-2ab-\-bz fa-\-b
za + bX + zab + b1
Xb) zab+b1
The reafon of this rule appears from the compofi-
tion of a fquare.
BRA. Part L
In evolution it will often happen, that the opera- 9f Solu¬
tion will not terminate, and the root will be exprefled
by a feries. w
Thus, the fquare root of a1 -J-x1 becomes a feries.
x1 x4 x6
 5T'+ T-s> &c*
k ' 1 2« 8a3 1 i6as’
x6 x8
* + 8^-6^’ &c*
The extraction of roots by feries is much facilitated
by the binomial theorem (Chap. vi. Se&. 3.) By fi-
milar rules, founded on the fame principles, are the
roots of numbers to be extracted.
III. Of Surds.
Def. Quantities with fractional exponents are call
ed furds, or imperfecl powers.
Such quantities are alfo called irrational; in oppo-
fition to others with integral exponents, which are
called rational.
Surds may be expreffed either by the fractional ex¬
ponents, or by the radical fign, the denominator of
the fraCtion being its index; and hence the orders of
furds are denominated from this index.
In the following operations, however, it is generally
convenient to ufe the notation by the fractional expo¬
nents.
2. To extraCt any other root.
— Va. V^abx — iba*. V—cPb'*.
Rule. Range the quantity according to the dimen-
fions of its letters, and extraCt the faid root out of
the firft term, and that ftiall be the firft member of
the root required. Then raife this root to a dimen-
fion lower by unit than the number that denomi¬
nates the root required, and multiply the power that
arifes by that number itfelf. Divide the fecond
term of the given quantity by the produCt, and the
quotient fhall give the fecond member of the root
required.—In like manner are the other parts to be
found, by confidering thofe already got as making
one term.
Thus, the fifth root of
.
5*4 ) 5a*h
And tf-f-3 raifed to the 5th power is the given quan¬
tity, and therefore it is the root fought.
The operations concerning furds depend on the fol¬
lowing principle : If the numerator and denominator
of a fractional exponent be both multiplied or both di¬
vided by the fame quantity, the value of the power is
the fame. Thus an=zani; : for let an zab \ then
amzzbn, and amczzbnc, and extracting the root nc,
anc ~bnc —bzza'1.
Lem. A rational quantity may be put into the form
of a furd, by reducing its index to the form of a frac¬
tion of the fame value.
Thus azzcF— V/ a1
a'llzzarUrzz 3 Va6b*
Prob. I. To reduce furds of different denominations to
others ofthefame value and ofthe fame denomination.
Rule.
BRA.
Part L
A L G
Of Involu¬
tion and
Evolution.
Rule. Reduce the fra&Ional exponents to others of
the fame value and having the fame common deno¬
minator.
but a* zzd* and bTzz b~*.
therefore Va, and */b% are refpedtively equal to
6 — 6 , 
Vtf3'and Vo4.
E
Prob. III. To involve or evolve Surds.
4^5
Of Involu¬
tion and
Evolution.
This is performed by the fame rules as in other'
quantities, by multiplying or dividing their exponents
by the index of the power or root required.
The notation by negative exponents, mentioned in
the lemma at the beginning of this chapter, is appli¬
cable to fractional exponents, in the fame manner as to
integers.
Scholium.
Pros. II. To multiply and divide funds.
I. When they are furds of the fame rational quantity,
add and fubtraft their exponents.
3 yV—b'
T+:T=flTT=,1V/rfl}
-^=a1—b1\i=.CA/a'1—b*.
2. If they are furds of different rational quantities, let
them be brought to others of the fame denomina¬
tion, if already they are not, by prob. 1. Then, by
multiplying or dividing thefe rational quantities,
their produft or quotient may be fet under the com¬
mon radical fign.
Thus, Vbzasa b ~\/anbm
v a+b ~s/u
dTb* , , , ,
~aJF~a Tb r~a V6~
, V ab*
If the furds have any rational coefficients, their
produft or quotient muft be prefixed. Thus,
The application of the rules of this chapter to the
refolving of equations, fhall be explained in the fucceed-
ing chapters, which treat of the folution of the differ¬
ent claffes of them ; but fome examples of their ufe in
preparing equations for a folution are the following.
If a member of an equation be a furd root, then the
equation may be freed from any furd, by bringing that
member firft to hand alone upon one fide of the equa¬
tion, (and then taking away the radical fign from it,
and raifing the other fide to the power denominated by
the index of that furd.
This operation becomes a neceffary fiep towards the
folution of an equation, when any of the unknown
quantities are under the radical fign.
Example. If 3 Vx2 —a1 -+-2j~a-j-y
Then 3V/x1—a2 —a—y
and 9XX2—a2=.al—zay-^-y*
If the unknown quantity be found only under the
radical fign, and only of the firlt dimenfion, the equa¬
tion will become fimple, and may be refolved by the
preceding rules.
Thus, if 3 V^-f-16 + 5 = 9
Then 3V/4x+i6=4
And 4^ -f-16 = 64
4^=48
And x = 12
a n—abufmn. It is often convenient,
in the operations of this problem, not to bring the
furds of fimple quantities to the fame denomination,
but to exprefs their produCt or quotient without the
radical fign, in the fame manner as if they were ra¬
tional quantities. Thus, the produft in Ex. 1. may
be ambn, and the quotient in Ex. 3. cT^b^
Cor. If a rational coefficient be prefixed to a radical
fign, it may be reduced to the form of a furd by the
lemma, and multiplied by this problem ; and converfe-
ly, if the quantity under the radical fign be divifible
by a perfeCI power of the fame denomination, it may¬
be taken out, and its root prefixed as a coefficient.
a\/b~Va'‘b} = 3y'8/V.
Conv. Va2b* ■=aab*/b }*/\a2—'Ota'1 bzz. 2aV 1—zb.
Even when the quantity under the radical fign is not
divifible by a perfeft power, it may be ufeful fome-
times to divide furds into their component fa&ors, by
reverfing the operation of this problem.
Thus Vab — Va X a2b—bx2Vba—bx
xVa+x=£fxV^xV^F.
If mVa2x—b2x =a
Then a2x—blx=a’n
If the unknown quantity in a final equation has
fractional exponents, by means of the preceding rules
a new equation may be fubftituted, in which the ex¬
ponents of the unknown quantity are integers.
Thus, if x2+ 3xT= 10, by reducing the furds to
the fame denomination, it becomes xt+3x^=io;
and if z=xT, then z3-f-3z4 = 10 ;-and if this equa¬
tion be refolved from a value of z, a value of x may be
got by the rules of the next chapter. Thus alfo, if
x + 2x2—3xt=ioo. If x7=zz, this equation be¬
comes Zfi + 2Z3—3Z2 = 100.
p m
In general, if x-+x—=<?. by reducing the furds
to the fame denomination x^j-x^—a. and if
nq qn
x——z, then the equation is ztnsrzrt,n-=za. in which
qn
the
3
4i5 A L G
Equations, the exponents of z are Integers; and z being found, x
is to be found from the equation x— zrz.
qn
CHAP. V.
Equations were divided into orders according to
the higheft index of the unknown quantity in any term,
(chap. 3.)
Equations are either pure or adfefted.
Def. 1. A pure equation is that in which only one
power of the unknown quantity is found.
2. An adfeiled equation, is that in which different
powers of the unknown quantity are found in the fe-
veral terms.
BRA.
The index of the power may alfo be fraftional; as
in the lafi. example m may be any number whatever.
Let 7«=x, then as before,
m 1 k C
And x=
Thus,
quations.
And x1—ax
ax'zzb', ax1—h1 zzmx -fx1 are
x34-** = i7j are adfefted.
1. Solution of pure Equations.
Rule. Make the power of the unknown quantity to
ftand alone by the rules formerly given, and then ex-
traft the root of the fame denomination out of both
fides, which will give the value of the unknown
quantity.
Examples.
If,
^ ^ ax'—P
The proportionals are
Mult, by 2 and flill
From the three firft
From the three laft
3d added to 4th
4th fubt. from 3d
6th reduced
“th fubfl. for z in 5 th
P—23c-fr*
a*—2«-j- I
Sometimes different powers of the unknown quan¬
tity are found in the equation, yet the feveral terms
may form on one fide a perfedt power, of which the
root being extracted, the equation will become fimple.
Thus, if x5 — 12xz-f-48x;r 98, ft fs eafy to ob-
ferve that x} — I2x*+48x—64=34; forming a com¬
plete cube; of which the root being extracted,
x—4=V.34- And x=4+V34-
Examp. 1. To find four continued proportionals, of
which the fum of the extremes is 56, and the fum
of the means 24.
To refolve the queflion in general terms, let the fum
of the extremes be a, the fum of the means b, and let
the difference of the extremes be called z, and the dif¬
ference of the means/.
Then by Ex. 8. chap. 3.
a-\-z % 3-f/ _ b—y _ a—z
2 2 ' 2 ’ 2
a-\-z: b -f-/: 3—y: a—z
3 ab—ay\-bz—zyz=Lb'L + 2^+yz
^ab-\-ay—bz—zy~P—23/4-/*
zab—2z/= zb1 -f- 2/a
ibz—zay~\ly
zby-\-ay
3
zab — 2X -2^V = 231 + 2/ *
b
ah'1—P zz^by* -{-ay1
t . / abx — P
;,‘and,=s/1-#T7-
-b—xm—c
Hence the four proportionals are 54, 18, 6, 2; and
it appears that 3 muft not be greater than a, otherwife
the root becomes impoffible, and the problem would
alfo be impoffible; which limitation might be deduced
alfo from prop. 25. V. of Euclid.
2. Solution of adfeded Quadratic Equations.
Adfefted equations of different orders are refolved
by different rules, fucceffively to be explained. ^
An adfefted quadratic equation (com called 4^1^
quadratic) involves the unknown quantity itfelf, an^^
alfo its fquare: It may be refolved by the following
N°ii.
Rule. i.Tranfpofe all the terms Involving the un¬
known quantity to one fide, and the known terms
to the other; and fo that the term containing the
fquare of the unknown quantity may be politive.
2. If the fquare of the unknown quantity is multiplied
by any coefficient, all the terms of the equation are
to be divided by it, fo that the coefficient of the
fquare of the unknown quantity may be 1.
3. Add to both fides the fquare of half the coefficient
“ of the unknown quantity itfelf, and the fide of the
equation involving the unknown quantity will be a
complete fquare.
4. Extract
Part I. A L G
4 Equations. 4. Extra A tke ftjuare root from both fides of the e-
*1 ' quation, by which it becomes fimple, and by tranf>
pofing the above mentioned half coefficient, a value
of the unknown quantity is obtained in known terms,
and therefore the equation is refolved.
The reafon of this rule is manifeft from the compo-
fition of the fquare of a binomial, for it confifts of the
fquares of the two parts, and twice the product of the
two parts. [Note, at the ertd of Chap. IV.)
The different forms of quadratic equations, expref-
fed in general terms, being reduced by the firil and fe*
cond parts of the rule, are thefej
Cafe 3.
Of thefe cafes it may be obferved,
1. That if it be fuppofed, that the fquare root of a
pofitive quantity may be either poiitive or negative, ac¬
cording to the moft extenfive ufe of the iigns, every
quadratic equation will have two roots, except fuch of
the third form, whofe roots become impoffible.
2. It is obvious, that, in the two firit forms, one of
the roots muff be pofitive, and the other negative.
3. In the third form, if or the fquare of half
4
the coefficient of the unknown quantity, be greater than
b1, the known quantity, the two roots will be poii¬
tive. If —be equal to 31, the two roots then be-
V 4
come equal.
But if ift this third cafe — is lefs than b*, the
4
quantity under the radical iign becomes negative, and
the two roots are therefore impoffible. This may be
eafily fliown to arife from an impoffible fuppolition in
the original equation. •
4. If the equation, however, exprefs the relation of
magnitudes abltraftly confidered, where a contrariety
cannot be fuppofed to take place, the negative roots
cannot be of ufe, or rather there are no fuch roots}
Vol I. Part II.
and thefe are the fame two pofitive
E B R A. 417
for then a negative quantity by itfelf is unintelligible, Equation*.
and therefore the fquare root of a pofitive quantity "
muff be pofitive only. Hence, in the two firft cafes,
there will be only one root; but in the third, there
will be two. For in this third cafe, x*—ax——5*,
or ax—x1 = £1, it is obvious that X may be either
greater or lefs than ^a, and yet a x may be pofitive;
and hence «—xX.x = ax—x* may alfo be pofitive, and
may bf equal to a given pofitive quantity b'1: therefore
the fquare root of xJ—ax-\-^a’1 may be either x—£4*
or -la—x, and both thefe quantities alfo pofitive.
Let then
/——b\ Alfo k
x=-— / f b\
2 V 4
roots as were obtained by the general rule.
The general rule is ufually employed, even in que-
ftions where negative numbers cannot take place, and
then the negative roots of the two .firft forms are ne¬
glected. Sometimes even only one of the pofitive roots
of the third cafe can be ufed, and the other may be ex¬
cluded by a particular condition in the queftion. When
an impoffible root arifes in the folution of a queftion,
and if it be refolved in general terms, the neceffary li¬
mitation of the data will be difcovered.
When a queftion can be fo Hated as to produce a
pure equation, it is generally to be preferred to an ad-
fedfed. Thus the queftion in the preceding feftion, by
the moft obvious notation, would produce an adfe&ed
equation.
2. Solution of Shieflions producing Quadratic Equations.
The expreffion of the conditions of the queftioh by
equations, or the ftating of it, and the reduction like-
wife of thefe equations, till we arrive at a quadratic e-
quation, involving only one unknown quantity and its
fquare, are effected by the fame rules which were given
for the folution of fimple equations in Chap III.
Examp. 2. One lays out a certain fum of money in
goods, which he fold again for L.24, and gained as
much per cent, as Ihe goods coft him: I demand
what they coft him ?
If the money laid ^ t ^
out be y
The gain will be
But this gain is ~l
[y:2A—y:; 100:) i
Thereforebyque- }
ftion y
Andbymult. andtr.
Completing the ?
. fquare - $
Extr. the root
Tranfp.
^•per cent.
•24—y
2400—ioqy
y ~
2400—1 oqy
^ 7—
_y2+ioqy=2400
y1 -\-iooji-\-5o\z-240°+2 500
14900 .
/+50 = :dr 4/4900= 70
7 = =£070—50=20 or—120<
The anfwer is 20I. which fucceeds. The other
root, —120, has no place in this example, a negative
number being here unintelligible.
Any quadratic equation may be refolved alfo by the
general canons at the beginning of this feftion. That
3 G ariling
418 A L G j
Equation?, arifing From this queftion, (No. 5.) belongs to Cafe I.
' v ' and «=xoo, 3* = 2400; therefore,
+ 15
* + 15*
.1°°-+2400=20 or — 120 as before.
Examp. 3. What two numbers are thofe, whofe-differ¬
ence is 15, and half of whofe product is equal to the
cube of the leffer?
Let the leffer number be
The greater is
By queftion 3
Divide by x and mult. 7 .
by 2 ^
4th prepared
Complete fquare 6 **—7+7^:=-^ + 77;;
Ext.
Tranfp. - - j8[x:=3or—i
The numbers therefore are 3 and 18, which anfwer
the conditions. This is an example of Cafe 2d, and
the negative root is negledted.
A folution, indeed, may be reprefefited by means of
the negative root — — for then the othej" number is
('+IJ = )-|+15=T- A"dIxTX-f’ “ "
-BRA. Part I.
By inferting numbers, xrz’fl or 29 and a—x= 29 Equations
or 71, fo that the two numbers fought are 71 and 29. —v—
Here it is to be obferved, that b muft not be greater
than f_, elfe the roots of the equation would be im-
4
poffible ; that is, the given product muft not be great¬
er than the fquare of half the given fum of the num¬
bers fought. This limitation can eafily be fhown from
other principles; for, the greateft poffible product of
two parts, into which any number may be divided, is
when each of them is a half of it. If b be equal to
—, there is only one folution, and x=—, alfo a—x
4-15 = 2X*
121
Z~i6
Examp. 5. There are three numbers in continual geo¬
metrical proportion: The fum of the firft and fecond
is 10, and the difference of the fecond and third is
24. What are the numbers?
Let the firft be 1 1 lz
The fecond will be 2 110—z
And the third 3 I34—z
Sincez:io—z-.l I,    3
34—z —20Z+100—34^—'x.
Tranfp. ; 5 2zJ—-542=='—too
Divid. ; 6 zz—272=!=—50
qual to the cube of -
Such a folution, though ufe-
lefs, and even abfurd, it is plain muft correfpond to the
conditions, if thofe rules with regard to the figns be
ufed in the application of it, by which it was itfelf de¬
duced. The fame obfervation may be extended even
to impoflible roots; which being affumed as the anfwer
of a queftion, muft, by reverfing the fteps of the inve-
fligation, correfpond to the original equations, by which
the conditions of that queftion were expreffed.
Examp. 4. To find two numbers whofe fum is 100,
and whofe produft is 2059.
Let the given fum 100 = *, the produft 2059=^,
and let one of the numbers fought be x, the other will
ke a—x. Their produft is ax—x*.
Therefore by queftion
Complete the fquare
Ext. 4/
Tranfp.
And the other number
. i
Compl. the fquare 7 z!
Extraft the 4/ j 8
I I
Tranfp.
-27Z+.
27j __729
.50=1^
4 4
9z 2 ^ 2 25 or 2*
But though there are two pofitive roots in this equa¬
tion, yet one of them only can here be of ufe, the o-
ther being excluded by a condition in the queftion.
For as the fum of the firft and fecond is 10, 25 can¬
not be one of them: 2 therefore is the firft, and the
proportionals will be 2, 8, 32.
This reftri&ion will alfo appear from the explana¬
tion given of the third' form, to which this equation
belongs. For z may be lefs than 11, but from the
firft condition of the queftion it cannot be greater;
hence the quantity z*—27Z-J-12 can have only one
i 2 I
fquare root, viz. 11—z‘, and this being put equal to
we have by tranfpofition z=——— = 2,
4 _ 2 . 2
which gives the only juft folution of the queftion.
From the other root, indeed, a folution of the que¬
ftion may be reprefented by means of a negative quan¬
tity. If the firft then be 25, the three proportionals
will be 25,—15, 9. Thefe alfo muft anfwer the con¬
ditions, according to the rules given for negative
quantities, though fuch a folution lias no proper
meaning.
Befides, it is to be obferved, that if the following
queftion be propofed, ‘ To find three numbers in geo¬
metrical proportion, fo that the difference of the ift
and
512-
'Part I.
fjjlEquatlons.
ALGEBRA. 419
and 2d maybe 10, and tbe fum'of the zdand 3d may be tionals, the two roots of the equation are pofiible, but Equations.
24/the equation in ftep 6th will be produced; for, if the one of them only can be applied; which is 17-635
ill be z, the 2d is z—10, and the 3d 34—z, and nearly; and the three proportionals are 17.635, 22.365,
therefore 342—z1^rz1—2024-100, the very fame e- %and 28.365, nearly, the roots of the equation being in-
quation as in ftep 4th. In this queftion it is plain that commenfurate.
the root 25 only can be lifeful, and the three prbpor- In like manner may the limitations of the other
tionalg are 25, 15, 9. queftion above mentioned be afcertained.
But the neceflary limitations of fuch a problem are Though the preceding queftions have been fo cons
properly to be derived from a general notation. Let trived that the anfwers may be integers, yet in practice
the fum of the two firft proportionals be a, and the it will moft commonly happen that they muft be furds.
difference of the two laft b. If a is not greater than When in any queftion the root of a number which is
b, the firft term muft be the leaft; but if a be greater not a perfect fquare is to be extra6ted, it may be con-
than bf the firft term muft be either the greateft or the tinued in decimals, by the common arithmetical rule,
leaft. to any degree of accuracy which the nature of the fub-
When the firft term is the leaft, the proper nota- jeft may require.
tion of the three terms is z, a—s, a+b—z, and the o ^
, , *l comm.
equation when ordered is z’—“ * =—“• If the An equation, in the terms of which two powers
firft term be the greateft, and then a is greater than b, onty of the unknown quantity are found, and fuch that
the notation of the terms is z, a—z, a-b-r-z, and the the index of ^ one is double that of the other, may,
by the preceding rules, be reduced to a pure equation,
and may therefore be refolved by 5 1. of this chapter.
Such an equation may generally be repfefented
correfponding equation is z*—  = .
Of the firft of thefe equations it may be obferved,
that whatever be the value of a. and b, the fquare of t“us :
vjz> 0f ]ialf the coefficient of
4
, is greater than
, and therefore the roots are always poffible.. If the
fquare be completed, and the roots ext rafted, they be-
mztzaxnz£o±:in
^d+b +
But in this cafe z is the leaft of
the three terms, and therefore a is greater than zz, or
- 3)aJr^
great-
- is greater than z; much more than is
er than z; and therefore the fecond root only can be By queftion
admitted, and ^ — 84* .g ^
ly proper folution.
• In the fecond equation, fince a is greater than b,
1 ~ m«ft be always pofitive, ahd therefore the equa¬
tion is neceffarily cf the third form. But the roots are
^1%
Let xms:Z, then z
And x’
Therefore
Examp. 15. To find two numbers, of which the pro¬
duct is ioq, and the difference of their fquara
roots 3.
Let the lefs be x,
the greater is
V'x V
o-—x—3 =e 3 xi
x + 3x~=io
+3^+9^lo+9_±2
4 4 4
rt:- and x^— 2 or—5
7 X = 4 or x~25
poffible only when i’ is not lefs than A., that
4 2 If xz=4, the other number is 251 and this is the
is, when a2-\-bz is not leCkthan 6aby or when a—-b is proper folution, for x was fuppofed to be the leaft. In
not lefs than 2*/ab. When the roots are poffible, z this cafe, indeed, the negative root of the equation
^a-r-b being applied according to the rules for negative quan-
may be either greater or lefs than ^ , and hence titles, gives a pofitiye anfwer to the queftion ; and if
each root gives a proper folution; therefore, 2= •v— 25> the other number is 4.
/• —---■ . The fame would have been got, by fubftituting in
$a bz±zV 3^ b 1 Sg1. general theorem mzz\-, a~ 3, and i" = lo; or, if
4 the lefs number had been called x% the equation would
Ex. Let <2=240 and bzz6. The firft term In this not have had fraaional exponents,
cafe may^be affumed either as the greateft or the leaft.
CHAP. VI.
Of Indeterminate Problems.
And, firft, if 2 be the greateft, the roots of the equa'-
tion will be poffible, fince 1636 is greater
than (6itirr) 1440. The two values of z are 32 and
25, and the proportionals are either 32, 8, 2, or 25, It was formerly obferved (Chap. III.), that if there
* j, 9. zdly% If z be affumed the leaft of the proper- are more unknown quantities in a queftion than equa-
a G 2
BRA.
Part It
termined; or it may admit of an infinite’ number of or a number diviflble b7 4- Then
j anfwers. Other circumftances, however,- may limit
the number in a certain manner ; and thefe are various,
according to the nature of the problem. The contrir
vances by which fuch problems are refolved are fo very
different in different cafes, that they cannot be com-i
prehended in general rules.
Examp. i. To divide, a given fquare number into two
parts, each of which ftiall be a fquare number.
are the numbers fought. u
For the product of two odd numbers is odd, and
that of two even numbers is divifible by 4. Alfo, if
z-\-v z—it.
z and v. are both odd or both even, —^— and —
muff be integers.
Ex. 1. If <*=27, take r= 1, then 2=27; and the
fquares are 196 and 169. Or z may be 9 and.tt^j,
There are two quantities fought in this queftion, and and then the fquares are 36 and 9.
there is only one equation expreffing their relation;
but it is required alfo. that they may be rational, which
circumftance cannot be expreffed by an equation : ano¬
ther condition therefore muff be affumed, in fuch a
manner as to obtain a folution in rational numbers.
Let the given fquare be ; let one of the fquares
fought be xs, the other is a1—x*. Let rx—a alfo.
be a fide of this laft fquare, therefore
r*x*—znca-if-a* zza1—x*
By tranfp. rzxz-^-x1 zzzrxa
Divide by x r*x-\-x—2ra
2ra
Therefore ' x= 2 ~~
2. If azz 12, take vzz2, and z = 6 ; and the fquares
are 1.6 and 4.
Examp. 3. To. find a fum of money in pounds anct.
■fhillings, whofe half is juft its reverfe.
Note. The reverfe of a.fum of money, as 8 L i 2 s;
is 12I. 8s.
Let x be the pounds and / the {hillings.
The fum required is 20x-f/
Its reverfe is - 20/-f x
^0x4/
Therefore, - ——-zzzcy+x-
20 X 4/ = 40/ 4 2 x
i8x=33/
x -y •: (39 : 18 ::) 13:6
In. this equation there are two unknown quantities/:
and, in general, any two numbers of which the pro¬
portion is that of 13 to 6 will agree to it.
But, from the nature of this queftion, 13 and 6 are
the only two that can give the proper anfwer, viz..
13I. 6 s. f®r its reverfe 61. 13 s. is juft its half.
The ratio of x and y is exprefled in the loweft inte-
Alfo let a1 = 64. Then if r=2, the fides of the gral terms by 13 and 6; any other expreflion of it, asv
32 24 1024 575 1600 the next greater 26 and 12, will not fatisfy the pro-
y andand
The reafon. of the affumption of rx—a as a fide of -
(2r*a \ r?a—a
-V4T“* J r*+i
Let r therefore be aflumed at pleafure, and pyj-
y^-jl 1 > wb*cb muft always be rational, will be the
lides of the two fquares required.
Thus, if a’srioo; then if r=3, the fides of the
two fquares are 6 and 8, for 364-64=100.
fquares are — and -
- 64. blem, as 1 zl. 26 s. is not a proper notation of money*
in pounds and ftiillings.
the fquare a1—xl, is that being fquared and put equal
fo this laft, the equation manifeftly will be Ample, and:
the root'of fuch an equation is always rational.
Examp. 2. To find two fquare numbers whofe differ-
C H A P. VIL.
Demonjlration of Theorems by xilgelra.
e is given.
Algebra may be employed for the demonftratfon
of theorems, with regard to all thofe quantities con-*
^ Let x2 and / be the fquare numbers, and a their cerning which it may be ufed as an analyfis; and from
the general method of notation and reafoning, it pof-
fefles the fame advantages in the one as in the other.
The three firft feftions of this chapter contain fome of
the moft fimple properties of feries which are of fre¬
quent ufe ; and the laft,, mifcellaneous examples of the
properties of algebraical quantities and numbers.
Z12ZV+ V1'
- _
Z2 22^4-®’
4
=r
:V=(x2—/=)tf.
If x and y are required only to be rational, then take
vat pleafure, and2=—, whence x and / are known.
But if x and / are required to be whole numbers,
take for z and v any two factors that produce a, and
are both even or both odd numbers. And this is pof-
iible only where a is either an odd number greater than
I. Of Arithmetical Series.
Def. When a number of quantities increafe or de-
creafe by the fame common, difference, they form an
arithmetical feries.
Thus, a,'a+b, a+ 21, a + $b, &c. x, x—b, x—zb,
&c.
Alfo, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, &c. and 8, 6, 4, 2, &c.
Prop. In an arithmetical feries, the fum of the firft
3 and
Part 1. A L G E
Demon- and Taft terms is equal to the fum of any two interme-
flration cf JJate terms, equally dillant from the extremes.
Theorems. term be a, the laft x, and b the com-
y mon difference; then a+b will be the fecond, and x—b
the laft but one, &c.
Thus, a, a+b, a+zb, a+^b, &c.
xt x—b, x-—zb, x—3^, x—4^, &c.
B R A. 421
from the end; and the produft of any two fuch is equal Demon-
to ay, the produfr of the firft and laft. rheorem^
Prop. II. The fum of a geometrical feries wanting '~~*v
the firft term, is equal to the fum of all but the laft
term multiplied by the common ratio.
For, aftuming the preceding notation of a feries, it
is plain, that
It is plain, that the terms in the fame perpendicular
rank are equally diftant from the extremes; and that
the fum of any two in it is tf+.v,. the fum of the firft
and laft.
Cor. i. Hence the fum of all the terms-of an arith¬
metical feries is equal to the fum of the firft and laft,
taken half as often as there are terms;
Therefore if n be the number of terms, and s the
fum of the feries; Xj If a=o, then / =
Cor. z. The fame notation being underftood, fince
any term in the feries confifts of a, the firft term, to¬
gether with b taken as often as the number of terms
preceding it, it follows, that x — a-\-n—iX£, and
hence j = —iX&X —; or by multiplication, r —
zan+n'b—nb _
   4 Therefore from the firft term, the
common difference, and number of terms being given,
the fum may be- found.
Ex. Required the fum of 50 terms of the feries 2,
4, 6, 8, &c.
2X2Xco-4-eo,X2^—50X2 cioo
J= 2“ = -^-=2550.
Cor. 3. Of the firft term, common difference; firm
and number of terms, any three being given, the
fourth may be found by refolving the preceding -equa¬
tion ; a, b, s, and n, being fucceffively confidered as
the unknown quantity. In the-three firft cafes the
equation is fimple, and in the laft it is quadratic.
II. Of Geometrical Series.
Def. When a number of quantities-increafe by the
fame multiplier, or decreafe by the fame divifor, they
form a geometrical feries.. This common multiplier or
divifor is called the common ratio.
a a a
Thus, a, ar, ar2, &c. a, —, t, &c.
1, z, 4, 8, See.
Prop. I. The produtt of the extremes in a geome¬
trical feries is equal to the product of any two terms,
equally diftant from the extremes.
JLet a be the firft term, y the laft, r the common ra¬
tio : then the- feries is,
a, ar, ar2, ar*, ar*, &c.
It is obvious, that any term in the upper rank is
squally diftant from the beginning as that below it
ar+ar2+ar*, Sic. , . . —
= rX«4-^r+«/-% &c. . +77 + 77+^+;:
Cor. I. Therefore s being the fum of the feries, >
  a , yr~-a
j—yXrzzs—a. And s=:jy^-
Hence s can be found from a, y, and r; and any
three of the four being given, the fourth may be
found--
Cor. 2. Since the exponent of r in any term is equal
to the number of terms preceding it; hence in the laft
term its exponent will be n— 1 ; the laft term, there-
£ort,y—ar , and s—- - " ■■ Hence
of thefe four; /, a, r, n, any three being given, the
fourth may be found by the folution of equations. If
n is not a fmall number, the cafes of this problem will
be moft conveniently, refolved by logarithms; and of
ffleh folutions there are examples in the appendix to
this part.
Cor. 3. If the feries decreafes, and the number of
terms is infinite ; then, according to this notation, a
the leaft term* will be o, . and a finite fum.
Ex. Required the fum of the feries x, 4-, -g-, &c,
to infinity.
I X2
Here^=x, and r—z. Therefore s= 22_1==2.
What are called in arithmetic repeating and circula¬
ting decimals,- are truly geometrical decreafing feriefes,
and therefore may be fummed by this rule.
3 3
Thus .333, &c. -&c^ is-a geometrical fe¬
ries in which ^'='~ and r=iQ ; therefore
3*10
10X 10—1 3
8 24
Thus, alfo, .2424, &c. =—, for here and
24X100 24 8
100 ; therefore —  —— — —.
100X100—1 99 33
III. Of Infinite Series.
It was obferved (Chap. I. and IV.), that in many
cafes, if the divifion and evolution of compound quan¬
tities be actually performed, the quotients and roots
can only be expreffed by a feries of terms, which may,
be continued ad infinitum. By comparing a few of
the firft terms, the law- of the progrelfion of fuch a fe-
A L G E
ries will frequently be difcovered, by which it be
r continued without any farther operation. When this
"j cannot be dong, the work is much facilitated by feve-
ral methods; the chief of which is that by the binomial
theorem.
Theorem, dny binomial {at a +b) may he raifed to
any power (m) by the following rules.
x. From infpedfing a table of the powers of a bino¬
mial obtained by multiplication, it appears that the
terms vyithout their coefficients arg am, am—'b,
am—1bi, &c. ' '
2. The coefficients of thefe terms will be found by
the following rule.
Divide the exponent of a in any term by the exponent
of b increafed by i, and the quotient multiplied by
the coefficient of that term will givg the epefficient
of the next following term.
This rule is found, upon trial in the table of powers,
to hold imiverfally. The coefficient of the iirft terms
is always i. and by applying the general rule now pro-
pofed, the coefficients of the terms in order will be as
m—i m—i.. m-r-2
follows: i, m} m%—-—, nfA : : ~ X——, &c. They
2 23
maybe more conveniently exprefTcd thus: 1, Am, BX
Cx~
2 3
the preceding coefficient. Hence
Arnam—,b+BX^:-lXam—'bt+Cx^~«’n—W,
8cc. This is the celebrated binomial theorem. It is
deduced here by indudfion only; but it may be rigidly
demonftrated, though upon principles which do not
belong to this place.
• Cor. 1. As m may denote any number, integral or
fractional, poiitive or negative ; hence the diviiioh, in¬
volution, and evolution, of a binomial, may be performr
ed by this theorem.
£x. I. Let w=r-|-, then a-j-bfzza* -j-—a—
2 2
1 a
X—4^^—This being applied to the ex-
traftion of the fquare root of tf’+x1 (by inferting a*
for a and x* for b), the fame feries refults as formerly
(Chap. IV.)
BRA.
Part I.
of eonfffis of a, together with a feries of frac- Demon- i
tions; in the numerators of which are the even powers
of x, and in the denominators the odd powers of a.   f
The numeraT coefficients of the terms of the whole fe-
2Xt'
, &c.
; and it is + if n is an
, DX—— , &c. the capitals denoting
ries, as deduced by the theorem, will be : 1, -f-
»Xi 1 X1.3 iXr.3.5
2.2X1.2* ' 2.2.2 XI .2.3 ’ 2.2.2.2X1.2.3.4:
the point being ufed (as it often is) to exprefs the pro¬
duct of the numbers between which it is placed. The
law of continuation is obvious; and the feries may be
carried on to any number of terms, without ufing the
theorem. Hence alfo the coefficient of the «th term is
1X1.3.5 See. v, (»—2 terms)
—‘xi.2.3.4 &c. («—t)
even number, and — if « is odd.
Note. If the binominal is«+^,thefigns of the termsof
any pow’erare all pofitive; if it \sa—b, the alternate terms
are negative,beginning at thefecond. This theoi'em may
be applied to quantities which confift of more than two
parts, by fuppofing them diftinguiffied into two, and
theiv fubftituting fpr the powers of thefe compound
parts their values, to be obtained alfo, if required,
from the theorem. Thus, a+bfc^—a-y-b+c*.
Scholium.
An infinite feries may itfelf be multiplied or divided
by another; it may be involved or evolved; and va¬
rious other operations may be performed upon it which
are necefiary in the higher parts of algebra. The me¬
thods fpr finding the fum depend upon other prin¬
ciples.
IV. Properties of Numbers.
Theor. I. The fum of two quantities multiplied by
their difference is equal to the difference of their
Jquflres.
Let the quantities be reprefented by a and b, then
a + bXa—rbszd1—b1, as appears by performing the
operation.
Cor. If a and b be any two quantities of which the
fum may be denoted by s, the difference by d, and
their product by p, then the following propolitions will
be true.
2. a*—b*—sd
4. a1—P—s'd—dp
6. a*—b*—s>d—isdp, &c«
ries, fince -
1X1-
, let a
£=—r, and
m——i; and the fame feries will arife as was obtained
by diviiion (Chap. I.)
In like manner ■^======.{=r'X2rz—zO—may
be expreffed by an infinite feries, by fuppofing a—2rz,
3=—z% and /«=—4-» and then multiplying that feries
byr’.
Cor. 2. This theorem is ufeful alfo in difeovering
the law of an infinite feries produced by divifion or
evolution. Thus, the feries expreffing the fquare root
5
1. aifP—j*—ip
3. al+b'-slsps
5. a4 4 4—2ff-
It is unneceffary to exprefs thefe propofitions in
words, and the demonftrations are very eafy, by rai-
fing afb to certain powers, and making proper fub-
ftitutions.
Theor. II. The fum of any number of terms (n) of
the odd numbers 1, 3, 5, beginning with x, is e-
qual to the fquare of that number (n).
In the rule for fumming an arithmetical feries, let
<7=1, b—2, and n—n, and the fum of this feries will
2an-\-mb—nb 2«* ^ _
be r=   =—=*’. QJ&.D.
Theor.
Parti. ALGEBRA. 42 j
■Demon- Cor. 3. This theorem, with the corollaries, relates Defnon-
I'Theorems ’T'he6r' ^ diference of any two fquare numbers to arty fcale whatever. It includes therefore the weH Theorem^
. L js eqUal i0 the funi of the two roots, together with known property of 9 and of 3 its aliquot part, in the . eo‘cm~*/
twice the fum of the numbers in the natural fcale be- decimal fcale; for, fmce r~ 10, r—1 =9.
tween the two roots.
Let the one number be p, and the other/>f«, the Th'or- V’ ^ any number, if from the fuvi of the co-
intermediate numbers are p+x, p±2, ... Ike. p+n-i. 'ffifntjfthe odd powers of r the fum of the coeffict-
The difference of the fquares of the given numbers is ™ts ^ even powers be fubtraCed, and the rematn-
tpn+n-, the fum ofthe tworoots is 2/>+^ and twice the f ^ tbe fmier Hfdf' ^ be diVtfiile
fum of the feries/>+i4-/>+2 , . . &c. pyn—1 is (by y
Cor. 1. iff Seft. of this Chap.) 2j~2/>-b*X«—i, viz. . In ^ number ^+^+cr*+^-3-f-er4+/rs, See. the
the fum of the firft and laft; multiplied by the number. t^ie coefficients of the odd powers of r is b-\-d
of terms, and it is plain that 2/+«+^X^=T= +/’ &C’ / thetf ^fents ofthe even povvers
^ - r * of r is a-{-c-i-e, See. If the latter fum be fubtraaed
2pn-\-til. Therefore, Sec.
Lem. !. Let r be any number, and n any integer,
rn — 1 is divifible by r—1.
The quotient will be rn x-\-rn % See. till the in¬
dex of r be o, and then the laft term of it will be 1 ;
for if this feries be multiplied by the divifor r—i , it
will produce the dividend rn-—t. It will appear alfo by
performing the divifion, and inferting for n any number.
Lem. 2. Let r be any number, and n any integer
odd number, r”+1 is divifible by r-}- 1. Alfo, if n is
arty even number, rn—1 is divifible by r-j-i.
The quotient in both cafes is r11" 1—rn—I-f-
rn—3 exponent of r be o, and the laft term
r°~i. If this feries confift of an odd number of terms,
and be muli^ died by rft-1 the divifor, the produa is
r"-|~i the dividend. If the feries confift of an even
number of terms, the produa is r”— 1; but it is plain
that the number of terms will be odd only when n is
odd, and even only when n is even. The conclufion
will be manifeft by performing the divifion.
Lem. 3. If r is the root of an arithmetical fcale,
any number in that fcafe may be reprefented in the fol¬
lowing manner, a, b, c, &c. being the coefficients of
digits, a-\.br-\-crz-{-dr'3, See.
Theor. IV. If from any number in the general fcale
now deferibed, the furn of its digits be fubt rafted, the
remainder is divifible by r— 1.
The number is a+br+cr* -{-dr}, &c. and the fum
of the digits is a-\-b-\-c^-d, 8tc. Subtraaing the lat¬
ter from the former, the remainder is br—b-\-cr,‘—
c+dr1—d. See. —brX—i-brXr* — i+^/Xr3—i,&c.
But (by Lem. 1.) r”— t is divifible by r—t, whatever
integer number » may be, and therefore any multiple
of rn—1 is alfo divifible by r— t: Hence each of the
terms, bXr—i,cXrz— , &c. is divifible by r—I,
and therefore the whole is divifible by r— 1.
Cor. 1. Any number, the fum of whofe digits is di¬
vifible by r— 1, is itfelf divifible by r— 1. Let the
number be called N, and the fum of the digits D; then
by this prop. N—D is divifible by r— 1, and D is fup-
pofed to be divifible by r— 1; therefore it is plain that
N muft alfo be divifible by r— 1.
Cor. 2. Any number, the fum of whofe digits is di¬
vifible by ah aliquot part of r— 1, is alfo divifible by
that aliquot part. For, let N and D denote as before;
and fince N—D (Theor. 4.) is divifible by r—1, it is
alfo divifible by an aliquot part of r— 1 ; but D is di¬
vifible by an aliquot part of r—1, therefore N is alfo
divifible by that aliquot part.
from the former, and the remainder added to the given
number, it makes br-\-b-\-cr’1 — c-h/r3-j-</+er4—e+fr*
ff. See. =bXr+ 1+cXr1 — 1 +dXr^'fi-1 -\-ex7^74.
/Xrs4*<, &c. But (by Lem. 2.) rft-t, r1—r, r3+r,
&c. are each divifible by r-f-1, and therefore any mul¬
tiples of them are alfo divifible by r+i, hence the
whole number is divifible by r+i.
Cor. 1. If the difference of the fum of the even di¬
gits, and the fum of the odd digits of any number be
divifible by r+i, the number itfelf is divifible by r+ r.
Let the fum of the even digits (that is, the coeffi¬
cients of the odd powers of r) be D, the fum of the
odd digits be d, and let the number be N. Then by
the theorem AT-\-D—d is divilibk by r-f- r, and it is
fuppofed that D—d is divilible by rft-i; therefore iV
is divifible by r+ r.
Cor. 2. In like manner, if Z)—d is divifible by an
aliquot part of r+1, Ar will be divifible by that aliquot
part.
Cor. 3. If a number want all the odd powers of r,
or if it want all the even powers of r, and if the fum of
its digits be divifible by r+i, that number is divifible
by r-f-1.
Cor. 4. In the common fcale r+! == 11, which there¬
fore will have the properties mentioned in this theorem,
and the corollaries. Thus, in the number 64,834, the
fum of the even digits is 7, the fum of the odd digits
is 1 8, and the difference is 11, a number divifible byi 1,
the given number therefore (Cor. 1.) is divifible by t 1.
Thus alfo, the fum of the digits of 704O308 is divifible
by 11, and therefore the number is divifible by 1 i»
(Cor. 3.)
Scholium.
Thefe theorems relate to any fcale whatever, and
therefore the properties of r— 1 in Theor. 4. would in
a fcale of eight belong to fevsn, and thofe in Theor. 5.
to nine. If twelve was the root of the fcale, the for¬
mer properties would belong to eleven, and the latter
to thirteen.
APPENDIX to Part I.
Algebra may be employed in expreffing the re¬
lations of magnitude in general, and in reafoning
with regard to them. It may be ufed in deducing not
only the relations of number, but alfo thofe of exten-
fion, and hence thofe of every fpecies of quantity ex-
preffible by numbers or extended magnitudes. In this
appendix are mentioned fome examples of its applica¬
tion to other parts of mathematics, to phyfics, and to
the
424. ALGEBRA. PartL
S£CGeo.thP/aa{?1.CalculatirnS °fbwC?V- P' refolved gives R*=2 and x=ii=f7.67, + nearly-^^Phy.
m "r°Ue0 an<i fuppohtions peculiar to thefe fubjefts, which are ° LR ' Cm
^ - t‘ necefiary in direfting both the algebraical operations, that is, 17 years and 8 months nearly, and the double
and the conclufions to be drawn from them, are here is 35 years and 4 months; which anfwer the condi-
affumed as jull and proper. tions.
I. application of Algebra to Geometry.
II. Application of Algebra to Phyfics
Algebra has been fuccefsfully applied to almoft every
branch of mathematics; and the principles of thefe
branches are often advantageoufly introduced into al¬
gebraical calculations.
The application of it to lias been the foUrce
of great improvement in both thefe fciences; on account
of its extent and importance it is here omitted, and the
principles of it are more particularly explained in the
third part of thefe elements.
In this place fhall be .given an example "of the ufe of
logarithms in refolving certain algebraical quellions.
Note. When logarithms are ufed, let (/.) de¬
note the logarithm of any quantity before which it is
placed.
Ex. To find the number of terms of a geometrical fe-
ries, of which the fum is 511, the firft term 1, and
the common ratio 2.
From fe£t. 2. chap. 6. it appears that s~- r
and in .this problem, s, r, and a are given, and n is to
be found. By reducing the equation rn—~- I^a
and from, the known property of logarithms
l.sXr—1+<2—l.a, and »r=/.rXr—\-\-a—l.a. But
here jz=xn, a= 1, r— 2, and —
1-2
2.7092700
d.3010300
In like manner may any fuch equation be refolved,
when the only unknown quantity is an exponent, and
-when it is the exponent only of one quantity.
Ex. 2. An equation of the following quadratic form
at^±C2bax —x+^c may be refolved by logarithms, ill,
hyfcholium of Chap.V. a* ■x=.c±=.bAczilfb1c±zc. And
then x is difcovered in the fame manner as, in the pre^
ceding example. Tbus, let a=2, b^r.10, and czzqS
and the equation 2*—20X2*'=:—96. ill, 2*=io=±c
4 = 12 or 8. If 2V = 8 then 3 and 2<5 —
2oX23 = — 96 is a true equation. If 2* —12, then
x=^J-£c=L£I?.I^i-^2:3.c849, and this number being
1.2 0.3010^00
inferted for x in the given equation, by means of loga¬
rithms, will anfwer the conditions.
Ex. 3. The fum of 2000I. has been out at intereft
for a certain time, and 5001. has been at intereft dou¬
ble of that time, the whole arrear now due reckoning
4 per cent, compound intereft, is 6000I. What were
the times?
By the rules in the third part of this appendix for
compound intereft, it is plain that if R=:i.o^., and the
time at which the 20C0I. is at intereft be x, the arrear
of it will be aoooXf?*. The arrear of the 500I. is
^coXi?1 v, hence ^ooXRlx -f- zocoXR v = 6000. This
Phyfical quantities which can be divided into parts,
that have proportions to each other, the fame as the
proportions of lines to lines, or of numbers to numbers,
may be exprefled by lines and numbers, and therefore
by algebraical quantities. Hence thefe mathematical
notations may be confidered as the meafures of fuch
phyfical quantities; they may be reafoned upon accor¬
ding to the principles of algebra, and from fuch rea-
fonings, new relations of the quantities which they re-
prefent may be difcovered.
In thofe branches of natural philofophy, therefore,
in which the circumftances of the phenomena can be
properly expreffed by numbers, or geometrical magni¬
tudes, algebra may be employed, both in promoting
the inveftigation of phyfical laws by experience, and
alfo in deducing the neceflary confequences of laws in-
veftigated and prefumed to be juft.
It is to be obferved likewife, that if various hypo-
thefes be aflumed concerning phyfical quantities, with¬
out regard to what takes place in nature, their confe¬
quences may be demonftratively deduced, and thus a
fcience may be eftablifhed, which may be properly cal¬
led mathematical. The life of algebra in this fcience,
which is fometimes called Theoretical Mechanics, is ob¬
vious from the principles already laid down.
In conducing thefe inquiries, it is to be obferved,
that, for the fake of brevity, the language of algebrai¬
cal operations is often ufed with regard to phyfical
quantities themfelves; though it is always to be under*
derftood, that, in ftridt propriety, it can be applied on¬
ly to the mathematical notations of thefe quantities.
Before illuftrating this application of algebra by ex¬
amples, it may be proper to explain a method of Ha¬
ting the proportion of variable quantities, and reafoning
with regard to it, which is of general ufe in natural
philofophy.
\. Of the Proportion of variable Quantities.
Mathematical quantities are often fo connefted, that
when the magnitude of one is varied, the magnitudes
of the others are varied, according to a determined
rule. Thus, if two ftraight lines, given in pofition,
interfedt each other; and, if a ftraight line, cutting
both, moves parallel to itfelf, the two fegments of the
given lines between their interfefcftion and the moving
line, however varied, will always have the fame propor¬
tion. Thus alfo, if an ordinate to the diameter of a
parabola move parallel to itfelf, the abfeifs will be iu-
creafed or diminifhed in proportion as the fquare of the
ordinate is increafed or dimiuilhed.
In like manner may algebraical quantities be connec-.
ted.. If x, y, z, See. reprefent any variable quantities,
while a, b, c, reprefent fuch as are conftant or invari¬
able, then an equation containing two or more variable
quantities, with any number of conftant quantities,
will exhibit a relation of variable quantities, fimilar
to thofe already mentioned. Thus, if ax—by, then
x :y \;b:a, that is, x has a conftant proportion to y,
in
Part II.
B R A.
in whatever way thefe two quantities may be varied.
^Likewife, \lxy%•zufb, then or_)»2:—:: a*
x
: that is, has a conftant proportion to the reci-
b
procal of x, my1 is increafed in the fame proportion
as x is diminiflied, and converfely. It is neceflary to
premife the following definitions.
Definitions.
Let there be any number of variable quantities, X,
T, Z, V, &c. con nested in fuch a manner, that when
X becomes x, T, Z, V, &c. becomes refpe&ively y, z,
v, kc. And let a, b, c, &c. reprefent any conftant
quantities, whether given or unknown. Then
1. If two variable quantities X and T are fo con¬
nected, that whatever be the values of x andy, X:x
:: T:y, this proportion is expreffed thus, X—T, and A” is
faid to be direftly as V, or fiiortly, X is faid to be as Y.
2. If two variable quantities X and Y are fo connec¬
ted, that X'.xwy'.Y, or A:x::-^- : i, their relation is
r y
thus exprefled, X—~\ and AT is faid to be inverfely,
or reciprocally as Y.
3. If X, Y, Z, are three variable quantities, fo con-
nefted that X:x::YZ:yz, their relation is fo expreffed,
X—YZy and AT is faid ti>be direttly as Y and Z, joint¬
ly; or X is faid to be as Y and Z.
hr
it follows,
For fine. X=l- (Def. 3.)
(Chap. II.) that X:x::al:£, therefore
0/ by
(Def. 4.) X=^f.
Prop. 2. If the two fides of a proportional equation
be both multiplied, or both divided by the fame quan¬
tity, it will continue to be true.
iftt If the quantity be conftant, it is manifeft from
Prop. 1.
zd. If the quantity be variable, let Xzz Y, and Z a
variable quantity, then XZ—YZ. For, fince X~Y,
(Def. 2.) X:x::Y:yi multiply the antecedents by Z,
and the confequents by z, then XZ:xzi:YZ:yz,
therefore (Def. 5.) XZzzYZ. In like manner, if
AT=r £-r
' z~ z
Cor. Any variable quantity, which is a fa&or of one
fide of a proportional equation, may be made to ftand
alone.
' YY'
alfo, Z=
XYV; and Y~^jyy and alfo See. Hence,
alfo, if one fide of a proportional equation be divided
by the other, the quotient is a conftant quantity,
viz. 1.
    Prop. 7,. If two proportional equations have a com-
4. If any number of variable quantities as X, mon fide, the remainingtwofides willformapropor-
„ r, rr o r „ . , ^ YZ yz tional equation. Alfo, that common fide will be as
Y,Z,V, kc. are fo conneded, that XY:xy:i-—: ; the fum or difference of the other two.
Thus, if X~Y, and Y—Z, then XzzZ. For
thenXr=-_, and XYis faid to be direftly as YZt X:x::Y: y, and Y:y::Z:z, therefore multiplying thefe
, . r, rr , v 4 ■v • • , ratios, XY:xy::YZ:yz, and by dividing antecedent*
and .nverfdy a> F, or more exphcitly, Xand Tj.M- t X,i::Z-.z, thirefore (Def. a.) X=z.
0, m dtrM) a, r and Z ymtrftly a, V. Litewifc, if X=r, and r=Z, r-XzizZ. For,
In like manner are'other combinations ot variable - — - -
qualities denoted and expreffed.
It is to be obferved alfo, the fame definitions take
place, when the variable quantities are multiplied or
divided by any conftant quantities. Thus, if aX:ax::
JL : - then aX=~, kc.
Y y Y
5. Let the preceding notation of proportion be
fince X:x:: Y:y : : Z s z. (Chap. II.) Y:y;:Xdt=Z ;
x=t=z, therefore Def. 5. Yj= XztzZ.
Cor. Hence, one fide of a proportional equation will
be as the fum, or as the difference of the two fides 4
and the fum of the two fides will be as their difference.
Thus, if X=r+Z, then X+ Y+Z and X=X
—Y—Z, and alfo X+Y+Z=zX—Y~Z.
Prop. 4. If the two fides of a proportional equation
called a proportional equation (a), the equations for- be refpeaively multiplied or divided by the two fides
merly treated of being in this place, for the fake of 0f any other proportional equation, the produfts or
diftin&ion, called abfolute. quotients will form a proportional equation.
Cor. Every abfolute equation, containing more than Thus, if X~Y, and Z= V, then XZzzYV. For
one variable quantity, may be confidered as a proper- fince X-.x::Y:y, and Z:z::V:v, by multiplying thefe
tional equation; and in a proportional equation, if at proportions (Chap. I. II.) XZ:xz:: YV-.yv, there-
any particular correfponding values of the variable fore (Def. 5.) XZ—YV. In like manner in the cafe
quantities, the equation becomes abfolute, it will be Qf divifion.
univerfally abfolute. _ Cor. 1. The two fides of a proportional equation
Prop. I. If one fide of a proportional equation be may be raifed to any power, or any root may be ex-
either multiplied or divided by any conftant quantity. — ...m  
it will continue to be true. Thus, if X——> then
Vol. I. Part II.
tradted out of both, and the equation will continue to
be true.
Thus, if X=z Y, then X”1 = Ym; for fince XzzY.
ffH AT:x
(a) Thefe terms are ufed only with a view to give more precifion to the ideas of beginners. In order to
avoid the ambiguity in the meaning of the fign =, feme writers employ the character cC, to denote conftant
proportion; but this is feldom neceffary, as the quantities compared are generally of different kinds, and the
relation exprefled .is Sufficiently obvious. See Emerfon’s Mathematics, vol. I.
426 . A L
ot'Equa- X'.x::!*:}', and therefore X’n:xm::Tm:)
Xm ~ rm. And, if Xzz r, alfo & = r*.
Cor. 2. If two proportional equations have a com¬
mon fide, that fide will be as the fquare root of the
product of the other two. Thus if X— Y, and 7~— Z.,
by this Prop. — XZ, and (Cor. 1.) Y—*/ XZ.
Hence alfo, in this cafe, y'XZ — X=5=.7,; for (Prop.
3.) r=X=t:Z.
Cor. 3 If one fide of a proportional equation be a
factor of a fide of another proportional equation, the
remaining fide of the former may be inferted in the lat¬
ter, in place of that faftor. Thus, if XzzZY, and
r
Z — then X—~, as appears by multiplying the
two equations, and dividing by Z.
Prop. 5. Any proportional equation may be made
abfolute, by multiplying one fide by a conftant quan-
tity.
'Thus, if X—Y, then let two particular correfpond-
ing values of thefe variable quantities be affumed as con¬
ftant, and let them be a and b, then X-.a::Y:b, and
Xb — aYy or X= Yx?, an abfolute equation.
Scholium.
G E B R A. Part T.
therefore founded on experience, are here affumed as principles, Of Equa-
and reafoned upon mathematically. The experiments
by which the principles are afcertained admit of vari- v 1
ous degrees of accuracy; and on the degree of phyfical
accuracy in the principles will depend the phyfical ac¬
curacy of the conclufions mathematically deduced* from
them. If the principles are inaccurate, the conclufions
muft, in like manner, be inaccurate; and, if the limits
of inaccuracy in the principles can be afcertained, the
correfponding limits, in the conclufions derived from
them, may likewife be calculated.
Examp. 1. Let a glafs tube, 30 inches {a') long, be
filled with mercury, excepting 8 inches [b); and let
it be inverted as in the Toricellian experiment, fi»
that the 8 inches of common air may rife to the
top: It is required to find at what height the mer¬
cury will remain fufpended, the mercury in the ba-s
rometer being at that time 28 inches («/) high.
The folution of this problem depends upon the fol¬
lowing principles:
1. The preffure of the atmofphere is meafured by
the column of mercury in the barometer; and the ela- * |
flic force of the air, in its natural ftate, which refills,
this prefiure, is therefore meafured by the fame co¬
lumn.
T. If there be two variable phyfical quantities, ei¬
ther of the fame, or of different kinds, which are fo
connected, that when the one is increafed or diminilh-
ed, the other is increafed or diminifhed in the fame
proportion; or, if the magnitudes of the one, in any
two fit nations, have the fame ratio to each other, as
the magnitudes of the other in the correfponding fitua-
tions, the relation of the mathematical meafure of thefe
quantities may be expreffed by a proportional equa¬
tion, according to Def. x.
2. If two variable phyfical quantities be fo connec¬
ted, that the one increafes in the fame proportion as
the other is diminilhed, and converfely ; or, if the mag¬
nitudes of the one, in any two fituations, be recipro¬
cally proportional to the magnitudes of the other, in
the correfponding fituations, the relation of their mea-
fures may be expreffed by a proportional equation, ac¬
cording to Def. 2.
3. If three variable phyfical quantities are fo connec¬
ted, that one of them is increafed or diminilhed, in
proportion as both the others are increafed or diminilh¬
ed; or, if the magnitudes of one of them, in any two
fituations, have a ratio which is compounded of the ra¬
tios of the magnitudes of the other two, in the corre¬
fponding fituations; the relation of the meafures of
thefe three may be expreffed by a proportional equa¬
tion, according to Def. 3.
.4. In like manner may the relations of other com¬
binations of phyfical quantities be expreffed according
to Def. 4. And when thefe proportional equations
are obtained, by reafoning with regard to them, ac¬
cording to the preceding propofitions, new relations of
the phyfical quantities may be deduced.
2. Examples of Phyfcal Problems.
The ufe of algebra, in natural philofophy, may be
properly illuftrated by fome examples of phyfical pro¬
blems. The folution of fuch problems muft be derived
from known phyfical laws, which, though ultimately
2. In different ftates, the elaftic force of the air is
reciprocally as the fpaces which it occupies.
3. In this experiment, the mercury which remains
fufpended in the tube, together with the elaftic force
of the air in the top of it, being a counterbalance to
the preffure of the atmofphere, may therefore be ex-
preffed by the column of mercury in the barpmeter.
Let the mercury in the tube be x inches, the air in
the top of it occupies now the fpace a—x; it occupied
formerly b inches, and its elaftic force was d inches of
mercury: Now,therefore,the force muft be(#—x-.b wd:)
Jli!— inches. (2.) Therefore (3.) x — — d.
a—x a—x
This reduced, and putting a -{-:/= 2>/x the equation is
x*— 2 mx—bd— ad.
This refolved g\\zs.-x—nci=.*/ml-\-bd—ad.
In numbers - - ^=44 or 14.
One of the roots 44 is plainly excluded in this cafe,
and the other, 14, is the true anfwer. If the column
of mercury x, fufpended in the tube, were a counterba¬
lance to the preffure of the atmofphere, expreffed by
the height of the barometer d, together with the mea¬
fure of the elaftic force of b inches of common air in
the fpace x—a, that is, if x=d or x=
x—a x — a
d, the equation will be the fame as before, and the root
44 would be the true anfwer. But the experiment in
this queftion does not admit of fuch a fuppofition.
Examp. 2. The diftance of the earth and moon (</},
and their quantities of matter (t, /), being given, to
find the point of equal attradlion between them.
Let the diftance of the point from the earth be x 1
Its diftance from the moon will be therefore d—x. But
gravitation is as the matter direflly, and as the fquare
of the diftance inverfely; therefore the earth’s attraftion
is as —r; and the moon’s attraction is as "—A But
x2 d—x\
thefe ate here equal; therefore,
Parti.
i
A L
'ST-VI
d*/t
This equation reduced gives
Or mult, numerator and denominator 7 _d(—d»J tl.
by t—l 5 t—l
In round numbers, let d—6o femidiameters of the
earth, t~^o, /—i, then x=y2 femidiameters nearly.
There is another point beyond the moon at which the
attractions are equal, and it would be found by putting
the fquare root of «—x'* to be x—d, which, in this
dt-\-ds/ll
cafe, would be a pofitive quantity; and then x——;—y—
— 72 nearly. If the quantities had been multiplied
before extracting the fquare roots, the adfeCted quadra¬
tic would have given the fame two roots.
Ex amp. 3. Let a ftone be dropt into an empty pit;
and let the time from the dropping of it to the hear- -
mg the found from the bottom be given : To find
the depth of the pit.
Let the given time be a; let the fall of a heavy body
in the ill fecond of time (16.122 feet) be 6: alfo, let
the motion of found in a fecond (1142 feet) be c.
Let the time of the ftone’s fall be - 1
The time in which the found of it moves
to the top is - -
The defcent of a falling body is as the
fquare of the time, therefore the depth
of the pit is (11: x*:: £ :) - 3
The depth from the motion of found is
alfo
Therefore 3 and 4 -
This equation being refolved, gives the value of x,
and from it may be got bx2 or ca—cx, the depth of the
pit.
If the time is 10”, then x=8.885 nearly, and the
depth is 1273 feet.
There are feveral circumftances in this problem which
render the conclufion inaccurate.
1. The values of c and b, on which the folution is
founded, are derived from experiments, which are fub-
je£t to confiderable inaccuracies.
2. The refiftance of the air has a great effe& in re¬
tarding the defcent of heavy bodies, when the velocity
becomes fo great as- is fuppofed in this quellion ; and
this circumftance is not regarded in the folution.
3. A fmall error, in making the experiment to
which this queftion relates, produces a great error in
the conclufion. This circumftance is particularly to
be attended to in all phyftcal problems ; and, in the
prefent cafe, without noticing the preceding imper-
fedlions, an error of half a fecond, in eftimating the
time, makes an error of above 100 feet in the expref-
-fion of the depth of the pit.
III. Of Jntereji and Annuities.
The application of algebra to the calculation of in-
terefts and annuities, will furnilh proper examples of its
ufe in bufinefs. Algebra cannot determine the pro¬
priety or juftice of the common fuppofitions on which
thefe calculations are founded, but only the neceflary
conclufions refulting from them.
r—ex
bx2~ ca—
E B R A.
Notation. ti
In the following theorems let p denote any principal
fum of which 11. is the unit, t the time during which
it bears intereft, of which one year fhall be the unit, r
the rate of intereft of 11. for one year, and let s be the a-
mount of the principal fum p with its intereft for the
time t at the rate r.
I. Of Simple Interefl.
s—p-\-ptr, and of thefe four, s, p, t, r, any three be¬
ing given, the fourth may be found by refolving a Am¬
ple equation.
The foundation of the canon is very obvious; for
the intereft of 11. in one year is r, for # years it is tr,
and for p pounds it is ptr; the whole amount of prin¬
cipal and intereft muft therefore be p-\-ptr—s.
II. Of Compound Interefl.
When the Ample intereft at the end of every year is
fuppofed to be joined to the principal fum, and both to
bear intereft for the following year, money is faid to
bear compound intereft. The fame notation being
ufed, let 1 fr=R. Then s—pR1.
For the Ample intereft of 11. in a year is r, and the
new principal fum therefore which bears intereft du¬
ring the fecond year is (i-j-r.=) R; the intereft of R
for a year is rR, and the amount of principal and in¬
tereft at the end of the 2d year, is/?-f-rft=i?Xi+r=/J2.
In like manner, at the end of the 3d year it is R3, and
at the end of t yeai-s it is R1, and for the fum p it is
pR 'zzs.
Cor. 1. Of thefe four />, R, t, /, any three being gi¬
ven the 4th may be found. When t is not very fmall,
the folution will be obtained moft conveniently by lo¬
garithms. When R is known r may be found, aod
converfely.
Ex. If 5001. has been at intereft for 21 years, the
whole arrear due, reckoning 44- per cent, compound
intereft, is 1260.12 1. or 12601. 2s. 5d. In this cafe
pzE$oo, .045 and t—z\ and/=!260.12, and
any one of thefe may be derived by the theorem from
the others being known; Thus, to find t; l.Rt:~t'A
/.A! = 21X0.0191 1632=0.4014423, therefore R'zzz,
2.520242and s— (pRl=:) 500X2.520242=1260.121.
Cor. 2. The prefent worth of a fum (/) in reverfion
that is payable after a certain time t is found thus. Let -
the prefent worth be x, then this money improved by
compound intereft during t produces xRl, which mult
be equal to s, and if xR^s, *=—
iv •
Cor. 3. The time in which a fum is doubled at com¬
pound intereft will be found thus. pR‘—2p and R‘—z
and t—hjL- thus, if the rate is 5 per cent. r=.05 and
l.R >
. I' 2 .-——-30r03°Q=: 14.2066, that is 14 years and
/. 1.05 0.0211893
75 days nearly.
Scholium.
Many other fuppofitions might be made with regard
to the improvement of money by compound intereft.
The intereft might be fuppofed to be joined to the ca¬
pital, and along with it to bear intereft at the end of
3 H 2 every
4i8 A li G E
Of £qua- every month, at the end of every day, or even at the
^ons' end of every inftant, and fuitable calculations might be
v''"”*-' formed; but thefe fuppofitions, being feldom ufed in
praftice, are omitted.
III. Of Annuities.
An annuity is a payment made annually for a cer¬
tain term of years, and the chief problem with regard
to it is, * to determine its prefent worth.’ The fup-
pofition on which the folution proceeds is, that the
money received by the feller, being improved by him
in a certain manner during the continuance of the an¬
nuity, amounts to the fame fum as the feveral payments
received by the purchafer, improved in the fame man¬
ner. The fuppofitions with regard to the improve¬
ment may be various. What is called the method of
Jtmple inter eft, in which fimple intereft: only is reckon¬
ed upon the purchafe-money, and fimple intereft on each
annuity from the time of payment, is fo manifeftly un¬
equitable, as to be univerfally rejefted ; and the fuppo-
fition which is now generally admitted in praftice, is
the higheft improvement poffible on both fides, viz. by
compound intereft. As the taking compound intereft
is prohibited by law, the realizing of this fuppofed im¬
provement requires punctual payment of intereft, and
therefore the intereft in fuch calculations is ufually
made low. Even with this advantage, it can hardly
be rendered effectual in its full extent; it is however
univerfally acquiefced in, as the moft proper founda¬
tion of general rules; and when peculiar circumftances
require any different hypothefis, a fuitable calculation
may be made.
Let then the annuity be called a, and let p be the
prefent worth of it or purchafe-money, t the time of
its continuance, and let the other letters denote as for¬
merly.
The feller, by improving the price received p, at
compound intereft, at the time the annuity ceafes, has
The purchafer is fuppofed to receive the firft annui¬
ty a at the end of the-firft year, which is improved by
him for t—I years; it becomes therefore (Th. 2.)
qR' — '.
He receives the 2d annuity at tire end of the 2d
year, and when improved t—2, it becomes aR'—\
The third annuity becomes aR*—3, &c.
The laft annuity is fimply a, therefore the whole
amount of the improved annuities is the geometrical
feries afaRfaR-, &c. . . aR*—I. The fum of this
feries, by Chap.VI. Se&. 2. is aX— i=«X^ i‘
R—x r
But, from the nature of the problem,1 = ’
and hence p—aX— l~aX 1— JL
rRt Rt_
The fame conclufion refults from calculating the
prefent worth of the feveral annuities^ confidered as
fums payable in reverfion..
Cor. 1. Of thefe four p, a, R, t, any three being gi¬
ven, the fourth may be found, by the folution of equa¬
tions ; t is found eaiily by .logarithms* R or r can be
I
B R A. Part I,
found only by refolving an adfefted equation of the Of Equa-
t order. V005, J
Cor. 2. If an annuity has been unpaid for the term 1 T
t, the arrear, reckoning compound intereft, will be
R*—1
«x-r-
Ctr. 3. The prefent worth of an annuity in rever¬
fion, that is to commence after a certain time (»), and
then to continue t years, is found by fubtrafting the
prefent worth for n years from the prefent worth for
nft years, and then
p — aX —  1 ~
r rR*+n R*
Alio of R, t, n, a, p, any four being given, the fifth
may be found.
Cor. 4. If the annuity is to continue for ever, then
R*—x and R* may be confidered as the fame ; and
R*—1 = a
pzzaX-jgr
Cor. 5. A perpetuity in reverfion (by Cor. 3.) fince
R*—i—R*, isp--^~-
rRn
Proh. When 12 years of a leafe of 21 were expired,
a renewal for the fame term was granted for iqooI. ;
8 years are now expired, and for what fum muft a cor-
refponding renewal be made, reckoning 5 per cent.
compound intereft ?
From the firft tranfaftion the yearly profit rent muft
be deduced; and from this the proper fine in the fe-
cond may be computed.
In the firft bargain, an annuity in reverfion for x 2
years, to commence 9 year? hence, was fold for 1000L
the annuity will therefore be found by Cor. 3. in which
. rRn
all the quantities are given, but a—pX  
I-J-
R*
and by inferting numbers, viz. p~\ooo, ter2, «=9r
r—.o^, and R—1.05; and working by logarithms
^175.029=1751.—7d. ,
Next, having found a, the fecond renewal is made
by finding the prefent worth of the annuity a in rever¬
fion, to commence 13 years hence, and to laft 8 years.
In the canon (Cor. 3.) infert for a 175.029, and let
te8, «=I3, and r—.05 as before,p—S99>9S—599 !•
18s. 64rd. The fine required.
As thefe computations often become troublefome,
and are of frequent ufe, all the common cafes are cal¬
culated in tables, from which the value of any annuity,
for any time, at any intereft, may eafily be found.
It is to be obferved alfo, that the preceding rules-
are computed on the fuppofition of the annuities being
paid yearly; and therefore, if they be fuppofed to be
paid half yearly, or quarterly, the conclufions will be
fomewhat different, but they may eafily be calculated
on the preceding principles.
The calculations of life annuities, depend partly up¬
on the principles now explained, and partly on phyfi-
cal principles, from the probable duration of human
life, as deduced from bills of mortality.
PART
Part It ALGEBRA*
PART II.
429
Of the General Properties and Refolution of Equations of all Orders.
CHAP. I.
Of the Origin and Compofition of Equations; and of the
Signs and Coefficients of their Terms.
IN order to refolve the higher orders of equations,
and to inveftigate their general affections, it is pro¬
per firfl to confider their origin from the combination
of inferior equations.
As it would be impoffible to exhibit particular rules
for the folution of every order of equations, their num¬
ber being indefinite ; there is a necefiity of deducing
rules from their general properties, which may be equal¬
ly applicable to all.
In the application of algebra to certain fubjedts, and
efpecially to geometry, there may be an oppofition in
the quantities, analogous to that of addition and fub-
tradtion, which may therefore be expreffed by the figns
+ and —. Hence thefe figns may be underftood by
^bftra&ion, to denote contrariety in general; and
therefore, in this method of treating of equations, ne¬
gative roots are admitted as well as pofitive. In many
cafes the negative will have a proper and determinate
meaning ; and when the equation relates to magnitude
only, where contrariety cannot be fuppofed to exift,
thefe roots are negledled, as in the cafe of quadratic
equations formerly explained. There is befides this
advantage in admitting negative roots, that both the
properties of equations from which their refolution is
obtained, and alfo thofe which are ufeful in the many
extenfive applications of algebra, become more Ample
and general, and are more eafily deduced.
In this general method, all the terms of any equation
are brought to one fide, and the equation is expreffed
by making them equal to o. Therefore, if a root of
the equation be inferted inftead of (x) the unknown
.quantity, the pofitive terms will be equal to the nega¬
tive, and the whole muft be equal to o.
l)ef. When any equation is put into this form, the
term in which (x) the unknown quantity, is of the
higheft power, is called the Firf; that in which the
index of x is lefs by 1, is the Second, and fo on, till the
lalt into which the unknown quantity does not enter,
and which is called the jdbfoluteTzrm.
Prof . I. If any number of equations be multiplied
together, an equation will be produced, of which the
dimenfion (a) is equal to the fum of the dimenfions of
the equations multiplied.
If any number of Ample equations be multiplied to¬
gether, as x—a—o, x—bzzo, x—c—o, &c. it is obvi¬
ous, that the produft will be an equation of a dimen-
fron, containing as many units as there are fimple equa¬
tions. In like manner, if higher equations are multi¬
plied together, as a cubic and a quadratic, one of the
fifth order is produced, and fo on.
Converfely. An equation of any dimenfion is confi-
dered as compounded either of fimple equations, or of
others, fuch that the fum of their dimenfions is equal
to the dimenfion of the given one. By the refolution
of equations thefe inferior equations are difcovered, and
by inveftigating the component fimple equations, the
roots of any higher equation are found.
Cor. 1. Any equation admits of as many folutions,
or has as many roots as there are fimple equations
which compofe it, that is, as there are units in the di¬
menfion of it.
Cor. i. And converfely, no equation can have more
roots than the units in its dimenfion.
Cor. 3. Imaginary or impoffible roots muft enter art-
equation by pairs ; for they arife from quadratics, in
which both the roots are fuch.
Hence alfo,, an equation of an even dimenfion may
have all its roots, or any even number of them impof¬
fible, but an equation of an odd dimenfion mult at leafi:
have one poffible root.
Cor. 4. The roots are either pofitive or negative,
according as the roots of the fimple equations, from
which they are produced, are pofitive or negative.
Cor. 5. When one root of an equation is difcovered,
one of the fimple equations is found, from which the
given one is compounded. The given equation, there¬
fore, being divided by this fimple equation, will give
an equation of a dimenfion lower-by 1. Thus, any
equation may be depreffed as many degrees as there
are roots found by any method whatever.
Prop. II. To explain the general properties of the
figns and coefficients of the terms of an equation.
Let *•—a—o, x—fc=o, x—c—o, x—d-zzo, &c. be
fimple equations, of which the roots are any pofitive
quantities -f #, -\-b, -\-c, -\-d, &c. and let x-\-m=.0,
x+n—o, &c. be fimple equations, of which the roots
are any negative quantities —m,—n, &c. and let any
number of thefe equations be multiplied together,,as in
the following table t
x—azzo
Xx—b=zo
~XZZ+ai 5 =or a Quadratic,
X.v—c—o
(a) The term dimenfion, in this treatife, is ufed in fenfes fomewhat different, but fo as not to create any
ambiguity. In this chapter it means either the order of an equation, or the number denoting that order,,
which was formerly defined to be the higheft exponent of the unknown quantity in any term of the e-
quation.
4SQ
Of Equa- —-v? ,
+an
—by+x'+ac'* Xr—abc=o, a Cubic.
—A +^3
-j~«j —
—bm
—abc
Srabm —abcm—O, a
---
v +^«.J
(Biquadratic,
From this table it is plain,
1. That in a complete equation the’number of terms
is always greater by unit than the dimenfion Of the
equation.
2. The coefficient of the firft term is i.
The coefficient of the fecond'term is the fum of all
the roots (<?, b, c, n, See.) with their figns changed.
The coefficient of the third term is the fum of all
the products that can he made by-multiplying any two
Of the roots together.
The coefficient of the fourth term is the fum Of all
the produfts which can be made by multiplying toge¬
ther any three of the roots whh their figns changed;
and fo of others.
The laft term is the -product of • all the roots, with
.their figns changed.
3. From induction it appears, ’ that in any equation
(the terms being regularly arranged as in the'preceding
example) there are as many pofitive roots as there are
-changes in the figns of the terms'from + to—, and
from — to + ; and the remaining roots are negative.
The rule alfo may be demonftrated.
Note. The impoffible roots in this rule are fuppofed
to be either pofitive or negative.
In this example df a numeral equation x4—1 oxH*
35.V’1—50.V+24=0, the roots are, +i, +2, +3, +4,
■and the preceding obfervations with regard to the figns
. and coefficients take place.
1 Cor. If a term of an equation is wanting, the pofi¬
tive. and negative parts of its coefficient muft then be
equal. Tf there is no abfolute term, then fome of the
roots muft be r=o, and the equation may be deprefled
by dividing all the terms by the loweft power of the
unknown quantity in any of them. In this cafe alfo,
a'—022:0, x—02220, &c. may be confidered as fo many
of the component Ample equations, by which the given
equation being divided, it will be deprelfed fo many
degrees.
CHAP. II.
0/ the Transformation of Equations.
There.are certain transformations of equations ne-
cefiary towards their folution; and the moft ufeful are
contained in the following propofitions.
Prop. 1. The affirmative roots of an equation be¬
come negative, and the negative become affirmative,
by changing the figns of the alternate terms, begin¬
ning with the fecond.
Thus the root? of the equation x4—.v3—rpx’ft-qp.v
B R A.
Part IL
—30=0 are +1 > +2, -4-3, ~5’, whereas the roots of Of Equa-
the equation 5f4+xs—igx*—49X—30=0, are —1,tlons-
—2, --3, +5.
The reafon of tfiis is derived from the compofition
of the coefficients of thefe terms, which confift of
combinations of odd numbers-of the roots, as explain¬
ed in the preceding Chapter.
Prop. 2. An equation may be transformed into
another that fhall have its1 roots-greater or lefs than the
roots of the given equation by fome given difference.
Let x' be ' the unknown quantity of the equation,
and e the given-difference ; let y=x2±2<r, then x—y^+ze;
and if for x and its powers in the given equation, yrp?
and its powers be inferted, a new equation will arife,
in which the unknown quantity is y, and its value will
be xzize ; that is, its roots will differ from the roots
of the given equation by e.
Let the equation propofed be xi—px^qx—r2=o,
of which the roots muft be diminifhed by e. By in-
ferting for x and its powers yfe and its powers, the
equation required is.
f+yy* +sey+ei
—p/—2pey-
+ M +
tlj 0
Cor. 1-. From this transformation, the fecond, or
any other intermediate term, may be taken away ;
granting the refolution of equations.
Since the coefficients of all the terms of the tranf-
formed equation, except the firft, involve the powers
of e and known quantities only, by putting the coef¬
ficient of any term equal to o, and refolving that equa¬
tion, a value of e may be determined; which being
fubftituted, will make that term to vanifli.
Thus, in this example, to take. away the fecond
term, let its coefficient, 31?—/>—o, and e—\p, which
being fubftituted for e, the new equation will want
the fecond term. And univerfally, the coefficient of
the firft term of a cubic equation being 1, and x being
the unknown quantity, the fecond term may be taken
away by fuppofing x—yz+z\p,z±zp being the coefficient
of that term.
Cor. 2. The fecond term may be taken away by the
folution of a fimple equation, the third by the folution
of a quadratic, and fo on.
Cor. 3. If the fecond term of a quadratic equation
be taken away, it will become a pure equation, and
thus a folution of quadratics will be obtained, which
coincides with the folution already given in Part I.
Cor. 4. The laft term of the transformed equation
is the fame with the given equation, only having e in
place of x.
Prop. 3. In like manner may an equation be trans¬
formed into another, of which the roots (hall be equal
to the roots of the given equation, multiplied or di¬
vided by a given quantity.
Let x be the unknown letter in the given equation,
and y that of the equation wanted ; alfo kt e be the
given quantity.
To multiply the roots let xe~y, and x—JL,
To divide the roots let ~~y, and x—ye.
The*
Part IF.
Then fubftltute for x and its powers, or ye and
e
its powers, and the new equation of which y is the
unknown quantity will have the property required.
Cor. i. By this:proportion an- equation, in which’
the coefficient of the firft term is any known quanti¬
ty, as a, may be transformed' into another,.,in which
the coefficient of the tirit term ffiall be unit. Thtis,
let the'equation be «x5—/x1 -\-qx—r~o. Suppofe
yzzaxt or- x— —, and for x and its powers infert —
and its powers, and' the equation becomes ~~
py\
E B R A. 43r.
term, and the coefficients of the other terms being all Of Equa-
integers, the coefficients of the given equation being tl0“5-
alfo fuppofed integers. s—-v——*
General Corollary to Prop. i. 2. 3.
If the roots of any of thefe transformed equations
be found by any method, the roots of the original
equation, from which they were derived, will eafily'
be found from the fimple equations expreffing their re--
lation. Thus, if 8 is found to be a root of the trans¬
formed equation 23 + 23s—696 = 0 (Cor. 2. prop. 3.)
Since the cbrrefponding root of the given-
——r=o, ory*—py1 -\~qay—a^r—o. Alfo, let the
equation be 5.x3—6x*+7x—3a=o; and if x=^, then
y'—ty'+SSy—TSo—o- 
Cor. 2. If the two transformations in Prop,. 2. and
3. be both required, they may be performed either
feparately or together.
Thus, if it is required to transform- the equation
/ix3—px1 -\-qx—r=o into one which fhall want the
fecond term, and in which the coefficient of the lirft
term fhall be 1 •; let x=-, and theny3—A1 + qay—
equation 5x3—6xt+7x—30=0 muilbeli!=2. It
is to be obferved alfo, that the reafoning in Prop. 2.
and 3. and the corollaries, may be extended to any or¬
der of equations, though in them it is applied chiefly
to cubics.
CHAP. III.
Of the Refolution of Equations.
From the preceding principles and operations, rulesr '
may be derived for refolving equations of all orders..
i*V=o as before ; then let and the new-
equation, of which z is the unknown quantity, will
want the fecond term, and the coefficient of z3, the
higheft term is 1. Or, if x=the fame equa¬
tion as the laft found will arife from one operation.
Ex. Let the equation >be 5X3—6x1-j-7x—30=0.
If x=£, theny'3—Oy'+lSy—750=0. And if y—
Zr\-2, z3-f 230—696=0. Alfo, at once, let x=
, and the equation propqrly reduced, by bring¬
ing all the terms to a common denominator, and thetr
cafting it off, , will be z3-4-23z—696 = 0, as before.
Cor. 3. If there are fractions in an equation, they
may be taken away, by multiplying the equation by
the denominators, and by this propofition the equa¬
tion may then be transformed into another, without
fractions, in which the. coefficient of the firft term
is 1. In like manner may a furd coefficient be taken
away in certain cafes.
Cor. 4. Hence alfo, if the coefficient of the fecond
term of a cubic equation is not divifible by 3, the
fractions thence ariling in the transformed equation,
wanting the fecond term, may be taken away by the
preceding corollary. But the fecond term alfo may be
taken away, fo. that there fhalLbe nafuch fraftions in
the transformed equation, by fuppofing x=5rfc£, r±rp
being the coefficient of the fecond term of the given,
equation. And if the equation ax3—px2 ^-qx—r — o
be given, in which p is not divifible by 3, by fuppofirig
x = Alh£, the transformed equation reduced is z3—
3a
^p1 -\-9aq.Xz—2p3^~9apq—27<i1r=o; wanting the
fecond term, having 1 for the coefficient of the firft
3'
I. Cardan’s Rule for Cubic Equations.
The fecond term of a cubic equation being, taken •
away, and-the coefficient of the firft term being made
J, (by Cor. 1. Prop. 2. and Cor. 1. Prop;3.1 Chap.II.) r
it may be generally reprefented by x3^-\-qlqx-\-2rzzo ;
the fign + in all terms denoting the addition of them,
with their proper figns. Let x — m+n, and alfo nm
— —q ; by the fubftitution of thefe values, an equa¬
tion of the 6th order, but of the quadratic form,, is
deduced, which gives the values of m and. k ; and
hence, .
(w+*=) K=V—i-K/^p+V—r—
   7
or x -\P 1 +—r-f-V'r1 -f-y3.
Cor. 1. In the given equation, if 37 is negative, and :
if r2 is lefs than q3, this.expreffion of the root involves .
impoffible roots; while, at the fame time, all the roots .
of that equation are poffible. The reafon is, that in
this method of folution it is neceffary to fupppfe that -
x the root maybe divided into two parts, of. which .
the product is q. But it is eafy to ftiow, that in this, .
which is called the irreducible cafe, it cannot be done.
For example, the equation (Ex. 3. Seft. 3. of this
Chapter),.x3—156x4-560 = 0, belongs to the irredu¬
cible cafe, and the three roots are 4-4, 4-10,—14 ; -
and it is plain that none of thefe roots.can .be divided
into two parts (m and »), of which.the product can
be equal to (—y=)i^=52.; for the greateft pro-
du£t from the divifion of the greateft root —14, is :
—?X—7 = 49 lefs than 52.
If the cube root of the compound furd can be ex-
trafted, the impoffible parts balance each other, and.
the true root is obtained.
The geometrical problem of the trifeftion of. in
arch.
ALGEBRA.
Part II.
arch is refolved algebraically, by a cubic equation of
this'form; and hence the foundation of the rule for
refolving an equation belonging to this cafe, by a table
of fines.
Cor. 2. Biquadratic equations may be reduced to
cubics, and may therefore be refolved by this rule.
Some other claffes of equations, too, may be refol¬
ved by particular rules ; but thefe, and every other or¬
der of equations, are commonly refolved by the gene¬
ral rules, which may be equally applied to all.
II. Solution of Equations, nuhofe Roots are commenfu-
rdie.
Rule i. All the terms of the equation being brought
to one fide, find all the divifors of the abfolute
term, and fubftitute them fucceffively in the equa¬
tion for the unknown quantity. That divifor which,
fubftituted in this manner, gives the refult =o, (hall
be a root of the equation.
;3—^ax1 + 2aix—2a}bl
—bxz j^^abx 5
The fimple literal divifors of —2azb are a, b, 2a,
2b, any of which may be inferted for x. Suppofing
x— -j- a, the equation becomes
^ which Is obvIouflJr =0,
Ex. 2. Xs—2X* 33x4-90 = 0.
The divifors of 90 are I, 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 15, 18,E<lua"
30, 45, 90. _ _ ... ■Ion8,
The firfl. of thefe divifors, which being inferted for ^
x, will make the refult =0, is 4-3 ; 4-5 is another ;
and it is plain the laft root muft be negative, and it is
When 3 is difeovered to be a root, the given equa¬
tion may be divided by x—3 = 0, and the refult will
be a quadratic, which being refolved will give the other
two roots, -|- 5 and —6.
The reafon of the rule appears from the property
of the abfolute term formerly defined, viz. that it Is
the product of all the roots.
To avoid the inconvenience of trying many divifors,
this method is fhortened by the following
Rule 2. Subftitute in place of the unknown quantity
fucceffively three or more terms of the progreffion,
1,0, — 1, &c. and find all the divifors of the fums
that refult; then take out all the arithmetical pro-
greffions that can be found among thefe divifors whofe
common difference is 1, and the values of x will be
among thofe terms of the progreffions which are the
divifors of the refult arifing from the fubftitution of
x=o. When the feries increafes, the roots will be
pofitive; and when it decreafes, the roots will be
negative.
Examp. Let it be required to find a root of the equa¬
tion x3—x*—10x4-6=0.
The operation is thus :
Suppofit.
Refult. \ Divifors. | Ar.pro.\
x3—x1—iox4-6= '
1,2,4,
>,2,3,6,
7» I4>
In this example there is only one progreffion, 4, 3,
2 ; and therefore 3 is a root, and it is —3, fince the
feries decreafes.
It is evident from the rules for transforming equa¬
tions (Chap. II.), that by infetting for x, 4-1 (—+<0
the refult is the abfolute term of an equation of which
the roots are lefs than the roots of the given equation
by 1 ( = e). Cor. 4. Prop. 2. When x = o the refult
is the abfolute term of the given equation. When for
x is inferted—I (=—e) the refult is the abfolute
term of an equation whofe roots exceed the roots of
the given equation by x ( =e). Hence, if the terms
of the feries 1, o, —1, —2, &c. be inferted fuccef¬
fively for x, the refults will be the abfolute terms of
fo many equations, of which the roots form an in-
creafing arithmetical feries with the difference 1. But
as the commenfurate roots of thefe equations muft be
among the divifors of their abfolute terms, hence they
muft be among the arithmetical progreffions found by
this rule. The roots of the given equation therefore
are to be fought for among the terms of thefe progref¬
fions which are divifors of the refult, upon the fuppo-
fition of x=o, becaufe that refult is its abfolute term.
It is plain that the progreffions muft always be in-
creafing, only it is to be obferved, that a decreafing
feries with the fign -j- becomes increafing with the
fign —. Thus, in the preceding example, —4, —3,
N* xi.
—2, is an increafing feries, of which —3 is to be
tried, and it fucceeds.
If, from the fubftitution of three terms of the pro¬
greffion, 1, o, — 1, &c. there arife a number of arith¬
metical feriefes, by fubftituting more terms of that
progreffion, fome of the feriefes will break off, and,
of courfe, fewer trials will be neceffary.
III. Examples of Queftions producing the higher E-
quations.
Examp. 1. It is required to divide 161. between two
perfons, fo that the cube of the one’s {hare may ex¬
ceed the cube of the other’s by 386.
Let the greater fhare be x pounds,
And the lefs will be 16—x ;
By the queftion, x3—16—-x)3=386
And by Inv. 2x3—48x24-768x—4096=386
Tranfp. and divide x3—24.\i4'384x—2 241 =0.
Suppof Refults. Divifors.
If x= 1 ; - 1880 - 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 10, 20,
x= o; - 2241 - 1,3,9,27,83.
x=—I ; - 2650 - 1, 2, 5, 10, 25, 53.
Where 8, 9, 10, differ by 1 ; therefore -f-9 is to be
tried; and being inferted for x, the equation is =0.
The two {hares then are 9 and 7 which fucceed.
Since
5
Part II. A L G E
Of Equa. Since x—g 5 «■—9—o, is one of the fimple equa-
t*0”5* tions from which this cubic is produced, therefore
* —15x4-349=0- And the
two roots of this quadratic are impoffible.
E*amp. 2. What two numbers are thofe whofe pro¬
duct multiplied by the greater will produce 405, and
their difference multiplied by the lefs 20 ?
Let the greater number be x, and the lefs j).
Then by queft. ^ *-20
yM-zo
Therefore - - - - x=—-—
And - -
Alfo - -
Therefore
>4+4qy24-4°3
^._4°5
- X y
v44-40>,24-40Q _ 405
y* ~ y
Mult, and tranfp. 44+40/—40544-400=0.
This biquadratic, refolved by divifors, gives 4=5 :
and therefore ,=9. Alfo ^^Z4°g+4°V
4-5/4-654—8o=o.
This cubic equation has one pofitive incommenfurate
root, viz. 1.114, &c. which may be found by the rule
in the next fe&ion, and two impoflible. The incom¬
menfurate root4=i.i 14, &c. gives x=:ig.o6y, Stc. and
thefe two anfwer the conditions very nearly.
Examp. 3. The fum of the fquares of two numbers
zo8, and the fum of their cubes 2240 being given,
to find them.
B R A. 433
Lemma. If any two numbers, being inferted for Of Equa-
the unknown quantity (x) in any equation, give re-, c:Hns‘ ,
fults with oppofite figns, an odd number of roots muff " ',r~v
be between thefe numbers.
This appears from the property of the abfolute
term, and from this obvious maxim, that if a number
of quantities be multiplied together, and if the figns
of an odd number of them be changed, the fign of the
produdt is changed. For, when a pofitive quantity is
inferted for x, the refult is the abfolute term of an
equation whofe roots are lefs than the roots of the gi¬
ven equation by that quantity (Prop. 2. Cor. 3. Chap.
II.^ If the refult has the fame fign as the given ab¬
folute term, then from the property of the abfolute
term (Prop. 2. Chap. I.) either none or an even num¬
ber only of the pofitive roots, have had their figns
changed by the transformation; but if the refult has
an oppofite fign to that of the given abfolute term, the
figns of an odd number of the pofitive roots muff have
been changed. In the firlt cafe, then, the quantity
fubftituted muff have been either greater than each of
an even number of the pofitive roots of the given equa¬
tion, or lefs than any of them ; in the fecond cafe, it
muff have been greater than each of an odd number of
the pofitive roots. An odd number of the pofitive
roots, therefore, muff lie between them when they
give refults with oppofite figns. The fame obfervation
is to be extended to the fubftitution of negative quan¬
tities and the negative roots.
From this lemma, by means of trials, it will not be
difficult to find the neareft integer to a root of a given
numeral equation. This is the firft ftep towards the
approximation ; and both the manner of continuing it,
and the reafon of the operation, will be evident from
the following example.
Let the greater be and the lefs x—4.
Then x4^24-k—y^=2xl4-242:=2o8
Hence 42c=i 04—x*
Alfo x-\-yl3 4- x^/yl s—2 x 2 40
Subftitute for4* its value and 2x34*624x—6x3=2 240.
This reduced gives x3—156x4-5602=0.
The roots of this equation are 4-10, 4-4, —14. If
x=:jo, then 42=2; and the numbers fought are 12 and
8, which give the only juft folution. If x—4, then
42=:88 and y—/88. The numbers fought are there¬
fore 44-V^88 and 4—88. The laft is negative, but
they anfwer the conditions. Laftly, if xc=— 14, then
41——92, hence y—*/—92, is impoffible; but ftill
the two numbers——92, —14—92, be¬
ing inferted, would anfwer the conditions. But it has
been frequently obferved, that fuch folutions are both
ufelefs and without meaning.
IV. Solution of Equations by Approximation.
By the former rules, the roots of equations, when
they are commenfurate, may be obtained. Thefe,
however, more rarely occur; and when they are in-
fcommenfurate, we can find only an approximate value
of them, but to any degree of exadtnefs required.
There are various rules for this purpofe; one of the
moft fimple is that of Sir Ifaac Newton, which ffiall be
now explained.
Voi I. Part II.
Let the equation be x3—2x—5=0.
1. Find the neareft integer to the root. In this cafe
a root is between 2 and 3 ; for thefe numbers being
inferted for x, the one gives a pofitive, and the other
a negative, refult. Either the number above the root,
or that below it, may be affumed as the firft value;
only it will be more convenient to take that which ap¬
pears to be neareft to the root, as will be manifeft from
the nature of the operation.
2. Suppofe x—z-\fy and fubftitute this value of x
in the equation.
x3= 84-12/4-6//4/1
— 2X=—4 —2/
 —5-—5 
x5 — ix-f-— 14-1 o/4-6/24/5 =0.
As/is lefs than unit, its powers/2 and/3 may be
neglected in this firft approximation, and ic/=i, or
f—0.1 nearly, therefore x=:2.i nearly.
3. As f—0.1 nearly, lal f=.i+g, and infert this
value off in the preceding equation.
P— , 0.0014- 0.03^4-0.3/4-^5
</2= O.O6 4“ I.2f 4-6./
10/= I 4-10^
/3 + 6/'M-ic/~i=: o.o6ii-ii.2$g+6.2g2+g,=o
and neglefting / and / as very fmall 0.61-fi123^
3 1 =°>
434 .
Application
A L G E B
A.
Part III.
m—0.061   In the fame manner may the root of a pure equa-Application
jj ~ —“—•OO54, hence t/=:o.I+^— tion be found, and this gives an eafy method of ap- to Gco-
^.0946 nearly, and *=2.0946 nearly. proximating to the roots of numbers which are not met^ J
, . perfeft powers. v
4. This operation may be continued to any length, This rule is applicable to numeral equations of every
as by fuppofing g——.0054+/&, and fo on, and the order; and, by affuming a general equation, genial
value of *=2.09455147 nearly. rules may be deduced for approximating to the roots
By the firft operation a nearer value of * may be of an7 P™pofed equation. By a fimilar method we
found thus; fince/=.i nearly and _1+io/+6/4- may approxxmate to the roots of literal equations,
J 1 which will be expreffed by infinite feries.
p-o, /=-
. : >r-i » that is, /=—> -
lo+bf+p J 104-.6+.OX
true to the laft figure, and *=2.094.
=.094
R
III.
Of the Application of Algebra to GecIme.try. .
CHAP. I.
General Principles.
GEOMETRY treats both of the magnitude and
pofition of extenfion, and their connections.
Algebra treats only of magnitude; therefore, of
the relations which fubfift in geometrical figures, th'ofe
of magnitude only can be immediately expreffed by
algebra.
The oppofite pofition of ftraight lines may indeed
be expreffed fimply by the figns + and —. But, in
order to exprefs the various other pofitions of geome¬
trical figures by algebra from -the principles.of geome¬
try, fome relations of magnitude mull be found, which
depend upon thefe-pofitions, and which can be exhi¬
bited by equations: And, converfely, by the fame
principles may the pofitions of figures be inferred from
the equations denoting fuch relations of their parts.
Though this application of algebra appears to be
indireCt, yet fuch is the fimplicity of the operations,
and the general nature of its theorems, that inveftiga-
tions, efpeciaHy in the higher parts of geometry, are
generally eafier' and more expeditious by the alge¬
braical method, though lefs elegant than by what is
purely geometrical.. The connections alfo, and ana¬
logies of the two fciences eftablifhed by this appli¬
cation, have given rife to many curious fpeculations.
Geometry has been rendered far more extenfive and
ufeful, and algebra itfelf .has received confiderable im»
provements.
I. Of the Algebraical ExpreJJidn of Geometrical Mag"
nitudes.
A line, whether known or unknown, is reprefented
by a fingle letter: a redangle is properly expreffed by
the produCt of the two letters reprefenting its fides :
and a redangular parallelepiped by the produCt of three
letters ; two of which reprefent the fides of any of its
rectangular bafes, and the third the altitude.
Thefe are the moll fimple expreffions of geometrical
magnitudes; and any other which has a known pro¬
portion to thefe, may in like manner be exprdfed al¬
gebraically. Converfely, the geometrical magnitude^ .
reprefented by fuch algebraical quantities, may be
found, only the algebraical dimenfions above the third,
not having any correfponding geometrical dimenfions,.
mult be expreffed'by proportionals (a).
The .oppofite pofition of ftraight lines, it has been
remarked, may be expreffed by the figns + and —.
Thus, let a point A be given in the line
f A~ M P~~ B
AP, any fegment AP taken to the right hand being
confidered as politive, a fegment Ap to the left is pro¬
perly
(a) All algebraical dimenfions above the third mull he exprefled by inferior geometrical dimenfions; and
though any algebraical quantities of two or three dimenfions may be immediately expreffed by furfaces and .
fplids refpeCtively, yet it is generally neceffary to exprefs them, and all fuperior dimenfions,;, by lines.,
If, in any geometrical inveftigation by algebra, each line is expreffed by a fingle letter, and each furface or
folid by an algebraical quantity of two or three dimenfions refpeCtively, then .whatever legitimate operations are „■
performed with regard to them, the terms in any equation derived will, when properly reduced, be all of. the
fame dimenfion ; and any fuch equation may be eafily expreffed geometrically by means of proportionals, as in
the following example.
Thus, if the algebraical equation —ff4, is to be expreffed geometrically, a, b, c, and d, being fup- .
pofed to reprefent ftraight lines ; \&. a \b \ e \f‘. g, in continued proportion, then aA :b* :: a-, g and a* -.a*
b* :: a : a+g ; then-let a : c: h : k :l, and a4 : cA :: a: 1; alfo, \et c : d; m : n : p, and c4 : d4: : c: p, or c{ : c4
-—d\ :: c: c—p. By combining the two former proportions (Chap. II. Part I.), c4 ‘.a4 +b4 : : l: a-j-g, and
combining the latter with this laft.found, c4~~d4 :; c—pXl; cXa+g; therefore c—pXl= cXa-j-g, and
9ie—p:ilia+g.
If:
Partlll. A L G
Application perly reprefented by a negative quantity. If a and b
to Geo- reprefent two lines; and if, upon the line AB from
i, . e^‘ . the point A, AP be taken towards the right equal to
a, it may be expreffed by -\-a; then PM taken to the
left and equal to b, will be properly reprefented by —b,
for AM is equal to a—b. If a—b, then M will fall
upon A, and a—b—o. By the fame notation, if b
is greater than a, M will fall to the left of A ; and in
this cafe, if 2a—b, and if Pp be taken equal to b, then
(a—b~) —a will reprefent Ap, which is equal to a,
and fituated to the left of A. This ufe of the figns,
however, in particular cafes, may be precluded, or in
fome meafure reftrained.
The pofitions of geometrical figures are fo various,
that it is impoffible to give general rules for the alge¬
braical expreffion of them. The following are a few
examples.
An angle is exprefled by the ratio of its fine to the
radius; a right angle in a triangle, by putting the
fquares of the two fides equal to the fquare of the hy-
pothenufe; the pofition of points is afcertained by the
perpendiculars from them on lines given in pofition ;
the pofition of lines by the angles which they make
with given lines, or by the perpendiculars on them
from given 'points ; the fimilarity of triangles by the
proportionality of their fides which gives an equation,
&c.
Thefe and other geometrical principles mufl be em¬
ployed both in the demonftration of theorems and in
the folution of problems. The geometrical propofition
muft firft be expreffed in the algebraical manner, and
the refult after the operation muft be expreffed geome-
|i trically.
II. The Demonjlration of Theorems.
All propofitions in which the proportions of mag¬
nitudes only are employed, alfo all propofitions expref-
fing the relations of the fegments of a ftraight line, of
their fquares, rectangles, cubes, and parallelepipeds,
are demonftrated algebraically with great eafe. Such
1 demonftrations, indeed, may in general be confidered
as an abridged notation of what are purely geome¬
trical.
This is particularly the cafe in thofe propofitions
which may be geometrically deduced without any con-
ftruftion of the fquares, reftangles, &c. to which they
refer. From the firft propofition of the fecond book
of Euclid, the nine following may be eafily derived in
this manner, and they may be confidered as proper, ex¬
amples of this moft obvious application of algebra to
geometry.
If certain pofitions are either fuppofed or to be in¬
ferred in a theorem, we muft find, according to the
preceding obfervations, the connexion between thefe
pofitions and fuch relations of magnitude as can be ex¬
preffed and reafoned upon by algebra. The algebrai-
E B R A. 435
cal demonftratioris of the 12th and 13th propofitions Application
of the 2d book of Euclid, require only the 47th of the t0 Ge0'
I. El. The 35th and 36th of the 3d book require only 1 nu^ry' ,
the 3. III. El. and 47. I. El.
From a few fimple geometrical principles alone, a
number of conclufions, with regard to figures, may be
deduced by algebra; and to this in a great meafure
is owing the extenfive ufe of this fcience in geometry.
If other more remote geometrical principles are occa-
fionally introduced, the algebraical calculations may be
much abridged. The fame is to be obferved in the
folution of problems ; but fuch in general are lefs ob¬
vious, and more properly belong to the ftrift geome¬
trical method.
III. Of the Solution of Problems.
Upon the fame principles are geometrical problems
to be refolved. The problem is fuppofed to be con-
ftrufled, and proper algebraical notations of the known
and unknown magnitudes are to be fought for, by
means of which their connexions may be expreffed by
equations. It may firft be remarked, as was done in
the cafe of theorems, that in thofe problems which re¬
late to the divifions of a line and the proportions of its
parts, the expreffion of the quantities, and the ftating
their relations by equations, are fo eafy as not to re¬
quire any particular direftions. But when various po¬
fitions of geometrical figures and their properties are
introduced, the folution requires more attention and
fidll. No general rules can be given on this fubjedt, but
the following obfervations may be of ufe.
1. The conftruXion of the problem being fuppofed,
it is often farther neceffary to produce fome of the
lines till they meet; to draw new lines joining remark¬
able points; to draw lines from fuch points perpendi¬
cular or parallel to other lines, and fuch other opera¬
tions as feem conducive to the finding of equations ;
and for this purpofe, thofe efpecially are to be employ¬
ed which divide the fcheme into triangles that are gi¬
ven, right angled or fimilar.
2. It is often convenient to denote by letters, not
the quantities particularly fought, but fome others from
which they can eafily be deduced. The fame may be
obferved of given quantities.
3. The proper notation being made, the neceffary
equations are to be derived by the ufe of the moft fim¬
ple geometrical principles; fuch as the addition and fub-
ftraftion of lines or of fquares, the proportionality of
lines, particularly of the fides of fimilar triangles, See.
4. There muft be as many independent equations as
there are unknown quantities affumed in the inveftiga-
fion, and from thefe a filial equation may be inferred
by the rules of Part I.
If the final equation from the problem be refolved,
the roots may often be exhibited geometrically; but
the geometrical conftruXion of problems may be ef-
3 I 2 feXed
p If any known line is affumed as 1, as its powers do not appear, the terms of an equation, including any of
them, may be of very different dimenfions ; and before it can be properly expreffed by geometrical magnitudes,
the deficient dimenfions muft be fupplied by powers of the 1. When an equation has been derived from geo¬
metrical relations, the line denoting 1 is known ; and when an affumed equation is to be expreffed by the rela¬
tions of geometrical magnitudes, the 1 is to be'affumed.
In this manner may any fingle power be expreffed by a line. If it is then to 1, x find four quantities in
continued proportion; fo that 1 ; xy, then 1 ; y :; or ; and fo of others.
436 A L G E
Application fefted alfo without refolvtng the equation, and even
to G30. wJthout deducing a final equation, by the methods af-
v me“y' , terwards to be explained.
If the final equation is fimple or quadratic, the roots
being obtained by the common rules, may be geome¬
trically exhibited by the finding of proportionals, and
the addition or fubtradlion of fquares.
By inferting numbers for the known quantities, a
numeral expreffion of the quantities fought will be ob¬
tained byrefolving the equation. But in order to de¬
termine fome particulars of the problem befides finding
the unknown quantities of the equation, it may be far¬
ther neceflary to make a fimple conftruftion ; or, if it
is required that every thing be expreffed in numbers,
to fubftitute a new -calculation in place of that con-
itru&ion.
Prop. I. To divide a given Jlraight line AB into two
farts, fo that the reft angle contained by the whole line
and one of the parts may be equal to the fquare of the
other pi rt.
This is prop, nth II. B. of Eucl.
C A C B
Let C be the point of divifion, and let ABr=tr,
— and then CB = tf—x. From the problem
a1—a.Y = .va; and this equation being refolved (Chap.
¥. P. II.) gives x=:=±=y,?4<?—£
  4 2
The quantity yV-J- a1 > is the hypothenufe of a
4
right-angled triangle, of which the two fides are a and
j, and is therefore eafily found; — being taken from
this line, gives AC, which is the proper folutioh.
But if a line AC be taken on the oppofite fide of A,
and equal to the above-mentioned hypothenufe,together
with —, it will reprefent the negative root—^'a
2 4
— —, and will give another folution ; for in this cafe
alfo ABxBc= Ac\ But c is without the line AB ;
and therefore, if it is not confidered as making a divi¬
fion of AB, this negative root is rejected.
This folution coincides with what is given by Eu¬
clid, For yV-j-a2 is equal (fee the fig. of Prop, i ith
II. B. Eucl. Simfon’s edit.) to EB or EF, and there¬
fore xz: « =EF—EA=AF=AH; and
4 2
the point H correfponds to C in the preceding figure.
Befides, if on (EF+EA=) CF (inftead of EF—
EArrFA) a fquare be defcribed on the oppofite fide
of CF from AG, BA produced will meet a fide of it
in a point; which if it be called K, will give.KBxBA
r=KA2. K correfponds to c, and this folution will
correfpond with the algebraical folution- by means of
the negative root.
If CB had been called x, and AC—«—x, the equa¬
tion would be axzza^-zax-t-x2, which gives x =
5a. , in which both roots are pofitive, and the
BRA.
Part IIL
folutions derived from them coincide with the prece-Application
ding. If the folution be confined to a point within .t0 Geo*
the line, then one of thefe pofitive roots muft be re-. mi^ry' .
jedted, for one of the roots of the compound fquare
from which it is derived, x— ~, a negative quantity,
which in this ftridl hypothefis is not admitted. In
fuch a problem, however, both confl.ru£lions are gene¬
rally received, and confidered even as neceffary to a
complete folution of it.
If a folution in numbers be required, let ABmo,
then x~rtz-v/125—5. It is plain, whatever be the
value of AB, the roots of this equation are incommen-
furate, though they may be found, by approximation,
to any degree of exaftnefs required. In this cafe, xzc
r±:i 1.1803—5> nearly; that is AC=6.i8o3, nearly;
and Ai;=i6.i8o3, nearly.
Pros. II. In a given Triangle ABC to infcribe a
Square.
Suppofe it to be done, and let it be EFHG. From
A let AD be perpendicular on the bafe BC, meeting
EF in K.
On account of the parallels EF, BC, AD : BC : :
AK : EF; that is, p : a : ix :p—x, andp2~pxzz.axy
p2
which equation being refolved, gives x —Jf f
Therefore x or AK is a third proportional to p-\-a
and p, and may be found by 11. VI. El. The point
K being found, the conftruftion of the fquare is fuf-
ficiently obvious.
Proe. III. In the right-angled Triangle ABC, the
Bafe BG» and the Sum of the Perpendicular and
Sides BA+AC+AD being given, to find the Tri¬
angle.
Such parts of p.
this triangle are to
be found as are
neceffary for de-
fcribing it: The
perpendicularAD
will be fufficient
for this purpofe
and let it be call- D -t*
edx.' LetAB +
AC+ADs:^, BC=5; therefore BA+ACstf—*.
Let
'i
Part III. A L G
AtoGeo-0n Let BA—AC be denoted by/, then BA
and AC =
~A. But [47. I. EL] BC* = BAl
4-AC1, which being expreffed algebraically, becomes
j.=5Eii‘+i-^!'-£=2£±^. Lfc-
2 i 2 2
wife, from a known property of right-angled triangles,
BCxAD = BAxAC; that is, —^-X
E B R A. 437
according to particular rules. Any of the properties Application
which are fhown to belong peculiarly to fuch a line, t0 Geo*
may be afliimed alfo as the definition of it, from which me^r'S" ,
all the others, and even what upon other occafions may
have been confidered as the primary definition, may be
demonftrated. Hence lines may be defined in various
methods, of which the moll convenient is to be deter¬
mined by the purpofe in view. The fimplicity of a
definition, and the eafe with which the other proper¬
ties can be derived from it, generally give a prefe¬
rence.
being multiplied by 2, and added to the former, gives
2^x~a2—lax-f-x2, which being refolved accord¬
ing to the rules of Part I. Chap. V. gives x=a-J-£—
V 2ab-\-2u'
To conftruft this: a \-b is the fum of the perimeter
and perpendicular, and is given; zab+zb1 —
Va-{-by.2b is a mean proportional between a-\-b and
2b, and may be found ; therefore, from the fum of the
perimeter and perpendicular fubtraA the mean propor¬
tional between the faid fum and double the bafe, and
the remainder will be the perpendicular required.
Frpm the bafe and perpendicular the right-angled
triangle is eafily conftrudled.
In numbers, let BA+AC+AD=: x8.8 = £7; BCrr:
XO^zb ; then AD:=<z-H—v/2^+F=28.8—^576
r:4.8=:x, and BA 4-AC = 14. By either of the firft
equations2b7,-)r2ax—az—and/=BA—AC
= 2 ; therefore BA = 8, and AC = 6.
The geometrical expreffion of the roots of final equa¬
tions arifing from problems may be found without re-
folving them by the interfection of geometrical lines.
Thus, the roots of a quadratic are found by the in-
terfe&ions of the circle ahd ftraight line, thofe of a
cubic and biquadratic, by the interfeftions of two co¬
nic feftions, &c.
The folution of problems may be effedred alfa by
the interfections of the loci of two intermediate equa¬
tions without deducing a final equation. But thefe
two laft methods can only be underftood by the doc-
trine of the loci of equations.
CHAP. II.
Of the Definition of Lines by Equations.
Lines which can be mathematically treated of muil
be. produced according to an uniform rule, which de¬
termines the pofition of every point of them.
This rule conftitutes the definition of any line from
which all its other properties are to be derived.
A ftraight line has been confidered as fo fimple as
to be incapable of definition. The curve lines here
treated of are fuppofed to be in a plane; and are de¬
fined either from the feftion of a folid by a plane, or
more univerfally by fame continued motion in a plane,
Definitions. 1. When curve lines are defined by e-
quations, they are fuppofed to be produced by the ex¬
tremity of one ftraight line, as PM moving in a given
angle along another ftraight line AB given in pofition,
which is called the bafe.
M
3. The fegment of the bafe AP between a given
point in it A, and an ordinate PM, is called an Abfcifs
with refpeft to that ordinate, and is denoted by x.
The ordinate and abcifs together are called Co-ordi¬
nates.
4. If the relation of the variable abfcifs and ordinate
AP and PM, be expreffed by an equation, which be-
fides x and / contains only known quantities, the curve
MO deferibed by the extremity of the ordinate, mo¬
ving along the bafe, is called the Locus of that equa¬
tion.
5. If the equation is finite, the curve is called Al¬
gebraical (a). It is this clafs only which is here confi¬
dered.
6. The dimenjions of fuch equations are eftimated ;
from the higheft fum of the exponents of x and / in any
term.—According to this definition, the terms x4, x/,
x1/*, */3,/4 are ah °f the fame dimenfion.
7. Curve lines are divided into orders from the di-
menfions of their equations, when freed from fraftions
and- furds.
In thefe general definitions, the ftraight line is fup¬
pofed to be comprehended, as it is the locus of fimple
equations. The loci of quadratic equations are fhown
to
(a) The terms Geometrical and Algebraical, as applied to curve lines, are ufed in different fenfes, by dif- -
ferent writers ; there are feveral other claffes of curves befides what is here called algebraical, which can be
treated of mathematically, and even by means of algebra. See Scholium at the end.
438
Application to Be the Conic fe&rons, which
to Geo- q£ fecond order, &c.
metry. ^ - - — - ■ - - -
L G E B R A. Part lit*
hence called lines Some trtore general'fuppofitions maybe of ufe in Application
determining the figure ; but thefe can be fuggefted only to
It is fufficiently plain from the nature of an equa- from the particular form of the equation in view. By . n‘
tion, containing two variable quantities, that it mull fuppofing x ' to have certain relations to the known
determine the pofition of every point of the curve, de- quantities, the values of y may become more fimple,
fined by it in the manner now defcribed: for if any and the equation may be reduced to fuch a form as to
particular known value of one of the variable quanti- Ihow-the dire£tion of the curve, and fome of its obvi-
ties as x be affumed, the equation will then have on'e dus properties.
The following general obfeivations may alfo be laid
unknown quantity only, and being refolved, will give a
precife number of correfponding values of^y, which de¬
termine fo many points of the curve.
As every point of the locus of an equation:has the
fame general property, it mull be one curve only, and
from this equation all its properties may be derived.
It is plain alfo, that any curve line defined from the
motion of a point, according'to a fixed rule, mull ei¬
ther return into itfelf, or be extended nd infinitum with
a continued curvature.
The equation, however, is fuppofed to be irredu¬
cible ; becaufe, if it is not, the locus will be a combina¬
tion of inferior lines : but this combination will pollefs
the general ptoperties of the lines of the order of the
given equation.
It is to be obferved all along, that the pofitive va¬
lues of the (brdinate, as PM, being taken upwards, the
negative Pm will be placed downwards, on the oppofite
fide of the bafe : and if pofitive values of the abfcifs,
as AP, be aflumed to the right from its beginning,
the. negative values, A P will be upon the left, and
from thefe the points of the curve M, m, on that fide
are to be determined;
In the general definition of curves it is ufual to fup-
'pofe the co-ordinates to be at right angles. If the
locus of any equation be defcribed, and if the abfcifs
be affumed on another bafe, and the ordinate be placed
at a different angle, the new equation exprefling their
relation, though of a different form, will be of the fame
order as the original equation ; and likewife will have,
in common with it, thofe properties which diftinguifli
the equations of that particular curve.
This method of defining curves by equations may
not be the fittell for a full inveftigation of the proper¬
ties of a particular curve; but as their number is with¬
out limit, fuch a minute inquiry concerning all, would
be not only ufelefs, but impoffible. It has this great
advantage, however, that many of the general affec¬
tions of all curves, and of the diftinft orders, and alfo
fome of the moil ufeful properties of particular curves,
may be eafily derived from it.
I. eihe Determination of the Figure of a Curve from
its Equation.
The general figure of the curve may be found by
fubftituting fucceflively particular values of x the ab¬
fcifs, and finding by the refolution of thefe equations
the correfponding values of_y the ordinate, and of con-
fequence fo many points of the curve. If numeral va¬
lues be fubftituted for x, and alfo certain numbers for
the known letters, the refolution of the equation gives
numeral expreflions of the ordinates ; and from thefe,
down :
1. If in any cafe a value of y vanifhes, then the curve
meets the bafe in a point determined by the corre¬
fponding value of x. Hence by putting y—o, the
roots of the equation, which in that fituation are values
of x, will give the diftances on the bafe from the point
affumed as the beginning of x, at which the curve
meets it.
2. If at a particular value of x, y becomes infinite,
the curve has an infinite arc, and the ordinate at that
point becomes an afymptote.
3. If when x becomes infinitely great, y vanifhes, the
bafe becomes an afymptote.
4. If any value ofy becomes impofiible, then fo ma¬
ny interfedlions of the ordinate and curve vanifli. If
at any value of X all the values of y become impofiible,
the ordinate does not there meet the curve.
5. If two values of y become equal and have the
fame fign, the ordinate in that fituation either touches
the curve, or paffes through an interfedlion of two of
its branches, which is called a punttum duplex, or
through an oval become infinitely little, called a pimc-
tum conjugatum.
In like manner is a punftum triplex, &c. to be de¬
termined. •
The following example will illuftrate this doftrine :
Let the equation be ay1'—xyl zux^-^-bx1:
Therefore, y*
x3,+A':
andj =: dtz
x+b
Let AB be affumed as a bafe on which the abfciffes
are to be taken from A, and the ordinates perpendicu¬
lar to it.
Since the two values of y are equal, but have oppo¬
fite figns ; PM, and Pm which reprefent them, muff
be taken equal to each other on oppofite fides of
AB; and it is plain that the parts of the curve on
the two fides of AB, mull be every way fimilar and
equal.
If x is made equal to a, then yzzx / x A...
V o
which is an algebraical expreflion for infinity; there¬
fore if AC is taken equal to a, the perpendicular CD
will become an affymptote to the curve, which will
have two infinite arcs (Obf. 2.). If x is greater than
a, the quantity under the radical fign becomes negative,
and the values ofy are impoffible ; that is, no part of
the curve lies beyond CD. (4.)
Both branches of the curve pafs through A, fince
by means of fcales, a mechanical defcription of the curve x=o. (I.) Let x be negative, and^=
will be obtained, which may often be ufeful, both in
pointing out the general difpofition of the figure, and
alfo in the practical applications of geometry.
; the values ofy will be poffible, if x is not
greater than h; but \f xzzb, thenyzzo, and if x is great-
Part III. A L G
Application er than b, the values of y become impofiible ; that is,
to Geo- jf t}je abfcifs AP be taken to the left of A, and lefs
. metry- , than b, there will be two real equal values of_y, viz.
w PM, Pm on the oppofite fides as before; if AE be
taken equal to b the curve will pafs through E,. and no
part of it is beyond E. (i. and 4.)
The portion between A and E is called a NoAur.
If 7 be put =0, then the values of x are 0, o, —b.
That is, the curve paffes twice through A, Or A is a
punftum duplex, and it paffes alfo through E as be¬
fore. (1.)
The mechanical defcription of curves mentioned in
the beginning of this feftion, may be illuftrated by the
preceding example. For this purpofe, let any nume¬
ral values of and b be affUmed ; and if fucceffive nu¬
meral values of x be inferted, correfponding numeral
values of y will be obtained, by which fo many points
in the curve may be conftrufted;
Let AC = tf=: io;AE=r3=: I2tand,firftletjr=: r,then
2 nearly, which
y ~ a -x 3.
gives the length of the ordinates when the abfeifs is 1;
and in the fame, manner are the ordinates to be found
when x is 2, 3, or any other number. Thus, if xzz6,
then y =
1.73 nearly ;, and if AP be
taken from the fcale of equal, parts (according to which
AB and AE are fuppofed to be laid down) and equal
to 6, then PM, Pm, being taken from the fame fcale,
each equal to * 2-73, will give the points of the curve
M,z
In like manner, ifx=;—y,y—^=:g
E B R A. 439
If b is negative, then E is to the right of A, which Application
will now be a punftum conjugatum. The reft of the ^
curve will be between E and C, and CD becomes an
affymptote.
If « —o then—ory * z=bx—x1, which
is an equation to the circle of which £=AE is the dia¬
meter.
II. General Properties of Curves from their Equations.
The general properties of equations lead to the ge¬
neral affedtions of curve lines. For example,
A ftraight line may meet a curve in as many points
as there are units in the dimenfioh of its equation ; for
fs many roots may that equation have. An afymp-
tote may cut a curve line in as many points, excepting
two, as it has dxmenfions, and no more. The fame
may be obferved of the tangent.
Impoffible roots enter an equation by pairs; there--
fore the interfections of the ordinate and- curve muffe
vanifh by pairs.
The curves of which the number expreffing the or¬
der is odd, muft have at leaft two infinite arcs; for the
abfcifs may be fo affirmed, that, for every value of iti
either pofitive or negative, there muft be at leaft one
value of j, &c.
The properties of the coefficients of the terms of
equations, mentioned Part II. Chap. I. furnifti a great
number of the curious and univerfal properties of curve
lines. For example,, the fecond term of an equation is
the funrof the roots with the figns changed, and if the
fecond term-is wanting, the pofitive and negative roots
muft be equal. From this it is eafy to demonftrate,
“ That if each of two parallel 'ftraight lihes meet a
curve line in as many points as it has dimenfions, and
if a ftraight line cut thefe two parallels, fo that the fum
of the figments of each on one fide be equal to the
fum of the figments on ■ tht other, this ftraight line
will cut any other line parallel to thefe in the fame
manner.” Analogous properties, with many other
confequences from them, may be deduced from the
compofition of the coefficients of the other terms.
Many properties of a particular order of curves may
be inferred from the properties of equations of that or¬
der. Thus, “ If a ftraight line cut a curve of the
third order in three points, and if another ftraight line
be drawn, making a given angle with the former, and
cutting the curve abb in three points, the parallelepiped
by the figments of one of thefe lines between its inter-
fiffion with, the other, and the points where it meets
the curve, will be to the parallelepiped by the like fig¬
ments of the other line in a given ratio ” This de¬
pends upon the compofition of the abfolute term, and :
may be extended to curves of any order.
3.58, nearly; and if AP—g. then PM, Pm being
taken from the fame fcale equal to 3.58, will give the
points M, m. In the fame manner may any number
of points be found, and thefi being joined, will give a
reprefentation of the curve, which willbe more or lefs
juft, according,to the number of pointafound, and the
accuracy of the feveral operations employed.
By the fame methods the locus of any other equa¬
tion is to be traced: Thus, by varying the former e-
quation, the figure of its locus will be varied. If ^==o,
then the points A and E coincide, the nodus vanilhes,
and A is called a cuffs.
III. The Subdivifon of Curves.-
As lines are divided into orders from the dimenfions
of their-equations, in like manner, from the varieties of
the equations of any order, may different genera and
fpecies of that order be diftihguifhed, and from the pe-
culiar properties of thefe, varieties, may the affedtions
of. the particular.curves be difeoyered.
For this purpofe a complete general equation is af-
fumed of that order, and all the varieties in the terms
and coefficients which can affett the figure of the locus
are, enumerated. .
It
440 A L G E
Application It was formerly obferved, that the equations belojng-
to Geo- jng t0 any pne curve, may be of various forms, accord-
, {ng to the pofition of the bafe, and the angle which
the ordinate makes with it, though they be all of the
fame order, and have alfo certain properties, which di-
ftinguilh them from the other equations of that or¬
der.
The locus of Ample equations is a ftraight line. There
are three fpecies of lines of the fecond order, which
are eafily Ihown to be the conic feftions, reckoning the
circle and ellipfe to be one. Seventy-eight fpecies have
been numbered of the third order : And as the fupe-
rior orders become too numerous to be particularly
reckoned, it is ufual only to divide them into certain
general claffes.
A complete arrangement of the curves of any order
would furnifh canons, by which the fpecies of a curve
whofe equation is of that order might be found.
IV. Of the place of Curves defined from other prin¬
ciples in the Algebraical Syflem.
If a curve line be defined from the feftion of a folid,
or from any rule different from what has been here fup-
pofed, an equation to it may be derived, by which its
order and fpecies in the algebraical fyftem may be
found. And, for this purpofe, any bafe and any angle
of the co-ordinates may be affumed, from which the
equation may be moft eafily derived, or may be of the
moft fimple form.
The three Conic Settions Sre of the fecond order, as
their equations are univerfally quadratic; the Cijfoid of
the ancients is of the third order, and the 42 fpecies,
according to Sir Ifaac Newton's enumeration; this is the
■ curve defined by the equation in page 439,00!. r .par.ult.
when bv=o. The curve delineated above in the fame
page, is the 41ft fpecies. When b is negative in that
equation, the locus is the 43d fpecies. The Conchoid
of Nicomedes is of the fourth order; the Cajfinian
curve is alfo of the fourth order, &c.
It is to be obferved, that not only the firft definition
of a curve may be expreffed by an equation, but like-
wife any of thofe theorems called loci, in which fome
property is demonftrated to belong to every point of
the curve. The exprefiion of thefe propofitions by e-
quations, is fometimes difficult; no general rules can
be given ; and it muft be left to the ikill and experience
■of the learner.
BRA, Part III.
variety of data different from thofe affumed in the po. Applicatio*
ftulate, by demonftrating the dependence of the former t0 Gco*
upon the latter. , m£‘ry' f .
As the definitions of a curve may be various, fo alfo
may be the poftulates, and a definition is frequently
chofen from the mode of defcription connected with it.
The particular objeft in view, it was formerly remark¬
ed, muft determine the proper choice of a definition ;
the fimplicity of it, the eafe with which the other pro¬
perties of the figure may be derived from it, and fome¬
times even the eafe with which it can be executed me¬
chanically, may be coufidered as important circum-
ftances.
In the ftraight line, the circle, the conic fe&ions,
and a few curves of the higher orders, the moft conve¬
nient definitions, and the poftulates connected with
them, are generally known and received. An equation
to a curve may alfo be affumed as a definition of it;
and the defcription of it, according to that definition,
may be conlidered as a poftulate : but, if the geome¬
trical conftru&ion of problems is to be inveftigated by
means of algebra, it is often ufefiil to deduce from the
equation to a curve, thofe data which, from the geo¬
metrical theory of the curve, are known to be necef-
fary to* its defcription in the original poftulate, or in
any problem founded upon it. This is called Confiruc-
ting the locus of an equation, and from this method are
generally derived the moft elegant conftru&ions which
can be obtained by the ufe of algebra. In the follow¬
ing feftion, there is an example of a problem refolved
by fuch.conftruftions.
Sometimes a mechanical defcription of a curve line
defined by an equation is ufeful; and as the exhibition
of it, by fuch a motion as is fuppofed in that definition,
is rarely practicable, it generally becomes neceffary to
contrive fome more fimple motion which may in effedt
correfpond with the other, and may defcribe the curve
with the degree of accuracy which is wanted. Fre¬
quently, indeed, the only method which can be conve¬
niently practifed, is the finding a number of points in
the curve by the refolution of numeral equations, in
the manner mentioned in Set. 1. of this Chapter, and
then joining thefe points by the hand; and though this
operation is manifeftly imperfedl, it is on fome occa-
fions ufeful.
II. Solution of Problems.
Scholium.
This method of treating curve lines by equations,
befides the ufes already hinted at, has many others,
which do not belong to this place ; fuch are, the find¬
ing the tangents of curves, their curvature, their areas
and lengths, &c. The folution of thefe problems has
been accompliffied by means of the equations to curves,
though by employing, concerning them, a method of
u eafoning different from what has been here explained.
CHAP. III.
I. Conjlr union of the Loci of Equations.
The defcriptioh of a curve, according to the defini¬
tion of it, is affumed in geometry as a poflulate.
If the properties of a particular curve are invefti¬
gated, it will appear that it may be defcribed from a
N° jj.
The folution of geometrical problems by algebra is
much promoted, by defcribing the loci of the equations
arifing from thefe problems.
For this pmpofe, equations are to be derived, accor¬
ding to the methods formerly defcribed, and then to be
reduced to two, containing each the fame two unknown
quantities. The loci of thefe equations are to be de¬
fcribed, the two unknown quantities being confidered
as the co-ordinates, and placed at the fame angle in
both. The co-ordinates at an interfeftion of the loci,
will be common to both, and give a folution of the
problem.
The fimplicity of a conftruftion obtained by this
method, will depend upon a proper notation, and the
choice of the equations of which the loci are to be
defcribed. Thefe will frequently be different from
what would be proper in a different method of folu¬
tion.
Pros.
Part III.
*Po Geoi0" Pros. IV. To find a Point F in the Safe of the given
\ metry. Triangle ABC, fo that the Sum of the Squares e/FE,
» FD drawn from it perpendicular upon the two Sides,
may he equal to a given Space.
Draw BH, CG perpendicular on the two lides, and
letFD = x,FE=>',
ALGEBRA.
— —, an equation to a ftraight line.
But >rl4--y1=w1 of which the locus is a circle, ha¬
ving m for the radius. By conftru&ing thefe loci,
their interfe&ion will give a folution of the problem.
Let KL=CG {—r) be at right angles to LM=
BH (=/’)> join KM
to which let LN be
parallel; LN is the
locus of the equation
y—p—~; for let any
line OPQbe drawn
paralleltoPM, if KP
then P Qj= ~r’
and QO = LM = p,
therefore PO ==>’=/’—
P~.
r *
About the centre
K, with a diftance e-
qual to the line m, let
a circle be defcribed ;
that circle will be the
locus of the equation
m'1 — x1 -\-yz; for it is
plain that if OP be
any perpendicular from the circumference upon KL,
KP being x, OP will be y. Either of the points,
therefore, in which thefe two loci interfeft each other,
as O, will give OP an ordinate in both equations, KP
being the common abfcifs ; therefore KP, OP are the
two perpendiculars required^ from which the point F
is eaidy found.
The conftruftion might have been made on figure ift,
with fewer lines. If the circle touches LN, there is
only one folutipn which is a minimum; and if the circle
(does not meet LN? the problem becomes impoffible.
When the circle touches LN, the radius In mud be
equal to the perpendicular from K on LN, or from L
Vol. I. Part II.
44*
pr Application
on KM. This perpendicular is equal t6-~T====or to Geo-
v px -pr1 metry.
a fourth proportional to MK, KL, and LM, and its 1——v
fquare therefore is the lead fum of the fquares of the
perpendiculars from a point in the bafe on the two-
fides.
It may be remarked alfo, that the point which gives
the fum of the fquares a minimum, is found by dividing
the bafe, in the proportion of the fquares of the two
fides of the triangle ; and this is eafily demondrated
from the preceding condru&ion.
Pros. V. Between two given Lines to find two mean
Proportionals.
Let the lines be a and b, and let the two means be
x and y; therefore a : x :y : b, and hence ay=x*, and
bx—y'1, which are both equations to the parabola, and
are eafily condm&ed. The co-Ordinates at the inter*
feftion of thefe two loci will be the means required.
If one unknown quantity only is aflumed, or if it is
convenient to deduce a final equation containing only
one, the condrlufrion of the roots is to be obtained by
the method mentioned in the next fe&ion.
Scholium.
The condruftions of the two preceding problems art
geometrical; but it is fometimes convenient to have a
practical folution, by the mechanical defcription either
of the algebraical lines employed in the geometrical fo¬
lution, or of other geometrical lines by which it can
be effe&ed. But few of thefe are tolerably accurate ;
fo that, in general, by means of calculation, the prac¬
tical operations are all reduced to what may be per¬
formed by a ruler and a compafs.
III. Ccnjlrufticn of Equations.
The roots of an equation, containing only one un¬
known quantity, may be found by the interfedtion of
lines, the produfr of whofe dimenfions is equal to the
dimenfion of that equation. And hence problems are
refolved without an algebraical folution of the equation
arifing from them.
Thus cubic and biquadratic equations may be con-
firufted by the interfeftions of two conic feftions as
the circle and parabola, which are generally affumed as
freing moft eafily defcribed.
In order to find thefe conftruftions, a new equation
is to be affumed, containing two variable quantities,
one of which is the unknown quantity of the given e-
quation, and the other by fubllitution is to be inferted
alfo in the given equation ; the interfeftion of the loci
of thefe equations will exhibit the roots required.
Canons may be devifed for the conftruftion of par¬
ticular orders, without affuming the new equation.
The final equation from prob. 5. would be x5 ~a'lb,
which being conftrufted according to the rules, exhi¬
bits the common geometrical folution of that problem
by the circle and parabola.
If an equation be affumed, as ayenx1, the other by
fubftitution becomes xyz=ab; the locus of the former is
a parabola, and of the latter an hyperbola, one of its
affymptotes being the bafe, and the co-ordinates at
their interfeftion will reprefent x ancTy; the firftof the
two means is x, and in this cafe y is the other.
3 K Equa-
442 A L G E
Application Equations alfo might be affumed fo as to give a fo-
to Geo- iU|-;on 0f problem by other combinations of two of
< 1 >’y' the conic fe&ions, one of them not being the circle.
As geometrical magnitudes may be reprefented by
algebra, fo algebraical quantities and numbers may be
reprefented by lines. Hence this conllruftion of equa¬
tions has fometimes been ufed as an eafy method of.
approximation to the roots of numeral equations. For
this purpofe, the neceffary ftraight lines muft be laid
down by means of a fcale of equal parts, and the curve
lines, on whofe interfefiion the conftru6ti6n depends,
muft be aftually defcribed; the linear roots being mea-
fiired on the fcale will give the numbers required.
Thefe operations may be performed with fufficient ac¬
curacy for certain purpofes ; but as they depend on
mechanical principles, the approximation obtained by
them cannot be continued at pleafure; and hence it is
BRA. Part III.
feldom ufed, except in finding the firft ftep of an ,ap-Applicatioa ;
proximation, which is to be carried on by other me- to Geo"
thods. i, ' ’ .
Scholium.
If the relation between the ordinate and abfeifs be
fixed, but not expreftible by a finite equation, the curve
is called Mechanical (a) or Tranfcehdental. This clafs
is alfo fometimes defined by equations, by fuppofing
'either x or_)> in a finite equation to be a curve line, of
which the relation to a ftraight line cannot be expref-
fed in finite terms.
If the variable quantities x or y enter the exponents
of any term of an equation, the locus of that equation
is called an Exponential Curve.
Many properties of thefe two claffes of curves may
be difcovered from their equations.
A L G
Al-redo AI.GEDO, the running of a gonorrhoea flopping
11 fuddenly after it appears. When it thus, flops, a pain
Algia.iarix. caches to the anus, or to the tefticles, without their
v" being fwelled ; and fometimes this pain reaches to the
bladder; in which cafe there is an urging to difcharge
the urine, which is with difficulty paffed, and in very
frnall quantities at a time. The pain is continued to
the bladder by the urethra ; to the anus, by the acce-
leratory mufcles of the penis; and to the tefticles, by
the vafa deferentia, and veficulse feminales. In this
cafe, calomel repeated fo as to purge, brings back
the running, and then all difficulty from this fymptom
ceafes.
ALGENEB, a fixed ftar, of the fecond magnitude,
in Perfeus’s right fide; its longitude is 270 46' 12"
of Taurus, and its latitude 30° 05' 28'1 north, ac¬
cording to Mr Flamftead’s catalogue.
ALGEZIRA, a town of Andalufia in Spain, with
a port on the coaft of the Straits of Gibraltar. By
this city the Moors entered Spain in 713 ; and it was
taken from them in j 344, after a very long fiege, re¬
markable for being the firft in which cannon were made
ufe of. It was called Old Gibraltar, and is about four
leagues from the New. W. Long. 5. 2. N. Lat.
36, °*
ALGHIER, or Algeri, a town in Sardinia, with
a biffiop’s fee, upon the weftern coaft of the ifland, be¬
tween Safleri and Bofa. Though it is not large, it is
well peopled, and has a-commodious port. The coral
fifhed for on this coaft is in the higheft efteem of any in
the Mediterranean. W. Long. 4. 2. Lat. 36. o.
ALGIABARII, a Mahometan feft of predeftina-
rians, who attribute all the aft ions of men, good or
evil, to the agency or influence of God. - The Algia-
baiii ftand oppofed to the Alkadarii. They hold
abfolute degrees and phyfical premotion. For the
juftice of God in punifhing the evil he has caufed,
they refolve it wholly into his abfolute dominion over
the creatures.
A L G
ALGIERS,, a kingdom of Africa, now one of the Algiers .^
ftates of Barbary.—According to the lateft and beft ‘ ~v'--
computations, it extends 460 miles in length from eaft to
weft, and is very unequal in breadth ; fome places being
fcarce 40 miles broad, and others upwards of 100. It
lies between Long. o. 16. and 9. 16. W. and extends
from Lat. 36. 55. to 44. 50. N. — It is bounded on the
north,,by the Mediterranean ; on the eaft, by the river
Z'ainc, the ancient Tufca, which divides it from Tunis;
on the weft, by the ^lulvya, and the mountains of Tra-
va, which feparate it from Morocco ;• and on the fouth
by the Sahara, Zaara, or Numidian defert. l
The climate cf Algiers is in moft places fo moderate, Cllmateand*
that they enjoy a conftant verdure; the leaves of the
trees being neither parched up by heat in fummer, nor
nipped by the winter’s cold. They begin to bud in
February; in April the fruit appears in its fullbignefs,
and is commonly ripe in May. The foil, however, is
exceffively various; fome places being very hot, dry,
and barren, on which account they are generally fiif-
fered to lie uncultivated by the inhabitants, who are
very negligent. Thefe barren places, efpecially fuch as
lie on the fouthern fide, and are at a great diftance
from the fea, harbour vaft numbers of wild creatures,
as lions, tigers, buffaloes, wild boars, flags, porcupines,,
monkeys, oftriches, &c. On account of their barren-
nefs, they have but few towns, and thofe thinly-peopled
though fome of them are fo advantageoufly fituated for
trading with Bildulgerid and Negroland, as to drive
a confiderable traffic with them.
The Algerine kingdom made formerly a confider ¬
able part of the Mauritania Tingitana (See Mauri¬
tania), which was reduced to a Roman province by
Julius Casfar, and from him alfo called Mauritania
Ctgfarienjts.—In the general account of Africa, it has-
been noticed, that the Romans were driven out of
that continent by the Vandals ; thefe by Belifarius,
the Greek emperor Juftinian’s general; and the Greeks
in their turn by the Saracens. This laft revolution
happened
(a) The term Mechanical, in this place, is ufed merely as the name of a particular clafs of curves, without
implying that they have any more dependence on the principles of Mechanics or PhyficS than the algebraical
curves which have been treated of.
A L G [ 443 ] A L G
fien fubdu
the Arab
princes.
Algiers, happened about the middle of the feventh century;
1 and the Arabs continued mailers of the country, di¬
vided into a great number of petty kingdoms or dates,
a under chiefs of their own choofing, till the year 1051.
Abu-Texe- This year, one Abubeker-ben-Omar, Or, as the Spa-
csni{h authors call him, Abu-Texefien, an Arab of the
Zinhagian tribe, being provoked at the tyranny of
thofe defpots, gathered, by the help of his marabouts
or faints, a moil powerful army of malcontents, in the
fouthern provinces of Numidia and Libya. His fol¬
lowers were nicknamed Marabites or Morabites; by the
Spaniards, Almoravides; probably from their being
affembled principally by the faints who were alfo called
Morabites. The khalif of Kayem’s forces were at
this time taken up with quelling other revolts in Syria,
Mefopotamia, &c. and the Arabs in Spain engaged in
the moil bloody wars ; fo that Texefien having nothing
to fear from them, had all the fuccefs he could wiih
againit the Arabian cheyks or petty tyrants, whom he
defeated in many battles, and at lail drove them not
only out of Numidia and Libya, but out of all the
weftern parts, reducing the whole province of Tingi-
tania under his dominion.
Texefien was fucceeded by his fon Yufef, or.Jofeph,
a brave and warlike prince. In the beginning of his
reign, he laid the foundation of the city of Morocco,
which he defigned to make the capital of his empire.
While that city was building, he fent fome of his ma¬
rabouts ambafiadors to Tremecen (now a province of
Algiers), at that time inhabited by a powerful and
infolent fe£t of Mahometans called Zeneti. The de-
fign of this embaffy was to bring them back to what he
called the true faith ; but the Zeneti, defpifing his of¬
fers, affembled at Amaf, or Amfa, their capital, mur¬
dered the ambaffadors, and invaded Jofeph’s dominions
with an army of 50,000 men.
The king hearing of their infamous proceedings,
firoyed. fpeedily muftered his army, and led it by long marches
into their country, dellroying all with fire and fword ;
- while the Zeneti, inftead of oppofing his progrefs, re¬
tired as fall as poffible towards Fez, in hopes of recei¬
ving affiftance from-thence. In this they were miferably
deceived : the Fezzans marched out againll them in a
hollile manner; and coming up with the unhappy Ze¬
neti, encumbered with their families and baggage, and
ready to expire with hunger and wearinefs, they cut
them all to pieces, except a fmall number who were
mollly drowned in attempting to fwim acrofs a river,
and feme others who ‘ in their flight perilhed by
falling from the high adjacent rocks. In the mean time
■ Jofeph reduced their country to a mere defart: which
was, however, foon peopled by a numerous colony of
Fezzans, who fettled there under the proteftion of the
reigning kings. In this war ft is computed that near
a million of the Zeneti, men, women, and children,
loll their lives.
The reftlefs and ambitious temper of Jofeph did not
let him remain long at peace, fie quickly declared
war again!! the Fezzans, reduced them to become his
tributaries, and extended his conquefts all along the
Mediterranean. He next attacked fome Arabian cheyks
who had not yet fubmitted to his jurifdiftion; and pur-
fued them with fuch fury, that neither the Libyan de¬
farts, nor ridges of the molt craggy rocks, could {bel¬
ter them from his arms. He attacked them in fuch of
their retreats, caftles, and fortreffes, as were till then
deemed impregnable ; and at laft fubdued them, to the
great grief of the other African nations, who were great¬
ly annoyed by the ravages committed by his; numerous
forces.
Algiers.
Thus was founded the empire of theMorabites; which,
however, was of n6 long duration ; that race being in
the j 2th century driven out by Mohavedin, a marabout.
This race of priefts was expelled by Abdnlac governor
of Fez; and he, in the 13th century, ftripped of his new 4
conquefts by the Sliarifs of Hafcsn, the defeendants of sharifs of
thofe Arabian princes whom Abu-Texefien had for- Hafcen
merly expelled. w*10*
The better to fecure their new dominions, the Sha¬
rifs divided them into feveral little kingdoms or pro¬
vinces ; and among the reft the prefent kingdom of
Algiers was divided into four, namely, Tremecen. Te-
nez, Algiers propert and Bujeyah. The four firft mo-
narchs laid fo good a foundation for a lafting balance
of power between their little kingdoms, that they con¬
tinued for fome centuries in mutual peace and amity ;
but at length the king of Tremecen having ventured
to violate fome of their articles, Abul-Farez, king of
Tenez, declared war againft him, and obliged him to
become his tributary. This king dying foon after, and
having divided his kingdom among his three fons, new
difeords arofe ; which Spain taking advantage of, a
powerful fleet and army was fent againft Barbary, un- ^
der the Count of Navarre, in 1505. This commander Algerinesin
foon made himfelf mafter of the important cities of dangerfroni
Oran, Bujeyah, and fome others ; which fo alarmed ^ Spani-
the Algerines, that they put themfelves under the pro-ar s"
teftion of Selim Eutemi, a noble and warlike Arabian
prince. He came to their afliftance with a great num¬
ber of his brave!! fubje&s, bringing with him his wife
Zaphira, and a fon then about 12 years old. This
however was not fufficient to prevent the Spaniards
from landing a number of forces near Algiers that fame
year, and obliging that metropolis to become tributary
to Spain. Nor could Prince Selim hinder them from
building a ftrong fort on a fmall Hand oppofite to the
city, which terrified their corfairs from failing either
in or out of the harbour.
To this galling yoke the Algerines were obliged to
fubmit till the year 1516 ; when, hearing of the death
of Ferdinand king of Spain, they fent an embaffy to 6
Aruch Barbaroffa, who was at this time no lefs dread- inv;re 3^
ed for his valour than his furprifing fuccefs, and was barofla.
then fent on a cruize with a fquadron of galleys and
barks. The purport of the embaffy was, that he fliould
come and free them from the Spanifh yoke ; for which
they agreed to pay him a gratuity aufwerable to fo
great a fervice. Upon this Barbaroffa immediately
difpatched 18 galleys and 30 barks to the affiftance of
the Algerines ; while he himfelf advanced towards the
city with 800 Turks, 3000 Jigelites, and 2000 Moorifti
volunteers. Inftead of taking the neareft road to Al¬
giers, he directed his courfe towards Sharjhel, where
Hajfan, another famed corfair, had fettled himfelf. Him
he furprifed, and obliged to furrender; not without a
previous promife of friendfliip : but no fooner had Bar¬
baroffa got him ip his power, than he cut off his head;
and obliged all Haffan’s Turks to follow him in his
new expedition.
On Barbaroffa’s approach to Algiers, he was met by
3 K 2 prince
A L G [ 444 3 A L G
Algiers, prince Eutemi, attended by all the people of that me- capital, which he eafily made himfeff mailer of; and, Algiers,
' tropolis, great and fmall; who looked for deliverance having given it up to be plundered by his Turks, obli-
His treach- from this abandoned villain, whom they accounted in- ged the inhabitants to acknowledge him as their fove-
eiy and vincible. He was conduced into the city amidft the reign. This viftory, however, was chiefly owing to the
fruelty. acclamatiotis of the people, and lodged in one of the advantage which his troops had from their fire-arms ;
nobleft apartments of prince Eutemi’s palace, where the enemy having no other weapons than arrows and
he was treated with the greateil marks of diftin&ion. javelins.
Elated beyond meafure with this kind reception, Bar- No fooner was Barbarofla become mailer of the king-
barofla formed a defign of becoming king of Algiers ; dom of Tenez, than he received an embafly from the
and fearing fame oppofition from the inhabitants, on
account of the excefles he fuffered his foldiers to com¬
mit, murdered prince Eutemi, and caufed himfelf to be
proclaimed king ; his Turks and Moors crying out as
he rode along the llreets, “ Long live King Aruch
Barbarofla, the invincible king of Algiers, the chofen
of God to deliver the people from the opprefiion of the
Chriftians ; and deftruction to all that fhall oppofe, or
refufe to own him as their lawful fovereign.” Thefe
laft threatening words fo intimidated the inhabitants,
already apprehenfive of a general maffacre, that he was
immediately acknowledged king. The unhappy prin-
cefs Zaphira, it is faid, poifoned herfelf, to avoid the
inhabitants of Tremecen ; inviting him to come to their
afliftance againft their then reigning prince, with whom
they were diflatisfied on account of his having dethro¬
ned his nephew, and forced him to fly to Oran ; offer¬
ing him even the fovereignty, in cafe he accepted of
their propofal. The king of Tremecen,. not fufpedling
the treachery of his fubjedls, met the tyrant with an
army of 6000 horfe and 3000 foot: but Barbarofla’a.
artillery gave him fuch an advantage, that the king
was at length forced to retire into the capital; which
he had no fooner entered, than his head was cut off, and
fent to Barbarofla, with a frelh invitation to come and
take pofleffion of the kingdom; On his approach, he
brutality of this new king, whom fhe unfuccefsfully en- was met by the inhabitants, whom he received with great
deavoured to flab with a dagge:
Barbarofla was no fooner feated on the throne, than
he treated his fubjedls with fuch cruelty, that they ufed
to fhut up their houfes and hide themfelves when he ap¬
peared in public. In confequence of this, a plot was
complaifance, and many fair promifes ; but beginning
to tyrannize as ufual, his new fubjedls foon convinced
him that they were not fo paffive as the inhabitants of
Algiers. Apprehending, therefore, that his reign
might prove uneafy and precarious, he entered into an
foon formed againft him; but being difeovered, he cau- alliance with the king of Fez ; after which, he took
fed twenty of the principal cqnfpirators to be behead¬
ed, their bodies to be buried in a dunghill, and laid a
heavy fine on thofe who furvived. This fo terrified the
Algerines, that they never afterwards durft attempt any
thing againft either Barbarofla or his fuccefibrs.
In the mean time, the fon of prince Eutemi having
care to fecure the reft of the cities in his new kingdom,
by garrifoning them with his own troops. Some of
thefe, however, revolted foon after ; upon which he
fent one of his corfairs, named Efcander, a man no lefs
cruel than himfelf, to reduce them. The Tremeceni-
ans now began to repent in good earnell of their ha-
fled to Oran, and put himfelf under the protection of ving invited fuch a tyrant to their affiftance ; and held
the marquis of Gomarez, laid before that nobleman a confultations on the moil proper means of driving him
plan for putting the city of Algiers into the hands of away, and bringing back their lawful jibuchen
the king of Spain. Upon this, young Selim Eutemi i,'r— l-"‘- — j:r—   
was fent to Spain, to lay his plan before cardinal Xi-
menes; who having approved of it, fent a fleet with
10,000 land forces, under the command of Don Francif
co, or, as others call him, Don Diego do Vtra, to drive
cut the Turks, and reftore the young prince. But the
fleet was no fooner come within fight of land,, than
Men: but their cabals being difeovefed,. a great n
ber of the confpirators were maflacred in the mo ft cruel -
manner. The prince had the good luck to efcape to
Oran, and was taken-under the protedlion of the mar¬
quis of Gomarez, who fent immediate advice of it to
Charles V. then lately arrived in Spain, with a power¬
ful fleet and army. That monarch immediately order-
it was difperfed by a ftorm, and the greateft part of ed the young king a fuccour of 10,000 men, under the
the (hips daflied againft the rocks. Moll of the Spa¬
niards were drowned ; and the few who efcaped to fliore
were either killed by the Turks or made flaves.
Though BarbaroiTa had nothing to boaft on this oc-
cafion, his pride and infoknee were now fwelled to fuch
a degree, that he imagined himfelf invincible, and that
the very elements confpired to make him fo. The A-
rabians were fo much alarmed at his fuccefs, that they
implored the afliftance of Hamidel Abdes king of Te¬
nez, to drive the Turks out of Algiers. That prince
readily undertook to do what was in his power for this
purpofe, provided they agreed to fettle the kingdom
on himfelf and his defeendants. This propofal being
accepted, he immediately fetout at the head of 10,coo
command of the governor of Oran ; who, under the
guidance of Abuchen Men, began his march towards
Tremecen ; and in their way they were joined by prince
Selim, with a great number of Arabs and Moors. The
firft thing they refolved upon was, to attack the im¬
portant fortrefs of Calau, fituated between Tremecen
and Algiers, and commanded by the corfair Efcander
at the head of about 3,00 Turks. They in veiled it
clofely on all fides, in hopes Barbarofla would come out
of Tremecen to its relief, which would give the Tre-
mecenians an opportunity of keeping him out. That
tyrant, however, kept clofe in his capital, being em-
barafied by bis fears of a revolt, and the politic delays
of the king of Fez, who had not fent the auxiliaries
Moors; and, upon his entering the Algerine domini- he promifed. The garrifon of Calau, in the mean-
ons, was joined by all the Arabians in, the country, time, made a brave defence ; and, in a fally they made
Barbarofla engaged him, only with 1000 Turkifli muf- at night, cut off near 300 Spaniards. This encouraged
queteers and 500 Granada Moors; totally defeated his them to venture a fecond time ; but. they were now re-,
numerous army; purfued him to the very gates of his pulled with great lofs, and Efcander himfelf wounded:
foon
ALG [ 445 ] ALG
8
Bnrbaroffa
defeated
and killed
by the Spa¬
niards.
Succeeded
by Hayra-
din.
foon after which, they furrendered upon honourable
terms ; but were all maffacred by the Arabians, except
16, who clung clofe to the ftirrups of the king, and of
the SpanUh general.
Barbaroffa being now informed that Abuchen Men,
with his Arabs, accompanied by the Spaniards, were
in full march to lay fiege to Tremeccn, thought pro¬
per to come out, at the head of 1500 Turks and 5000
Moorifh horfe, in order to break his way through the
enemy ; but he had not proceeded far from the city,
before his council advifed him to return and fortify
himfelf in it. This advice was now too late ; the in¬
habitants being refolved to keep him out, and open their
gates to their own lawful prince as foon as he appear¬
ed. In this diftrefs Barbaroffa faw no way left but to
retire to the citadel, and there defend himfelf till he
could find an opportunity of Healing out with his men
and all his treafure. Here he defended himfelf vigo-
roufly ; but his provifions failing him, he took advan¬
tage of a fubterraneous back-way, which he had caufed
to be digged up for that purpofe, and, taking his im-
menfe treafurewith him,Hole awayasfecretlyashe could.
His flight, however, was foon difeovered ; and he was
fo clofely purfued, that to amufe, as he hoped, the ene¬
my, he caufed a great deal of his money, plate, jewels,
&c. to be fcattered all the way, thinking they would
not fail to Hop their purfuit to gather it up. This
ftratagem, however, failed, through the vigilance of
the Spanifh commander, who being himfelf at the head
of the purfuers, obliged them to march on, till he was
come up clofe to him on the banks of the Huexda, a-
bout eight leagues from Tremecin. Barbaroffa had
juft croffed the river with his vanguard, when the Spa¬
niards came up with his rear on the other fide, and cut
them all off; and then croffing the water, overtook him
at a fmall diftance from it. Here a bloody engagement
enfued, in which the Turks fought like as many lions;
but, being at length overpowered by numbers, they
were all cut to pieces, and Barbaroffa among the reft,,
in the 44th year of his age, and four years after he had
raifed himfelf to the royal title of Jigel and the adja¬
cent country ; two years after he had acquired the fo-
vereignty of Algiers, and fcarce a- twelvemonth after
the reduction of Tremecen. His head was c. rried to
Tremecen, on the point of a fpear; and Abuchen Men
proclaimed king, to the joy of all the inhabitants. A
few days after the fight, the king of Fez made his ap¬
pearance at the Itead of 20,000 horfe, near the field of
battle; but hearing of Barharoffa’s defeat and death,
marched off with all poffible fpeed, to avoid being
attacked by the enemy.
The news of Barbaroffa’s death fpread the utmoft
conflernation among the Turks at Algiers ; however,
they caufed his brother Hayradin to be immediately
proclaimed king. The Spanifh commander now fent
back the emperor’s-forces, without making any at¬
tempt upon Algiers ;.by which he loft the opportunity
of driving the Turks out of that country ; while Hay¬
radin, juftly dreading the confequences of the tyranny
of his officers, fougbt the protedlion of the Grand Sig-
nior. This-was-readily granted, and himfelf appointed
bafhaw or viceroy of Algiers ; by which means he re¬
ceived fuch confiderable reinforcements, that the un¬
happy Algerines durfl not make the leaft complaint;
and fuch numbers of Turks reforted to him,, that, he
was not only capable of keeping the MoOrs and Arabs Algiers,
in fubje&ion at home, but of annoying the Chriftians ^ v—^
at fea. His firft Hep was to take the Spanifh fort He t’£es
abovementioned, which was a great nuifance tohisme-theSpanifS
tropolis. The Spaniards held out to the laft extremi- fort,
ty ; but being all flain or wounded, Hayradin eafily
became mafter of the place.
v Hayradin next fet about building a ftrong mole for
the fafety of his fhips. In this he employed 30,000
Chriftian flaves, whom he obliged to work without in-
termiffion for three years; in which time the work was
completed. He then caufed the fort he had taken
from the Spaniards to be repaired, and placed a ftrong
garrifon in it, to prevent any foreign veffels from en¬
tering the harbour without giving an account of them-
felves. By thefe two important works, Hayradin foon
became dreaded not only by the Arabs and Moors, but
alfo by the maritime Chriftian powers, efpecially the
Spaniards. The viceroy failed not to acquaint the
Grand Signior with his fuccefs, and obtained from him-,
a frefh fupply of money, by which he was enabled to
build a ftronger fort, and to ere ft batteries on all places •
that might favour the landing of an enemy. All thefe
have fince received greater improvements from time to
time, as often as there was occafion for them.
In the mean time the Sultan, either out of a fenfe of
the great fervices Hayradin had done, or perhaps out
of jealoufy left he ftiould make himfelf independent,
raifed Hayradin to the dignity of baftiaw of the em- rI
pire, and appointed Haffan Aga, a Sardinian renega-Succeeded;
do, an intrepid warrior, and an experienced officer, V Haffan
to fucceed him as bafhaw of Algiers, Haffan had no Asa'
fooner taken poffeffion of his -new government, than he
began to purfue his ravages on the Spanifh coaft with
greater fury than ever; extending them to the ecclefi-
aftical ftate, and other parts of Italy. But Pope
Paul III. being alarmed at this, exhorted the emperor
Charles V. to fend a powerful fleet to fupprefs thofe
frequent and cruel piracies;, and, that nothing might
be wanting to render the enterprife fuccefsful, a bull
was publifhed by his holinefs, wherein a plenary abfo-
lution of fins, and the crown of martyrdom, was pro-
mifed to all thofe whq either fell in battle or were
made flaves; the emperor on his part, needed no fpur 5 Charles
and therefore fet fail at the head of a powerful fleet Vth’s expe-
eonfifting of 120 ftiipa and 20 gallies, having on board dition a-
30,000 chofen troops, an immenfe quantity of money, Al¬
arms, ammunition, &c. In this expedition many &lers*
young nobility and gentry attended as volunteers, and
among thefe many knights of Malta, fo remarkable
for their valour againfl the enemies of Chriftianity.
Even ladies of birth and chara&er attended Charles in
his expedition, and the wives and daughters of the of¬
ficers and foldiers followed them with a defign to fettle
in Barbary after the conqueft was finifded. All thefe
meeting with a favourable wind, foon appeared before
Algiers; every fhip difplaying the Spanifh colours on
the ftern, and another at the head, with a.crucifix to
ferve them for a pilot.
By this prodigious armament, the Algerines were Algiers in-
thrown into the utmoft; confternation. The city was great con—
furrounded only by a wall with fcarce any outworks, hemadon*
The whole garrifon confifted of 800 Turks and 6000
Moors, without fire-arms, and poorly difeiplined and
accoutred; the reft of their forces being difperfed in.
the:
A L G
_ Algiers, the other provinces of the kingdom, to levy the ufual
tribute On the Arabs and Moors. The Spaniards land¬
ed without oppofition, and immediately built a fort.
[ 446 ]
A L G
Soon after this, the prophet Tufe/, who had foretold Algiet*.
the deftruction of the Spaniards, was not only, declared v—
the deliverer of his country, but had a confiderable Thc^aad
under the cannon of which they encamped, and diverted gratuity decreed him, with the liberty of exercifing his prophet rsf
the courfe of a fpring which fup'plied the city with wa¬
ter. Being now reduced to the utmoft diftrefs, Haf-
fan received a fummqns to furrender at difcretion, on
pain of being put to the fword with all the garrifon.
prophetic function unmolefted. It was not long, how- warded,
ever, before the marabouts, and fome interpreters of
the law, made a ftrong opppfition againft him ; remon-
ftrating to the baftiaw, how ridiculous and fcandalous it
The herald was ordered to extol the vaft power of the was to their nation, to afcribe the deliverance of it to
emperor both by fea and land, and to exhort him to
return to the Chriftian religion. But to this Halfan
only replied, that he muft be a madman who would
pretend to advife an enemy, and that the advifed muft
ftill aft more madly who would take counfel of fuch an
advifer. He was, however, on the point of furrender¬
ing the city, when advice was brought him that the
forces belonging to the weftfern government were in
a poor fortune-teller, which had been obtained by the
fervent prayers of an eminent faint of their own profef-
fion. But though the balhaw and his douwan feemed,
out of policy, to give into this laft notion, yet the im-
preffion which YufePs prediftions and their late accom-
plifhments had made upon the minds of the common
people, proved too ftrong to be eradicated; and the fpi-
rit of divination and conjuring has fince got into fuch
full march towards the place; upon which it was refol- credit among them, that not only their great ftatefmen.
■ed to defend it to the utmoft. Charles, in the mean
time, refolving upon a general affault, kept a conftant
firing upon the town; which, from the weak defence
I4 made by the garrifon, he lookfed upon as already in his
Prevented hands. But while the douwan, 'or Algerine fenate,
by a mad were deliberating on the moft proper means of obtain-
proj het jng an honourable capitulation, a mad prophet, attend- ticular, containing 700 foldiers, befides failors, funk
rendering c<^ ^7 a multitude of people, entered the affembly, and in the emperor’s fight, without a poffibility of faving
foretold the fpeedy deftruftion of the Spaniards before a fingle man. At length, with much labour, they
the end of the moon, exhorting the inhabitants to hold reached the port ot.Bujeyab, at that time poffeffed by
but their priefts, marabouts, and fantoons, have applied
themfelves to that ftudy, and dignified it with the name
of Mahomet's Revelations.
The unhappy Spaniards had fcarce reached their Frefli caJa-
fhips, when they were attacked by a frelh ftorm, in muiesofthe
•hich feveral more of them perifhed ; one ihip in par- sP-'aiards.
18
out till that time. This prediftion was foon accom-
plilhed in a very furprifing and unexpefted manner: for,
on the 28th of Oftober 1541, a dreadful ftorm of wind,
rain, and hail, arofe from the north, accompanied with
violent fhocks of earthquakes, and a difmal and uni-
verfal darknefs both by.fea and land; fo that the fun,
moon, and elements, feemed to combine together for the ficulty and danger reached their own country. Charley
Spar,ifhfleet deftruftion of the Spaniards. In that one night, fome himfelf ftaid no longer than till the 16th of November,
rteftroyed fay in lefs than half an hour, 86 Ihips and 15 galleys ~x~- L~ r-‘ r-:i ~~J l' -’ i~ *-l-~
by a florin. Were deftroyed, with all their crews and military ftores;
the Spaniards, whither Haffan king of Tunis foon af¬
ter repaired, with a fupply of provifions for the empe¬
ror, who received him gracioufly, with frelh affurances
of his favour and proteftion. Here he difmilfed the few
remains of the Maltefe knights and their forces, who
embarked in three lhattered galleys, and with much dif-
by which the army on Ihore was deprived of all means
of fubfifting in thefe parts. Their camp alfo, which
fpread itfelf along the plain under the fort, was laid
quite under water by the torrents which defeended from
the neighbouring hills. Many, of the troops, by try¬
ing to remove into fome better fituation, were cut in
pieces by the Moors and Arabs ; while feveral galleys,
and other veffels, endeavouring to gain fome neighbour¬
ing creeks along the coafts, were immediately plunder¬
ed, and their crews mafiacred by the inhabitants.
The next morning Charles beheld the fea covered
when he fet fail for Carthagena, and reached it on the
25th of the fame month. In this unfortunate expedi¬
tion upwards of 120 fhips and galleys were loft, above
300 colonels aud other land and fea officers, 8000 fol¬
diers and marines, befides thofe deftroyed by the ene¬
my on the reimbarkation, or drowned in the laft ftorm.
The number of prifoners was fo great, that the Alge¬
rines fold fome of them, by way of contempt, for an
onion per head. 19
Haflan, elated with this viftory, in which he had
very little ftiare, undertook an expedition againft. the re*
king of Tremecen, who, being now deprived of the af-
fiftance of the Spaniards, was forced to procure a peace
with the fragments of fo many fliips, and the bodies of by paying a vaft fum of money, and becoming tributary
men, horfes, and other creatures, fwimming on the
waves; at which he was fo diftieartened, that abandon-
Siegeof Al-ing hi3 tents, artillery, and all his heavy baggage, to
giers raifed. the enemy, he marched at the head of his army, though
in no fmall .diforder, towards cape Malabux, in order
. to reimbark in thofe few vefiels which had outweather-
ed the ftorm. But Halfan, who had caufed his motions
to him. The baftiaw returned to Algiers, laden with
riches; and foon after died of a fever, in the 66th year
of his age. ao
From this time the Spaniards were never able to Bujeyah ta-
annoy the Algerines in any confiderable degree, In^”grom.
1555, they loft the city of Bujeyah, which was taken arjs>pani*
by Salha Rais, Haffan’s fucceffor; who next year fet out
to be watched, allowed him juft time to get to the on a new expedition, which he kept a fecret, but wras
Ihore, when he fallied out and attacked the Spaniards fufpefted to be intended againft Oran: but he \
in the midft of- their hurry and confufion to get into
their fhips,' killing great numbers, and bringing away
a ftill greater number of captives ; after which he re¬
turned in triumph to Algiers, where he celebrated with
great rejoicings his happy deliverance from fuch diftrefs
&nd danger.
fcarcely got four leagues from Algiers, when the plague,
which at that time raged violently in the city, broke 3r
out in his groin, and carried him off in 24 hours. HaffanCor-
Immediately after his death the Algerine foldiery
chofe a Corfican renegade, Haffan Corfo, in his room, the Jani-
till they ftiould receive farther orders from the Porte, faries.
He
Algiers.
A L G [ 447 1 - .A L G . 4, •
He did not accept of the balhawfliip without a good deal when Haflan was a third time fent viceroy to Algiers,- £ier#!
' of difficulty ; but immediately profecuted the intended where he was received with the greateft demonftrations
of joy.
Superfeded
by Tekelli,
who puts
cruel death.
expedition againfc Oran, difpatching a meflenger to
acquaint the Porte with what had happened. They
had hardly begun their hoftilities againft the place,
when orders came from the Porte, exprefsly forbidding
Haflan Corfo to begin the liege, or, if he had begun it,
enjoining him to raife it immediately. This news was
received with great grief by the whole fleet and army,
as they thought themfelves fare of fuccefs, the garrifon
being at that time very weak. Neverthelefs, as they
dared not difobey, the liege was immediately raifed.
Corfo had hardly enjoyed his dignity four months,
before news came, that eight galleys were bringing a
new balhaw to fucceed him ; one 'Tekelli, a principal
joy. , Rcinftatedo-
The firft enterprife in which Haffan engaged, was 27
the fiege of Marfalquiver, fituated near the city Oran, Siege of _
which .he defigned to inveft immediately after. The vg^r a ^Ul
army employed in this liege confifted of 26,000 foot
and 10,000 horfie, belides which he had a fleet confift-
ing of 32 galleys and galliots, together .with three.
French vefiels laden with bifcuit, oil, and other provi-
fions. The city was defended by Don Martin de Cor¬
dova, brother of the Count d’Alcandela, who had been-
taken prifoner in the battle where that nobleman w&s
killed, but had obtained his liberty from the Algerines,
with immenfe fums, and now made a moll gallant de-
Turk of the Grand Signior's court: upon which the fence againft the Turks. ** The city was attacked with
Algerines unanimoufly refolved not to admit him. By
the treachery of the Levantine foldiers, however, he
was admitted at laft, and the unfortunate Corfo thrown
over a wall in which a number of iron hooks were fix¬
ed ; one of which catching the ribs of his right fide,
he hung three days in the moil exquilite torture before
he expired.
Tekelli was no fobner entered upon his new govern¬
ment, than he behaved with fuch cruelty and rapaci-
the utmoft fury by fea and land, fo that feveral breaches
were made in the walls. The Turkilh ftandards were
feveral times planted on the walls, and as often dif-
lodged; but the place muft have in the end fubmitted,
had not Haflan been obliged to raife the fiege in hafte,-
on the news that the famed Genoefe admiral Doria was
approaching with confiderable fuccours from Italy.
The fleet accordingly arrived foon after; but miffing
the Algerine galiies, bore away for Pennon de Velez,
oufnefs, that he was allaffinated even under the dome of ' where they were lhamefully repulfed by an handful of
Haffan rein-
- Hated.
?4
Spaniards
defeated
with great
fiaughter.
a faint, by Yufef Calabres, the favourite renegado of
Haflan Corfo; who for this fervice was unanimoufly
chofen bafhaw, but died of the plague fix days after
his election.
, Yufef wa‘s fucceeded by Haflan the fon of Hayra-
din, who had been formerly recalled from his balhaw-
Ihip, when he was fucceeded by Selha-Rais; and now
had the good fortune to get himfelf reinftated in his
Turks who garrifoned that place; which, however, was
taken the following year. 2g:
In 1567, Haflan was again recalled to Conftanti-Haffan a--
nople, where he died three years after. He was fuc-gain recal*
ceeded by Mahomet, who gained the love of the Al- 'ec^
gerines by feveral public-fpirited aftions. He incor¬
porated the Janifaries and Levantine Turks together,
and by that means put an end to their diflenfions, which
employment. Immediately on his arrival, he engaged laid the foundation of the Algerine independency on;
war with the Arabs,' by whom he was defeated
with great lofs. The next year, the Spaniards under¬
took an expedition againft Moftagan, under the com¬
mand of the count d’Alcandela ; but were utterly de¬
feated,’ the commander himfelf killed, and'i 2,000 ta¬
ken prifoners. This difafter was owing to the inconfi-
derate raftmefs, or rather madnefs, of the commander ;
which was fo great, that, after finding it impofiible to
rally his fcattered forces, he rufhed, fword in hand, into
the thickeft of the enemy’s ranks, at the head of a fmall
the Porte. He likewife added fome confiderable for¬
tifications to the city and caftle, which he defigned to- 29
render impregnable. But while he was thus ItudyingJ^"^ ^"
the intereft of Algiers, one John Gafcon, a "bold Spa-attempt ro
nifh adventurer, formed a defign of furprifing the whole fire the Al-
piratic navy in the bay, and fetting them on fire in the genre fleet*,
night-time, when they lay defencelefs, and in their
firft fleep. For this he had not- only the permiffion of
king Philip II. but was furnilhed byr him with proper
vefiels, mariners, and fireworks, for the execution of
number of men, crying out, “ St Jago ! St Jttgo ! the his plot. With thefe he fet fail for Algiers in the moft
viflory is ours, the enemy is defeatedfoon after proper feafon, viz. the beginning of Odlober, when
which he was thrown from his horfe, and trampled to moft, if not all the fliips lay at anchor there ; and ca¬
de a th.
Hafian having had the misfortune to difoblige his
fubjedls by allowing the mountaineers of Cuco to buy
ammunition at Algiers, was fent in irons to Conftan-
tinople, while the aga of the Janifaries, and general
!t of the land forces, fupplied his place.— Haflan eafily
, found means to clear himfelfbut a new balhaw was ap¬
pointed, called Achmet; who was no fooner arrived,
than he fent the two deputy-bafliaws to ConftantiHople,
where their heads were ftruck off.—Achmet was a man
of fuch infatiable avarice, that, upon his arrival at Al¬
giers, all ranks of people came in Ihoals to make him
prefents; which he the more greedijy accepted,, as he
had bought his dignity by the money he'had amafled
while head gardener to the Sultan. He enjoyed it,
however, only four months; and after his death, the
Rate was governed other four months by his lieutenant;
fily failed near enough, unfufpefted, to view their man¬
ner of riding, in order to catch them napping, at a
time when the greater part of their crew were difperfed
in their quarters. He came accordingly, unperceived
by any, to the very mole-gate, and difperfed his men
with their fire-works; but to their great furprife, they-
found them fo ill mixed, that tlie.y could.not with all
their art make them take fire. In the mean time, Gaf- Hisbravad*
con took it into his head, by way of bravado, to go to at thecityj
the mole-gate, and give three loud knocks-at it with Sate'
the pommel of his dagger, and to leave it fixed in the
gate by its point, that the Algerines might have caufe
to remember him. This he had the good fortune to do
without meeting with any difturbance or opppfition:
but it was not fo with his men ; for no fooner did they
find their endeavours unfuccefsful, than they made fuch
a buftle as quickly alarmed the guard polled bn the ad- ■
jacoit
A L G
E 448 ]
A L G
Algiers, jacent baftion, from which the uproar quickly fpread
' s-~~ itfelf thro’ the whole garrifon. Gafcon, now finding
Is taken and hxmfelf in the utmoft danger, failed away with all pof-
puttodeath. fible hafte : but he was purfued, overtaken, and brought
back a prifoner to Mahomet; who no fooner got him
into his power, than he immediately caufed a-gibbet
of confiderable height to be ere&ed on the fpot where
Gafcon had landed, ordering him to be hoifted up, and
hung by the feet to a hook, that he might die in ex-
quifite torture; and to fliow his refentment and con¬
tempt of the king his mailer, he ordered his commiffion
to be tied to his toes. He had not, however, hung
long in that Hate, when the captain who took him, ac¬
companied by a number of other corfairs, interceded fo
iftrongly in his behalf, that he was taken down, and
put under the care of fiome Chriftian furgeons; but two
days after, fome Moors reporting that it was the com¬
mon talk and belief in Spain, that the Algerines durft
not hurt a hair of Gafcon’s head, GV. the unfortu¬
nate Spaniard was hoilled up by a pulley to the top
of the execution-wall, and let down again upon the
or trouble to the Porte than that of allowing them its Algiers,
proteftion. On their part, they engaged always to ——y—*
acknowledge the Grand Signiors as their fovereigns,
and to pay tl*em their ufual allegiance and tribute, to
refpedt their baftiaws, and even to lodge and maintain
them and their retinue, in a manner fuitable to their
dignity, at their own charge. The bafhaws, however,
were, for the future, to be excluded from afiifting at
any but general douwans, unlefs invited to it; and
from having the liberty of voting in them, unlefs when
their advice was afleed, or the intereft of the Porte was
likely to fuffer by their filence. All other concerns,
which related to the government of Algiers, were to be
wholly left under the dire&ion of the dey and his
douwan.
Thefe propofals having been accepted by the Porte, Algerines
the deputies returned highly fatisfied; and having noti- allowed t»
fied their new privileges, the great douwan immediate-c,lu^e their
ly proceeded to the eleftion of a dey from among0 '**
themfelves. They compiled a new fet of laws, and
made feveral regulations for the better fupport and
hook, which in his ffall catched him by the belly, and maintenance of this new form of govermpent, to the
gave him fuch a wound, that he expired without a
groan.——Thus ended the expedition of John Gafcon,
\vhich has procured him a place among the Spanifh
martyrs; while, on the other hand, the Algerines look
upon his difappointment to have been miraculous, and
owing to the efficacious protection of the powerful faint
Sidi Outededda, whofe prayers had before raifed fuch a
terrible ftorm againft the Spanifh fleet.
Mahomet, being foon after recalled, was fucceed-
ed by the famous renegade Ochali, who reduced the
'kingdom of Tunis; which, however, remained fub-
jeft to the viceroy of Algiers only till the year 1586,
when a bafhaw of Tunis was appointed by the Porte.
The kingdom of Algiers continued to be governed,
till the beginning of the feventeenth century, by vice¬
roys or bafhaws appointed by the Porte ; concerning
whom we find nothing very remarkable, further than
that their avarice and tyranny was intolerable both to
obfervation of which they obliged all their fubjefts to
fwear ; and the militia, navy, commerce, &c. were all
fettled pretty nearlyon the footing upon which they now
are, and which fhall be afterwards deferibed ; tho’ the
fubfequent altercations that frequently happened be¬
tween the bafhaws and deys, the one endeavouring to
recover their former power, and the other to curtail it,
caufed fuch frequent complaints and difeontents at the
Ottoman court, as made them frequently repent their
compliance.
In the year 1601, the Spaniards, under the com¬
mand of Doria the Genoefe admiral, made another at¬
tempt upon Algiers, in which they were more fortu¬
nate than ufual, their fleet being only driven back by
contrary winds, fo that they came off without lofs.
In 1609, the Moors being expelled from Spain, flock¬
ed in great numbers to Algiers; and as many of them
were very able bailors, they undoubtedly contributed to _
the Algerines and the Turks themfelves. At laft the make the Algerine fleet fo formidable as it became foon formidablTi
Turkifh Tanifaries and militia he^nminCI• nowerfiil e- after: thn’ it is nrobable the fremient attemnta made .1.-•
Turkifh Janifaries and militia becoming powerful e-
nough to fupprefs the tyrannic fway of thefe bafhaws,
and the people being almofl exhaufted by the heavy
taxes laid upon them, the former refolved to depofe
thefe petty tyrants, and fet up fome officers of their
after; tho’ it is probable the frequent attempts made to the Eu- '
on their city would alfo induce them to increafe their ropeans.
fleet. In 1616, their fleet confifted of 40 fail of fhips
between 200 and 400 tons, their admiral 500 tons. It
was divided into two fquadrons, one of 18 fail, before
own at the head of the realm. The better to fucceed the port of Malaga ; and the other at the Cape of San-
in this attempt, the militia fent a deputation of fome of ta Maria, between Lifbon and Seville ; both of which
their chief members to the Porte, to complain of the
avarice and oppreflion of thefe bafhaws, who funk both
the revenue of the flate, and the money remitted to it
from Conflantinople, into their own coffers, which
fhould have been employed in keeping up and paying
the foldiery; by which means they were in continual
danger of being overpowered by the Arabians and
Moors, who, if ever fo little affifted by any Chriftian
fell foul on all Chriftian fhips, both Englifh and French,
with whom they pretended to be in friendfhip, as well
Spaniards and Portuguefe, with whom they were at
The Algerines were now become very formidable to
the European powers. The Spaniards, who were moft
in danger, and leaft able to cope with them, folicited
the affiftance of England, the pope, and other flates.
power, would hardly fail of driving all the Turks out of The French, however, were the firft who dared to
the kingdom. They reprefented to the Grand Vizir fhow their refentment of the perfidious behaviour of
how much more honourable, as well as eafier and thefe mifereants; and in 1617, M. Beaulieu was fent
'cheaper, it would be for the Grand Signior to permit
them to choofe their own dey, or governor, from among
tncink wes, whofe intereft it would then be to fee that
r venue of the kingdom was rightly applied in
. \up its forces complete, and in fupplying all
exigencies of the ftate, without any farther charge
againft them with a fleet of 50 men of war, who de¬
feated their fleet, took two of their veffels, while their
admiral funk his own fhip and crew, rather than fall in¬
to his enemies hands.
In 1620, a fquadron of Englifh men of war was
fent againft Algiers, under the condud of Sir Robert
t Manfel;
A L G
Algiers. Manfe!: but of this expedition we have no other ac-
count, than that it returned without doing any thing ;
An Engliftianc^ t^e Algerines, becoming more and more infolent,
Iquadron openly defied all the European powers, the-Dutch on-
fcnt againft ly excepted; to whom, in 1625, they fent a propofal,
«he Alge- ^irefted to the prince of Orange, that in cafe they
would fit out 20 fail of (hips the following year, upon
any good fervice againft the Spaniards, they would join
them with 60 fail of their own.
The next year, the Coulolies, or Celoglies (the chil¬
dren of fuch Turks as had been permitted to marry at
Algiers), who were enrolled in the militia, having fei-
zed on the citadel, had well nigh made themfelves
mailers of the city; but were attacked by the Turks and
renegadoes, who defeated them with terrible flaughter.
Many fcores of them were executed ; and their heads
thrown in heaps upon the city-walls, without the
eaftern gate. Part of the citadel was blown up;
and the remaining Coulolies were difmilTed from the
militia, to which they were not again admitted till long
after.
In 1623, the Algerines and other Hates of Barbary
*»ruai 1 threw off their dependence on the Porte altogether, and
throw off fet Up for themfelves. What gave occafion to this was
tdence on the 15 years truce which Sultan Amurath IV. was obli-
Porte. ged to make with the emperor Ferdinand II. to prevent
his being overmatched by carrying on a war againft
[ 449 1
A L G
35 ,
TStates of
Barbary
fcarce furnilh its equal.—This was no lefs than to re- Algiers,
tort the piracies of the Algerines upon themfelves; and v. ' *
as they indifcriminately took the Ihips of all nations, Defperate
fo were thefe heroes indifcriminately to take the Ihips underta-
belonging to Algiers ; and this with a fmall frigate ofkingot four
ten guns !—In this ridiculous undertaking, 160 volun- ^theni
teers embarked ; a Maltefe commiflion was procured,
together with an able mailer, and 36 mariners.—They
had the good fortune, on their firft fetting out, to take
a Ihip laden with wine, on the Spanilh coaft: with
which they were fo much elated, that three days after
they madly encountered tw'o large Algerine corfairs, one
of 20 and the other of 24 guns, both well manned,
and commanded by able officers. Thefe two large vef-
fels having got the fmall frigate between them, plied
her furioufly with great Ihot, which foon took off her
main mall: notwithftanding which, the French made fo
defperate a refiftance, that the pirates were not able
to take them, till the noife of their fire brought up five
more Algerines ; when the French veffel, being almoll
torn to pieces, was boarded and taken. The young
knights-errant were punilhed for their temerity by a
dreadful captivity, from which they redeemed them¬
felves in 1642 at the price of 6000 dollars. ^
The Algerines profecuted their piracies with im- A French
punity, to the terror and difgrace of the Europeans, admiral'
till the year i6t2 ; when a French fleet being acciden- carr,nS <A
a 1   u:.. u j the furkifh
him and the fophi of Perfia at the fame time. As this tally driven to Algiers, the admiral took it into his head balhaw. '
put a Hop to the piratical trade of the Algerines, they
proceeded as above-mentioned; and refolved, that who¬
ever defired to be at peace with them, mull, diftinftly
and feparately, apply to their government.—No fooner
was this refolution taken, than the Algerines began to
make prizes of feveral merchant Ihips belonging to
powers at peace with the Porte. Nay, having feized
a Dutch Ihip and poleacre at Scanderoon, they ven¬
tured on Ihore; and finding the town abandoned by
the Tnrkilh aga and inhabitants, they plundered all
the magazines and warehoufes, and fet them on fire.
—About this time Lewis XIII. undertook to build
a fort on their coafts, inftead of one formerly built by
the Maffilians, and which they had demoliflied. This,
after fome difficulty, he accompliflied ; and it was cal¬
led the Bajlien of France: but the fituation being af¬
terwards found inconvenient, the French purchafed the
to demand a releafe of all the captives of his nation,
without exception. This being refufed, the French¬
man without ceremony carried off the Turkiffi vice¬
roy, and his cadi or judge, who were juft arrived from
the Porte, with all their equipage and retinue. The
Algerines, by way of reprifal, furprifed the Baftion of
France already mentioned, and carried off the inha¬
bitants to the number of 6co, with all their effeils ;
which fo provoked the admiral, that he fent them word
that he would pay them another vifit the next year
v^ith his whole fleet.
The Algerines, undifmayed by the threats of thc-j-^g^f^
French admiral, fitted out a fleet of 16 galleys and gal-rines fit out
liots, excellently manned and equipped, under the com- a formida-
mand‘ of Admiral Hali Pinchinin The chief defign ble fleec»
of this armament was againft the treafure of Loretto ;
which, however, they were prevented by contrary winds
port of La Calle, and obtained liberty to trade with from obtaining. Upon this they made a defcent on
the Arabians and Moors. The Ottoman court, in the
mean time, was fo much embarrafled with the Perfian
Puglia in the kingdom of Naples; where they ravaged
the whole territory of Necotra, carrying off a vaft num-
that "there was no leifure to check the Algerine ber of captives, and among them fome nuns. From
piracies. This gave an opportunity to the vizir and o- thence fleering towards Dalmatia, they fcoured the
ther courtiers to compound matters with the Algerines, Adriatic ; and loading themfelvcs with immenfe plun-
and to get a ftiare of their prizes, which were very
fiderable. However, for form’s fake, a fevere repri¬
mand, accompanied with threats, was fent them ; to
der, left thofe coafts in the utmoft confternation and
refentment.
At laft the Venetians, alarmed" at fuch terrible de- which is to-
which they replied, that “ thefe depredations deferved predations, equipped a fleet of 28 fail, under'the com-tally de-
to be indulged to them, feeing they were the only bul¬
wark againft the Chriltian powers, efpecially againft
the Spaniards, the fworn enemies of the Mofiem name:”
adding, that “ if they ftiould pay a punctilious regard
to all that could purchafe peace, or liberty to trade
with the Ottoman empire, they would have nothing to
do but fet fire to all their Ihipping, and turn camel-dri¬
vers for a livelihood.”
In the year 1635, four younger brothers of a good
family in France, entered into an undertaking fo de¬
fperate, that perhaps the annals of knight-errantry can
Vox.. I. Part II.
mand of admiral Capello, with exprefs orders to burn, Amyed by-
fink, or take, all the Barbary corfairs he met with, ei- ^ Veneti*
ther on the open feas, or even in the Grand Signior’s
harbours, purfuant to a late treaty of peace with the
Porte. On the other hand, the captain balhaw, who
had been fent out with the Turkilh fleet to chafe the
Florentine and Maltefe cruifers out of the Archipe¬
lago, underftanding that the Algerine fquadron was fo
near, fent exprefs orders to the admiral to come to his
affiftance. Pinchinin readily agreed ; but having firft
refolved on a defcent upon the illand of Liffa, or Lifi-
3 L na,
A L G [ 45° 1 A L G
Algiers, na, belonging to the Venetians, he was overtaken by
^ v '" ‘ Capello, from whom he retired to Valona, a fea-port
belonging to the Grand Signior, whither the Venetian
admiral purfued him ; but the Turkiih governor refu-
fmg to ejeft the pirates according to the articles of the
peace between the Ottoman court and Venice, Capello
was obliged to content himfelf with watching them for
fome time. Pinchinin was foon weary of reftraint, and
ventured out; when an engagement immediately en-
fued, in which the Algerines were defeated, and five
©f their veflels difabled ; with the lofs of 1500 men,
Turks, and Chriftian flaves ; befides 1600 galley-flaves
who regained their liberty. Pinchinin, after this de¬
feat, returned to Vallona, where he was again watched
by Capello ; but the latter had not lain long at his old
anchorage before he received a letter from the fenate,
defiring him to make no farther attempt on the pirates
at that time, for fear of a rupture with the Porte. This
was followed by a letter from the governor of Valona,
defiring him to take care left he incurred the Sultan’s
difpleafure by fuch infults. The brave Venetian was
forced to comply ; but, refolving to take fuch a leave
of the Algerines as he thought they deferved, obferved
how they had reared their tents, and drawn their booty
and equipage along the ftiore. He then kept firing a-
mong their tents, while fome well-manned galliots and
brigantines were ordered among their (hipping, who
attacked them with fuch bravery, that, without any
great lofs, they towed out their 16 galleys, with all
their cannon, ftores, &c.—In this laft engagement, a
ball from one of the Venetian galleys happening to
ftrike a Turkifh mofque, the whole aftion was coiifi-
dered as an infult upon the Grand Signior. To conceal
this, Capello was ordered to fink all the Algerine
fhips he had taken, except the admiral; which was to
be conducted to Venice, and laid up as a trophy. Ca¬
pello came off with a fevere reprimand ; but the Vene¬
tians were obliged to buy, with 500,000 ducats, a pejee
from the Porte. The Grand Signior offered to repair tM
lofs of the Algerines by building ten galleys for them,
upon condition that they ftiould continue in his fervice
till the end of the enfuing fummer; but Pinchinin, who
knew how little the Algerines chofe to lie under obliga-
tions to him, civilly declined the offer.
Algiers in In t^ie mean time, the news of this defeat and lofs
the utmoft filled Algiers with the utmoft grief and confufion. The
corfu(ion at whole city was on the point of a general infurre&ion,
e news. w^en t}ie bafhaw and douwan iffued out a proclamation,
forbidding, not only complaints and outcries, under the
fevereft penalties; but all perfons whatever to take their
thumbs from within their girdles, while they were de¬
liberating on this important point. In the mean time,
they applied to the Porte for an order, that the Vene¬
tians fettled in the Levant ftiould make up their lofs.
But with this the Grand Signior refufed to comply,
and left them to repair their Ioffes, as well as build new
Ihips, in the beft manner they could. It was not long,,
however, before they had the fatisfaftion to fee one of
their corfairs land, with a frefti fupply of 600 flaves,
whom he had brought from the coaft of Iceland, whi¬
ther he had been direAed by a mjfcreant native taken
on board a Danifh (hip.
They fef out Our pirates did not long continue in their weak and
■a new fleet, defencelefs (late; being able, at the end of two years,
to appear at fea with a fleet of 65 fail. The admiral
Pinchinin equipped'four galliots at his own expence ; Algiew,
with which, in conjundlion with; the Chiayah, or fe- --v—"-4' '
cretary of the baftiaw of Tripoli, he made a fecond ex-
curfion. This fmall-fquadron, confifting of five gal¬
leys and two brigantines, fell in wifh an Englifh (hip of
40 guns ; which, however,, Pinchinin’s captains refu¬
fed to engage ;. but being afterwards reproached by
him for their cowardice, they fwore to attack the next
Chriftian (hip which came in their way. This happened F;Veofthe!f •
to be a Dutch merchantman, of 2r8 guns and 40 men, palieys de- !
deeply laden, and unable to ufe her fails by reafon ofifeated by a,-, (j
a calm. Pinchinin immediately fummoned her to fur- Dutch met> |
render ; but reseiving an ironical anfwer, drew up hisclian maa* |
fquadron in form of an half-moon, that they might
pour their (hot all at once into their adverfary. This,
however, the Dutchman avoided, by means of a breeze
of wind which fortunately fprung up and enabled him
to turn his (hip; upon which the galleys ran foul of
each other.—Upon this, Pinchinin ran his own galley
along fide of the merchantman, the upper deck of
which 70 Algerines immediately took poffelfion of,
fome of them cutting the rigging, and others plying
the hatches with hand-grenadoes: but the Dutchmen
having fecured themfelves in their clofe quarters, be¬
gan to fire at the Algerines on board, from two pieces
of cannon loaded with fmall (hot; by which they were
all foon killed, or forced to fubmit. Pinchinin, in the
mean time, made feveral unfuccefsful attempts to re¬
lieve his men, as well as to furround the Dutchman
with his other galleys: but that fliip lay fo deep in the
water, that every, (hot did terrible execution among the
pirates; fo that they were obliged to remove farther
off. At laft the Dutch captain, having ordered his
guns to be loaded with cartouches, gave them fuch a
parting volley as killed 200 of them, and fent the reft
back to Algiers in a moft difmal plight.
But though Pinchinin thus returned in difgrace, the
reft of the fleet quickly, came back with vaft numbers,
of (laves, and an immenfe quantity of rich fpoils ; info-
much that the Englifti, French, and Dutch, were o-
bliged to cringe to the mighty Algerines, who fome-
times vouchfafed to be at peace with them, but fwore
eternal war againft Spain, Portugal, and Italy, whom
they looked upon as the greateft enemies to the Maho-
metan name. At laft Lewis XIV. provoked by the Prepara- !
grievous outrages committed by the Algerines on the t,on?aRainft j
coafts of Provence and Languedoc, ordered, in 1681, a Lewis XIV ■
confiderable fleet to be fitted out againft them, under * i
the Marquis du Quefne, vice-admiral of France. His
firft expedition was againft a number of Tripolitan cor¬
fairs ; who had the good fortune to outrow him, and
(helter themfelves in the ifland of Scio belonging to
the Turks. This did not, however, prevent him from
purfuing them thither, and making fuch terrible fire
upon them as quickly deftroyed 14 of their veffels, be¬
fides battering the walls of the caftle.
This feverity feemed only to be defigned as a check Algiers
to the piracies of the Algerines; but, finding they ftillboml arded’
continued their outrages on the French coaft, he failed aIK' j"61 | j
to Algiers in Auguft 1682, cannonading and bombard- C
ing it fo furioufly, that the whole town was in flames in
a very little time. The great mofque was battered
down, and moft of the houfes laid in ruins, infomuch
that the inhabitants were on the point of abandoning
the place ; when on a hidden the wind turned about,
and
Algiers.
A Xj G
Algiers, and obliged Du Quefne to return to Toulon. The
J Algerines immediately made reprifals, by fending a
number of galleys and galliots to the coafts of Provence,
451 ] A L G
perated, that he did not leave Algiers till he had ut¬
terly deftroyed all their fortifications, fhipping, almoft L
all the lower part, and above two thirds of the upper
where they committed the molt dreadful ravages, and part, of the city ; by which means it became little elfe
1-brought away a vail number of captives: upon which than an heap of ruins.
a new armament was ordered to be got ready at Tou¬
lon and Marfeilles againft the next year; and the Al-
The haughty Algerines were now thorougly con-Algerines
vinced that they were not invincible ; and, therefore, *°r
The city a-
gain bom¬
barded.
gerines, having received timely notice, put themfelves immediately fent an embafly into France, begging in PeacC‘
into as good a ftate of defence as the time would allow, the moll abject terms for peace ; which Lewis imme-
In May 1683, Du Quefne with his fquadron call diately granted, to their inexpreffible joy. They now
anchor before Algiers; where, being joined by the began to pay fome regard to other nations, and to be
Marquis D’Affranville, at the head of five flout vef- a little cautious how they wantonly incurred their dif-
fels, it was refolved to bombard the town next day. pleafure. The firft bombardment by the French had
Accordingly 100 bombs were thrown into it the firft fo far humbled the Algerines, that they condefcended
■day, which did terrible execution ; while the befieged to enter into a treaty with England; which was renew-
made fome hundred difeharges of their cannon againft ed, upon terms very advantageous to the latter, in 1686.
them, without doing any confiderable damage. The It is not to be fuppofed, however, that the natural per-
following nights the bombs were again thrown into the fidy of the Algerines would difappear on a fudden: not-
•city in fuch numbers, that the dey’s palace and other withftanding this treaty, therefore, they loft no oppor-
great edifices were almoft deftroyed; fome of their bat- tunity of making prizes of the Englifti (hips when ^
teries were difmounted, and feveral vefiels funk in the they could conveniently come at them. Upon fome in-Seven of
port. The dey and Turkilh balhaw, as well as the fringement of this kind, Captain Beach drove aftiore their (hips
whole foldiery, alarmed at this dreadful havock, im- and burnt feven of their frigates in 1695 ; which Pro* ca Tfieach
mediately fued for peace. As a preliminary, the im- duced a renewal of the treaty five years after: but itcapt eac
mediate furrender was infilled on of all Chriftian cap- was not till the taking of Gibraltar and Port Mahon,
lives who had been taken fighting under the French that Britain could have a fufficient check upon them to
flag ; which being granted, 142 of them were imme- enforce the obfervation of treaties; and thefe havefince
diately delivered up, with a promife of fending him proved fuch reftraints upon Algiers, that they ftill c
the remainder as foon as they could be got from the dif- tinue to pay a greater defer
ferent parts of the country. Accordingly Du Quefne to any European power,
fent his commiffary-general and one of his engineers —“r""*— c
: to the Englilh than
_ ^ w The prefent century furnilhes no very remarkable e-Expulfionof
into the town ; but with exprefs orders to infill upon vents with regard to Algiers; except the taking of thethe Turkilh
the delivery of all the French captives without excep- famed city of Oran from the Spaniards in 1708 (which ba“iaw‘
tion, together with the effects they had taken from however they regained in 1737), and the expulfion of
the French; and that Mezomorto their then admiral, the Turkilh balhaw, and uniting his office to that of
and Hali Rais one of their captains, Ihould be given dey in [710. This introduced the form of govern-
as hoftages.
This laft demand having embarrafled the dey, he af-
fembled the douwan, and acquainted them with it:
jr
ment which ftill continues in Algiers.
The dey is now abfolute monarch ; and pays no o- Revenues,
ther revenue to the Porte, than that of a certain num- ^c- ^the
Dey.
upon which Mezomorto fell into a violent palfion, and ber of fine boys or youths, and fome other prefents
told the affembly, that the cowardice of thofe who fat which are fent thither yearly. His own income, pro-
at the helm had occafioned the ruin of Algiers ; but bably, rifes and falls according to the opportunities he
that, for his part, he would never confent to deliver up hath of fleecing both natives and foreigners; whence it
any thing that had been taken from the French. He is varioully computed by different authors. Dr Shaw
immediately acquainted the foldiery with what had computes the taxes of the whole kingdom to bring into
paffed; which fo exafperated them, that they murdered the treafury no more than 300,000 dollars; but fuppofes
the dey that very night, and on the morrow chofe that the eighth part of the prizes, the effects of thofe
Mezomorto in his place. This was no fooner done, perfons who die without children, joined to the yearly
than he cancelled all the articles of peace which had contributions raifed by the government, prefents from
been made, and hoftilities were renewed with greater foreigners, fines and oppreffions, may bring in about
and almoft
'deftroyed.
fury than ever.
The French admiral now kept pouring in fuch vol¬
leys of bombs, that, in lefs than three days, the great-
as much more. Both the dey, and officers under him,
enrich themfelves by the. fame laudable methods of ra¬
pine and fraud; which it is no wonder to find the corn-
eft part of the city was reduced to afhes, and the fire mon people pradlifing upon one another, and efpecially
burnt with fuch vehemence, that the fea was enlight¬
ened with it for more than two leagues round. Mezo¬
morto, unmoved at all thefe difafters, and the vaft
ber of the flain, whofe blood ran in rivulets along the
upon ilrangers, feeing they themfelves are impoverilh-
ed by heavy taxes and the injuftice of thofe who are
in authority.
We have already hinted, that the firft deys were e-
ilreets; or rather, grown furious and defperate, fought ledled by the militia, who were then called the dowwan,
only how to wreak his revenge on the enemy; and, not or common-council. This eleftive body was at firft
content with caufing all the French in the city to be compofed of 800 militia-officers, without whofe con-
cruelly murdered, ordered their conful to be tied hand fent the dey could do nothing ; and upon fome urgent
and foot, and faftened alive to the mouth of a mortar, occafions, all the officers refiding in Algiers, amount-
from whence he was fhot away againft their navy.— ing to above 1500, were fummoned to affiil. But
By this piece of inhumanity Du Quefne was fo exaf-
fince the deys, who may be compared to the Dutch
3 L 2 Stadtholders,
A L G [ 452 ] A L G
Algiers. Stadtholders, have become more powerful, the dou-
1 wan is principally compofed of 30 chiak-bafhaws, or
colonels, with now and then the mufti and cadi upon
fame emergencies; and, on the election of a dey, the
whole foldiery are allowed to come and give their votes.
AH the regulations of ftate ought to be determined by
that affembly, before they pafs into a law, or the dey
hath power to put them in execution: but, for many
years back, the douwan is of fo little account, that it
is only convened out of formality, and to give aflent
to what the dey and his chief favourites have concerted
Strangeme- beforehand. The method of gathering the votes in this
thod ofga- auguft affembly is perfectly agreeable to the charafter
votesefr the t^°^e w^° compofe it. The aga, or general of the
douwan, janizaries, or the prefident. pro tempore, iirft propofes-
the queftion; which is immediately repeated with a loud
voice by the chia-bafhaws, and from them echoed a-
gain by four officers called bajhaldalas, from thefe
the queftion is repeated from one member of the dou¬
wan to another, with ftrange contortions, and the moft
hideous growlings, if it is not to their liking. From-
the loudnefs of this growling noife, the aga is left to
guefs as. well as he can whether the majority of the af¬
fembly are pleafed or difpleafed with the queftion; and
from luch a prepofterous method, it is not furprifing
that thefe affemblies fhoivld feldom end without fome
tumult or diforder. As the whole body of the militia-
is concerned in the election of a new dey, it is feldom
carried on without blows and bloodftied: but-when
once the choice is made, the perfon elected is fainted
with the words Alla Barick, “ God blefs you, and
profper you and the new dey ufually caufes all the
officers of the douwan who had oppofed his eledtion to
be ftrangled, filling up their places with thofe who
had been moft zealous in promoting it. From this ac¬
count, of the eledtion of the deys, it cannot be expec¬
ted that their government fhould be at all fecure ; and
as they arrive at the throne by tumult, diforder, and
bloodffied, they are generally deprived of it by the fame
means, fcarcely one in ten of them having the good
fortune to die a natural death.
In this country it is not to be expe&ed that jtiftice
will be adminiftered with any degree of impartiality.
Punifh- The Mahometan foldiery, in particular, are fo much
mems, &c. favoured, that they are feldom put to death for any
crime, except rebellion ; in which cafe they are either
ftrangled with a bow-ftring, or hanged to an iron hook.
In leifer offences, they are fined, or their pay flopped;
and if officers, they are reduced to the ftation of com¬
mon foldiers, from whence they may gradually raife
themfelves to their former dignity. Women guilty of
adultery, have a halter tied about their necks, with the
other end faftened to a pole, by which they are held
under water till they are fuffocated. The baftinado is
likewife inflidled for fmall offences; and is given either
upon the belly, back, or foies of the feet, according to
the pleafure of the cadi; who alfo appoints the num¬
ber of ftrokes. Thefe fometimes amount to 200 or 300,
according to the indulgence the offender can obtain
either by bribery or friends ; and hence he often dies
under this punifhment, for want of powerful enough
advocates. But the moft terrible punifhments are thefe
inflitfted upon the Jews or Chriftians who fpeak againft
Mahomet or his religion; in which cafe, they muft ei¬
ther turn Mahometan, or be impaled alive. If they
afterwards apoftatize, they are burned or roafted alive, Algiers,
or elfe thrown down from the top of the city-walls, u,_nr*“
upon iron hooks, where they are caught by different
parts of their body, according as they happen to fall,
and fometiraesexpire in the greateft torments; though
by accident they may be put out of pain at once, as we
have already related of the Spanifh adventurer John
Gafcon. This terrible puniftiraent, however, begins
now to be be difufed.
The officer next in power to the dey is the aga ofAgaof the
the janizaries, who is one of the oldeft officers in the janizaries
army, and holds his poll only for two months. He is “y
then fucceeded by the chiah, or next fenior officer.;-— foe's.
During the two monthsdn which the aga enjoys his dig¬
nity, the keys of the metropolis are in his hands ; all
military orders are iflued out in his name ; and the fen-
tence -of the dey upon any offending foldier, whether
capital or not, can only be executed in the court of
his palace.—As foon as he is gone through, this Ihorfc
office, he is confidered as mazoul, or fuperannuated ;
receives his pay regularly, like the reft of the militia,
every two moons; is exempt from all further duties, ex¬
cept when called by the dey to affift at the grand coun¬
cil, to which he hath, however, a right to come at all
times, but hath no longer a vote in it.—Next to the
aga in dignity, is the fecretary of ftate, who regifters
all the public adls; and after him are the 30 chiahs,
or colonels, who fit next to the aga in the douwan,
and in the fame gallery with him. Out of this clafs
are generally chofen thofe who go embaffadors to fo¬
reign courts, or who difperfe the dey’s orders through¬
out the realm.— Next to them are 800 bolluck-bafhaws,
or eldeft captains, who are promoted to that of chiah-
baftpws, according to their feniority. The oldack-
baftiaws, or lieutenantr, are next; who amount to 400;
and are regularly, railed to the rank of captains in their
turn, and to other employments in the ftate, according
to their abilities. Thefe, by way of diftindlion, wear
a leather ftrap, hanging down to the middle of their
back. One rule is ftridlly obferved in the rotation of
thefe troops from one deputy to a higher; viz. the right:
of feniority ; one fingle infringement of which would
eaufe an infurre&ion, and probably coft the dey his
life. Other military officers of note are the vekelards,
or purveyors of the army ; the peys, who are the four
oldeft foldiers, and confequently the neareft to prefer¬
ment ; the foulacks, who are the next in feniority to
them, and are part of the dey’s body-guard, always
marching before him when he takes the field, and dif-
tinguifhed by their carbines and gilt fcymiters, with a
brafs gun on their caps; the kayts, or Turkifh fol¬
diers, each band of whom have the government of one
or more adowars, or itinerant villages, and colledl their
taxes for the dey ; and the fagiards, or Turkifh lance-
men, 100 of whom always.attend the army, and watch
over the water appointed for it. To thefe we may add
the beys, or governors of the three great provinces of
the realm. All the above-mentioned officers ought to
coropofe the great douwan or council above-mentioned;
but only the 30 chiah-bafhaws have a right to fit in the
gallery next after the dey: The reft are obliged to
ftand on the floor of the hall, or council-chamber,
with their arms acrofs, and, as much as poffible, with¬
out motion ; neither are they permitted to enter with
their fwords on, for fear of a tumult. As for thofe
A L G
[ 453 J
A L G
Civilian of
the king¬
dom.
who have any matters to tranfaft with the douwan,
they muft ftand without, let the weather be ever fo
bad ; and there they are commonly prefented with cof¬
fee by fome of the inferior officers, till they are dif-
miffed.
The kingdom of Algiers is at prefent divided into
three provinces or diftri&s, viz. the eaflern, weftern.
(8.) The Ladag, or Ludeg, runs down from mount | Algierv^
Atlas through part of Conftantina, and falls into the
fea a little eaftward of Bona. (9.) Guadi, or Guadel
Barbar, fprings from the head of Orbus, or Urbs, in
Tripoli, runs through Bujeyah, and falls into the fea
near Tabarea. 58
Befides thefe there are many others of lefs note; of Account of
and fouthern. The eallern, or Levantine government, which, however, we do not find that the Algerines
which is by far the moil confiderable of the three, and is vail themfelvea as they might do, their genius leading &c, 5
-ir u^j   rn— n—n— them too much to the piratical trade to mind any real
56
Rivers.
alfo called Bey lick, contains the towns of Bona, Conflan-
tina, Gigeri, Bujeyah, StefTa, Tebef, Zamoura, Bifcara,
and Necanz, in all which the Turks have their garri-
fons : befides which, it includes the two ancient king¬
doms of Cuco and Labez, though independent of the
Algerine government, to whofe forces their country is
inacceffible; fo that they ftilllive under their own cheyks
chofen by each of their adowars or hords. To thefe
we may add a French factory at Callo, under the di-
reCtion of the company of the French Ballion.—The
weftern government hath-the towns of Oran, Tremecen,
Moftagan, Tenez, and Seerelly with its caftle and gar-
rifon.—The fouthern government hath neither town,
village, nor even a houfe, all the inhabitants living in
tents, which obliges the dey and his forces to be al¬
ways encamped.
The moft confiderable rivers of Algiers are the Zha,
or Ziz, which runs acrofs the province of Tremecen,
and the defert of Anguid, falling into the Mediterra-
ir the town of Tabecrita, where it has the name
advantage that might be derived from their own coun¬
try. The corfairs, or pirates, form each a fmall re¬
public, of which the rais or captain is the fupreme
bafhaw; who, with the officers under him, form a kind
of douwan, in which every matter relating to the vef-
fel is decided in an arbitrary way. Thefe corfairs are
chiefly mftrumental in importing whatever commodities
are brought into the kingdom either by way of mer-
chandife or prizes. Thefe confift chiefly of gold and
fdver fluffs, damafks, cloths, fpices, tin, iron, plated
brafs, lead, quiekfilver, cordage, fail-cloth, bullets,
cochineal, linen,, tartar, alumj. rice, fugar, foap, cot¬
ton raw and fpun, copperas, aloes, brazil and log¬
wood, vermilion,. &c. Very few commodities, however,,
are exported from this part of the world: the oil, wax,
hides, pulfe, and corn produced, being but barely fuffi-
cient to fupply the country; though, before the lofs of.
Oran, the merchants have been known to fhip off from-
one or other of the ports of Barbary feveral thoufand.
of Strut. (2.) The Haregol, fuppofed the Sign of Pto- tons of com. The confumption of oil, though here in-
lemy, comes down from the great Atlas, croffes the
defert of Anguid, and falls into the fea, about five
great abundance, is likewife fo confiderable in this king-
dbm, that it is feldom permitted to be fnipped off. for
leagues from Oran. (3.) The Mina, fuppofed the Cky* Europe. The other exports confift chiefly in oftriches
leviatis of Ptolemy, a large river, which runs through
the plains of Bathala, and falls into the fea near the
town of Arzew. This river hath lately received the
name of Cena, who rebuilt the town of Bathalah af¬
ter it had been deftroyed. (4.) The Shellif, Zilef, or
Zilif, defeending from the mount Gnanexeris, runs
through fome great deferts,.the lake Titteri, the fron¬
tiers of Tremecen and Tenez, falling into the iea a
little above the city of Moftagan. (5.) The Celef,
feathers, copper, ruggs, filk fafhes, embroidered hand¬
kerchiefs, dates, and Chriftian flaves. Some manu-
fatflures in filk, cotton, wool, leather, &c. are car¬
ried on in this country, but moftly by the Spaniards
fettled here, efpecially about the metropolis. Carpets
are alfo a manufacture of the country, which, though
much inferior to thofe of Turkey, both in beauty and
finenefs, are preferred by the people to lie upon, on
account of their being both cheaper and fofter. There
fuppofed to be the Cartkena of the ancients, falls into are alfo, at Algiers, looms for velvet, taffaties, and other
the fea about three leagues weft of Algiers, after a
fhort courfe of 18 or 20 leagues. (6.) The Hued-al-
quivir, fuppofed to be the Nalabata, or Nafaba, of the
ancients, and called by the Europeans Zinganir, runs
down with a fwift courfe, through fome high moun-
57 tains of Cuco, and falls into the fea near Bujeyah.
Harbour of Whilft the city of Bujeyah was in the hands of the
Bujeyah Chriftians, the mouth of this river was fo choaked up
accident ^ ^and> that no veffel could come up into it: but in
r555» very foon after it: was taken by the Moors, the
great rains fwelled it to fuch a degree, that all the fand
and mud was carried off; fo that galleys, and other
veffels, have ever fince entered it with eafe, where .they
lie fafe from ftorms, and all winds, but that which blows
from the north. ( 7.) Suf-Gemar, or Suf-Gimmar al
Rumniel, fuppofed to be the Ampfaga of Ptolemy, hath
its fource on mount Auras, on the confines of Atlas;
thence runs through fome barren plains, and the fruit¬
ful ones of Conftantina, where its ftream is greatly
' ihcreafed by fome other rivers it receives ; from thence
running northward, along the ridges of fome high
mountains, it. falls into the fea a little eaft of Gigeri.
&
wrought filks; and a coarfe fort of linen is likewife
made in moft parts of the kingdom. The country
furnifhes- no materials for ftiip-building. They have
neither ropes, tar, fails,, anchors, nor even iron. When
they can procure enough of new wood to form the
main timbers of a fhip, they fupply the reft from the
materials of prizes which they have made; and thus
find the fecret of producing new and fwift failing vef¬
fels from the ruins of the old. Of all the ftates on the
coaft of Barbary, the Algerines are the ftrongeft at
fea.
The. inhabitants along the fea-coafts are a mixture Inhabitants,
of different nations; but chiefly Moors and Morefcos
driven out of Catalonia, Arragon, and other parts of
Spain. Here are alfo great numbers of Turks, who
come from the Levant to feek their fortune; as well as
multitudes of Jews and Chriftians taken at fea-, who
are brought hither to be fold for flaves. The Bere-
bers are fome of the moft ancient inhabitants of the
country; and are 'fuppofed to be defeended from the
ancient Sabeans, who came hither from Arabia Felix,,
under the condudt- of one of their princes. Others be.
Ee.ve
A L G [ 454 ] A L G
lieve them to be fome of the Canaanites driven out of
Paleftine by Jofhua. Thefe are difperfed all over Bar¬
bary, and divided into a multitude of tribes under their
refpeftive chiefs: moft of them inhabit the mountainous
parts; fome range from place to place, and live in tents,
or portable huts; others in fcattered villages: they have,
neverthelefs, kept themfelves for the moft part from in¬
termixing with other nations. The Berebers are reckon¬
ed the richeft of all, go better cloathed, and carry on a
much larger traffic of cattle, hides, wax, honey, iron,
and other commodities. They have alfo fome artifi¬
cers in iron, and fome manufa&urers in the weaving
branch.—The name of Bereber is fuppofed to have been
originally given them onraccount of their being firft
fettled in fome defert place. Upon their increafing in
procefs of time, they divided themfelves into five tribes,
probably on account of religious differences, called the
Zinhagians, Mufamedins, Zeneti, Hottres, and Gonn-
res; and thefe having produced 600 families, fubdi-
vided themfe'lves into a great number of petty tribes.—
To thefe we may add the Zn.vo'wahs, by European au¬
thors called Azuagws, or Ajfagues, who are likewife
difperfed over moft parts of Barbary and Numidia.
Great numbers of thefe inhabit the mountainous parts
of Cuco, Labez, &c. leading a wandering paftoral
life.—But the moft numerous inhabitants are the Moors
and Arabians- The former are very ftout and warlike,
and fkilfiil horfemen ; but fo addicted to robbing, that
one cannot fafely travel along the country at a diftance
from the towns without a guard, or at leaft a marabout
or faint for a fafeguard. Tor as they look upon them¬
felves to be the original proprietors of the country, and
not only as difpoffeffed by the reft of the inhabitants,
but reduced by them to the loweft ftate of poverty,
they make no fcruple to plunder all they meet by way
of reprifal. The inhabitants, in general, have a pretty
fair complexion; they are robuft and well proportioned.
People of diftinftion wear their beard ; they have rich
clothes made of filk, embroidered with flowers of gold,
and turbans enriched with jewels. The Turks, who
cOmpofe the military force, have great privileges, pay
no taxes, are never publicly punifhed, and rarely in
private. The loweft foldier domineers over the moft
diftinguilhed Moors at pleafure. If he finds them bet¬
ter mounted than himfelf, he exchanges horfes without
ceremony. The Turks alone have the privilege of
•carrying fire-arms. Many good qualities, however,
diftinguifh them in fpite of this excefs of defpotifm.
They never game for money, not even for trifles; and
they never profane the name of the Deity. They foon
forget their private quarrels; and after the firft pa-
Toxyfim of refentment is over, it is infamy for a Turk
to keep in remembrance the injuries he has received.
In this refpect certainly they are lefs barbarous than
■other nations that boaft of their civilization. See
Moors.
Algiers, a city, the capital of the above king¬
dom, is probably the ancient Icojium: by the Arabians
called Algezair, or rather Al-Jezicr^ or Al-Jezerah,
i. e. the ijland, becaufe there was an ifland before the
city, to which it hath'been finee joined by a mole. It
is built on the declivity of a hill by the fea-fide, in the
form of an amphitheatre: at fea, it looks like the top-
fail of a Ihip. The tops of the houfes are quite flat and
white ; infomuch, that when it is firft difcovered, one
3
would take it to be a place where they bleach linen. Algiers.
One houfe rifes above another in fuch a manner that—v—
they do not hinder each other’s profpeft. The ttreets
are fo narrow, that they will fcarce admit two perfons
to walk a-breaft, and the middle part is lower than
the Tides. When any loaded beafts, fuch as camels,
horfes, mules, or affes, pafs along, you are forced to
ftand up clofe to the wall to let them pafs by. There
is but one broad ftreet, which runs through the city
ftops eaft to weft, in which are the (hops of the prin¬
cipal merchants, and the market for corn and other com¬
modities. The lower part of the walls of the city are
of hewn ftone, and the upper part of brick ; they are
30 feet high on the land fide, and 40 towards the fea;
the foffes or ditches are twenty feet broad, and feven
deep. There is no fweet water in the city ; and tho*
there is a tank or ciftern in every houfe, yet they often
want water, becaufe it rains but feldom: the chief fup-
ply is from a fpring on a hill, the water of which is
conveyed by pipes to above a hundred fountains, at
which a bowl is faftened for the ufe of paffengers. The
common refervoir is at the end of the mole, where the
fhips take in their water. Every one takes his turn at
thefe places, except the Turks, who are firft, and the
Jews laft. There are five gates, which are open from fun-
rifing till fun-fetting ; and feven forts, or caftles, with¬
out the walls, the greateft of which is on the mole with¬
out the gate, all of which are well fupplied with great
guns. There are ten large mofques, and fifty fmafl
ones; three great colleges or public fchools, and a great
number of petty ones for children. The houfes are
fquare, and built of ftone and brick, with a fquare
court in the middle, and galleries all round. There
are faid to be about 100,000 inhabitants in the city,
comprehending 5000 Jewiffi families, befides Chriftians.
There are four fundics, or public inns, fuch as are in
Turkey ; and fix cazernes, or barracks, for the unmar¬
ried Turkiflifoldiers, which will hold 600 each. There
are no inns for Chriftians to lodge at; but only a few
tippling huts kept by flaves, for the accommodation of
Greeks and the poorer fort of travellers, where any
thing may be had for money. Here are bagnios, or
public baths, in the fame manner as in Turkey, at a
very moderate rate. The women have baths of their
own, where the men dare not come. Without the city
there are a great number of fepulchres, as alfo cells or
chapels, dedicated to marabouts, or reputed faints,
which the women go to vifit every Friday. The Turkifli
foldiers are great tyrants; for they not only turn others
out of the way in the ftreets, but will go to the farm-
houfes in the country for twenty days together, living
on free quarters, and making ufe of every thing, not
excepting the women. The Algerines eat, as in Turkey,
fitting crofs-legged round a table about four inches high,
and ufe neither knives nor forks; before they begin, e-
very one fays Be ifrite Allah, “ In the name of God.”
When they have done, a flave pours water on all their
hands as they fit, and then they wafh their mouths."
Their drink is water, flierbet, and coffee. Wine is not
allowed, though drank immoderately by fome. The pro-
fpeft of the country and fea from Algiers is very beau¬
tiful, being built on the declivity of a mountain ; but
the city, though for feveral ages it has braved fome of
the greateft powers in Chriftendom, it is faid, could
make but a faint defence againft a regular liege; and
that
A L G [ 455 1 A L H
Algol, that three Englifh fifty-gun fiu'ps might batter it about
Algonqmns the eaig of its inhabitants from the harbour. If fo,
v the Spaniards muft have been very deficient either in
courage or conduft. They attacked it in the year
1775, by lknd and by fea, but wererepulfed with great
lofs; though they had near zo,ooo foot and 2000
horfe, and 47 king’s fhips of different rates and 346
tranfports. In the year 1783 and 1784, they alfo;re¬
newed their attacks-by fea to deftroy the city and gal¬
leys ; but, after fpending a quantity of ammunition,
bombs, &c. were forced to retire without either its-
capture or extin&iom The mole of the harbour is
500 paces in length, extending from the continent to
a fmall ifland where there is a caftle and large battery.
E. Long. 3. 30. N. Lat. 36. 40.
ALGOL, a fixed ftar of the third magnitude, call¬
ed Medufa’s Head, in the conftellation Perfeus; its
longitude is 21° 50' 42!' of Taurus, and its latitude
230 23' 47" north; according to .Flamftead’a cata¬
logue. For an account of its changes, period, and o-
ther circumftances, fee Astronomy [Index).
ALGONQUINS, a nation in North America, who
formerly pofTefled great trafts of land along the north
fhore of the river St Lawrance. For a long time they
had no rivals as hunters and warriors, and were long
in alliance with the Iroquois ; whom they, agreed to
protect from alb invaders, and to let them have a-fhare
of their venifon. The Iroquois, on the other hand, were
to pay a tribute to their allies, out of the culture of the
earth ; and to perform for them, all the menial duties,
fuch as flaying the game, curing the flelh, and drefling
the {kins. By degrees, however, the Iroquois aflbeiated
in the hunting matches and warlike expeditions of the
Algonquins ; fo that they foon began to fancy them-
felves as well qualified, either for war or hunting, as their
neighbours. One winter, a large detachment, of both
nations having gone out a-hunting, and fecured, as they
thought, a vail quantity of game, fix young Algon¬
quins and as many Iroquois were fent out to begin,
the {laughter. The Algonquins, probably become a
little jealous, of their aflbciates, upon feeing a few elks,
defired the' Iroquois to return, on pretence that they
would have fufficient employment: in flaying the game
they fhould kill; but after three days hunting,.having
killed none, the Iroquois exulted, and in a day or two
privately fet out to hunt for themfelves. The Algon¬
quins were fo exafperated at feeing their rivals return
laden with game, that they murdered all the hunters
in the night-time. The Iroquois diffembled their re-
fentment; but in order to be revenged, applied them¬
felves to ftudy the art of war as pra&ifed among thofe
favage nations.. Being afraid of engaging with the
Algonquins at firft, they tried their prowefs on other
inferior nations, and, when they thought, themfelves
fufficiently expert, attacked the Algonquins with fuch
diabolical fury, as {bowed they could be fatisfied with
nothing lefs than the extermination of the whole race;
which, had it not been for the interpofition of the
French, they would have accomplilhed.—The few Al¬
gonquin nations that are now to be feen, feem entirely
ignorant of agriculture, and fubfift by fifliing and huntr
ing. They allow themfelves a plurality of wives; ,not-
withftanding which, they daily decreafe in populoufnefs,
few or none of their nations containing above 6000
fouls, and many of them not 2000. Their language is
one of the three radical ones in North America, being Aljrar
underftood from the river St Lawrance to the Miffif- , H ,
fipp- Alhl'"hra-
ALGOR, with phyficians, an unufual coldnefs in
any part of the body.
ALGORITHM, an Arabic word expreffive of nu¬
merical computation.
ALGUAZIL, in the Spanifli polity, an officer
whoffe bufinefs it is to fee the decrees of a judge exe¬
cuted.
ALHAGl, in botany, the trivial name of a fpecies
of hedyfarum. See Hedysarum.
ALHAMA, a very pleafant town of the kingdom
of Granada, in Spain, fituated in the raidft of fome
craggy mountains, about 25 miles S. W. of Granada,
on the banks of the Rio Frio, in W. Long, 1. 10.
N. Lat.. 36. 59. and having the fineft warm baths in
all Spain. It was taken from the Moors in 1481.
The inhabitants, though furprifed, and the town with¬
out a garrifon, made a gallant defence: but being at
length forced to fubmit, the place was abandoned to
the pillage of the Chriflian foldiers; who, not fatisfied
with an immenfe quantity of gold and jewels, made
flaves of upwards of 3000 of the inhabitants.
ALHAMBRA, the ancient fortrefs and refidence
of the Mooriftr monarchs of Granada. It derives its
name from the red colour of the materials which it was
originally built with, Alhambra fignifying a red houfe.
It appears to a traveller a huge heap of as ugly build¬
ings as can well be feen, all huddled together, feem-
ingly without the leaft intention of forming one habi¬
tation out. of them. The walls are,- entirely unorna¬
mented, all gravel and pebbles, daubed over with pla-
fter by a very courfe hand: yet this is the palace of
the Moorifh kings of Granada, indifputably the moft
curious place within that exiffcs in Spain, perhaps in
the world. In many countries may be feen excellent
modern as well as ancient architecture, both entire and .
in ruins ; but nothing to be met with any where elfe
can. convey an idea of this edifice, except the decora-,
tions of an opera, or the tales of the genii.
Palling round, the corner of the emperor’s palace, .
one is admitted at a plain unornamented door in a cor¬
ner. On my firft vifit, fays Mr Swinburne, .1 confefs Travels i*.
I was {truck with amazement, as I ftept over the
threffiold, to find myfelf on a hidden tranfported into
a fpecies of fairy land. The firft place you come to
is the court called the communa or del mefucar, that is
the common baths; an oblong fquare, with a deep ba-
fon of clear water in the middle ; two flights of marble
fteps leading down to the bottom ; on each fide a par¬
terre of flowers, and a row of orange-trees. Round
the court runs a periftyle paved with marble; the
arches bear upon very flight pillars, in proportions
and ftyle different from all the regular orders of
architecture. The ceilings and walls are incruftated"
with fret-work in ftucco, fo minute and intricate, that
the moft patient dranghtfman would find it difficult to
follow it, unlefs he made himfelf mailer of the general
plan. This would facilitate the operation exceedingly;
for all this work is frequently and regularly repeated
at certain diftances; and has been executed by means
of fquare moulds applied fucceffively, and the parts
joined together with the utmoft nicety. In every di-
vifion are Arabic fentences of different lengths, moft
off
A L H [ 456 ] A L H
Alhambra, of them expreffive of the following meanings: “ There
is no conqueror but God;” or, “ Obedience and ho¬
nour to our Lord Abouabdoula.” The ceilings are
gilt or painted, and time has caufed no diminution in
the frelhnefs of their colours, though conftantly expo-
fed to the air. The lower part of the walls is mofaic,
difpofed in fantaftic knots and feftoons. A work fo
novel, fo exquilitely finiflied, and fo different from all
that he had ever feen, muft afford a flranger the moll
agreeable fenfations while he treads this magic ground.
The porches at the ends are more like grotto-work
than any thing elfe to which they can be compared.
That on the right hand opens into an oftagon vault,
under the emperor’s palace, and forms a perfeft whif-
pering gallery, meant to be a communication between
the offices of both houfes.
Oppofite to the door of the communa through which
you enter, is another leading into the quarto de los
leones., or apartment of the lions; which is an oblong
court, 100 feet in length and 50 in breadth, environ¬
ed with a colonnade 7 feet broad on the frdes and 10
at the end. Two porticos or cabinets about 15 feet
fquare, projedt into the court at the two extremities.
The fquare is paved with coloured tiles ; the colonnade
•with white marble. The walls are covered five feet up
from the ground with blue and yellow tiles, dHpofed
chequerwife. Above and below is a border of fmall
efeutebeons, enamelled blue and gold, with an Arabic
motto on a bend; fignifying, “ No conqueror but
God.” The columns that fupport the roof and gal¬
lery are of white marble, very flender, and fantaflically
.adorned. They are 9 feet high, including bafe and
capital, and 84- inches diameter. They are very irre¬
gularly placed ; fometimes fingly, at others in groups
of three, but more frequently two together. The
width of the horfe-fhoe arches above them is four feet
two inches for the large ones, and three for the fmaller.
The ceiling of the portico is finifhed in a much finer
and more complicated manner than that of the com¬
muna, and the ftucco laid on the walls with inimitable
delicacy; in the ceiling it is fo artfully frofted and
handled as to exceed belief. The capitals are of vari¬
ous defigns, though each defign is repeated feveral
times in the circumference of tire court, but not the
leaft attention has been paid to placing them regularly
or oppofite to each other. Not the fmalleft reprefen-
tation of animal life can be difeovered amidft the va¬
rieties of foliages, grotefques, and ftrange ornaments.
About each arch is a large fquare of arabefques, fur-
rounded with a rim of characters, that are generally
quotations from the Koran. Over the pillars is ano¬
ther fquare of delightful filligree work. Higher up
is a wooden rim, or kind of cornice, as much enrich¬
ed with carving as the ftucco that covers the part un¬
derneath. Over this projeCts a roof of red tiles, the
only thing that disfigures this beautiful fquare. This
ugly covering is modern, put on by order of Mr Wall,
the late prime minifter, who a few years ago gave the
Alhambra a thorough repair. In Moorifti times, the
building was covered with large painted and glazed
tiles, of which fome few are ftili to be feen. In the
•centre of the court are twelve ill-made lions muzzled,
their fore parts fmooth, their hind parts rough, which
bear upon their backs an enormous bafon, out of which
a leffer rifes. While the pipes were kept in good or-
. N° 12. I
der/a great volume of water was thrown up, that, fall- Alhambri,
ing down into the bafons, pafled through the beafts,y-—wJ
and ifiued out of their mouths into a large refervoir,
where it communicated by channels with the jet d’eaus
in the apartments. This fountain is of white marble,
embellifhed with - many feftoons and Arabic diftichs,
-thus tranflated :
“ Seeft thou not how the water flows copioufly like
the Nile >”
“ This refembles a fea wafhing over its fttores,
threatening ihipwreck to the mariner.”
“ This water runs abundantly, to give drink to the
lions.”
Terrible as the lion is our king in the day of
battle.”
4‘ The Nile gives glory to the king, and the lofty
mountains proclaim it.”
“ This garden is fertile in delights: God takes care
that no noxious animal {hall approach it.”
“ The fair princefs that walks in this garden, co¬
vered with pearls, augments its beauty fo much, that
■thou may’ft doubt whether it be a fountain that flows,
or the tears of her admirers.”
Faffing along the colonnade, and keeping on the
fouth fide, you come to a circular room ufed by the
men as a place for drinking coffee and forbets in. A
fountain in the middle refreihed the apartment in fum-
mer. The form of this hall, the elegance of its cu¬
pola, the cheerful diftribution of light from above, and
the exquifite manner in which the ftucco is defigned,
painted, and finiihed, exceed all powers of defeription.
Every thing in it infpires the moft pleafing, voluptu¬
ous ideas ; yet in this fweet retreat they pretend that
Abouabdoulah affembled the Abencerrages, and cau¬
fed their heads to be ftruck off into the fountain. Con¬
tinuing your walk round, you are next brought to a
couple of rooms at the head of the court, which are
fuppofed to have been tribunals, or audience-chambers.
Oppofite to the Sala de los Ahencerrages is the en¬
trance into the Torre de las dos hermanas, or the tower
of the two fifters; fo named from two very beautiful
pieces of marble laid as flags in the pavement. This
gate exceeds all the reft in profufion of ornaments,
and in beauty of profpedt which it affords through a
range of apartments, where a multitude of arches ter¬
minate in a large window open to the country. In a
gleam of funfhine, the variety of tints and lights
thrown upon this enfilade are uncommonly rich. The
firft hall is the concert-room, where the women fate;
the muficians played above in four balconies. In the
middle is a jet d’eau. The marble pavement is equal
to the fineft exlfting, for the fize of the flags and even-
nefs of the colour. The two fifters, which give name
to the room, are flabs that meafure x 5 feet by 74-,
without flaw or ftain. The walls, up to a certain
height, are mofaic, and above are divided into very
neat compartments of ftucco, all of one defign, which
is alfo followed in many of the adjacent halls and gal¬
leries. The ceiling is a fretted cove. To preferve
this vaulted roof, as well as fome of the other principal
cupolas, the outward walls of the towers are raifed 10
feet above the top of the dome, and fupport another
roof over all, by which means no damage can ever be
caufed by wet weather or exceffive heat and cold.
From this hall you pafs round the little myrtle-garden
A L H [ 457 3 A L I
Alhambra, of LIndaraxa, into an additional building made to the
4”—"v--”—' eaft end by Charles V. The rooms are fmall and low.
His dear motto, Plus outre, appears on every beam.
This leads to a little tower, proje&ing from the line of
the north wall, called El tocador, or the dreffing-room
of the fultana. It is a fmall fquare cabinet, in the
middle of an open gallery, from which it receives light
by a door and three windows. The look-out is charm¬
ing. In one corner is a large marble flag, drilled full
of holes, through which the fmoke of perfumes afcend-
ed from furnaces below t and here, it is prefumed, the
Moorifli queen was wont to fit to fumigate and fweeten
her perfon. The emperor caufed this pretty room to
be painted with reprefentations of his wars, and a great
Variety of grotefques, which appear to be copies, or
at leaft imitations, of thofe in the loggie of the Vati¬
can. From hence you go through a long paflage
to the hall of ambafladors, which is magnificently de¬
corated with innumerable varieties of mofaics, and the
mottos of all the kings of Granada. This long narrow
antichamber opens into the communa on the left hand,
and on the right into the great audience-hall in the
tower of Comares ; a noble apartment, 36 feet fquare,
36 high up to the cornice, and 18 from thence to the
centre of the cupola. The walls on three fides are r 5
feet thick, on the other 9 ; the lower range of win¬
dows 13 feet high. The whole wall is inlaid with
mofaic of many colours, difpofed in intricate knots,
ftars, and other figures. In every part various Arabic
fentences are repeated.
Having thus completed the tower of the upper apart¬
ments, which are upon a level with the offices of the
new palace, you defcend to the lower floor, which
confifted of bedchambers and fummer-rooms: the back-
ftairs and paffages, that facilitated the intercourfe be¬
tween them, are without number. The moft remark¬
able room below is the king’s bedchamber, which
communicated, by means of a gallery, with the upper
flory. The beds were placed in two alcoves, upon a
raifed pavement of blue and white tiles; but as it was
repaired by Philip V. who paffed fome time here,
it cannot be faid how it may have been in former
times. A fountain played in the middle, to refrelh
the apartment in hot weather. Behind the alcoves
are fmall doors, that conduit you to the royal baths.
Thefe confift of one fmall clofet with marble cifterns
for waffiing children, two rooms for grown up perfons,
and vaults for boilers and furnaces that fupplied the
baths with water and the ftoves with vapours. The
troughs are formed of large flabs of white marble; the
wall are beautified with party-coloured earthen ware ;
light is admitted by holes in the coved ceiling.
Hard by is a whifpering gallery, and a kind of laby¬
rinth, faid to have been made for the diverfion of the
women and children. One of the pafiages of commu¬
nication is fenced off with a ftrong iron grate, and
called th» prifon of the fultana; but it feems more pro¬
bable that it was put up to prevent any body from
climbing up into the womens quarter.
Under the council-room is it long flip, called the
hinjf s fiudy; and adjoining to it are feveral vaults, faid
to be the place of burial of the royal family. In the
year 15 74, four fepulchres were opened ; but as they
contained nothing but bones and affies, were immedi¬
ately clofed again.
Vcn. I. Part II.
This defcription of the Alhambra may be finifhed
by obferving how admirably every thing was planned
and calculated for rendering this palace the moft vo¬
luptuous of all retirements; what plentiful fupplies of
water were brought to refreih it in the hot months of
futAmer ; what a free circulation oF air was contrived,
by the judicious difpofition of doors and windows;
what lhady gardens of aromatic trees; what noble
views over the beautiful hills and fertile plains! No
wonder the Moors regretted Granada; no wonder they
ftill offer up prayers to God every Friday for the re¬
covery of this city, which they efteem a terreftrial pa-
radife. See Granada.
ALI, gives the denomination to a fe&, or divifion,
among- the Mahometans, who adhere to the right of
fucceffion of Ali the fourth caliph or fucceffor of Ma¬
homet, and to the reform of Muffulmanifm introduced
by him. The feftaries of Ali are more particularly
called Schiites; and ftand oppofed to the Sunnites, or
feft of Omar, who adhere to the law as left by Maho¬
met, Abubeker, and Omar. Ali was coufin of Maho¬
met, and fon-in-law of that prophet, having married his
daughter Fatimah. After Mahomet’s death, great de¬
putes arofe about the fucceffion. Many flood for Ali;
but Abubeker was preferred, and defied the firft kalif.
Ali took his turn, after the death of Othman.—The
Perfians are the chief adherents to the fed of Ali, whom
they hold to have been the legitimate fucceffor of Ma¬
homet, and Abubeker an ufurper. On the contrary, the
Turks are of the fed of Omar; and hold Ali in execra¬
tion, having raifed a furious civil war among the Muf-
fulmans. The diftinguifhing badge of the followers of
Ali is a red turban, which is worn by the Perfians, who
are hence called in derifion, by the Turks, Kiftlbachi,
q. d. red-heads. Ali is reputed the author of feveral
works, particularly a Centiloquium, in great efteem
among the Arabs and Perfians, part of which has been
publifhed in Englifh by Mr Ockley.
ALJAMEIA is a name which the Morifcoes in
Spain give to the language of the Spaniards. Among
other articles agreed on by the junto, which was ap¬
pointed by the emperor Charles V. in 1526, in favour
of the Morifcoes, this was one, That the Morifcoes
ftiould no longer fpeak Algavareia, i. e. Moorifti or
Arabic; but ftiould all fpeak /Hjameia, i. e. Spanifti, as
it was called by the Moors, and all their writings and
contrads ftiould be in that language.
ALIAS, in law, a fecond or farther writ iffued from
the courts of Weftminfter, after a capias, &c. fued
out without effed.
ALIBI, in law, denotes the abfence of the accufed
from the place where he is charged with having com¬
mitted a crime; or his being elfenahere, as the word
imports, at the time fpecified.
ALICANT, a large fea-port town in the province
of Valencia and territory of Segura. It is feated be¬
tween the mountains and the fea, and has a caftle
deemed impregnable. The port is defended by three
baftions furnilhed with artillery. To prevent the vifits
of the Algerine pirates, watch-towers were built to
give notice of the approach of an enemy’s ftiip. It
was taken from the Moors in 1264. The caftle was
taken by the Englifh in 1706, and held out a fiege of
two years before it was retaken by the French and Spa¬
niards, and at laft funrendered upon honourable terms,
3 M after
A L I [ 458 ] A L I
after part of the rock was blown up. on which the caftle merly very numerous in England, and fo called from Alienation,
flood, and the governor killed. The houfes are high, their belonging to foreign abbeys. Aliment.
J and well built; and a very great trade is carried on here, ALIENATION, in law, denotes the aft of making v—'
particularly in wine and fruit. It is feated in the Me- over a man’s property in land, tenements, &c. to an-
diterranean, on a bay of the fame name,. 37 miles north- other petfon.
eaft of Murcia, and 75 fouth of Valencia. W. Long. Alienation in mortmain, is making over lands, te¬
en 36. N. Lat. 38. 24. riements, &c. to a body^politic, or to a religious houfe,
ALICATA, a mountain of Sicily, near the valleys for which the king’s licence muft firil be obtained, o-
Mazara and Noto, upon which was iituated (as is ge- therwife the lands, &c. alienated will be forfeited,
nerally thought) the famous Dsedalion, where the ty- Alienation in fee, is the felling the fee-fimple of
rant Phalaris kept his brazen bull. any land, or other incorporeal right. All perfona
Alicata, a town of Sicily, remarkable for corn and who have a right to lands may generally alien them
good wine. It was plundered by the Turks in 1543; toothers; but fome alienations are prohibited : fitch
and is feated on a fort of peninfula near the fea, twen- as alienations by tenants for life, &c. whereby they in-
ty-two miles S. E. of Girgenti. E. Long. 15. 20. cur a forfeiture of their eftate. By the llatute of Ed-
N. Lat. 37. 11. ward I. a bar was put to alienations by what we call
Alicata Chlamys, was a fort of veil with fleeves, entails, which is an expedient for procuring perpetui-
worn by the Roman boys till the age of thirteen, at ties in families; but counter expedients were devifed to
which time they put on the pretext a. defeat this intent., and a praftice was introduced of
ALIEN, in law, implies a perfon born in a ftrange cutting off entkils by fines, and of barring remainders
country not within the king’s allegiance; in contra- and reverfions py recoveries. The ftatute for aliena-
dillinftion to a denizon, or natural fubjeft. The word tions in Henry Vll.’s time had a great effeft on the
is formed from the Latin alius, “another”; q. d. one conllitution of this kingdom ; as, among other regu-
born in another country. An alien is incapable of in- - lations of that reign, it tended to throw the balance
heriting lands in Britain till naturalized by an aft of of power more into the hands of the people. By the
parliament. No alien is intitled to vote at the elec- flat. 12 Car. II. cap. 24. fines for alienations are ta-
tion of members of parliament; nor can he enjoy any ken away. Crown lands are only alienable under a
office, or be returned on any jury, unlefs where an faculty of perpetual redemption. The council of La-
alien is party in a caufe, when the inqueft is compofed teran, held in 1123, forbids any clerk to alienate his
of an equal number of denizens and aliens. The rea- benefice, prebend, or the like. By the laws of the
fons for ellablifhing thefe laws were, that every man is ancient Jews, lands could only be alienated for the
prefumed to bear faith and love to that prince and fpace of 50 years. At each return of the jubilee all
country where he received proteftion during his infan- returned again to the primitive owners, or their de-
cy ; and that one prince might not fettle fpies in ano- feendants, to whom the lands were originally allotted
ther’s country ; but chiefly, that the rents and revenues at the firft dillribution of Canaan,
of the country might not be drawn to the fubjefts of AlienATioN-Offi'ce, is an office to which all writs of
another. Some have thought that the laws againft a- covenants and entry, upon which fines are levied, and
liens were introduced in the time of Henry II. when recoveries fuffered, are carried, to have fines for alie-
a law was made at the parliament of Wallingford, for nation fet and paid thereon.
the expulfion of ftrangers, in order to drive away the ALIMENT, (from alo to nourifh), implies food
Flemings and Picards introduced into the kingdom by both folid and liquid : from which, by the procefs of
the wars of King Stephen. Others have thought that digeftion, is prepared a very mild, fweet, and whitifn
the origin of this law was more ancient; and that it liquor, refembling milk, and diftinguiflied by the name
is an original branch of the feudal law: for by that of chyle; which being abforbed by the lafteal veins,,
law no man can purchafe any lands but he muft beobli- by them conveyed into the circulation, and there affi-
ged to do fealty to the lords of whom the lands are milated into the nature of blood, affords that fupply
holden ; fo that an alien who owed a previous faith to of nutrition which the continual wafte of the body is
another prince, could not take an oath of fidelity in found to require.—Next to air, food is the moft necef-
another fovereign’s dominions. Among the Romans, fary thing for the prefervation of our bodies: and as
only the Gives Romani were efteemed freemen ; but on the choice thereof our health greatly depends, it is
when their territories increafed, all the Italians were of great importance to underftand, in general, what
made free, under the name of Latins, tho’ they had is the propereft for our nourilhment; and, in particular
hot the privilege of wearing gold rings till the time deviations from health, what is the bell adapted to re-
of Juftinian. Afterwards all born within the pale of ftore us- Our blaod and juices naturally incline to be-
the empire were confidered as citizens. come putrid and acrimonious: frelh chyle, duly receL
AsiEN-Duty, an impoft laid on all goods imported ved, prevents this deftruftive tendency, and preferves
by aliens, over and above the cuftoms paid for fuch in them that mild Hate which alone confifts with health-
goods imported by Britifh, and on Britilh bottoms. An animal diet affords the moft of this bland nutritious
AuENs-Duty is otherwife called petty cufioms, and mucilage ;, watery fluids dilute the too grofs parts, and*
navigation-duty.—Filh dried or falted, and cod-filh or carry off what is become unfit for ufe. It is only the
herring not caught in Britilh veffels and cured by Bri- fmall portion of jelly which is feparated from the fa-
tilh, pay a double aliens-duty.—On what footing aliens rinaceous parts of vegetables, that, after being much,
are permitted to import foreign, commodities into Great elaborated, is converted into the animal nature; yet
Britain, fee Duty. the ufe of vegetables prevents both repletion and a»
AxiEN-Pritries, a kind of inferior menafteries, for- too great tendency to a putrefeent acrimony of the
blood.
A L I l 459 1 A L I
■AlimeiH. blood. In hot climates, as well as again(l the confti-
b"“’v tutional heat of particular perfons, vegetables are de¬
manded in the largeft portion ; animal fubftances af¬
ford the higheft relifh while our appetite continues 5
but will fate the appetite before the ftomach is duly fil¬
led. Vegetables may be eaten after either flefh or
fifh: few herbs or fruits fatiate fo much as that the
ftomach may not be filled with them, when it is alrea¬
dy fatisfied with flefii or fifh; whence it may be ob-
ferved, that no diet which is very nourifhing can be
eat to fulnefs, becaufe its nutritious parts are oily and
fatiating.—Health depends almoft wholly on a proper
crafis of the blood ; and to preferve this a mixture of
vegetables in fome degree is always required, for a
loathing is foon the confequence of animal food alone :
hot acrid habits, too, receive from milk and vegetables
t.he needful for correcting their exceffes t but in cold,
pituitous, and nervous habits, who want moft nou-
rifhment from leaft digeftion, and from the fmalleft
quantity of food, animal diet is to be ufed more
freely.
Thus much being offered as general principles with
refpeCt to the matter and quality of our aliment, the va¬
letudinarian may eafily regulate his diet with fome ad¬
vantage to himfelf by an attention to the few enfuing
particulars. In winter, eat freely, but drink fparingly:
roaft meat is to be preferred, and what is drank fhould
be ftronger than at other feafons. In fummer, let thirft
determine the quantity to be drunk; cold ftomachsne¬
ver require much : boiled meats and vegetables, if not
otherwife contradicted, may now be more freely ufed.
Lax habits require the winter’s diet to be continued all
the year, and rigid ones fhould be confined to that of
fummer. Fat people fhould fall at times, but the lean
fhould never do fo. Thofe who are troubled with e-
ru&ations occafioned by their food, fhould drink but
little, and ufe fome unaccuftomed exercife. The thirfty
fhould drink freely, but eat fparingly. In general, let
moderation be obferved; and tho’ no dinner hath been
had, a light fupper is at all times to be preferred. Af¬
ter very high-feafoned meats, a glafs of water acidula¬
ted with the acid elixir of vitriol, or in very weak
ftomachs the fweet elixir of vitriol, is far more affif-
tant to the work of digeftion than the common method
of taking brandy. See further Food and Drink.
Obligation of Aliment, in Scots law, the natural obli¬
gation on parents to provide their children with the ne-
ceffaries of life, &c. See Law, Part III. N° clxxiii. 4.
Alimentarii Pueri, &c. were certain children main¬
tained and educated by the munificence of the empe¬
rors, in a fort of public places, not unlike our hofpitals.
.—Trajan was the firft that brought up any of thefe
alimentary boys. He was imitated by Adrian. An¬
toninus Pius did the fame for a number of maids, at
the felicitation of Fauftina; and hence, in fome me¬
dals of that emprefs, we read pvellae favstinianae.
—Alexander Severus did the like at the requeft of
Mammsea; and the maids thus educated were called
Mammajanae.
Aliment art DuS or Canal, is a name given by Dr
Tyfon and fome others to that part of the body thro’
which the food paffes, from its reception into the
mouth to its exit at the anus ; including the gala, fto¬
mach, and inteftines. See Anatomy.
This dud has been faid to be the true charaderiftic
of an animal, or (in the jargon of the fchools) in pro- Alimentary
prium quarto mode; there being no animal without it, Aj;fnia<
and whatever has it being properly enough ranged un- u—y—^
der the clafs of animals. Plants receive their nourifti-
ment by the numerous fibres of their roots, but have
no common receptacle for digefting the food received,
or for carrying off the recrements. But in all, even
the loweft degree of animal life, we may obferve a fto¬
mach and inteftines, even where we cannot perceive
the leaft formation of any organ of the fenfes, unlefs
that common one of feeling as in oyfters. Phil. Tranf.
N° 269, p. 776, feq.
Dr Wallis brings an argument from the ftrudure of ‘
the alimentary tube in man, to prove that he is not
naturally carnivorous; to which Dr Tyfon makes fome
objedions. V. Phil. Tranf. N° 269, p. 777.
Alimentary Law, lex aliment aria, was an old law
among the Romans, whereby children were obliged to
find fuftenance for their parents.
ALIMONY, in law, implies that allowance which
a married woman fues for, and is intitled to, upon any
occafional feparation from her hufband. See Law,
Part III. N° clx. 13.
ALIPILARIUS, ofAlipilus, in Roman anti¬
quity, a fervant belonging to the baths, whofe bufinefs
it was, by means of waxen plafters, and an inftrument
called volfella, to take off the hairs from the arm-pits,
and even arms, legs, &c. this being deemed a point of
cleanlinefs.
ALIPTERIUM, axcixltigiov, in antiquity, a place
in the ancient palejlree, where the athletic were anoint¬
ed before their exercifes.
ALIQUANT part, in arithmetic, is that number
which cannot meafure any other exadly without fome
remainder. Thus 7 is an aliquant part of 16; for
twice 7 wants two of 16, and three times 7 exceeds
16 by 5.
ALIQUOT part, is that part of a number or quan¬
tity which will exadly meafure it without any remain¬
der. Thus 2 is an aliquot part of 4; 3 of 9; 4 of 16,
&c.
ALISANDERS, or Alexanders, in botany. See
Smyrnium.
ALISMA, or Water-Plantain : A genus of the
polygynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
5th order, Tetrapetaloideie. The charaders are: The
calyx is a three-leaved perianthium; The corolla con-
fifts of three roundilh, large, flat, expanding petals;
The Jlamina confift of fix fubulated filaments (hotter
than the corolla; the anthene are roundifh: The pif
tillum confifts of more than five germina ; the ftyli are
Ample, the ftigmata obtufe: The pericarpium confifts
of compreffed capfuls;: The feeds are fmall and foli-
tary. Of this genus there are eight
Species, viz. The plantago, or great water-plantain,-
which grows in all the marfhy parts of this countryj
the rammculoldes, or leffer water-plantain ; the natans,
or creeping water-plantain ; the damafonium, or ftar-
headed water-plantain; all which are natives of Bri¬
tain. The others, viz. the flava, cordifolia, fubu-
lata, and parnaffifolia, are natives of America, where
they are generally found in ftagnating Waters, and p-
ther fwampy places; fo that it would be difficult to
preferve them in Britain, for they will not live in the
3 M 2 open
A L K [ 460 ] A L K
AHfontla open air, and they require a bog to make them thrive :
Alkali kut as they are plants of no great beauty or ufe, it is
. not worth while to cultivate them in this country.
ALISONTIA, or Alisuntia, (anc. geog.); a
river of Belgic Gaul, now Alfitz; which rifing on the
borders of Lorrain, and running through the duchy,
waters the city of Luxemburg, and, fwelled by other
rivulets, falls into the Sur.
ALITES, in Roman antiquity, a defignation gi¬
ven to fuch birds as afforded matter of auguries by •
their flight.
ALKADARII, a feft among the Mahometans
v/ho deny any eternal, fixed, divine decrees, and are
afferters of free will. The word is formed from the
Arabic alkadar, which fignifies “ decree.” The Alka-
darii are a branch of Motazalites, and ftand oppofed to
the Algiabarii. See Algiabarii.
ALKAHEST, or Alcahest, in chemiftry, an
univerfal menftruum capable of refolving all bodies in¬
to their firft principles. Van Helmont pretended he
was poffeffed of fuch a menftruum ; but, however cre¬
dulous people might be impofed on in his days, the no¬
tion is now become as ridiculous as the philofopher’s
ftone, the perpetuum mobile, &c.—It is likewife ufed
by fome authors for all fixed falts volatilized.
ALKALI, in chemiftry, one of the general di-
vifions of falts, comprehending that clafs of chemical
elements which, by their union with acids, form per¬
fect neutrals, in oppofition to the falts formed of acids
with metals or earths, which are called imperfect.
Alkaline falts are divided into two kinds, the fixed
and volatile; and the former into two fpecies, veget
table, and mineral or foflil. All of thefe poffefs fome
1 properties in common, and fome peculiar to each*
Properties Thofe which they have in common are, x. An acridi.
auThe'alka'ari<^ Pun£ent ta^e» which, when the falts are,very pure,
liiie fails.a" and ftrong, degenerates into abfolute caufticity, and
would entirely deftroy the organ . of fenfation if long
applied to it. 2. A tendency to difiblve animal fubftan-
ces, and reduce them to 3. gelatinousTubftange, which
all of them will do when very ftrong. , 3. An attrac¬
tion for acids, with a.pawer of.Lparating earths and
metals from them, though previoully combined with
the fame. 4. They change, the,blue vegetable juices to
green ; the green to. yellow; the yellow, to orange; the
orange to red; and the red to purple.. 5. They unite
with oils, and deftroy or caufe to fade almoft .all kinds
of colours that ean.be, put upon cloth, whence their
a ufe in bleaching, 3tc,.
Properties The properties common to both kinds .of fixed alka-
tommon to Hs. are, x. .They refill the action of fire to a great de-
•dalkaiis.*" Sree> t^lat they can eafily be reduced to a folid form
by evaporating any liquid in which they happen to be
diffolved,. a. By an intenfe fire, they flow into a liquid
which concretes into an hard and folid mafs in the cold..
3. When mixed in certain proportions with thofe .earths
or ftones called vilrifahle, they melt, in a heat ftill
more intenfe, into glafs. 5. Mixed with ammoniacat
falts, with animal fubftances,, or with foot, they extri¬
cate a volatile alkali. ,
Of the vo- . v°latil« alkali differs from the other two in be-
alkali. UJg unable tOTefill the fire, and being entirely refol-
vable into an invifible and permanently elaftic fluid, cal¬
led by Dr Prieftley alkaline air. In confequence of
3his volatility, it always affe&s the olfactory nerves
4
very perceptibly, and its fmell is the general criterion Alkali,
by which its ftrength may be judged of. Its attradlion ——v—^
for acids, power of changing colours, &c. are alfo con-
fiderably weaker than thofe of the fixed alkalis.
Though two forts of volatile alkali are commonly
fold under the names of fpirits of hartfhorn and of fal
ammoniac, the one differs from the other only in its
degree of putity. The former is fo called from its be-.
ing originally made from the horns of deer; but this
material has long been laid afide, and the bones of horr ■
fes, the flint t, as they are called, of the horns of cat¬
tle, the parings of hoofs, &c. have been fubftiiuted in
their (lead. This kind, however carefully- prepared,
always contains a portion of animal oil, .the fmell of
which is very perceptible; the other, prepared from
pure fal ammoniac, is totally free of any empyreuma-
tic fmell, and is as pure as it can be obtained by any
means whatever. 4
Effervefcence with acids was ■ formerly fuppofed to Effervef-
be a diftinguilhing property. of alkalis, though it was ce:'ce wit!Vi
always known that by a mixture with quicklime they charlaeri-,
might be deprived of this property., . Dr Black, how-‘flic of alC
ever, has (hown, that the effervefeing with acids is no kali,
property of pure alkali,,but is occafioned only by the
efcape of fixed air from it i , of confequence, when
quicklime is added,. , which attracts the. whole or great-
eft part of the fixed air, no effervefcence can be per¬
ceived. Io the. ftate . in .which the, fixed alkalis are
commonly met with, indeed, .effervefcence. with acids
may be faid to be an effential property ; .but this is enr
tirely owing to the .caufe juft mentioned, viz. a quan¬
tity of fixed air, .to. which they are united during the
procefs by which they were originally formed. The
quantity of . this air, however, is never fo great as to
faturate them entirely; on the contrary, their alkaline
properties are always very perceptible, and they are
commonly faid to be in a mild ftate. But the truth
is, that now they are in a kind of intermediate ftate
between what may be called perfedlly mild and per-
feftly cauftic. In their perfe&ly mild ftate, they are
united with fuch a large quantity of fixed air as en¬
tirely overpowers their alkaline properties ; and there¬
fore they are no more intitled to the name of alkalis
in this ftate, than when combined with the marine, ni¬
trous, or any other acid; in which cafe the compounds,
are called neutral falts. But it is a much .more labo- .
rious and tedious procefs to faturate an alkali com¬
pletely with fixed air than with any other acid; nor,
does it very eafily retain the aerial acid after it has
once been combined with it., Hence the cauftic tafte-
and properties of the alkali almoft always, predominate^
and the fait contains a portion of pure and cauftic al¬
kali, to which alone its virtues are to be aferibed. ^
Vegetable alkali is obtained in its greateft purity by Prep: ratioa,
deflagrating nitre with charcoal, provided we make ufe,°f the ve- 1]
of no more of the latter than is barely fufficient to de- .Setahie al»
ftroy the nitrous acid. It is, however, a very difficultka '*
matter to adjuft thi? proportion with fufficient ac¬
curacy ; for if we employ too much charcoal, the fait,
will be confiderably phlogifticated; if too little, fome
part of the nitre will remain undecqmpofed. Burnt
tartar therefore, purified by folution and filtration, may
be looked upon as the belt alkali we have. The com¬
mon alkalis, or ajhes as they are called, and faid to b&
obtained from the allies of vegetables, are always mix¬
ed
Alkali.
A L K [46
A Alkali, ed with much phlogifton, and fometxmes with lime,
.. , fait, or other hetei-ogeneous matters ; for which rea-
.1 fon they are not to be employed in the nicer chemi¬
cal experiments, without being purified by folution in
water, by filtration, and cryftallization. The pureft of
all thefe falts is that called the blue pearl, imported
6 from Hungary.
* Its peculiar The vegetable alkali when thus purified, and con-
ij properties. ta;ning near one half its weight of fixed air, is of a
white colour when dry, with a very hot and caullic
tafte, polfeffing in an eminent degree all thofe qualities
which have been afcribed to the alkaline falts in ge-
Ineral. It runs per deliquhmi when expofed to the air;
and is ufually incapable of being chryftallized, though
it acquires this property after being employed in the
rectification of ardent fpirit. It adheres more clofe-
ly to acids than any fubftance hitherto difeovered;
though, from fome experiments, Bergman was induced
to believe that pure terra ponderofa attra&ed acid's ftill
more powerfully. But this has been difeovered to be
a= miftake by Dr Withering, who, in a- paper publifhed
in the 74th volume of the Philofophical Tranfa&ions-,
Ihows, that unlefs where the earth is united with vi¬
triolic acid, not only the vegetable, the fofiil, but even
the volatile alkali in its pure or cauftic ftate, will fepa-
rate it from any other with which it may be combined;
Terra ponderofa, therefore, will always decompofe vi-
triolated tartar, Glauber’s fait,' or vitriolic ammoniac ;
whence the miftake of this celebrated chemift probably
has proceeded. After this alkali has been once united
-with marine acid, it-appears to have undergone fome
change; for the fait then produced, by combining it
with the vitriolic acid, refembles Glauber’s fait almofi
as much as it docs vitriolated tartar. It feems there¬
fore to have made fome approach towards the nature
of foffil alkali; but chemifts have not inquired what
would be the confequence of repeated combinations of
7 this kind.
Of the fof- The foffil alkali differs from the vegetable in having
fil alkali. 2 fmal}er attra&ion for acids, in being more eafily fu-
fible by itfelf, and forming a more foluble compound
with the vitriolic acid.: It is alfo eafily cryftallizable,
even without the addition of more fixed air than it
naturally contains: and experience has determined it
to be more proper for glafs or foap manufactures than
the vegetable alkali ; for which reafon the demand for
it is very confiderable.
• The fofiil alkali was anciently called natron or nitre,
and is fpoken of by Pliny and Tacitus as an ingredi¬
ent in glafs, &c. and the feriptures inform us that it
was ufed in baths. The knowledge of this fait was
loft in the general obfeurathm of feienee which took
place on the decline of the Roman empire ; nor do we
find it mentioned till the time of the Hon. Robert
Boyle; and, even fince that time, though M du Ha¬
mel gave an accurate account of it in a memoir for
the year 1736, little farther notice was taken of it till
p very lately.
Faund na- We are now certainly informed that the foffil alkali
tive in ma- is found native in many parts of the world, which ne-
the^worlcf ver ‘s t^le ca^e w’t^1 ^ie vegetable alkali. The places
where it abounds moft are, Egypt, the country of Tri¬
poli in Barbary, the peak of Teneriffe in one of the
Canary iflands, Hungary, feveral of the provinces of
Ruffia, fome parts of Afia, particularly the neighbour-
8
This alkali
known to
«the an-
cknts.
i ] A L K
hood of Smyrna, See. though it has not hitherto been
found in any of the weftern countries of Europe, ex-  v—
cepting in the neighbourhood of volcanoes, or in mi¬
neral waters; and in thefe laft only in very final! quan¬
tity- . . 10
The great fource of the mineral alkali, however, and Is the bails
from whence it is not improbable that the places al- common
ready mentioned have been fupplied by fome unknown *ait*
natural operation, is the water of the ocean. Foffii
alkali is the natural baits of fea-falt; and could any
method of readily procuring it from this fait be fallen
upon, it would no doubt be a moft valuable fecret.
Hitherto, however, all the methods ufed with any fuc-
cefs by the ehemifts may be reduced to two. 1. By
mixing the nitrous acid with fea-falt in a retort, in the
proportion, according- to Dr Vogel, of four of the
acid to one of the fait, and' diftilling off the muriatic
acid, or rather aqua regia, which will be produced in ■
the procefs.. The .reiiduum-will afford a cubical nitre
by cryftallization, from whence the alkali may' be ob¬
tained pure by deflagrating with charcoal. 2. By ad¬
dition of vitriolic acid the ipirit of fea-falt will be ex¬
pelled much more eafily, and at a cheaper rate, than
by the nitrous acid. The refiduum • affords Glauber’s
lalt in great plenty : this being melted in a crucible
with a fufficient quantity of charcoal-duft, forms a
hepar fulphuris ; which being decomppfed by means of
the vegetable acid, the latter may be deftroyed by force
of fire, and the alkali obtained in purity. - Eor a fur*
then- explanation of both thefe methods, fee the article
Chemistry, Index.
The demand in this country for foffil alkali is fup¬
plied from the afhes of kali and other fea plants, from
which it is feparated in the.fame manner as the vege¬
table alkali from the aflies of other plants. The pureft
kind of aflies containing this fait is called foda or ba¬
rilla, and is imported chiefly from foreign countries ;
that which is obtained from the fea-weed growing on
our own coafts, and known by the name of kelp, is
exceffively impure, and fcarce admits of being tho¬
roughly analyfed according to the rules of chemiftry. - Jr
Both thefe alkalis may be deprived of their fixed Properties
air, and thus rendered pure and cauftic, by the addi- “I l oth Ac¬
tion of quicklime. In this ftate the difference between
them is much lefs perceptible than in any other, thougff g;c>
the addition of fixed air, or any other acid, always
fttows that no effential change has taken place in either.
In this highly .cauftic ftate they deftroy. the parts of
animals in a manner fimilar to that of fire; whence .
they are called potential cauteries, as the former is
called the afiual cautery. M. Morvean informs us,
that on digefting a piece of beef in a foktion of cau¬
ftic vegetable alkali, the liquor fo©n became red, and
the fleftri affiimed the form of a famitranfparent jelly,
in which, however, one could eafily perceive the ra¬
mifications of the fmalleft fibre ; and, after {landing
fome months, it emitted but very little fmell. The
vegetable alkali is commonly made ufe of as the mate¬
rial for the common cauftic or lapis inftmalis oi the
fliops 5 for the preparation of which, fee Chemistry,
Index. Both alkalis attraft moifture from the air when
reduced to a folid form in their cauftic ftate, though
neither the foffil alkali nor its combinations do fo in
any other cafe. In their cauftie Hat? alfo they only
unite with oils, or diffolve in fpirit of wine }• which laft
they
A L K
kali
mild
cauftic
Hates.
A L K [ 462 ]
they have been fuppofed to purify, though it is more
than probable that they decompofe and communicate
difagreeable qualities to it.
Volatile al- The volatile alkali, when procured immediately by Acid of tartar
>** the diftillation of any fubftance capable of yielding it,
A is obtained in a ftate fimilar to that in which the alka¬
lis are ufually met with, viz. half mild and half cau¬
ftic. By expofing the liquid alkali to a great quantity .
•of fixed air, we may at laft have it perfectly mild and
neutralifed ; in which ftate it appears as a white fait Acid of borax
extremely volatile, though lefs fo than the pure cauftic Acid of phofphorus
alkali. It diflblves very readily in watery but unlefs
fome cauftic fpirit, or fome lime or fixed alkali be add- Saccharine acid, &c.
ed, in order to abftraft part of the fixed air, it will Aerial acid
fcarcely exhibit the charafteriliic of volatile alkali, viz.
a pungent and urinous fmell. The addition of fixed air,
however, makes very little difference with regard to
Volatile alkali combined with
’A fait whofe properties
have not been invefti-
gated ; which Ihools
into fine long cryftals,
and does not deliquate
in the air.
An anomalous fait.
Microcofmic fait, or ef*
fential fait of urine.
Anomalous falls.
Volatile fal ammoniac, or
fait of hartftiorn.
, , o Befides their attraction for acids, the alkalis have Attra&ions
the chemical combinations of this fait; for as fixed alfo an attraftion for oils, fulphur, and fpirit of wine,?f al*.
air has a very fleuder power of acidity, it is expelled in the moiit way, when the falls are deprived of their nous fujjj**
by every other acid with the greateft: cafe, and the fixed air ; and in this, as well as the dry way, with (lances,
fame combinations formed as though it had not been feveral metals, and vitrifiable earths and Hones, as has
prefent. The only difference is, that when a mild al- been already mentioned.
kali is added to an acid, a ftrong effervefcence takes With oil .the vegetable fixed alkali forms a foap,
place by reafon of the efcape of the fixed air through though lefs perfect than.that made with the cauftic mi-
the liquid, while with the cauftic alkali the mixture is neral alkali. When Combined with fixed air they
made quietly and without difturbance.
The various combinations of the alkaline falls with
the different acids, and the neutral compounds thence
.refulting, are exhibited in the following table.
1. Vegetable fixed alkali combined with
Vitriolic acid
Nitrous acid
Marine acid
Acetous acid
Acid of tartar
Acid of borax,
Acid of phofphoms,
Saccharine acid, See.
Aerial acid
•Vitriolated tartar.
Nitre.
Sal digeftivus.
Terra foliata tartar!.
Soluble tartar.
^ been afeertained.
.Mild or aerated alkali.
2. Foffil or mineral fixed alkali combined with
Vitriolic acid
Nitrous acid
Marine acid
Acetous acid
Acid of tartar
Acid of borax
Acid of phofphorus, 1
Saccharine acid, See. J
Aerial acid
3. Volatile alkali combined with
Vitriolic acid
Nitrous acid
Marine acid
Acetous acid
fcarcely unite with oils. Boiled with fulphur, or melt¬
ed with it in their dry ftate, they unite into a very fe¬
tid compound called hepar fulphur is, which is foluble
in water, but totally and very quickly decompofed by
the contaft of air. Vegetable alkali unites with iron,
fin, 'and zinc; corrodes copper, and runs with it into*
a liquor of a deep blue colour, and joins with lead in
fufion. It does not a<ft upon gold in its metallic ftate *
but if a fufficient quantity be added to a folution of
gold in aqua regia, the calx of the metal will be firft
precipitated and afterwards diffolved.
Vegetable alkali is a principal ingredient in thepow-
f Anomalous falts, whofe ders called fluxes, ufed for the fufion of metalline ores,
properties have not It promotes the fufion of earths, and forms glafs with
the ayllalline kind. It is foluble in an equal weight
of diftilled water; and, when expofed to the air, it
foon attrafts moifture from it and flows into a liquid.
In its cauftic ftate it diffolves in fpirit of wine, and
forms with it a red tin&ure called Van Helmont's
tinfture of fait of tartar, formerly ufed both as an in¬
ternal and external remedy, but now fallen into dif-
repute.
Fofiil alkali in its cauftic ftate unites with oil into
an harder foap -than that made with vegetable alkali.
With fulphur it forms a hepar fulphuris in the fame
manner as the vegetable alkali, and yields a tincture
with fpirit of wine, which diffolves part of the fait
whilft hot, but lets it fall again in a cryftalline form
when cold. Gold, filver, or quickfilver, are not af-
fefted by a folution of this fait; but copper and tin
are diffolved by it in the open air. It affedts tin, lead,
regulus of antimony, and cobalt, flightly; but a£t*
powerfully upon zinc, and forms a kermes mineral
or with crude antimbny. Copper, iron, bifmuth, zinc,
fal antimony, and regulus of cobalt, fufed with two parts
of foffil alkali, are almoft entirely diffolved in a very
or ftrong heat; but tin, lead, and regulua of antimony,
treated in the fame manner, only fuffer a partial folu¬
tion.
All the alkalis are of confiderable ufe in medicine,
2. though.
’Glauber’s fait.
Cubical nitre.
Common fait.
A fait refembling terra
fdliata tartari, butwhich
does not deliquate.
Rochelle fait.
Borax.
j~ Unknown falts.
Mild foffil alkali.
'Vitriolic ammoniac,
Glauber’s fecret
ammoniac.
Nitrous ammoniac,
volatile nitre.
Common fal ammoniac
. ;Spiritus mindereri.
A L K [ 463 7 A L K
U Alkali, though the particular virtues of vegetable and foffil al-
... _ ka]i have not hitherto been properly afcertained. It
sj ledical is probable, however, that there mull be a confider-
i| irtues of able diverfity in their operations on the human body,
I kaline as the vegetable alkali fhows itfelf fo much more acrid
Iks* and powerful than the foffil. As both of them unite
immediately with acids, and change them into mild
I neutral falts ; hence, if any of the ftrong mineral acids
ftiould fall upon any part of the human body, and be¬
gin to corrode and give pain, the immediate applica¬
tion of the lixivium tartari, or of a folution of any of
thofe alkaline falts in water, or of the falts themfelves
in powder, will deftroy their caufticity, and prevent
their doing further mifchief: Or if any of thefe acids
Ihould drop on clothes, linen, or other fubftances, and
alkaline falts are immediately applied, they will neu¬
tralize the acid, and prevent its further corrofion : Or
if a perfon ihould, through miftake, fwallow any of
the mineral acids, or corrofive fublimate, or any other
corroding fait which an alkali will decompofe, the
taking jdown into the ftomach folutions of the alkaline
falts, or the falts themfelves in proper dofes, are the
moil likely means of affording relief, if not given too
late (a).
Both the vegetable and foffil alkali applied exter¬
nally in a cauilic flate, firil irritate and inflame the
flcin, and afterwards a6l as fire in mortifying and de-
ftroying it; and therefore have been much ufed by fur-
geons for opening buboes and other abfceffes, and for
eating away proud or fungous fleih that fprouts out
from fores. Various formulas of cauftic alkalis have
been employed for thefe purpofes, of which an account
is given under Chemistry and Pharmacy.
The alkaline falts, when much diluted with water,
have been ufed as wafhes for removing pimples from
the face ; but if fuch wafhes are continued long, they
are apt to fpoil the fkin. The ancients often ufed to
diflblve natron (the foffil alkali) in their baths, and
efleemed fuch baths ufeful for removing itchings of
the fkin, the fcab, the impetigo, leprofy, and almofl
all forts of cutaneous eruptions; and they employed
baths of the fame kind for promoting fweat, and for
curing various diforders. They mixed it likewife with
turpentine, with oils, and with fluffs of various kinds,
and rubbed or applied fuch compofltions to the fkin,
for removing different complaints, to heal fores, to
ftrengtben weak or relaxed parts, to deftroy the poifon
| of the bite of a mad dog, and of ferpents ; and they
15 efteemed it as an antidote againft many other poifons.
5>o not a61 It has been proved that alkaline falts preferve animal
a antifep- fubftances from putrefaction ; on which account fome
ukerTiuto Pra<^iti°Iters have concluded that they adl as ftrong
fee human antifeptic remedies when fwallovved as medicines, and
»ody. are taken up by the lafteal veflels, and by them car¬
ried to the fubclavian vein to be mixed with the blood.
■ Experience, however, has fhown that they have effects
direftly oppofite, and that by ftimulating the veffels
and quickening the circulation,, they contribute towards
the diffolution of the vital fluid ; of which Dr Monro AlkaE
fays he has feen feveral inftances. '—^ v
Alkalis promote tire fecretions in general, particu¬
larly by the kidneys ; but by the help of warm liquors
and bed-clothes, their operation may be diredled to¬
wards the fkin. They have alfo been employed in cafes
of heartburn, and others where an acid prevails in the
ftomach and bowels, or where thefe organs are loaded
with vifcid phlegm. They are likewife given with a-
view to affift the operation of the bile when it is too
weak and inert, either by themfelves, or mixed with,
purgative or other medicines. The foffil alkali has
been alleged to be a more powerful folvent of the hu¬
man calculus than the vegetable, though perhaps with¬
out any juft foundation. It is given from 5 to 20 grains
three times a-day; and in fome cafes even to double
that quantity. It may be taken in any common li¬
quor, or in clear broth made of lean meat, from which
the fat has been flammed off; or the powdered falts
may be made up into pills or bolufes mixed with li¬
quorice powder, by means of mucilage of gum Arabic
or conferve. 16
The vegetable alkali has long been ufed as a diuretic Are of con»
in dropfies with great fuccefs; and Dr Monro informs^
us, that he has feen a number of cafes of anafarca in pies>
which the water was carried off by it. As diuretics,
it may be taken from ten grains to half a drachm, or
more, two or three .times a-day, mixed with fome di-
ftilled water, fyrup, broth, or water-gruel, or with two-
ounces of white-wine, which partly neutralizes the fait-
When added to infufions of juniper-berries, broom-tops,
horfe-radifb, muftard-feed, winter’s-bark, &c. in wine
and beer, they prove powerful diuretics; and Dr Monro
gives the following formula.
“ Take broom-tops, horfe-radiffi, and juniper-ber¬
ries, of each an ounce ; bruife them in a ftone or marble
mortar ; put them into a large wide-mouthed bottle,
and add to them an ounce of fait of tartar and two-
quarts, of Rheniffi wine. Infufe them for four days;,
decant off the wine, and filter it through paper for
ufe* Two or three ounces may be taken three or four
times a-day.”
Or, “ Take an ounce of canella alba, and as much
muftard-feed and juniper-berries; bruife them well in
an iron mortar, and add an ounce of purified vegetable
alkafi with two quarts of porter: infufe for four days,
and filter the liquor through paper; let the patient take
a wine-glafs full every four or fix hours.”
The diuretic powers of thefe medicinesare fometimes-
increafed by opiumj and theyj have been fuccefsfully
joined with effential oils and balfams.
The moft remarkable property of thefe falts,. how-An excel-
ever, is that of diffolving the human calculus ; for the *ent foment
difeovery of which,. Mrs Stephens, in the year 1740,of tile
obtained a parliamentary reward of 5000 1. At that
time Dr Jurins being affli&eff with the ftone, tried a
number of experiments on thefe medicines; from which
he concluded, that their efficacy depended entirely oir
the
(a) With regard to the mineral acids, an exception feems to take place if oil of vitriol in its concentrated
Hate fhould happen to be fwallowed ; for this contrails fuch a degree of heat on the contact: of any aqueous
fluid as would deftroy the patient, independent of another caufe. An inftance we have feen where a perfon
unhappily miftook a bottle of oil of vitriol for water in the night-time. He recovered by fwallowiag inftantly
a- grtat quantity of milk. Another recovered by drinking a bottle of Florence oil*
A L K
[ 464 1
A L K
Alkaii. the alkaline falts and lime which they contained ; and taking any thing which is likely to counteraft or de-
" therefore he began to try what effefts a foap-ley would ftroy the effefts of the ley.”
have on himfelf. At firft he took only a few drops,
but gradually increafed his dofe till he came to
ounce, and fometimes an ounce and a half, in a proper
With regard to the ufe of the foap-ley, our author
obferves, “ that he has feen a number of people who
have taken it, both for gravelliih complaints and for
vehicle, in 24 hours. This produced the difcharge of the ftone ; that many of thofc who had gravel were
fome fmall calculi, and relieved him of the fymptoms
of the ftone. Dr Hartley, likewife, laboured under
this complaint; and believing that the efficacy of Mrs
Stephens’s medicines depended on the foap, lime, and
alkaline falts which they contained, ordered a pafte to
be prepared for himfelf, made of eight ounces of foap,
one of oyfter- fhell lime, a drachm of fait of tartar, and
relieved, and fome of them feemed to be cured ; that
fome few of thofe who had the confirmed ftone, received
eonfiderable relief for a time from its ufe: but the com¬
plaints afterwards returned; ndf can he fay that one com¬
plete cure was made; though from the accounts given by
the late Dr Whytt of Edinburgh, and others, it fhould
appear that this had fometimes happened : that in
s much water as formed the whole into afoft mafs; of many cafes of ftone the ley occafioned pain and irrita-
which he took large quantities, and found himfelf tion, and increafed the violence of the fymptoms fo
greatly relieved, though not cured, as a ftone was found
in his bladder after his death. Thefe and other in-
ftances of fuccefs, foon brought the medicines into ge¬
neral ufe : but though many found relief from them,
others, particularly thofe who were affi idled with the
ftone, had all the fymptoms of their diftemper aggra¬
vated, by the falts rendering the blood, and other li¬
quors of the body, particularly the urine, ffiarp and a-
crid, fo as to irritate and inflame the bladder, which
was already in too irritable a ftate, from the conftant
fri&ion of the calculus lodged within it. The late ex¬
periments of Mr Scheele and Sir Torbern Bergman,
however, have made it evident, that the human calcu¬
lus is compofed of a concrete acid joined to a fmall por¬
tion of animal earth, Moft people, therefore, who are
affiidled with the ftone or gravel, wifh to try the effi¬
cacy of thefe remedies, rather than fubmit to the dan¬
gerous operation of lithotomy ; we fhall therefore fub- man who had taken it, and who had found confider-
much, that the patients were obliged to lay it afide ;
and that this happened moft frequently where the blad¬
der feemed to be already difeafed from the irritation of
the ftone : that at all. times it is advifable to lay afide
this medicine, at leaft for a time, whenever it irritates
and occaftons pain, or where there are appearances of
its continued ufe having broken down the crafis of the
blood.
Inftead of the foap-ley, the following folution of
vegetable alkali, fully faturated with fixed air, has been rtecoa^
lately recommended as a powerful folvent of the ftone. mended.
“ Take two ounces of fait of tartar, and diffolve it in
two quarts of diftilled water, and then faturate it fully
with fixed air ; and let the patient take eight ounces
of it every eight hours. But though many cafes have
been related in which this medicine is faid to have been
ferviceable, our author fays he has feen only one gentle-
join, from Dr Monro, the following direftions for ma-
j8 king and ufing the foap-ley.
"Monro’s “ Take of fait of tartar, eight ounces; of freffi quick-
direftions lime, four ounces; of diftilled water, a quart: mix
and ^en} ‘I11 weft together in a large bottle, and let them
the toap- ftand f°r 24 hours ; then pour off the ley and filter it
ley. through paper, keeping it in well-ftopped vials for ufe.
Of this the dofe is from 30 drops to three or four
drachms, which is to be repeated two or three times in
the day.
* One of the beft methods of taking this ley is, to
able relief from it. Soap-ley has likewife been recom¬
mended as a folvent of bilious calculi, and has fome¬
times been of fervice; but this has probably arifen more
from its property of diffolving thick and vifcid hu¬
mours, and affifting the aftion of the bile, than by
adling on the calculi themfelves. 20
The volatile alkali has many of the virtues of the Medical
fixed, but affedls animal fubftances, particularly in its
cauftic ftate, lefs powerfully than they do. It gives a a 1
brifli and ftrong ftimulus to the nerves and fibres of li¬
ving animals; and is therefore employed in difeafes
mix the quantity to be ufed in the day with three pints where the pulfe is low and the circulation too languid;
of plain broth, which has been made with the lean’part
of veal, with all the fat or oily parts feparated from it,
by putting it, when made, into a large bowl, and flam¬
ming them off with a fpoon when cold, and to drink,
within an hour, a pint of this broth three times in the
day—early in the morning—ut noon—and in the even¬
ing ; and to continue the ufe of this medicine for three,
four, or more months ; and, during this courfe, to live
on fuch things as leaft counteraft the operation of the
medicine : to take for breakfaft fome plain broth, fuch
as has been defcribed, with dry toafted bread or bifcuit;
or a dilh or two of tea or coffee in place of the broth:
for dinner, to eat the lean part of plain boiled orroaft-
ed meat, or a fowl, with their own gravy or juice for
fauce ; and to eat only of vegetables which contain but
little acid, fuch as potatoes, &e. and to ufe for drink
in low' fevers, where the patient is in danger of fink¬
ing ; in apople&ic and lethargic diforders of elderly
people of phlegmatic habits, in paralytic cafes, faint¬
ing fits, &c. where a brifk and ftimulating remedy is
wanted. It is often ufed as a diaphoretic and fudorific
in cafes of rheumatifm, in the end of fevers, catarrhs,
and other difeafes, where a plentiful diaphorefis or fweat
is required; and, according to our author, it is prin¬
cipally owing to this quality that the alkalis have ob¬
tained their reputation of being efficacious remedies
againft the bites of ferpents and other venomous ani¬
mals. It is equally efficacious againft mineral acid
poifons with the fixed alkali. ar
It now remains only to give fome account of the o- Origin
rigin of the alkalis, or that procefs by which they are a|kalin$
naturally produced. This fubjeft, however, is very^114''
toaft and water, or water with a very fmall portion of much involved in obfcurity; nor has the origin of fix-
fpirit in it; and to abftain from eating fruit and acef- "I -*• 1~A l-~— J —-V1- J,‘ 
fcent vegetables, fat meat, butter, or oil; and from
ed alkalis, at leaft, been inveftigated with fuch diligence
_ ... and fuccefs as that of the acids. Chemifts have been
drinking wine, beer, cyder, punch, and in ftiort from divided in their opinions, whether alkaline falts be na-
N® 12. tural
A L K [ 465 ] A L K
Alkali, tural bodies, or formed by the force of fire, uniting the
' principles of which they confift in the burning or di-
fiilling the fubftances from which they are got. It is
generally fuppofed that they are formed by the force
of fire intimately uniting an earth, an acid, and an in¬
flammable matter together, fo as to form an alkaline
fait, which is fuppofed to be compofed of thefe prin¬
ciples. In fupport of this opinion, it has been alleged,
1. That the fiKed vegetable alkali is produced by burn¬
ing vegetables which contain the principles fit for form¬
ing thefe falts; though no veftige of an alkali can be
difcovered in thefe vegetables in their natural ftate.
2. That the effential falts of vegetables, which contain
an acid and an earth, on being calcined in a crucible
with charcoal, yield an alkaline fait. 3. That by al¬
ternately allowing the vegetable alkali to run per deli-
quium, and drying it again, it precipitates a quantity
of earth every time it is diflblved; fo that the whole
of the fait is at lafl: reduced to this kind of earth, vrhile
the acid, phlogifton, &c. have evaporated, or been de-
ftroyed by the repeated application of heat for drying
the fait. 4. In like manner the volatile alkaii is pro¬
duced by diftilling animal fubftances which contain the
principles fit for producing it, though no marks of a
volatile alkali could be difcovered in thefe fubftances
while they were frelh.
On the other hand, it has been aflerted, that the al¬
kaline falts obtained by burning vegetables, or diftilling
animal fubftances, exifted originally in the materials
from which they are procured ; that they were gene¬
rated in the plants by the procefs of vegetation, and
freed by the fire from the other principles which dif-
guifed them. In fupport of this opinion the following
arguments are made ufe of by Mellrs Weigleb, Rofen-
ftiel, Morveau, &c. 1. That they had not been able to
procure an alkaline fait by mixing earths, oil, and acids
together, and fubje&ing them to the moft intenfe fire.
2. The cryftals of tartar, which were formerly believed
to be pure acid falts, have been found by late experi¬
ments to contain a vegetable alkali. 3. The vegetable
alkaline fait, when purified, is always of the fame na¬
ture, from whatever fubftance it is procured ; and
therefore muft have been an original principle or body
exifting in the vegetables from which it is procured:
for had it been produced by art, it would have varied,
and we fhould have had different fpecies of it, accor¬
ding to the principles which the plants contained.
And, 4, The neutral falts which have been found mix¬
ed with the afhes of plants, as vitriolated tartar, nitre,
and fea-falt, are likewife ftrong proofs of the original
exiftence of alkali in vegetables.
On this fubjedt Dr Monro obferves, that hitherto
we have not fufficient evidence to determine pofitively
whether the vegetable alkali be produced by the force
of fire, or if it exifted originally in the fubftances from
which it is prepared, though he is inclined to favour
the former opinion. With regard to the volatile al¬
kali, however, we have abundant evidence of its being
produced from fubftances which could not pofiibly be
fuppofed to contain it originally. Dr Stahl affures us,
that if any dry fixed alkaline fait be well rubbed in a
mortar with fuch a quantity of oil of turpentine as is
fufficient to make it of the confidence of a pulp, and
digefted for fome weeks in a cucurbit or retort, we ob¬
tain a volatile alkali. Mr Geoffroy relates, that having
Vol.I. Part II.
placed a large retort in a fand furnace, and adapting a Alkali
tubulated receiver to it, afterwards heating the hot- .„
- , , . , . . . ^ -All-Saints,
tom ox the retort red not, he put into it, by means 01 ,
a long tube rifing from the upper part of the neck, a
powder compofed of equal parts of nitre and charcoal,
on which there came over into the receiver a liquor
highly impregnated with volatile alkali. Cartheufer,
in the firft volume of his Materia Mcdica, tells us, that
if two parts of fait of tartar be mixed with one of ful-
phur, and be afterwards diftilled, they yield a volatile
alkaline fait and fpirit. Boerhaave and Macquer have
both affirmed, that the vegetative procefs itfelf produ¬
ces a volatile alkali; and that the juices got by bruifing
muftard-feed and other alkalefcent vegetables, as they
are called, contain a volatile alkali which effervefces
with acids: but this is denied by Cartheufer and Vo¬
gel, who affirm that they could difcover no traces of
volatile alkali in thefe juices by any experiments they
made.
But whatever may be concluded from the experience
of former chemifts, the late difcoveries of Dr Prieftley
and Mr Cavendifti have decifively fliown, that the vola¬
tile alkali is by no means a Ample element or natural
principle, but a compound, and which may be artifi¬
cially prepared. Dr Prieftley informs us, that by the See Aeroli-
union of nitrous air with iron, a volatile alkali is gene- gy, n° 149-
rated ; and Mr Cavendifh, that by the aftion of the
electric fluid, or pure elementary fire, upon phlogifti-
cated air, the nitrous acid is produced: the volatile al- See Acid,
kali, therefore, muft be fuppofed to confift ultimately n° 7*
of phlogifticated air united to a great quantity of ele¬
mentary fire. In Iik<^mar>ier, if we can fuppofe this
fubtile element to enter into the fubftance of any kind
of earth in fuch a manner as to exert its peculiar action
when that fubftance is applied to any other, we may
reafonably conclude that the fixed alkalis alfo are not
Ample and permanent principles, but capable of artifi¬
cial compoiition and decompofition. It is certain that
the aftion of alkaline falts is extremely fimilar to that
of fire ; and as we know that this element is combined
in a latent ftate with fluids, there can be no abfurdity
in fuppofing it capable of combining alfo with folids.
Alkali, or &al Kali, in botany. See Salicor-
NIA.
ALKANET, in botany. See Anchusa.
ALKEKENGI, in botany, the trivial name of a
fpecies of phyfalis. See Physalis.
ALKENNA, in botany. See Lawsonia.
ALKERMES, in pharmacy, a compound cordial
medicine made in the form of a confe&ion, deriving its
name from the kermes-berries ufed in its compofition.
ALKORAN. See Alcoran.
ALL-Hallows. See Slu.-Saints.
AiL-Good. See Chenopodium.
Ahi-Heal. See Heracleum andSrACHYS.
ALL-Saints, in the calendar, denotes a feftival ce¬
lebrated on the firft of November, in commemoration
of all the faints in general; which is otherwife called
All-hallows. The number of faints being fo exceffive-
ly multiplied, it was found too burdenfome to dedicate
a feaft-day to each. In reality, there are not days
enough, fcarce hours enough, in the year, for this pur-
purpofe. Hence an expedient was had recourfe to, by
commemorating fuch in the lump as had not their own
days. Boniface IV. in the ninth century, introduced
3 N the
ALL [ 4<>6 ] ALL
All-Saints the feaft of /ill Saints in Italy, which was foon after
adopted into the other churches.
Allatius. Jin-SjJNTS Bay, a fpacious harbour near St Sal-
!«=—-y—^ vador in Brazil, in S. America, on the Atlantic Ocean.
W, long. 40°, S. lat. 120.
All- Souls, in the calendar, denotes a feaft-day,
held on the fecond of November, in commemoration of
all the faithful deceafed.—The feall of All-Souls was
firft introduced in the eleventh century, by Odilon abbot
of Cluny, who enjoined it on his own order; but it
was not long before it became adopted by the neigh¬
bouring churches.
ALL-SPICE. See Myr'tus and Calycanthus.
ALLA, or Allah, the name by which the profef-
fors of Mahometanifm call the Supreme Being.
The term alia is Arabic, derived from the verb alah,.
to adore. It is the fame with the Hebrew Eloah,-which.
fignifies the Adorable Being.
ALLAMANDA, in botany ; a genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants. The charafters are : Thf calyx is a five-leavM
perianthium : The corolla confifts of one funnel-draped
petal; the tube cylindric 5 the border femiquinquefid
and ventricofe; the divifrons expanding and obtufe r
The ftamina have fcarce any filaments-; the antherae
are five, arrow-fhap’d, converging, in the throat of the
tube : The pifiillum has an oval germen, girt at the
hafe with an annular margin ; the ftylus is filiform, the
length of the tube ; the ftigma is headed, and contrac¬
ted in the middle: The perkarpium is an orbicular,
comprefs’d, briftly capfule, containing one cell with
two valves: The feeds are imbricated, orbicular, flat,
with a membranaceous wing on the margin, and are
very numerous. There is but one fpecies, the cathar-
tica, a native of Surinam.
ALLANTOIS, or Allawtoides, a gut-fhaped
veficle invefting the foetus of cows, goats, fheep, &c.
filled with an urinous liquor conveyed to it from the
urachus.— (See Comparative An atony). Anatomifts
are not agreed whether the allantois has any exiftence
in the human fpecies or not.
ALLATIUS (Leo), keeper of the Vatican library,
a native of Scto, and a celebrated writer of the 17th
century. He was of great fervice to the gentlemen of
Port Royal in the controverfy they had with M. Claude
touching the belief of the Greeks with regard to the
eucharift. No Latin was ever more devoted to the fee
ef Rome, or more inveterate againft the Greek fchif-
matics, than Allatius. He never engaged in matri¬
mony, nor was he ever in orders; and Pope Alexan¬
der VII. having afked him one day, why he did not en¬
ter into orders ? he anfvvered, “ Becaufe I would be
free to marry.” The pope rejoined, “ If fo, why do
you not marry ?” “ Becaufe,” replied Allatius, “ I
would be at liberty to take orders.” Thus, as Mr
Bayle obferves, he paifed his whole life, wavering be¬
twixt a parifh and a wife; forry, perhaps, at his death,
for having chofen neither of them; when, if he had fix¬
ed upon one, he might have repented his choice for 30
or 40 years.—If we believe John Patricias, Allatius
had a very extraordinary pen, with which, and no o-
ther, he wrote Greek for 40 years ; and we need not
be furprifed, that, when he loft it, he was fo grieved,
that he could fcarce forbear crying. He publifhed fe-
veral manuferipts, feveral tranflations of Greek authors,
3
and feveral pieces of his own compofmg. In his com- Allay
pofitions he is thought to fhow more erudition than
judgment: he ufed alfo to make frequent digreflions. g . .. .
from one fubjedt to another. He died at Rome in 1669,
aged 83.
ALLAY. See Alloy.
ALLEGATA, a word anciently fubferibed at the
bottom of referipts and conftitutions of the emperors ;
as fignata, or tejlata, was under other inftruments.
ALLEGEAS, or Allegias, a fluff manufactured
in the Eaft-Indies. There are two forts of them ;
fome are of cotton, and others of feveral kinds of herbs,
which are fpun like flax-and hemp. Their length and
breadth are of eight ells, by five, fix, or feven eighths;
and of twelve ells, by three-fourths, or five-eighths.
ALLEGIANCE, in law, is the tie, or ligamen,
which binds the fubjeft to the king, in return for that.
protection which the king affords the fubjedt. The
thing itfelf, or fubftantial part of it, is founded in rea-
fon and the nature of government; the name and the
form are derived to us from our Gothic anceftors. Un¬
der the feodal fyftem, every owner of lands held them in
fubjedtion to fome fuperior or lord, from whom or from
whofe anceftbrs the tenant or vaffal had received them :
and there was a mutual truft or confidence fubfifting
between the lord and vaffal, that the lord ftiould proteft ~
the vaffal in the enjoyment of the territoryhe had granted
him; and, on the other hand, that the vaffal fhould be
faithful to the lord, and defend him againft all his enemies.
This obligation on the part of the vaffal was called his /f-
delitas or fealty : and an oath of fealty was required by
the feodal law to be taken by all tenants to their land¬
lord, which is couched in almoft the fame terms as our
ancient oath of allegiance; except that, in the ufual oath
of fealty, there was frequently a faving or exception of
the faith due to a fuperior lord by name, under whom
the landlord himfelf was perhaps only-a tenant or vaf¬
fal. But when the acknowledgment was made to the
abfolute fuperior himfelf, who was vaffal to no man, it'
was no longer called the oath of fealty', but the oath of
allegiance ; and therein the tenant fwore to bear faith
to his fovereign lord, in oppofition to all men, without
any faving or exception. Land held by this exalted
fpecies of fealty, was called fiudum ligium, a liege fee ;
the vaffals homines ligii, or liege men; and the fovereign,
their dominus ligius, or liege lord. And when fovereign
princes did homage to each other for lands held under
their refpeftive fovereignties, a diftinftion was always
made between fimple homage, which was only an ac¬
knowledgement of tenure ; and liege homage, which in¬
cluded the fealty before-mentioned, and the fervices
confequent upon it. In Britain, it becoming a fettled
principle of tenure, that all lands in the kingdom are
holden of the king as. their fovereign and lord para¬
mount, no oath but that of fealty could ever be taken
to inferior lords ; and the oath of allegiance was ne-
cefiarily confined to the perfon of the king alone. By
an eafy analogy, the term of allegiance was foon brought
to fignify all other engagements which are due from
fubjedls to their prince, as well as thofe duties which
were fimply and merely territorial. And the oath of
allegiance, as adminiftered in England for upwards of
600 years, contained a promife “ to be true and faith-
u ful to the king and his heirs, and truth and faith to
“ bear of life and limb and terrene honour, and not to
“ know
?!i Allegiance
ilmmtnt.
ALL [ 467 1 ALL
11 know or kear of any ill or damage intended him, in dan t fuch llranger transfers himfelf from this king- Al!eg«ry.
“ without defending him therefrom.” But, at the re- dom to another. Natui-al allegiance is therefore per-
volution, the terms of this oath being thought perhaps petual, and local temporary only; and that for this rea-
to favour too much the notion, of non-reiidance, the fon, evidently founded upon the nature of government.
That allegiance is a debt due from the fubject, upon an
implied contradb with the prince; that fo long as the one
affords protection, fo long the other will demean him¬
felf faithfully.
The oath of allegiance, or rather the allegiance it-
prefent form was introduced by the convention parlia¬
ment, which is more general and indeterminate than
the former; the fubjeCt only promifing “ that he will
“ be faithful and bear true allegiance to the king,”
without mentioning “ his heirs,” or fpecifying in the ^
lead wherein-that allegiance confids. The oath of fu- felf, is held to be applicable, not only to the political
premacy is principally calculated as a renunciation of capacity of the king, or regal office, but to his natural
the pope’s pretended authority : and the oath of abju¬
ration, introduced in the reign of King William, very
amply fupplies the loofe and general texture of the oath
of allegiance ; it recognizing the right of his majedy;
derived under the aft of fettle.ment; engaging to i'up-
port him to the utmod of the juror’s power; promifing
to difclofe all traiterpus confpiracies againd him ; and
perfon and blood-royal: and for the mifapplication of
their allegiance, viz. to the regal capacity or crown,
exclufive of the perfon of the king, were the Spencers
banidied in the reign of Edward II. And from hence
arofe that principle of perfonal attachment and affec-?
tionate loyalty, which induced our forefathers (and, if
occafion required, would doubtlefs induce tlieir fons) to
exprefsly renouncing any claim of the defcendants of hazard all that was dear to them, life, fortune, .and fa-i
the late pretender, in as clear and explicit terms as the
Engliffi language can furnifh. This oath mud be ta¬
ken by all perfons in any office, trud, or employment ;
and may be tendered by two judices of the peace to
any perfon whom they fhall fufpedt of difaffedlion. And
the oath of allegiance may be tendered to all perfons
above the age of twelve years; whether natives, deni¬
zens, or aliens.
But, befides thefe exprefs engagements, the law alfo
holds that there is an implied, original, and virtual al¬
legiance, owing from every fubjedl to his fovereign, an¬
tecedently to any exprefs promife, and although the
.fubjedd .never fwore any faith or allegiance in form.
mily, in defence and fupport of their liege lord and fo¬
vereign.
It is to be obferved, however, in explanation of this- p hy's Mo-
allegiance, That it does not preclude refidance to tlxeral and Po¬
king, when his mifcondudt or weakncfs is fuch as toL,tical’ pbi-
make refidance beneficial to the community. It feems ■y’
fairly prefumable, that the convention parliament, which
introduced the oath of allegiance in its prefent form,
did not intend to exclude all refidance; lince the very
authority by yvhich the members fat together, was it-
felf the cdecl of a fuccefsful oppofition to an ackhoW-
ledged fovereign.
Again.: The allegiance above defcribed can only be
Thus Sir Edward Coke very judly obferves, that “all underdood to fignify obedience to lawful commands.
fubjedds arc equally bounden to their allegiance as if
they had taken the oath ; becaufe it is written by the
finger of the law in their hearts, and the taking of the
corporal oath is but an outward declaration of the
fame.”
Allegiance, both exprefs and implied, is however di-
ftinguidied by the law into two forts or fpecies, the one
natural, the other local; the former being alfo perpe¬
tual, the latter temporary.
Natural allegiance is fuch as is due from all men born
within the king’s dominions immediately upon their
birth. For, immediately upon their birth, they are un¬
der the king’s prote&ion ; at a time too, when (during
their infancy) they are incapable of prote<ding them-
felves. Natural allegiance is, therefore, a debt of gra¬
titude ; which cannot be forfeited, cancelled, or alter¬
ed, by any change of time, place, or circumdance, nor
by any thing but the united concurrence of the legifia-
ture. A Briton who removes to France, or to China,
owes the fame allegiance to the king of Britain there
as at home, and twenty years hence as well as now. For
it is a principle of univerfal law, That the natural-born
fubjedt of one prince cannot by any aid of his own, no,
not by fwearing allegiance to another, put off or dif-
charge his natural allegiance to the fonner: for this
natural allegiance was intrinfic, and primitive, and an¬
tecedent to the other ; and cannot be diveded without
the concurrent adt of that prince to whom it was firft
due.
Local allegiance is fuch as is due from an alien, or
ftranger horn, for fo long time as he continues within
the king’s dominion and protection ; and it ceafes the
If, therefore, the king Ihould iffue a proclamation, le¬
vying money or impodng any fervice or fedraint upon
the fubjecd, beyond what the law authorifed, there
would exid no fort of obligation to obey fuch a pro¬
clamation,; in confequence of having taken the oath of
allegiance.
Neither can allegiance be fuppofed to extend to the
king after he is actually and abiolutely depofed, driven
into exile, or otherwife rendered incapable of exercifing
the regal office. The promife of allegiance implies,
that the perfon to whom the promife is made continues
king; that is, continues to exercife the power, and af¬
ford the prate&ion, which belong to the office of
king: for it is the pod'effion’ of thefe which makes
fuch a particular perfon the objeft of the oath.
ALLEGORY, in compofition, confids in choofing
a fecondary fubjeft, having all its properties and cir-
cumdances refembling thofe of the principal fubjedi,
and defcribing the former in fuch a manner as to re-
prefent the latter. The principal fubjeft is thus kept
out of view, and we are left to difcover it by reflection.
In other words, an allegory is, in every refpecl, fi-
milar to an hieroglyphical painting, excepting only
that words are ufed indead of colours. Their effefts
are precifely the fame : An hieroglyphic raifes two
images in the mind; one feen, that reprefents one that
is not feen : An allegory does the fame ; the reprefen-
tative fubjcdt is defcribed, and the refemblance leads us
to apply the defcription to the fubjeft reprefented.
There cannot be a finer or more corredt allegory than
the following, in which a vineyard is made to reprefent
God’s ow'u people the Jews :
3 N 2 “ Thou
ALL [ 468 ] ALL
“ Thou haft brought a vine out of Egypt; thou angel) fliould finifli his days fo raiferably, in a country Allegri.
“ haft call out the heathen, and planted it. Thou didft where his talents were never known  
“ caufe it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The From want of curiofity or of refolution, or from
“ hills were covered with its (hadow, and the boughs want of patronage, Corregio never vifited Rome, but
« thereof were like the goodly cedars. Why haft thou remained his whole life at Parma, where the art of
u then broken down her hedges, fo that all that pafs painting was little efteemed, and of confequence poorly
“ do pluck her ? The boar out of the wood doth wafte rewarded. This concurrence of unfavourable circum-
“ it, and the wild beaft doth devour it. Return, we ftances occafioned at laft his premature death at the
befeech thee, O God of hofts : look down from hea- age of 40. He was employed to paint the cupola of
4‘ ven, and behold, and vifit this vine and the vineyard the cathedral at Parma, the fubjetft of which is an at-
“ thy right-hand hath planted, and the branch thou fumption of the Virgin ; and having executed it in a
f* madfcft ftrong for thyfelf.” Pfal. Ixxx. manner that has long been the admiration of every per-
Nothing gives greater pleafure than an allegory, fon of good tafte, for the grandeur of defign, and el'pe-
when the reprefentative fubjeft bears a ftrong analogy, cially for the boldnefs of the fore-fliortenings (an
in all its circumftances, to that which is reprefented. art which he firft and at once brought to the utmoft
But moft writers are unlucky in their choice, the ana- perfe&ion), he went to receive his payment. The
logy being generally fo faint and obfcure, as rather to canons of the church, either through ignorance or
puzzle than to pleafe. Allegories, as well as meta- bafenefs, found fault with his work ; and although the
phors and fimiles, are unnatural in expreffing any fe- price originally agreed upon had been very moderate,
vere paffion which totally occupies the mind. For this they alleged that it was far above the merit of the
reafon, the following fpeech of Macbeth is juftly con- artift, and forced him to accept of the paultry fum of
' ’ ' ’ ’ ’ ’ 1 r ^ ■ 2QQ i;vres . ^ich, to add to the indignity, they paid
him in copper money. To carry home this unworthy
load to his indigent wife and children, poor Corregio
had to travel fix or eight miles from Parma. The
weight of his burden, the heat of the weather, and
his chagrin at this villanous treatment, immediately
threw him into a pleurify, which in three days put an
end to his life and his misfortunes.
For the prefervation of this magnificent work the
world is indebted to Titian. As he palled through
demned by the learned author of the Elements of Cri-
ticifm:
Methought I heard a voice cry, Sleep no more!
Macbeth doth murder Sleep ; the innocent deep j
Sleep that knits up the raveil’d fleeve of Care,
The birth of each day’s life, fore Labour’s bath.
Balm of hurt minds, great Nature’s fecond courfe.
Chief nourifher in life’s feaft. Aft. ii. Sc. 3,
But fee this fubjeft more fully treated under the article
Metaphor and Allegory.
ALLEGRI (Antonio), called Corregio from the Parma, in thefuite of Charles V. he run inftantly to
place of his birth, an eminent hiftorieal painter, was fee the chef d'oeuvre of Corregio. While he was at-
born in the year 1494. Being defcended of poor pa- tentively viewing it, one of the principal canons of the
rents, and educated in an obfcure village, he enjoyed church told him that fuch a grotefque performance did
none of thofe advantages which contributed to form not merit his notice, and that they'intended foon to have
the other great painters of that illuftrious age. He the whole defaced. “ Have a care of what you do-,
faw none of the ftatues of ancient Greece or Rome ; (replied the other), if I were not Titian, I would cer-
nor any of the works of the eftablifiied fchools of tainly wifti to be Corregio.”
Rome and Venice. But Nature was his guide ; and Corregio’s exclamation upon viewing a picture by
Corregio was one of her favourite pupils. To exprefs Raphael is well known. Having long been accuflom-
the facility with which he painted, he ufed to fay that ed to hear the moft unbounded applaufe bellowed on.
he always had his thoughts ready at the end of his the works of that divine painter, he by degrees be-
pencil. came lefs defirous than afraid of feeing any of them.
The agreeable fmile, and the profufion of graces One, however, he at laft had occafion to fee. He
which he gave to his madonas, faints, and children, examined it attentively for fome minutes in profound
have been taxed with being fometimes unnatural; but filence ; and then with an air of fatisfaftion exclaim-
flill they are amiable and feducing : An eafy and flow- ed, I am fill a painter, Julio Romano, on feeing-
ing pencil, an union and harmony of colours, and a fome of Corregio’s piftures at Parma, declared they
perfeft intelligence of light and lhade, give an aftonilh- were fuperior to any thing in painting he had yet be¬
ing relief to all his piftures, and have been the admi- held. One of thele no doubt would be the famous,
ration both of his cotemporaries and his fuccdfors. Virgin and Child, with Mary Magdalene and St Je-
Annibal Caracci, who flo.urilhed 50 years after him, rom : But whether our readers are to depend upon his
ftudied and adopted his manner in preference to that opinion, or upon that of Lady Millar, who in her
of any other mailer. In a letter to his coufin Louis, l.etters from Italy gives a very unfavourable account of
he exprelfes with great warmth the impreflion which was ic, we lhall not prefume to determine. This lady,
made on him by the firft fight of Corregio’s paintings : however, fpeaks in a very different ftyk of the no lefs
“ Everything which I fee here (fays he) aftonilhes me ; famous No/te or Night of Corregio, of which fhe faw
particularly the colouring and the beauty of the children, only a copy in the Duke’s palace at Modena, tne ori-
They live—they breathe—They fmile with fo much ginal having been fold for a great fum of money to
grace and fo much reality, that it is impolfible to re- the king of Poland. “ It furprifes- me very much
frain from fmiling and partaking of their enjoyment. (fays Ihe), to -fee how different the charafters are in
My heart is ready to break with grief when I think this pifture from that which I already have defcribed
on the unhappy fate of poor Corregid—that fo won- to you. The fubjeft is a Nativity; and the extraor¬
derful a man (if he ought not rather to be called an dinary beauty of this pifture proceeds from the clair
chfcvre*
ALL C 469 ] ALL
A Aitegro cljcare} there are two difFerent lights Introduced, by in the Revelations (xix. 1,3,4,6.) fays, that lie a heard A'lcn-ami
'll Alleluiah means perfonages are vifible; namely, the
‘ light proceeding from the body of the child, and the
moon-light. Thefe two are preferved diftinct, and pro¬
duce a moft wonderful effeft. The child’s body is fo lu¬
minous, that the fuperficies is nearly tranfparent, and
the rays of light emitted by it are verified in the effeft
I they produce upon the furrounding objefts. They are
not rays diftindt and feparate, like thofe round the
face of a fun that indicates an infurance-office ; nor
linear, like thofe proceeding from the man in the al¬
manack ; but of a dazzling brightnefs : by their light
a great voice of much people in heaven, who faid, Al- AjJ|,n
leluiah ; and the four and twenty elders, and the four , ‘ <
beafts, fell down and worfhipped God that fat on
the throne, faying Alleluiak.” This hymn of joy and
praifeswas transferred from thefynagogue to the church.
St Jerom tells us, that at the funeral of Fabiola feve-
ral pfalms were fung with loud alleluiahs; and that
the monks of Paleftine were awakened, at their mid¬
night watchings, with the fmging of alleluiahs. So
much energy has been obferved in this term, that the
ancient church thought proper to preferve it, without
you fee clearly the face, neck, and hands, of the Vir- tranflating it either into Greek or Latin, for fear of
gin (the reft of the perfon being in ftrong fiiadow),
the faces of .the pajlori who crowd round the child,
and particularly one woman, who holds her hand be¬
fore her face, left her eyes ftiould be fo dazzled as to
prevent her from beholding the Infant. This is a
beautiful natural aftion, and is moft ingenioufly intro¬
duced. The ftraw on which the child is laid appears
gilt, from the light of his body Ihining on it. The
moon lights up the back-ground of the pifture, which
reprefents a landfcape. Every objeft is diftinft, as in
a bright moon-light night; and there cannot be two
lights in nature more different than thofe which appear praife the Lord,
in the fame pifture. The virgin and the child are of ALLEMAND,
the moft perfedl beauty. There is a great variety of
charadter in the different perfons prefent, yet that uni¬
formity common to all herdfmen and peafants. In
fhort, this copy is fo admirable, that I was quite forry
to be obliged to lofe fight of it fo foon ; but I never
ftiall forget it. The duke of Modena, for whom Cor-
regio did the original pifture, gave him only 600 livres
of France for it; a great fum in thofe days : but at
prefent, what ought it to coft ?” This great painter’s-
death happened in 1534.
impairing the genius and foftnefs of it. The fourth
council of Toledo has prohibited the ufe of it in times
of Lent, or other days of fading, and in the ceremo¬
nies of mourning : and, according to the prefent prac
tice of the Romifh church, this word is never repeated
in Lent, nor in the obfequies of the dead; notwith-
ftanding which, it is ufed in the mafs for the dead,
according to the mofarabic ritual, at the introit, when
they fing, Tu es portio me a, D amine. Alleluia, in ter¬
ra viventium. Alleluia, Alleluia- The finging alleluiah
was oftentimes an invitatory or call to- each other to
fort of grave folemn mufic, with
;ood meafure, and a (low movement.— It is alfo a bride
find of dance, very common in Germany and Swit¬
zerland.
ALLEMANNIC, in a general fenfe, denotes any
thing belonging to the ancient Germans. Thus, we
meet with Allemannic hiftory, Allemannic language,
Allemannic law, &c-
ALLEN (John) arehbHhop of Dublin in the reign
of king Henry VIII. was educated in the univerfity-
of Oxford ; from whence removing to Cambridge, he
ALLEGRO, in mufic, an Italian word, denoting" there took the degree of bachelor of laws. He v
that the part is to be played in a fprightly, bride, live¬
ly, and gay manner.
fent by Dr Warham,, arehbidrop of Canterbury, to
the pope, about certain matters relating to the church.
Piu Allegro, dignifies, that the part it is joined to- He continued at Rome nine years, and was created
flrould be fung or played quicker ; as
Paco piu Allegro intimates, that the part to which
it refers ought to be played or fung only a little more
bridcly than allegro alone requires.
ALLEIN (Jofeph), the fon of Tobias Allein, was
born in the Devizes, in Wiltfhire, in 1633, and edu-
dodfor of laws ; either there or in fome other univer¬
fity of Italy. After his return, he was appointed
chaplain to Cardinal Wolfey, and was commiffary or
judge of his court as legate a latere; in the execution
of which office he was fufpefted of great diftionefty,
and even perjury. He affifted the cardinal in vifiting.
cated at Oxford. In 1655, he became affiftant to Mr and afterwards fuppreffing, 40 of the fmalier monafte-
Newton, in Taunton-Magdalen, in Somerfetfture ; but
was deprived for non-conformity. He died in 1668,
aged 35. He was a man of great learning, and greater
charity ; preferving, though a nonconformift and a fe-
vere fufferer on that account, great refpeft for the
church, and loyalty to his fovereign. He wrote feve-
ral books of piety, which are highly efteemed j but
his Alarm to unconverted Jinners is more famous than
the reft. There have been many editions of this little
ries, for the ereftion of his college at Oxford and that
at Ipfwich. The cardinal procured for him the living
of Dalby in Leicefterfliire, though it belonged to the
mafter and brethren of the hofpital of Burton Lazars.
About the latter end of the year 1525 he was incor¬
porated dodtor of laws in the univeriity of Oxford.
On the 13th of March 1528 he was confecrated arch-
bifiiop of Dublin, in the' room of Dr Hugh Inge de»
ceafed ; and about the fame time was made chancellor
pious work, the fale of which has been very great; of of Ireland. He wrote, 1. Eptftola de Pallii fignijica-
the edition 1672,therewere20,ooofold; of that of i675r tione aftiva et pajjiva; penned by him at the time when
with this title, A fare guide to heaven, 50,000. There
was alfo a large impreflion of it with itsfirft title, imy 20.
ALLELUIAH, or Halleluiah, a word figni-
fying, praife the Lord, to be met with either at the
beginning or end of fome pfalms : fuch is pfalm cxlv.
and thofe that follow, to the end. Alleluiah was fung
upon, folemn days of rejoicings, Tobit xiii. 12, St John.
he received the archiepifcopal pall. 2. De confuetudi-
mbus ac fiatutis in tuitoriis caufs obfervandis. He
wrote alfo fever al other pieces relating to the church.
His death, which happened in July 1534, was very
tragical: for being taken in a time of rebellion by
Thomas Fitzgerald, eldeft fon to the earl of Kildare,,
he was by his command moft cruelly murdered, being
brained,-
i
ALL
brained like an ox, at Tartaine in Ireland, in the 58th
year of his age. The place where the murder was
committed was afterwards hedged in, overgrown, and
unfrequented, in deteftation of the fad!.
Allen (Thomas), a famous mathematician of the
16th century, born at Utoxeter in Staffbrdlhire the
21 ft of December 1542. He was admitted fcholar
of Trinity-college Oxford the 4th of June 1561 ; and
in 1567 took his degree of mafter of arts. In 1570
he quitted his college and fellowfhip and retired to
Gloucefter-hall; where he ftu'died very clofely, and be¬
came famous for his knowledge in antiquity, philofo-
phy, and mathematics. Having received an invitation
from Henry earl of Northumberland, a great friend
and patron of the mathematicians, he fpent fame time
at the earl’s houfe, where he became acquainted with
thofe celebrated’mathematicians Thomas Harriot, John
Dee, Walter Warner, and Nathaniel Torporley. Ro¬
bert e.arl of Leicefter had a particular efteem for Mr
Allen, and would have conferred a bilhopric upon him,
but his love of folitude and retirement made him de¬
cline the offer. His great (kill in the mathematics
made the ignorant and vulgar look upon him as a ma¬
gician or conjurer : the author of a book intitled Lei-
cejler's Commonwealth, has accordingly accufed him with
ufing the art of figuring, to procure the earl of Lei-
cefter’s unlawful defigns, and endeavouring by the black
art to bring about a match betwixt him and Queen
Elizabeth. Rut without pretending to point out the
abfurdity of the charge, it is certain that the earl pla¬
ced fuch confidence in Allen, that nothing material in
the ftate was tranfa&ed without his knowledge ; and the
earl had conftant information, by letter, from Mr Al¬
len, of what palled in the univerfity. Mr Allen was
very curious and indefatigable in colledting fcattered
manuferipts relating to hiitory, antiquity, aftronomy,
philofophy, and mathematics : thefe collections have
been quoted by feveral learned authors, &c. and men¬
tioned to have been in the Bibliotheca Alleniana. He
publifhed in Latin the fecond and third books of Clau¬
dius Ptolemy of Pelufium, Concerning the Judgment
of the Stars, or, as it is commonly called, of the Qua¬
dripartite ConfruStion, with an expofition. He wrote
alio notes on many of Lilly’s books, and fome on John
Bale’s work De Scriptoribus M. Britannia. Having
lived to a great age, he died at Gloucefter-hall on the
30th of September 1632.
ALLENDORF, a fmall town in the circle of the
Upper Rhine, and in the landgravate of Heffe-Caffel,
remarkable for its fait-works and three ftone-bridges.
It is feated on the river Wefer, 15 miles eaft of Caffel;
E. Long. 10. 5. N. Lat. 51. 26.
ALLER, a river which runs through the duchy of
Lunenburg, and falls into the Wefer a little below
Verden.
Aller, good, in our ancient writers. The word
aller ferves to make the expreffion of fuperlativc figni-
fication.. So, aller-good is the greateft good. Some¬
times it is written alder.
ALLERION, or Alerion, in heraldry, a fort of
eagle without beak or feet,, having nothing perfeft but
the wings. They differ from martlets by having their
wings expanded, whereas thofe of the martlet are clofe ;
and denote imperialifts vanquifhed and difarmed ; for
which reafon they are more common in French than in
German coats of arms.
A X L
ALLESTRY (Richard, D.D.) an eminent divine, Allettrjr
born at Uppington in Shropfhire in March 1619, was Jl
educated in the grammar-fehool at Coventry, and af-, ''J'
terwards at Chrift-church in Oxford. His parts, which
were extraordinary, were improved by a no -lefs extra¬
ordinary induftry. He took up-arms for king Charles I.
and was fometimes feen with his mulket in one hand
and his book in the other. He was very aftive in the
fervice of king Charles II. before his reftoration, and
was employed by the royalifts in tranfafting bufinefs
with that prince during his exile 5 but was at laft feized
at Dover by a party of foldiers, and committed pri-
foner to Lambeth-houfe, where he was confined fix or
eight weeks-: but foon after the reftoration he was
made canon of Chrift-church, created dodlor, of divi¬
nity, and appointed chaplain in ordinary to the king,
and regius profeffor of divinity. In 1665 he was ap¬
pointed provoft. of Eton college, where he raifed the
fchool, which he found in a low condition, to an un¬
common pitch of reputation. The weft fide of the
outward quadrangle of that college was built from the
ground at his expence. The excellent Dr Hammond,
who was his intimate friend, left him his valuable li¬
brary, which he himfelf afterwards bequeathed to his
fuccelfors in the divinity-chair. He was eminent for
his piety, benevolence, and integrity ; for the fincerity
of his friendlhip, and his difinterefted temper. He
wrote feveral books ; and a collection of his fermons
were printed after his deceafe by Dr Fell bilhop of
Oxford. He died Auguft 28. 1680.
Allestry (Jacob), an Englilh poet of the lafl
century. He was the ion of James Alleftry, a book-
feller of London who was ruined by the great fire in
1666. Jacob was educated at Weftminfter fchool,
entered at Chrift-church Oxford in the aft-term 1671
at the age of 18, and was elefted ftndent in 1672.
He took the degree in arts ; was mufic-reader in 1679,
and terrae filius in 1681 ; both which offices he exe¬
cuted with great applaufe, being efteemed a good phi
lologift and poet. He had a chief hand in the verfes
and paftorals fpoken in the theatre at Oxford'May 21.
1681, by Mr William Savile fecond fon of the mar¬
quis of Halifax, and George Cholmondeley fecond
fon of Robert vifeount Kells (both of Chrift-church),
before Janies duke of York, his duchefs, and the lady
Anne; which verfes and paftorals were afterwards
printed in the “ Examen Poeticum.” He died October
15. 1686, and was buried in St Thomas’s church-yard.
ALLEVEURE, a fmall brafs Swedilh coin, worth
about 4-d. Englilh money.
ALLEVIATION, denotes the making a thing
lighter, and eafier to bear or endure. It Hands oppo-
fed to aggravation.
ALLEY (William), biihop of Exeter in the reign
of queen Elizabeth, was born at Great Wycomb in
Buckingham (hire. From Eton fchool, in the year
1528, he removed to king’s college Cambridge, where
he took the degree of bachelor of arts. He alfo ftu-
died fome time at Oxford; afterwards he manned, was
prefented to a living, and became a zealous reformer.
Upon queen Mary’s acceffion he left his cure and reti¬
red into the north of England ; where he maintained
his wife and himfelf by teaching a fchool, and pradfi-
fing phyfic. Queen Elizabeth afeending the throhe,
he went to London, where he acquired great reputa¬
tion by reading the divinity-lefture at St Paul’s, and
[ 47° 1
ALL [ 47» 1 ALL
Allay ih July 156b waa confecrated bifhop of Exeter. He
. Jl was created doctor of divinity at Oxford in November
L ^n‘ , 1561. He died On the 15th of April 1570, and was
buried at Exeter in the cathedral. He wrote, 1. ‘ihe
poor man's library, 2 vol. fol. Lond. 157 u Thefe vo¬
lumes contain twelve lectures on the firit epiftle of
St Peter, read at St Paul’s.. 2. 4 Hebrew grammar.
Whether it was ever publiftled is uncertain. He tranf-
lated the Pentateuch, in the verlion of the Bible which
was undertaken by queen Elizabeth’s command.
Alley, in gardening, a ftraight parallel walk,
bounded- on both Tides with trees, Ihrubs, &c. and
ufually covered with gravel or turf.
Alley, among builders, denotes a narrow paffage
leading from one place to another.
Alley, in perfpedtive, that which, in order to have
a greater appearance of length, is made wider at the
entrance than at the termination.
Alley, in the new hufbandry, implies the vacant
fpace between the outermoft row of corn on one bed
and the neareft row to it on the next parallel bed ; and
it is ufually about four feet in breadth, exclufive of
the partitions between the rows of corn in the beds.
The firft hoeing of wheat is performed in the begin¬
ning of winter/ and the earth is ploughed away from
the rows into the intervals, which forms fmall ridges
in the middle between the double rows. The fecond
hoeing is in the fpring, which turns it back to the
rows, leaving a furrow in the middle of the alley. The
third hoeing is from the rows, after the wheat has
bloffomed ; this turns the earth into the intervals, form¬
ing fmall ridges there, as at the firft hoeing. The
fourth hoeing returns the earth to the ridges, which
is performed- a month or more after the third hoeing.
This commonly finilhes the horfe-hoeings,. if the land
iS in good heart; otherwife one or two more hoeings
are neceffary.
ALLEYN (Edward), a celebrated Englifh aftor
in the reigns of queen Elizabeth and king James, and
founder of the college at Dulwich in Sun y, was born
at London, in the parifh of St Botolph, Sept. 1. 15.66,
as appears from a memorandum of his own writing.
Dr Fuller fays, that he was bred a ftage-player ; and
that his father would have given liim a liberal educa¬
tion, but that he was not turned for a ferious conrfe
of life. He was, however,, a youth of an excellent
capacity, a cheerful temper, a tenacious memory, a
fweet elocution, and in his perfon of a {lately port and
afpeft ; all which advantages might well induce a young
man to take to the theatrical profeffion. By feveral
authorities we find he muft have been on the ftage fome
time before 1592.; for at this time he was in high fa¬
vour with the town, and greatly applauded by the bell
judges, particularly by Ben Johnfon.
Haywood, in his prologue to Marloe’s Jew of Mal¬
ta, calls him Proteus for Ihapes, and Rofcius for a
tongue. He ufually played the capital parts, and was
one of the original aftors in Shakefpeare’s plays; .in
fome of Ben Johnfon’s he was alfo a principal perfor¬
mer: but what charafters he perfonated in either of
thefe poets, it is difficult now to determine. This is
owing to the inaccuracy of their editors, who did not
print the names of the players oppofite to the charac¬
ters they performed, as the modern cullom is; but gave
one general lift of a&ors to the whole fet .of plays, as
in the old folio edition of Shakefpeare ; or divided one
from the other, fetting the dramatis perfome before the L
plays, and the catalogue of performers after them, as
in Johnfon’s.
It may appear furprifing how one of Mr Alleyn’s
profeffion ffiould be enabled to erect fuch an edifice as
Dulwich College, arid liberally endow it for the main¬
tenance of fo many perfons. But it muft be ohferved
that he had fome paternal fortune, which, though
fmall, might lay a foundation for his future affluence ;
and it is to be prefumed, that the profits he received
from afling, to one of his provident and managing
difpofition, arid one who by his excellence in playing
drew after him fuch crowds of fpeclators, muft have-
confiderably improved his fortune : befides, he was not
only an aftor, but mafter of a playhoufe, built at his
own expence, by which he is faid to have amaffed con-
fiderable wealth. He was alfo keeper of the king’s.
wild beafts, or mafter of the royal bear-garderi, which .
was frequented by vaft crowds of fpeCtators; and the .
profits arifing from thefe fports are faid to have amount¬
ed to 500]. per annum. He was thrice married; and
the portions of his two firft wives, they leaving him
noiffueto inherit, might probably contribute to this
benefadlion. Such kind of donations have been fre¬
quently thought to proceed more from vanity and of-
tentation than real piety; but this of Mr Alleyn has ^
beeri afcribed to a very Angular caufe, for the devil has ■
been faid to be the firft promoter of it.-. Mr Aubrey
mentions a tradition, “ that Mr Alleyn playing a de-
“ mon with fix others, in one of Shakefpear’s plays, .s
“ was, in the midft of the play, furprifed. by an ap-
“ parition of the devil; which' fo worked on his fan-
“ cy, that he made a vow, which he performed by
“ building Dulwich College.” He began the foun¬
dation of this college, under the direftion of Inigo
Jones, in 16-14; and the buildings, gardens, &c. were
finiffied in 1617, in which he is-faid to have expended
about 10,0001.: After the college'was built, he met
with fome difficulty in obtaining a charter for fettling
his lands in mortmain: for he propofed to endow it
with 8600I. per annum, for the maintenance of one
iriafter, one warden, and four fellows, three whereof
were to be clergymen, and the fourth a fkilful orga-
fiift.; alfo fix poor men and as many women, befides
twelve poor boys to be educated till the age of four¬
teen or fixteen, and then put out to fome trade or call¬
ing. The obftruftion he met with arofe from the lord
chancellor Bacon, who wiflied, king James to fettle part-
of thofe lands for the fupport of two academical lec¬
tures; .and he wrote a letter, to. the Marquis of Buck¬
ingham, dated Auguft 18. 1618, intreating him to
ufe his intereft with his Majetty for. that purpofe. Mr
Alleyn’s .felicitation was however at laft-complied with,
and he obtained the royal licence, giving him full pow¬
er to lay his foundation, by his. Majefty’s letter-patent,
bearing date the 21ft of June, 1619; by virtue w'hereof .
he did, in the chapel of the faid new hofpital at Dul¬
wich, called “ The College of God’s Gift,” on the
13th of September following, publicly read and pub-
liffied a quadripartite writing in parchment, whereby
he created and eftablifhed the faid college; he then
fubferibed it with his name, and fixed his feal to fe¬
veral parts thereof, in prefence of feveral honourable
perfons, and ordered. copies of the writings to four
different ~
ALL [ 47* ] ALL
Alleyn different pariHies. He was himfelf the firft matter of tion contratted between two perfons or two families by Alliance
Alliance c°Hege; fo that to make ufe of the words of Mr marriage. II _
» i^nf.C' ■ Haywood, one of his contemporaries, “ He was fo Alliance is alfo ufed for a treaty entered into by ^ll?afI0n-
“ mingled with humility and charity, that he became fovereign princes andftates, for their mutual fafety and 'r’~™
“ his own penlioner, humbly fubmitting himfelf to defence.—In this fenfe, alliances may be diftinguilhed
“ that proportion of diet and clothes which he had into fuch as are offenttve, whereby the contrafling
“ bellowed on others.” We have no reafon to think parties oblige themfelves jointly to attack fome other
he ever repented of this diftribution of his fubftancej power; and into defenfive ones, whereby they bind
but on the contrary, that he was entirely fatisfied, as themfelves to Hand by and defend each other in cafe
appears from the following memorial in his own wri- they are attacked by others.—Alliance, with the au-
ing, found amongft his papers; “ May 26, 1620— cient Romans, though a fort of fervitude, was much
Sly wife and I acknowledged the fine at the com- coveted. Ariarathes, we are told by Polybius, offered
“ mon pleas bar, of all our lands to the college : blef- a facrifice to the gods by way of thankfgiving for ha-
“ fed be God that he has given us life tQ do it.” His ving obtained this alliance. The reafon was, that thence-
wife died in the year 1623 ; and about two years af- forwards people were fure not to receive any injuries
terwards he married Conttance Kinchtoe, who furvived except from them.—There were different forts of al-
him, and received remarkable proofs of his affection, lies: fome only united to them by a participation of
if at leaft we may judge of it by his will, wherein he the privileges of Romans, as the Latini and Hernici;
left her confiderably. He died Nov. 25. 1626, in the others by their very foundation, as the colonies; others
61 ft year of his age, and was buried in the chapel of by the benefactions they received from them, as Maf-
his new college, where there is a tomb-ftone over his finiffa, Eumenes, and Attains, who owed their king-
grave, with an infeription. His original Diary is alfo doms to Rome ; others by free treaties, which laft by
there preferved. a long alliance became fubjects, as the kings of Bithy-
The fubjoined anecdote is entertaining in itfelf, and nia, Cappadocia, Egypt, and moft of the cities of
dhows the high efteem in which Mr Alleyn was held as Greece : laftly, others by compulfive treaties, and the
an after: ‘ Edward Alleyn, the Garrick of Shake- law of fubjeftion, as Philip and Antiochus. For they
‘ fpear’s time, had been on the moft friendly footing never granted peace to an enemy, without making an
* with our poet, as well as Ben Johnfon. They ufed alliance with him ; that is, they never fubdued any
* frequently to fpend their evenings together at the people without ufing it as a means of fubduing others.
* fign of the Globe, fomewhere near Black Friars, The forms or ceremonies of alliances have been va-
* where the playhoufe then was. The world need not rious in different ages and countries. Among us, fign-
* be told, that the convivial hours of fuch a triumvi- ing and fwearing, fometimes at the altar, are the chief;
* rate mutt be pleafing as well as profitable, and may anciently eating and drinking together, chiefly offer-
* truly be faid to be fuch pleafures as might bear the ing facrifices together, were the cuftomary rite of rati-
* refleftions of the morning. In confequence of one fying an alliance. Among the Jews .and Chaldeans,
* of thefe meetings, the following letter was written by heifers or calves; among the Greeks, bulls or goats ;
* G. Peel, a Fellow of Chrift-church college, Oxford, and among the Romans, hogs were facrificed on this
* and a dramatic poet, who belonged to the Club, to occafion. Among the ancient Arabs, alliances were
-* one Marie, an intimate of his: confirmed by drawing blood out of the palms of the
“ Friend Marie, hands of the two contrafting princes with a ftiarp
“ I mull defyr that my fyfter hyr watch, and the ftone, dipping herein a piece of their garments, and
“ cookerie book you promyfed, may be fente bye the therewith fmearing feven ftones, at the fame time in-
man. 1 never longed for thy company more than voking the gods Vrotalt and Alilat, i. e. according to
“ laft night; we were all very merrye at the Globe, Herodotus, Bacchus and Urania. Among the people
“ when Ned Alleyn did not fcruple to affyrme plea- of Cholchis, the confirmation of alliances is faid to be
“ fauntely to thy Friende Will, that he had ftolen his effefted by one of the princes offering his wife’s breafts
fpeech about the Qualityes of an aftor’s excellencye to the other to fuck, which he was obliged to do till
“ in Hamlet hys Tragedye, from converfations many- there iffued blood.
fold whych had paffed betweene them, and opinyons Alliance, in a figurative fenfe, is applied to any
•“ given by Alleyn touchinge the fubjefte. Shake- kind of union or conneftion ; thus we fay, there is aiji
fpeare did not take this talke in good forte; but alliance between the church and ftate.
“ Johnfon put an end to the ftrife with wittylye re- ALLIGATI, in Roman antiquity, the bafeft kind
•“ markinge, This affaire needetb no Contentione; you of flaves, who were ufually kept fettered. The Ro-
“ Jiole it from Ned, no double; do not ?nafvel: Have mans had three degrees, or orders, of flaves or fer-
you not feen him ail tymes out of number ?—Believe vants ; the firft employed in the management of their
me moft fyncerilie, yours, G. Peeled* eftates; the fecond in the menial or lower funftions
ALLIA, a river of Italy, which running down a of the family; the third called alligaii, above men-
very fteep channel from the mountains of Cruftumi- tioned.
num, mixes with the Tiber at 40 miles from Rome ; ALLIGATION, the name of a method of folving
famous for the great flaughter of the Romans by the all queftions that relate to the mixture of one ingredient
Gauls, under Brennus ; hence Allienfis dies, an un- with another. Though writers on arithmetic general-
lucky day, (Virgil, Ovid, Lucan.) Our anceftors, ly make alligation a branch of that fciencej yet, as it
fays Cicero, deemed the day of the fight of Allia more is plainly nothing more than an application of the
fatal than that of taking the city. common properties of numbers, in order to folve a few
ALLIANCE, in the civil and canon law, the rela- queftions that occur in particular branches of bufinefs,
FP12. 1 " we
ALL t 473 ^ ALL
[Alligation, we choofe rather to keep it diftind from the fcience of and almonds at 6d. how many pounds of almonds were AT'gatien.
"^v—“ arithmetic. in the mixture i
Alligatiorr is generally divided into medial or alter¬
nate.
A lug At ion Medial, from the rates and quantities
of the fimples given, difcovers the rate of the mixture.
Rule. As the total quantity of the fimples,
To their price or value }
So any quantity of the mixture,
To the rate,
Examp. A grocer mixeth 30 lb. of currants, at
4d. per lb. with 1 o lb. of other currants, at 6d. per
lb. : What is the value of 1 lb. of the mixture ? Anf.
4t<1.
lb. d. d.
L. s. d.
7 lOZ=l?Q(3
lb.
4OO
4
Rates.
6 d.
4d.
30, at 4 amounts to
10, at 6   
60
40
j8o
d.
t)2oo( 100 lb. of almonds at 6 d. is 2 la
And 300 lb. of raifins at 4d. is S 0
Total 400 Proof 7 10
Alligation Alternate, being the converfe of alliga¬
tion medial, from the rates of the fimples, and rate of
the mixture given, finds the quantities of the fimples.
Rules. I. Place the rate of the mixture on the
left fide of a brace, as the root; and on the right fide
of the brace fet the rates of the feveral fimples, under
one another, as the branches. II. Link or alligate the
branches, fo as one greater and another lefs than the
root may be linked or yoked together. III. Set the
difference betwixt the root and the feveral branches
right againft their refpeftive yoke-fellows. Thefe al¬
ternate differences are the quantities required. Note, 1.
If any branch happen to have two or more yoke-fel-
d. It
If 40 : 180 : 1 1 : 44
Note 1. When the quantity of each fimple is the
fame, the rate of the mixture is readily found by adding
the rates of the fimples, and dividing their fum by the
number of fimples. Thus,
Suppofe a grocer mixes feveral forts of fugar, and of lows, the difference betwixt the root and thefe yoke-
each an equal quantity, viz. at 50 s. at 54 s. and at fellows muft be placed right againfl the faid branch,
Cos. per cwt. the rate of the mixture will be 54s. 8d. one after another, and added into one fum. 2. In feme
per cwt.; for queftions, the branches may be alligated more ways
r. s. d. than one ; and a queflion will always admit of fo many
^o-f 54-}-60= 164, and 3)764)54 8 anfwers as there are different ways of linking the
Note 2. If it be required to increafe or diminifh the branches,
quantity of the mixture, fay, As the fum of the given Alligation alternate admits of three varieties, viz,
quantities of the fimples, to the feveral quantities given; 1. The queftion may be unlimited, with refpeft both
fo the quantity of the mixture propofed, to the quan- to the quantity of the fimples and that of the mix-
tities of the fimples fought. ture. 2. The queftion may be limited to a certain
Note 3. If it be required to know how much of quantity of one or more of the fimples. 3. The que-
each fimple is an affigned portion of the mixture, ftion may be limited to a certain quantity of the mix-
fay, As the quantity of the mixture, to the feveral ture.
quantities of the fimples given ; fo the quantity of the Variety I. When the queftion is unlimited, with
affigned portion, to the quantities of the fimples fought, refpedt both to the quantity of the fimples and that of
the mixture, this is called Alligation Simple.
Examp. A grocer would mix fugars, at 5 d. 7 d.
and 1 od. per lb. fo as to fell the mixture or compound
at 8d. per lb.: What quantity of each muft. he take ?
lb.
SIX.
•nLi
Thus,
Suppofe a grocer mixes Jolb. of raifins with 30 lb.
of almonds and 4c lb. of currants, and it be demanded,
how many ounces of each fort are found in every pound
or in every 16 ounces of the mixture, fay,
Cz.
: TO t i l6 : 2 raifins.
80 : 30 : : 16 : 6 almonds.
80 ; 40 : : l6 : 8 currants.
Proof 16
Note 4. If the rates of two fimples, with the total
^alue and total quantity of the mixture, be given, the
quantity of each fimple may be found as follows, viz.
Multiply the lefier rate into the total quantity, fub- ^
traft the produft from the total value, and the remain- than the root ; as directed in Rule II.
der will be equal to the produft of the excefs of the The difference between the root 8 and 'the branch 5,
’higher rate above the lower, multiplied into the quan- viz, 3, is fet right againft; this branch’s yoke-fellow lOo
tity of the higher-priced fimple ; and confequently the The difference between 8 and 7 is like wife fet right a-
faid remainder, divided by the difference of the rates, gain ft the yoke-fellow 10. And the difference betwixt
willfquote the faid quantity. Thus, 8 and 10, viz. 2, is fet right againft the two yoke-fd-
Suppofe a grocer has a mixture of 40c lb. weight, lows 7 and 5; as preferibed by Rule III.
ithat coft him 7I. ios. confifting of raifias at 4d. per lb. As the branch xo has two differences on the right,
Vol I. Part IL 3 O viz,
Here the rate of the mixture 8 is placed on the left
fide of the brace, as the root; and on the right fide of
the fame brace are fet the rates of the feveral fimples,
viz. 5. 7, t o, Under one another, as the branches; ac¬
cording to Rule I.
The branch 1 o being greater than the root, is alll-
gated or linked with 7 and 5, both thefe being lefs
ALL r 474
Alligation, viz. 3 and I, they are added; and the anfwer to the
'•““’Y’—-'' queftion is, that 2 lb. at 5d. 2 lb. at yd. and 41b. at lod*
will make the mixture required.
The truth and reafon o£ the rules will appear by con-
fidering, that whatever is loll upon any one branch is
gained upon its yoke-fellow. Thus, in the above-ex¬
ample, by felling 41b. of 10 d. fugar at 8 d. per lb.
there is 8 d. loft : but the like fum is gained upon its
two yoke-fellows ; for by felling' 2 lb. of 5 d. fugar at
8d. per lb. there is 6d. gained ; and by felling 2 lb. of
yd. fugar at 8d. there is 2d. gained; and 6d. and 2d.
make 8d.
Hence it follows, that the -rate of the mixture muft
always be mean or middle with refpeft to the rates of
the fimples ; that is, it muft be lefs than the greateft,
and greater than the leaft ; otherwife a folution would
be impoffible. And the price of the total quantity-
mixed, computed at the rate of the mixture, will al¬
ways be equal to the fum of the prices of the feveral
quantities call up at the refpedtive rates of the fimples.
>Po6)
ALL
120 of wine. ? Anf^
24 01 wrater. 3 J
361 144 total.
120X36=4320
24X 0= o
Variety II. When the queftion is limited to a cer¬
tain quantity of one or more of the fimples, this is call¬
ed Alligation Partial.
Proof 144)4320(30
As 36 : 30 : : 144 : 12a
As 36 : 6 : : 144 : 24.
There being here only two fimples, and the total of
the mixture limited, the queftion admits but of one an-
fwer.
ALLIGATOR, in zoology, a fynonyme of the la-
certa crocodilus. See Lacerta.
Ailigatok Pear. Sse Laurus-
ALLIONIA, in botany,-'a genus of the monogy-
nia order,, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of. plants ;
and im the natural method ranking Under the 48th or¬
der, Aggregate. The characters are : The common
ealyx is obfong,.Ample, three-flowered, five-parted, and
perfiftent ; the proper one, obfcure, above : The proper
corolla is monopetalous and funnel-fliaped; the mouth
If the quantity of one of the fimples only be limited, quinquefid and ereft : The Jlamina confift of four
alligate the branches, and take their differences,., as if briftly filaments, longer than the corolla, and bending
there had been no fuch limitation ; and then work by to one fide ; the antherae are roundiih : The pijlillum
  . x.   1 .x . 1 
the following proportion:
As the difference right againft the rate of the fimple
whole quantity is given,
To the other differences refpeClively;
So the quantity given.
To the feveral quantities fought.
has an oblong germen beneath ; theJlylus h briftly, and
longer than the ftamina; the ftigmata are multifid and
linear: There isno pericarpium : The feeds are folf-
tary, oblong, and naked The receptaculum naked.
There are two fpecies, the violeacea and incarnata,
both natives of America-
ALLIOTH, a ftar in the tail of the greater bear.
Examp. A diftillerwould, with 40 gallons of brandy much ufed for finding the latitude at fea.
at 12 s. per gallon, mix rum at 7 s. per gallon, and gin ALLITERATION, an ornament of language
at 4s. per gallon: How much of the rum and gin muft chiefly ufed in poetry, and confifting in the repetition
of the fame letter at certain intervals. We do not rer
member to have ever feen any fatisfa&ory account of
alliteration in the writings of the critics. They feera
he take, to fell the mixture at 8 s. per gallon ?.
Gal.
1 4, | 5 1 40 of brandy. ^
;4 I 4 I 32 of rum. C Anf.
4/4 | 4 | 32 of gin. y
The operation gives for anfwer, 5 gallons of brandy,
4 of rum, and 4 of gin. But the queftion limits the
quantity of brandy to 40 gallons ; therefore fay,
If ; t4 : :,4o s 32
VP);4
C 4 ~y 4
to have paffed it over in contemptuous filence ; either
as a falfe refinement or as a mere trifle. It perhaps
deferves a better fate. Many chapters have been com-
pofed on quantity, on the expreffion- refulting from
different arrangements of long and fhort fyllables, and
on the powers of paufes as they are varioufly placed,
without a word of alliteration. This is the more ex-
The quantity of gin, by the operation, being alfo 4, traordinary, as one fhould think it impoffible for any
the proportion needs not be repeated. man to examine minutely, and, as it. were, diffeCi a
number of verfes,. without perceiving the vaft abund-
Variety 111. When the queftion is limited to a ance of this ornament. It is as if an anatomift ftioulcL
publifli a complete table of the arteries in the human
body, and affedl never to have feen a vein nor a nerve:
for it may be affirmed, with fmall danger of miftake,
that if you examine any number of verfes, remarkable
either for fweetnefs or for energy, they will be found
in fome degree alliterative. We do not pretend to
lay, that the fweetnefs and energy of verfification de¬
pends chiefly on this circumftance, yet we cannot help
believing that it may claim fome lhare: for it is a con-
Examp. A vintner hath wine at 3s. per gallon, and ftant appearance, as far as we have ever obferved, that
the poets whofe fame is higheft for verfification, are
moft extenfive dealers in this article.
The trifling poor appearance of the ornament itfelf,
upon
certain quantity of the mixture, this is called Alligc
tion Total.
After linking the branches, and taking the differen-
«es, work by the proportion following
As the fum of the differences,.
To each particular difference ;
So the given total of the mixture.
To the refpedlive quantities required-
would mix it with water, fo as bo make.a compofition
of 144 gallons, worth 2s. 6d. per gallon; How much
wine, and how much water, muft he take i
ALL [ 475 1 ALL
Allitera- upon a fuperficlal view, and the frequent abufe of it,
’tlon^ , are circumftances indeed which give no encouragement
' v to a ferious inquiry into its nature and operation. How
common is it for Writers, who affeft to be comic, when
in want of other means for raihng a fmile, to ufe af¬
fected ahiteration with fuccefe. But, in the fine arts,
no beauty nor grace is beyond the power of ridicule.
The nobleft attitudes in painting have been rendered
laughable by caricatura. St Paul preaching at Athens,
in the defign of Raphael, appears elegant, noble, and
in fome degree awful. The fame apoftle, reprefented
by Hogarth in nearly the fame attitude, pleading be¬
fore the governor Felix, feems altogether ridiculous.
So the language and verfification of Milton in the Pa-
radife Loft appear only proper for the moft elevated
fubjefts. In the Splendid Shilling of Philips, they
appear equally proper for the loweft. So fares it alfo
with alliteration. Nor ought we to be mortified at the
difcovery, that much of the delight afforded by verfi¬
fication arifes from a caufe fo-pitiful as the repetition
of the fame letter twice, or oftener, on the accented
parts of a verfe; ifor there are many other caufes of
pleafure, which, when thus detefted and taken to pie¬
ces, feem equally contemptible.
We apprehend the principal operation of this orna¬
ment to be quite mechanical. It is eafier for the or¬
gans of fpeech to refume, at ftiort intervals, one cer¬
tain. conformation, than to throw themfelves into a
number of different ones, unconnected and difcordant.
Tor example, a fucceffion of labials, interfperfed at
regular diftances with dentals and gutturals, will be
more eafily pronounced than the fuccefiion of all the
three at random. Sounds of which the articulation is
eafieft, are moft completely in the power of the fpeaker.
He can pronounce them flowly or rapidly, foftly or
with force, at pleafure. In this we imagine the
power and advantage of alliteration is founded: for
we would not lay any ftrefs on the pleafure which
can refult to the ear from the repetition of the fame
letter. It has been compared to the frequent returns
of the key-note in a mufical ftrain ; but that analogy
is extremely faint. The ear, we prefume, can be
pleafed with alliteration only in fo far as it contributes
to the fuperibr eafinefs of recitation ; for what is reci¬
ted with eafe muft be heard with pleafure.
Thefe remarks might be confirmed and illuftrated
by numberlefs paffages from the bell poets. Some few
lines will fuffice, taken from Grey, wdio feems to have
-paid particular attention to this grace. He profeffed
to have learned his verfification from Dryden, as Dry-
den did from Spencer ; and thefe three abound in
alliteration above all the Englilh poets. We choofe
Grey for another reafon, in proof of what we men¬
tioned before, that alliteration contributes not only to
the f'weetnefs, but alfo to the energy, of verfification;
for he ufes it chiefly when he aims at ftrength and
boldnefs. In the Sifter Odes (as Dr Johnfon ftyles
them), almoft every ftrophe commences and concludes
with an alliterative line. The poet, we fuppofe, wilh-
ed to begin with force, and end with dignity.
“ Ruin feize thee, ruthlefs king.”
“ To ^igh-born Abel’s />arp, or foft Llewe/lyn’s /ay.”
“ /Feare the warp, and weave the woof.”
“ Stamp we our vengeance </eep, and ratify his doom”
3
“ Regardlefs of the/weeping whirlwind's/way.” Afliterj-
“ That hulh’d in grim re/ofe, ex/edls his ev’ning t'°n'
P™Y” i
It muft be obferved here, that we hold a verfe alli¬
terative which has a letter repeated on its accented
parts, although thofe parts do not begin words; the
repeated letter bearing a ftrong analogy to the bars in
a mufical phrafe. Gray feems to have had a particu¬
lar liking to thefe fort of balanced verfes, which divide
equally, and of which the oppofite fides have an alli¬
terative refemblance.
“ Eyes that glow, and fangs that grin,
” Thoughts that breathe, and words that Airn.”
“ Aauberk crafh, and helmet ring.”
All thefe lines appear to us to have a force and
energy, arifing from alliteration, which renders them,
eafy to, ^3. recited ; or, if the reader pleafes, mouthed.
For the-lame reafon the following paffage appears fad
and folemn, by the repetition of the labial liquid.
“ R/ountains, ye wourn in vain.”
“ A/odred, whofe wzagic forig,”—&c.
If alliteration thus contributes to enforce the ex-
preffion of a poetical fentiment, its advantages in poetry
muft be confiderable. It is not, therefore, unworthy
a poet’s regard in the a£l of compofition. If two
words offer of equal propriety, the one alliterative the
other not, we think the firft ought to be chofen. We
would compare this to the pradlice of fuguing in mu-
fic. A compofer who aims at expreflion will not hunt
after fugues; but if they offer, if they feem to arife
fpontaneoufly from the fubjeft, he will not rejedl them.
So a good poet ought not to feledl an epithet merely
for beginning with a certain letter, unlefs it fuit his
purpofe well in every other refpecl; for the beauty of
alliteration, when happy, is not greater than its de¬
formity when affedled. A couplet from Pope will ex¬
emplify both ; the firft line being bad, and the fecond
good:
“ Eternal beauties grace the rhining/cene,
“ .Fields ever /felh, and groves for ever green.”
ALLIUM (from ’«**», “ to avoid or Ihun,” becaufe
many fhun the fmell of it), Garlic: A genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking in the 9th
order, Spathacece. The chara&ers are : The cali - is
a common fpatha, roundilh, withering, and multi¬
florous: The corolla confifts of fix oblong petals: The
ftamina have fix Tubulated filaments, often the length
of the corolla; the antherae are oblong and ereft : The
piftillum has a germen above', fnorter, nearly three-
cornered, with angles engraved with a line; the ftyli
are Ample, the ftigmata acute: The pericarpium is a
very Ihort, broad, three-lobed capfule, with three cells,
and three valves : The feeds are many and roundilh.
Of this genus no fewer than 40 different fpecies are
enumerated by Linnseus, among which he includes the
cepa and porrum, or onions and leeks.
1. The fativum, ox garlic, has a bulbous root, of
an irregularly roundilh fhape, with feveral fibres at the
bottom ; each root is compofed of a number of leffer
bulbs, called cloves of garlic, inclofed in one common
3 O 2 membranous
ALL [ 476
membranous coat, and eafily feparable from one another.
' All the parts of this plant, but more efpecially the
roots, have an acrimonious, and almoft cauftic tafte,
with a ftrong offenfive fmell, which laft has induced
thofe who preferved fome of the fpecies in gardens on
Account of their yellow flowers, to eradicate them.
This pungent root warms and flimulates the folids,
and attenuates tenacious juices; for which it is well'
adapted, on account of its being very penetrating ; in-
fomuch that, when applied to the feet, its feent is
foon/difeovered in the breath ; and, when taken inter¬
nally, its fmell is communicated to the urine,, or the
ALL
mer. If they are propagated by feeds, they may be Ailium.
fown on a border of common earth, ekher in autumn —■
foon after the feeds are ripe, or in the fpring follow¬
ing; and will require no farther care than to keep them,
clear from weeds. In the following autumn, they
may be tranfplanted into the borders where they are to
remain.
2. The afcalonicum, or efchalot, was found wild in
Ealeftine by Dr Haflelquift.. The root is conglobate,
confifting of many oblong roots bound together by
thin membranes. Each of thefe fraall roots fends forth;
two or three fiftulous, long, awl-lhaped leaves,. iffuing
matter of an iffue, and perfpires through the pores of from afheath, and are nearly like thofe of the common
the fltin. Hence, in cold eucophlegmatic habits,
proves a powerful expectorant, diuretic, and emmena-
gogue; and, if the patient is kept warm, fudorific.
It is alfo of great fervice in humoral afthmas and Ca-
tarrhous diforders of the breaft, and ih other diforders
proceeding from a laxity of the folids, and cold fluggifh
indifpofitions of the fluids. It is alfo frequently of fer¬
vice in the dropfy; in the beginning of which it is par¬
ticularly recommended by Sydenham, as a warm
ftrengthening medicine : we have even many examples
where it aits fo powerfully as a diuretic,, as to carry off
all the water of dfopfies.. It may be taken the length
of a dram or two in fubftance for a dofe.—We have a
onion.. The flower-item Ihoots from a membranaceous
fheath ; is round, almoft naked, and terminated by a
globular umbel of flowers, which have ereit, puvplilh,
lance-lhaped petals, of the length of the ftamina.—
The root of this fpecies is very pungent, has a ftrong,-
but not unpleafant fmell, and therefore is generally
preferred to the onion for making high-flavoured foups
and gravies.. It is alfo put into pickles, and in the Eait
Indies they ufe an abundance of it for this purpofe.
3. The fcorodoprafum, or rokambole, grows natu¬
rally in Denmark and Sweden. It.hath a heart-lhaped
folid root, which ftands fidewife of the ftalk. The
leaves are broad, and are a Kttle crenated. on their
fyrup and oxymel made with it, which may he em- edges. The flowers are of a pale purple colour, and
ployed for the fame purpofes as the garlic in fub¬
ftance ; but they are moftly ufed in pulmonic diforders.
—Externally applied, it inflames and ulcerates the
fltin, and is fometimes employed for this ufe in fina-
pifms. It has alfo been recommended by Sydenham
as a moft powerful revellent; for which purpofe he was
led to make nfe of it in the confident fmall-pox. His
method was to cut the root in pieces, and apply it,
tied in a Knen cloth, to the foies of the feet, about the
eighth day of the difeafe, after the face began to fwell;
renewing it onree a-day till the danger was over.—When
made into an ungnent with oils, and applied externally,
garlic isfaid to refolve and difeufs cold tumours, and has
Seen by fome greatly,celebrated in cutaneous diforders.
The acrimonious qualities of this root, however, ren¬
der it manifeftly improper on many occaffons. Its li¬
beral ufe is apt to occafion head-aebs, flatulencies, thirft,
febrile heats, inflammatory diftempers, and fometimes
difeharges of blood from the hemorrhoidal veflels. In
hot bilious conftitutions, where there is already a degree
colledted into a globular head. Tire roots are uied
for the fame purpofe as the former.
4. The fchcenoprafum, or elves, is an inhabitant of
Siberia, and is a very fmall plant compared with the
former, the leaves and ftems feldomexceeding fix in¬
ches in length, and the roots never producing any
bulbs. The leaves are awl-fhaped, hollow, and the ftem
naked. It was formerly in great requeft for mixing
with falads in the fpring, but has been little regarded
lately. Its tafte, fmell, and virtues, are much the fame
as thofe of the common onion. It is propagated by
parting the roots. .
5. The cepa, or common onion, differs from the
garlic only in the fwelling pipy ftalk, which, is much
larger in the middle than at either end.—From whence
this was firft brought into Europe is not known ; but
that it is not natural to Africa is beyond a doubt, it
being evident that onions were eaten by the Egyptians
above 2000 years before Chrift; and they make a
great-part of their conftant food to this day in Egypt.
of irritation, where the juices are too thin and acrimo- Dr Haflelquift fays it is not to be wondered at that
nioiis, or the vifeera unfound, it never fails to aggra¬
vate the diftemper.
In Kami fchatka, the allium urfinum, or wild gar¬
lic, is very common and ufeful in medicine as well as
the Ifraelites ftiould long for them after they had left
this place; for whoever has tafted onions in Egypt
muft allow, that none can be had better ip any part of
the univerfe. Here, he obferves, they are fweet, in
food. Both Ruffians and natives gather it in great: other countries they are nanfeous and ftrong. Here
quantities for Winter fervice.. They fteep it ih water,    ~ *’•  --
then mix it with cabbage, onions,.and other ingredi¬
ents, and form out of them .a ragout which they eat
cold. It is alfo the principal remedy for the feurvy.
As foon as this plant appears- above the fhow, they
feem to put this dreadful diforder at defiance, and find
a cure almoft ih its worft ftages.
Garlic is very ‘hardy, and will tV'ive in almoft any
jbil or fituation. It is eafily propagated either by
the roots or feeds. If from the roots, they ought:
they are foft ; whereas in the north and other parts
they are hard, and their coats fo compact that they are
difficult to digeft. They eat them roafted, cut into
four pieces; , with fome bits of roafted meat, which
the Turks call kebab ; and with this difh they are fo
delighted, that they wifli to enjoy it ih paradife. They
likewife make a foup of them in Egypt, which Haf-
felquift fays is one of the heft diflies he ever eat; The
many ways of dreffing onions in Britain are known to
every family: but in regard to wholefomenefs, there
to be^ planted in autumn, that they may take good: is certainly no method equal to bailing,; as thus they
*oot in the ground before the fpring, which is necef- are rendered mild, of eafy digeftion, and go off with-
lary to make them flower lirong the following fum- out leaving thofe heats iu the ftomach and bowels,
which
ALL [ 477 T ALL
Allium, which they are apt to do any other way. Their na-
—V—- ture is to attenuate thick, vifcid juices ; confequently
a plentiful ufe of them in cold phlegmatic conftitutions
mull prove beneficial.. Many people fiiun them on ac¬
count of the llrong, difagreeable fmell they communi¬
cate to the breath. This may be remedied by eating
a few raw parfley leaves immediately after, which will
effeftually overcome the fcent of the onions, and caufe
them to fit more eafy on the ftomach.
The varieties are, the Straiburgh, the Spaniih, and
the Egyptian onion. They are propagated by feeds,
which ihould be fown the latter end of February, or
the beginning of March, on good, light, rich ground,
Well dug and levelled, and cleared from weeds. They
fliould alfo be fown at a time when the furface of the
ground is not moift ; and where they are intended for
a winter crop, they muft not be fovvn too thick. The
common allowance is fiK pounds of feed to an acre;
though Come allow more, in order to have a crop to
draw ont, which they call cullingt. In about fix
weeks after, the onions will be up and forward enough
to hoe; at which time the weeds Hiould be lightly cut
up with a fmall hoe about two indies and a half broad,
as alfo the onions themfelves where they grow too clofe
in bunches, leaving them at this firft time at leaf! two
or throe inches apart. This, if properly performed,,
and in a dry feafon, will preferve the ground clear of
weeds at lead a month, when they mult be hoed over
again, leaving them at this time about four or five
inches afirnder. In fix weeks after they muft be hoed
a third time. The weeds are now to be carefully cut
up, and the onions fingled out fo as to leave them
about fix inches fquare ; by which means they will
grow much larger than if left too dofe. This, if well
performed, in cafe the weather proves dry, will keep
the onions till they are fit to pull: but if the weather
fhould prove moift, and any of the weeds take, root;
again, the weeds muft be pulled out with the hand;
for the onions having now begun to bulb,. muft; not be
difturbed with a hoe. Towards the middle of Auguft
the onions will have arrived at their full growth, which
may be known by their blades falling to the ground
and ftirinking. At this time, therefore, before their
necks or blades are withered off, they ihould be drawn
out of the ground, the extreme part of the blade cut
off, and the onions laid upon a dry fpot. of ground,
obferving to turn them every other day at leaft, to
prevent them from taking root again ; which in moift
weather they would be apt to do. At any rate, they
are very apt to grow in the lofts where they are kept all
winter; the mo ft effectual method of preventing which,
is, with a hot iron, flightly to touch their beards or,
roots, which will effectually prevent; their fprouting ; ■
b u in doing-this, great caution muff be ufed not to
{torch the pulp, for that will caufe them to perifli foon
after. In order to fave feeds, you muft in the fpring
make choice of fome of the largeft, firmeft,. and heft
fhapen onions (in quantity proportionable to the feed
you intend to fave), and having prepared a piece of
good ground, which fhould be well dug,, and laid, out
in beds about- three feet wide, the onions muft be
planted in the beginning of March in the following
manner: Having ftrained a line of about, four inches
within the fide of the bed, you muft with a fpade
throw out, an opening fix inches deep, the length of .
4
the bed, into which you fhould place the onions with Allium,
their roots downward, at about nine inches diftance , * 1X' ,
from each other; and with a rake draw the earth into
the opening again to cover the bulbsthen proceed
to remove the line again about a foot farther back,
where you muft make an opening as before, and fo-
again, till the whole is finifhed, by which you will
have four rows in each bed; between each bed you
muft allow the fpace of two feet for an alley to go
among them. In a. month’s time the leaves will ap*-
pear above ground, and many of the roots will pro¬
duce three or four ftalks each. About the beginning
of June, when the flowers begin to appear, the ftalks-
muft be tied to flakes to prevent them from being
broke by their own weight. About the end of Au¬
guft the feed will be ripe; which may be known by
the opening of the cells which contain it, and its
changing to a brown colour. When the heads are
cut off, they fhould be fpread abroad upon coarfe
cloths in the fitn, obferving to keep it under fhelter in*
the night, as alfo in wet weather.. When the heads
are quite dry, the feeds fhould be beat out from them;
and after being cleared from the hufks, and expofed
one day to the fun to dry, they may be put up la
bags for ufe.
Befides the above-mentioned forts of onions, the
fcallions or efcallions, and Welfh onions, were for¬
merly in great repute. The former is a fort which
never forms any bulbs at the roots, and was chiefly
ufed in the fpring for green onions ; but is now be¬
come fo fcarce as hardly to be known. Some gar¬
deners, inftead of the fcallion, fubftitute fuch onions as
decay and fprout in the houfe.. Thefe they plant ia ■
a bed early in the fpring, and in a fhert time they be¬
come large enough for ufe. The true fcallion is eafily
propagated by parting the roots either in fpring or au¬
tumn ; but the latter is preferable. The roots fhould
be planted three or four in a hole, and about, fix in¬
ches diftance every way. — The Welfh onions are pro¬
pagated only for fpring ufe; they never make any bulbs,
and are therefore fit only to be ufed green for falads.
They are fown in the end of July, in beds about three
feet and a half wide. In a fortnight’s time they ap¬
pear above. ground; but in October their blades die,
and the ground becomes quite naked. In January,-
however, they will again appear very ftrong, and in
March will be fit .to draw for young onions.
6. The porrum, or leek, has been fo long cultiva¬
ted, that.its native place of growth cannot be traced..
It is undoubtedly the fame as that mentioned in the
eleventh Chap, of Numbers, , where it is faid the If-
raelites longed for leeks in conjunction with onions.-
The leaves are much of the fame nat ure as thofe of the
latter, and they are yet a oonHant difh at the tables of
the Egyptians,. who chop, them fmall and then eat
them with their meat: They are in great efteem, too,
with the Welfh, and tlteir general ufe as a pot-herb is
well known.-—Their culture is. the fame with that of
the onion.
ALLIX (Dr Peter), a learned French Proteftant
divine, born, at Alencon in 1641. He became mini—
fter of the reformed church at Rouen, where he pub-
Hfhed many learned and curious pieces; the credit of
which induced the reformed to call him to Charenton,,
about a league from Paris,. being the principal church
rA L L t 478 ] ALL
they had in France. On the revocation of the editt of
*~-v Nantz, he retired to England; where he ftudied the
language with fo much fuccefs, as to publilh a work,
intitled Reflexions on the Books in the Holy Scriptures,
to eflablijh the Truth of the Chrijlian Religion, 2 vols;
which he dedicated to James II. acknowledging his
obligations to that prince, and his kind behaviour to
the diftreffed refugees in general. He wrote feveral
other treatifes relating to ecclefiaftical hiftory ; which
rendered him as famous in England as in France, for
his ingenious and folid defences of the reformed reli¬
gion. He was complimented with the degree of D.D.
and in 1690 was made treafurer of the church of Sa-
lilbury. He died in 1717.
ALLOA, or Allowav, a fea-port town in Scot¬
land, feated on the Forth, about 20 miles higher up
the river than Leith, and five miles eaft of Stirling.
It is a populous place 4 has two market-days in the
week ; and is remarkable for its fine caftle the feat of
the Earl of Mar, and for the coal-mines near it. The
harbour is extremely commodious, with great depth
of water; and veffels are expeditioufly loaded with
coals from the pits by an uncommon waggon-way, on
which one horfe draws with eafe three waggons at once,
each waggon containing a tun and a half. An excel¬
lent dry-dock has alfo been lately ere&ed here, capa¬
ble of receiving {hips of the greateft burden. There
is likewife a large glafs-houfe for blowing bottles, of
which veffels are fupplied with any quantity upon the
ftiorteft notice.
The tower and lands of Alloa were exchanged by
David II. king of Scots, anno 1365, with Thomas
Lord Erlkine, for the lands and eftate of Strathgart-
ney in Perthfliire; and fince that time the caftle of
Alloa has been the favourite refidence of the family of
Mar. The fituation is uncommonly beautiful. The
gardens here were -the firft that were laid out on a
great fcale in. Scotland; and, with the advice of Le
Nautre, were indebted to the tafte of John the late
Earl of Mar, who began to plant them in the year
1706. They contain about 40 acres.; and would have
exhibited to Dr Johnfon, had he travelled that way,
as fine timber of fourfeore years growth as his favou¬
rite England can produce.
The tower of Alloa is 89 feet in height, with walls
of 1.1 feet in thickncfs; and was built in the end of
the 13th century. In this refidence of the family of
Erlkine many of the Scottifti princes received their
education^ having been for more than two centuries
the wards of the Lords Edkine and Earls of Mar ;
who held generally the caftle of Stirling, and frequent¬
ly the three principal fortrefles of the kingdom, Edin¬
burgh, Stirling, and Dunbarton. The laft heir of
the Scottifh monarchy who was nurtured there was
Henry Prince of Wales'; whofe cradle, golf-clubs, and
other infantine and youthful remains, are preferved by
the heir of the Earls of Mar, in remembrance of that
fpirited and promifing prince ; of whom Dr Birch has
preferved feveral anecdotes, connected with the Erlkines
and his-refidence at Alloa.—Among other remains of
antiquity preferved at Alloa, in remembrance of the
confidence and affeftion which fubfifted always betwixt
the Stuarts and the Erlkines, is the private fignet of
the-.unfortunate Mary, which Ihe gave to the regent
Mar, after Ihe was obliged by the treaty of Edinburgh
to defift from wearing the arms of England in the firft Allobroge*
quarter; the child’s-chair of James VI. her fon ; and II
the feftive-chair of Thomas Lord Erlkine the fecond . A1'oy' ,
Earl of Mar of the name, with the falhionable grace *
carved on it, Soli Deo Honor et Gloria.
ALLOBROGES (Infcriptions, Livy, Velleius,
Flarus) ; from Allobrox (Horace) : a people of Gallia
Narbonenfis, fituated between the rivers Ifara and Rho-
danus, and the Lacus Lemanus ; commended by Ci¬
cero for their fidelity, difeommended by Horace on
account of their fondnefs for novelty.
ALLOCATION denotes the admitting or allow¬
ing of an article of an account, efpeeially in the ex¬
chequer.. Hence,
Allocatiohe Facienda, is a writ directed to the lord
treafurer, or barons of the exchequer, commanding
them to allow an accountant fuch fums as he has law¬
fully expended in the execution of his office.
ALLOCUTIO, an oration or fpeech of a general
addrelfed to his foldiers, to animate them to fight, to
appeafe fedition, or to keep them to their duty. A.
mount of earth was raifed upon the occafion, as it
were a kind of tribunal of turf. From this the gene¬
ral pronounced his harangue to the army, which was
ranged in feveral fquadrons round him, with their cap¬
tains at their head. When the time and circumftanqes
would not admit of a formal harangue, the general
went through the ranks, and called each by his name,
putting them in mind of their courage upon former
occafions, mentioning the vi&ories they had won, and
making promifes of plunder.
ALLODIUM, or Alleub, denotes lands which
are the abfolute property of their owner, without being
obliged to pay any fervice or ackowledgment whatever
to a fuperior lord. See Fee anH Feodal Syflem.
ALLOPHYLLUS, in botany; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the ofkandria clafs of
plants. The charadfers of which are : The calyx is a
four-leaved perianthium, with orbicular leaflets, the
oppofite ones lefs : The corolla confifts of four or¬
bicular equal petals, lefs than the calyx ; the claws
broader, the length of the fmaller leaves of the calyx;
The ftamina con fill of eight llender filaments, the
length of the corolla ; the antherae are roundilh: The
pijhllum has a round didymous germen above ; the
ftylus is filiform, and longer than the ftamina; and
the ftigma is bifid, with revolute divilions. There
is but one fpecies, the zeylanicus, a native of Cey¬
lon.
ALLOTTING, or Allotment, of Goods, in mat¬
ters of commerce, is when a Ihip’s cargo is divided in¬
to feveral parts, bought by divers perfons, whofe names
are written on as many pieces of paper, which are ap¬
plied by an indifferent perfon to the feveral lots or par¬
cels ; by which means the goods are divided without
partiality, every man having the parcel which the lot
with his name on is appropriated.
ALLOY, or Allay, properly fignifies a propor¬
tion of a bafer metal mixed with a finer one. The al¬
loy of gold is eftimated by carats, that of filver by
pennyweights. (See Gold, &c.) In different nations,
different proportions of alloy are ufed ; whence their
moneys are faid to be of different degrees of finenefs or
bafenefs, and are valued accordingly in foreign ex¬
changes.—The chief reafons alleged for the alloying
A L M [ 479 ] A L M
AHum of com are: i. The mixture of the metals, which,
Alnladie w^en from the mine, are not perfedlly pure.
. 2. The faring the expenc© it muft otherwife coil if
they were to be refined. 3. The neceffity of render¬
ing them harder, by mixing fome parts of other me¬
tals with them, to prevent the diminution of weight
by wearing in paffing from hand to hand. 4. The
melting of foreign gold or coin which is alloyed. 5.
The charges of coinage, which muft be made good by
the profit arifing from the money coined. 6. and laftly,
The duty belonging to the fovereign, on account of
the power he has to caufe money to be coined in his
dominions.
In a more general fenfe, the word is employed in
chemiftry to fignify the union of different metallic mat¬
ters.—As an infinity of different combinations may be
made according to the nature, the number, and the
proportions of the metallic matters capable of being al¬
loyed, we fhall not here enter into the detail of the
particular alloys, all which are not yet nearly known.
Thofe which are ufed, as Bronze, Tombac, Brafs, White
Copper, See. may be found under their particular names;
and what is known concerning other alloys may be.
found under the names, of the different metals and femi-
metals.
ALLUM. See Alum.
ALLUMINOR, from the French alumer, “ to
lighten,” is ufed for one who coloureth or painteth
upon paper or parchment; and the reafon is, becaufe
he gives light and ornament by his colours to the let¬
ters or other figures. Such ornaments are ftyled i//u-
minations. The word is ufed in flat. 1. R. III. cap. 9.
But how fuch a perfon is called a limner.
ALLUSH, (anc. geog.)- The Ifraelites being in
the wildemefs of Shur, departed from Dophkah, and
went to Allulh, from whence they proceeded to Rephi-
dim ; Num. xxxiii. 13, 14. Eufebius and St Jerom
fix Allulh in Idumaea, about Gabala or Petra, the capi¬
tal of Arabia Petraea. In the accounts of the empire,
it is fituated in the third Paleftine; and by Ptolemy,
among the cities of Idumaea.
ALLUSION, in rhetoric, a figure by which fome-
thing is applied to, or underftood of, another, on ac¬
count of fome.fimilitude between them.
ALLUVION, in law, denotes the gradual increafe
of land along the fea-lhore, or on banks of rivers.
ALLY, in matters of polity,, a fovereign prince or
ftate that has entered into alliance with others. See
Alliance.
ALMACANTARS. See Almucantars.
ALMACARRON, a fea-port town of Spain, in the
province of Murcia, at the mouth of the river Guada-
lantin. It is about twenty miles weft of Garthagena,
and is remarkable for the prodigious quantity of alum
found in its territory. W. Long. 1. 15. N. Lat. 37.
4°*
ALMADE, a town of Spain,in the province of La
Mancha, in the kingdom-of Caftile, fituated upon the
top of a mountain, where are the moft ancient as well
as the richeft filver mines in Europe.
ALMADIE, a kind of canoe, or fmall veffel, about
four fathoms long, commonly made of bark, and ufed
by the negroes of Africa.
Almadie is alfo the name of a kind of long-boats,
fitted out at. Calicut, which are eighty feet in length,
and fix or fiven in breadth. They are exceedingly fwift, Almageft
and are otherwife cAlti caehurt. II
ALMAGEST, in matters of literature, is particu-, ma^i:u v‘
larly ufed for a collection or book compofed by Ptole¬
my, containing various problems of the ancients both
in geometry and aftronomy.
Almagest is alfo the title of other colleftions of
this kind. Thus, Riccioli has publiftied a book of oj-
ftronomy, which he calls the New Almagefi; and Pluc-
kenet, a book which he calls Almagejlrum Rotanicum,.
ALMAGRA, a fine deep red ochre, with fome ad¬
mixture of purple, very heavy, and of a denfe yet fri¬
able ftructure, and rough dufty furface. It adheres
very firmly to the tongue, melts freely and eafily in the
mouth, is of an auftere and ftrorigly aftringent tafte, and
ftains the Ikin in touching. It is the Sil Atticum of the
ancients: itfermentsveryviolentlywithacidmenftruums;
by which fingle quality, it is fufficiently diftinguilhed
from the Sil Syricum, to which it has in many refpedts
a great affinity. It is found in immenfe quantities iu
many parts of Spain ; and in Andalufia there arc in a
manner whole mountains of it. It is ufed in painting,
and in medicine as an aftringent.
ALMAGRO, a fortrefs of Spain,, the capital of
one of the diftri£ls of La Mancha. It was built by
the archbiihop Roderic of Toledo, who finifhed it in
1214, and put a confiderable garrifon into it to reftrain
the incurfions of the Moors. This was hardly done,
when the fortrefs was befieged by an army of 5000
horfe and foot, under the command of a Moorifli offi¬
cer of great reputation ; but the prelate, its founder,
took care to fupply thofe within with fuch plenty of ne-
ceffaries, that at length the enemy found theinfelves o--
bliged to raife the fiege and retire with great loft..
ALMANACK, a book,.or table, containing a ca¬
lendar of days and months, the riling-and fetting of
the fun, the age of the moon, the eclipfes of both lu¬
minaries, Sec.—Authors are divided with regard to the ■
etymology of the word ; fome deriving it from the A-
rabic particle al, and manach, to count; fome from al-
manah, new-year’s gifts, becaufe the Arabian aftrolo-
gers ufed at the beginning of the year to make prefents
of their ephemerides; and others; from the Teutonic
abnaen-achte, obfervations on all the months. Mr John-
fon derives it from the Arabic particle al, and the
Greek v-™, a month. But the moft fimple etymology
appears from the common fpelling; . the word being
compofed of two Arabic ones, Al Manack, which
fignify the Diary. All the claffes of Arabs are com¬
monly much given to the ftudy of aftronomy and aftro-
logy; to both which a paftoral life, and a fort of huf-
bandry, not only incline them, but give them time and
leifure to apply themfelves to them. They neither fow,
reap, .plant, travel, buy on fell, or undertake any expe¬
dition or matter, without previoufly confulting the liars,
or, in other words, their almanacks, ur fome of the ma¬
kers of them. From thefe people, .by their vicinity to
■Europe, this art, no left ufeful in one fenfe than ftupid
and ridiculous in another, hath paffed over hither: and
thofe aftronomical compofitions have Hill every where
.not' only retained their old Arabic name ; but were,
like theirs,- for a long while, and Hill are among many
European nations, interfperfed with a great number of
aftrological rules for planting, lowing, bleeding, pur¬
ging, See. down to the cutting of the hair and paring
A L M [ 480 1 A L M
Almanack, of the nails.—Regiomontanus appears to have been the
^—v fir(l in Europe, however, who reduced almanacks into
their prefent form and method, gave the characters of
each year and month, foretold the eclipfes and other
•phafes, calculated the motions of the planets, &c. His
sfirft almanack was firft publiihed in 1474.
Almanacks differ from one another, chiefly, in con-
rtaining fome more, others fewer, particulars.
The effential part is the calendar of months and days,
swith the rifings and fettings of the fun, age of the
■moon, &c. To thefe are added various parerga, aftro-
nomical, meteorological, chronological, political, ru¬
ral, &c. as calculations and accounts of eclipfes, folar
ingreffes, prognoftics of the weather, tables of the
tides, terms, &c. lifts of polls, offices, dignities, pub¬
lic inftitutions, with many other articles political as
‘Well as local, and differing in different countries.—
A great variety are annually publilhed in Britain; fome
for bindings which may be denominated book-alma-
■nqcks ; others in loofe papers, called Jheet-almanacks.
The modern almanack anfwers to the Fajii of the
ancient Romans. See Fasti.
Conjlrufiion of Almanacks. The firft thing to be
done is, to compute the fun’s and moon’s place for
each day of the year, or it may be taken from fome
ephemerides and entered into the almanack ; next, find
the dominical letter, and, by means thereof, diftribute
the calendar into weeks; then, having computed the
time of eafter, by it fix the other moveable feafts; ad¬
ding the immoveable ones, with the names of the mar¬
tyrs, the rifing and fetting of each luminary, the length
of day and night, the afpedls of the planets, the pha¬
fes of the moon, and the fun’s entrance into the car¬
dinal points of the ecliptic, i. e. the two equinoxes and
folftices. (See Astronomy, pafitn.) By the help
of good aftronomicd 'tables or ephemerides, the con-
■flru&ion of almanacks is extremely eafy.
Almanacks for one -year printed on one fide of pa¬
per, pay of duty 4ft.; fhofe for more years pay for
Three years id.; but perpetual almanacks are to pay
only for three years at 2d- Out of the duties by this
act there iliall be paid to each univerfity L. 500 per
Mnn. half yearly, at Midfummer and Chriilmas, and the
furplus ftiall be paid into the exchequer to go to the
-finking fund. Selling unftamped almanacks incurs the
Jame penalty as for felling unftamped newfpapers. Al¬
manacks in bibles and common prayer books are ex-
fempted.
Almanack, among antiquaries, is alfo the name
given to a kind of inftrument, ufually of wood, in-
fcribed with various figures and Runic characters, and
reprefenting the order of the feafts, dominical letters,
days of the week, and golden number, with other mat¬
ters neceffary to be known throughout the year; ufed
by the ancient northern nations, in their computations
of time, both civil and ecclefiaftical. Almanacks of
this kind are known by various names, among the dif¬
ferent nations wherein they have been ufed; as rim-
flocks, primftaries, runftocks, runftaffs, Scipianes Ru-
nici, Bacculi A males, clogs, &c. They appear to
have been ufed only by the Swedes, Danes, and Nor¬
wegians. From the fecond of thefe people, their ufe
was introduced into England, whence divers remains
-of them in the counties. Dr Plot has given the de-
■fcription and figure of one of thefe clogs, found in
Nmz.
Staffordfhire, under the title of The perpetual Stafford- Almanzt,
/hire Almanack. The external figure and matter of
thefe calendars appear to have been various. Some-, ^
times they were cut on one or more wooden leaves,
bound together after the manner of books ; fometimes
on the fcabhards of fwords, or even on daggers; fome¬
times on tools and implements, as portable fteelyards,
hammers, the helves of hatchets, flails, &c. Some¬
times they were made of brafs or horn ; fometimes of
the {kins of eels, which, being drawn over a ftick pro¬
perly infcribed, retained the impreffions of it. But
the moft ufual form was that of walking-ftaves, of
flicks, which they carried about with them to church,
market, &c. Each of thefe Haves is divided into three
regions; whereof the firft indicates the figirs, the fecond
the days of the week and year, and the third the gol¬
den number. The characters engraven on them are,
in fome, the ancient Runic; in others, the later Gothic
characters of Ulfilus. The faints days are expreffed
in hieroglyphics, fignificative either of fome endow¬
ment of the faint, the manner of his martyrdom, or the
like. Thus, againft the notch for the firft of March,
or St David’s day, is reprefented a harp ; againft the
25th of October, or Crifpin’s day, a pair of ffioes;
againft the 1 oth of Auguft, or St Lawrence’s day, a
gridiron ; and, laftly, againft New-year’s day, a horn,
the mark of good drinking, which our anceftors gave
a loofe to at that feafon,
ALMANZA, a little town of New-Caftile, on the
frontiers of the kingdom of Valencia in Spain, fituated
in W. Long. i. 19. N. Lat. 58. 54. It is remarkable
for the defeat of the allies in 1707, under the Marquis
de las Minas and the Earl of Galway. In the begin¬
ning of this aCtion, the Englifh troops penetrated thro’
the centre of the -Spanifn army ; but the Portuguefe
cavalry being broken by the Spanifh, and the French in¬
fantry making a dreadful fire on their flanks, the allied
army was at laft broken, and began their retreat when
it was almoft dark. Colonel Hill carried off the re¬
mains of thirteen battalions towards the river Xucar,
which, if they could have paffed, they might have
been fafe : but being very much fatigued, they were
obliged to halt; by which means they werefurrounded,
and forced to furrender prifoners of war. In this bat¬
tle, the allies loft 120 ftandards, together with all their
artillery and baggage; a great number were killed, ami
feveral thoufands taken prifoners. The Marquis de las
Minas was dangeroufly wounded ; and his mi'ftrefs, in
the garb of an ^mazon, killed by his fide. The earl
of Galway had two cuts crofs the face, which, though
not dangerous, had prevented him from feeing, or gi¬
ving orders properly.
Heresy of ALMARfC, a tenet broached in
France by one Almaric, in the year 1209. It confift-
ed in affirming, that every Chrillian was actually a
member of Chrift ; and that without this faith no one
could be faved. His followers went farther, and af¬
firmed, that the power of the Father lafted only during
the continuance of the Mofaic law ; that the coming
of Chrift introduced a new law ; that at the end of this
began the reign of the Holy Ghoft; and that now
confeffion and the facraments were at an end, and that
every one is to be faved by the internal operations of the
Holy Spirit alone, without any external aft of reli¬
gion.*—Their morals were as infamous as their doftrine
ww
A L M [ 481 ] A L M
Alrae. was abfurd. Their tenets were condemned by a public
^ ' decree of the council of Sens, in the year 1209.
ALME, or Alma, fmging and dancing girls in
Egypt,'who, like the Italian Improvifatari, can occa-
fxonally pour forth “ unpremeditated verfe.” They
are called Alme, from having received a better edu¬
cation than other women. They form a celebrated
fociety in this country. To be received into it, ac¬
cording to Mr Savary, it is neceflary to have a good
voice, to underftand the language well, to know
the rules of poetry, and be able to compofe and fing
couplets on the fpot, adapted to the circumftances.
The Alme know by heart all the new fongs. Their
memory is furnilhed with the moft beautiful tales.
There is no feltival without them; no entertainment
of which they do not conllitute the ornament. They
are placed in a roftrum, from.whence they fing during
the repaft. They then defcend into the faloon, and
form dances which have no refemblance to ours. They
are pantomime ballets, in which they reprefent the
ufual occurrences of life. The myfteries of love too,
generally furnilh them with fcenes. The fupplenefs of
their bodies is inconceivable. One is aftoniihed at the
mobility of their features, to which they give at plea-
fure the imprefiion fuited to the charafters they play.
The indecency of their attitudes is often carried to ex¬
cels. Their looks, their geltures, every thing fpeaks,
but in fo expreffive a manner, that it is impofiible to
miftake them. At the beginning of the dance, they
lay afide with their veils the modefty of their fex. A
long robe of very thin filk goes down to their heels,
v.’hich is flightly faftened with a rich girdle. Long
black hair, plaited and perfumed, is flowing on their
fhoulders. A Ihift, tranfparent as gauze, fcarcely hides
their bofom. As they put themfelves in motion, the
fhapes, the contours of their bodies, feem to develope
themfelves fuccefiively. Their Heps are regulated by
the found of the flute, of caftanets, the tambour ck
bafque, and cymbals, which accelerates or retards the
meafure. They are ftill further animated by words
adapted to fuch fcenes. They appear in a ftate of in¬
toxication. They are the Bacchants in a delirium.
It is when they are at this point, that throwing off all
referve, they abandon themfelves totally to the difor-
der of their fenfes ; it is then that a people far from
delicate, and who like nothing hidden, redouble their
applaufes. Thefe Alme are fent for into all the ha-
rams. They teach the women the new airs ; they a-
mufe them with amorous tales, and recite in their pre¬
fence poems, which are fo much the more interefting,
as they furnifh a lively pifture of their manners. They
initiate them into the myfteries of their art, and teach
them to contrive lafcivious dances. Thefe girls, who
have a cultivated underftanding, are very agreeable in
converfation. They fpeak their language with puri¬
ty. The habit of dedicating themfelves to poetry ren¬
ders the fofteft and moft fonorous expreffions familiar
to them. They repeat with a great deal of grace. In
finging, nature is their only guide. Sometimes two
of them fing together, but always with the fame voice.
It is the fame with an orcheftra, where all the inftru-
ments playing in unifon execute the fame part.
The Alme aflift at the marriage ceremonies, and
march before the bride, playing on inftruments. They
. make a figure likewife at funerals, and accompany the
Vol. I. Part II,
proceffion, finging forrowful airs. They break forth Almedia
into groans and lamentations, and give eveiy fign of
grief and defpair. Thefe women are paid very high, > ^ «
and feldom appear but amongft the grandees and rich
men.
The common people have alfo their Alme. They
are girls of the fecond clafs, who try to imitate the
former; but they have neither their elegance, their
graces, nor their knowledge. They are every where
to be met with. The public places and the walks about
Grand Cairo are full of them. As the populace re¬
quire allufions ftill more ftrongly marked, decency will
not permit the relation to what a pitch they carry the
licentioufnefs of their geftures and attitudes.
ALMEDIA, a frontier-town of Portugal, in the
province of Tralos Montes, on the confines of Leon,
where there was a very brilk adtion between the French
and Pprtuguefe in 1663 ; 17 miles N. W. of Cividad
Rodrigo. W. Long, 7. 10. N. Lat. 40. 41.
ALMEHRAB, in the Mahometan cuftoms, a nich
in their mofques, pointing towards the kebla or temple
of Mecca, to which they are obliged to bow in pray¬
ing. See Kebla.
ALMEISAR, a celebrated game among the an¬
cient Arabs, performed by a kind of calling of lots
witli arrows, ftrictly forbid by the law of Mahomet, on
account of the frequent quarrels occafioned by it.
The manner of the game was thus: A young camel
being brought and killed, was divided into a number
of parts. The adventurers, to the number of feven,
being met, 11 arrows were provided without heads or
feathers ; feven of which were marked, the firft with
one notch, the fecond with two, the third with three,
&c. the other four had no marks. Thefe arrows were
put promifeuoufly into a bag, and thus drawn by an
indifferent perfon. Thofe to whom the marked ar¬
rows fell, won Ihares in proportion to their lot; the •
reft to whom the blanks fell, were intitled to no part
of the camel, but obliged to pay the whole price of it.
Even the winners tailed not of the flefh themfelves
more than the lofers, but the whole was diftributed to
the poor.
ALMENE, In commerce, a weight of two pounds
ufed to weigh faffron in feveral parts of the continent
of the E. Indies.
ALMERIA, a fea-port town in the kingdom of
Granada in Spain, pleafantly fituated in a fine bay at
the mouth of the river Almeria, on the Mediterranean-:
W. Long. 3. 20. N. Lat. 36. 51. This town is by
fome thought to have rifen upon the ruins of the an¬
cient Abdera, and was formerly a place of great con-
fequence. It was taken from the Moors in 1147, by *
the emperor Conrad III. in conjunction with the
French, Genoefe, and Pifans.—It was at that time the
ftrongeft place in Spain, held by the infidels ; from
which their privateers, which were exceedingly nume¬
rous, not only troubled the fea-coafts inhabited by the
Chriftians, but gave equal difturbance to the maritime
provinces of France, Italy, and the adjacent iflands.
The city being well fortified, having a ftrong caftle,
a numerous garrifon, and being excellently provided
with every thing neceffary, made a vigorous refiftance;
but was at laft taken by ftorm, when the viftor put to
the fword all the inhabitants who were found in arms,
diftributing the bell part of the plunder among his al-
3 P fcsi
A L M
[ 482 ]
A L M
Almeria lies, whom he fent away thoroughly fatisfied. The
Almoner Genoefe, particularly, acquired here that emerald vef-
« ^ *. fel which ftill remains in their treafury, and is deemed
invaluable.
Upon its reduction by the Chriftians Almeria be¬
came a bifhopric ; but is at prefent very little better
than a village, indifferently inhabited, and has nothing
to teflify fo much as the probability of its former great-
nefs, except certain circumftances which cannot be
effaced even by the indolence of the Spaniards them- of the almoner; alfo the place where alms
felves. What thefe are, Udal ap Rhys, a Wehhman, See Ambry,
ihus defcribes, in his tour through Spain and Portugal.
“ Its climate (fays he) is fo peculiarly bleffed, that
one really wants words to exprefs its charms and excel¬
lence. Its fields 6nd meads are covered with flowers
all the year round ; they are adorned alfo with palms,
myrtles, plane-trees, oranges, and olives ; and the moun-
the highefl: eccleflailical dignity in that kingdom. To
hint belongs the fuperintendency of all hofpitals and
houfes of lepers. The king receives the facrament
from his hand ; and he fays mafs before the king in
all grand ceremonies and folemnities.
Almoner is alfo a more fafhionable title given by
fome writers to chaplains. In this fenfe we meet with
almoner of a fhip, almoner of a regiment.
ALMONRY, or Aumbry, the office or lodgings
given.
ALMS, a general term for what is given out of cha¬
rity to the poor.
In the early ages of Chriftianity, the alms of the
charitable were divided into four parts ; one of which
was allotted to the bifhop, another to the priefts, and
a third to the deacons and fubdeacons, which made
tains and promontories near it are as noted for their their whole fubfiftence ; the fourth part was employed
producing a great variety of precious ftones,' infomuch
that the next promontory to it is called the Cape of
Gates, which is a corruption from the word agates, the
in relieving the poor, and in repairing the churches.
No religious fyftem is more frequent or warm in it
exhortations to alms-giving than the Mahometan. The
hills thereabouts abounding in that fort of precious Alcoran reprefents alms as a neceffary means to make
ftones, as well as in emeralds and amethyfts, granites prayer be heard. Hence that faying of one of their
©r coarfe rubies, and extreme curious alaballer in the
mountains of Filaures.”
ALMISSA, a fmall but ftrong town at the mouth
of the Cetina, in Dalmatia, famous for its piracies ;
ten miles eaft of Spalatro.' E. Long. 39. 33. N. Lat.
43- 56-
ALMOND, the fruit of the almond-tree. See
Amygdalus.
Almond, in commerce, a meafure by which the Por-
tuguefe fell their oil ; 26 almonds make a pipe.
Almonds, in anatomy, a name fometimes given to
two glands, generally called the tonfls.
Almonds, among lapidaries, fignify pieces of rock-
eryftal, ufed in adorning branch-candleilicks, &c. on
account of the refemblance they bear to the fruit of that
name.
AiMOKn-Furnace, among refiners, that in which the
flags of litharge, left in refining filver, are reduced to
lead again by the help of charcoal.
ALMONDBURY, a village in England, in the
weft-riding of Yorkftiire, fix miles from Halifax.
ALMONER, in its primitive fenfe, denotes an officer
in religious houfes, to whom belonged the management
and diftribution of the alms of the houfe. By the an¬
cient canons, all monafteries were to fpend at leaft a
tenth part of their income in alms to the poor. The
almoner of St Paul’s is to difpofe of the monies left for
charity, according to the appointment of the donors,
khaljfs : “ Prayer carries us half-vrty to God, faffing
brings us to the door of his palace, and alms introduces
us into the prefence-chamher.” Hence many illuftri-
ous examples of this virtue among the Mahometans.
Hafan, the fon of Ali, and grandfon of Mohammed,
in particular, is related to have thrice in his life divided
his fubftance equally between himfelf and the poor, and
twice to have given away all he had. And the gene¬
rality are fo addicted to the doing of good, that they
extend their charity even to brutes.
Alms, alfo denotes lands or other effecfts left to
churches or religious houfes, on condition of praying
for the foul of the donor. Hence,
Free Alms was that wdiich is liable to no rent or
fervice.
Reafomble Alms was a certain portion of the eftates
of inteftate perfons, allotted to the poor.
Alms-Box, or Chef, a fmall cheft, or coffer. Called
by the Greeks wherein anciently the alms were
collefted, both at church and at private houfes.
The alms-cheft in Englifh churches, is a ftrong box,,
with a hole in the upper part, having three keys, one
to be kept by the parfon or curate, the other two by
the church-wardens. The erecting of fuch alms-cheft
in every chqrch is enjoined by the book of canons, aa
alfo the manner of diftributing what is thus collected
among the poor of the parifti.
Alms-Houfe, a petty kind of hofpital, for the main-
to bury the poor who die in the neighbourhood, and tenance of a certain number of poor, aged, or difabled
to breed up eight boys to finging, for the ufe of the people.
choir. By an ancient canon, all bifhops are required
to keep almoners.
Lord Almoner, or Lord High Almoner, of Eng¬
land, is an ecclefiaftical officer, generally a bifhop, who
has the forfeiture of all deodands, and the goods of
frlos de fe, which he is to diftribute among the poor.
He has alfo, by virtue of an ancient cuftom, the power
of giving the firft difh from the king’s table to what¬
ever poor perfon he pleafes, or, inftead of it, an alms
in money.
Great Almoner, Grand Aumonier, in France, is
ALMUCANTARS, in aftronomy, an Arabic word
denoting circles of the fphere paffing through the cen¬
tre of the fun, or a ftar, parallel to the horizon, being
the fame as Parallels of Altitude.
AiMucANTARs-Staff, is an inftrument ufually made
of pear-tree or box, having an arch of 15 degrees; ufed
to take obfervations of the fun, about the time of its
rifing and fetting ; in order to find the amplitude, and
confequently the variation of the compafs.
ALMUCIUM, denotes a kind of cover for the head,
worn chiefly by monks and ecclefiaftics : It was of a
A L M [ 483 ] A L O
fj| Almugim fquare form, and feems to have given rife to the bon-
1 II. . nets of the fame Ihape ftill retained in univerfities and
A Alnwick. j , x
\ - ^ cathedrals.
ALMUGIM, or Almug-tree, a certain kind of
wood mentioned in the firft book of Kings, (x. 11.)
, which the vulgate tranflates iigna thyina, and the Sep-
tuagint wrought wood. The Rabbins generally render
it coral; others, ebony, brazil, or pine. But it is ob-
ferved, that the almug-tree can by no means be coral,
becaufe that wood is not fit for the purpofes that the
Scripture tells us the ‘almug-tree was ufed, fuch as mu-
fical inftruments, Hair-cafes, &c. The word thyinuvi is
a name for the citron-tree, known to the ancients, and
very much efteemed for its fweet odour and great
beauty. It came from Mauritania. The almug-tree,
or almugim, algumim, or Amply gummim, taking al
for a kind of article, is therefore by the beft commen¬
tators underftood to be an oily and gummy fort of
wood; and particularly that fort of tree which pro¬
duces the gum ammoniac, which is alfo thought to
be the fame with the Ihittim-wood, whereof there is
fuch frequent mention made by Mofes.
ALMUNECAR, a fea-port town in thelkingdom
of Granada, feated on the Mediterranean, with a good
harbour, defended by a ftrong caftle, 20 miles fouth of
Alhama. W. Long. 3. 45. N. Lat. 36. 50.
ALNAGE, orAuLNAGE, the meafuring of wool¬
len manufactures with an ell. It was at firlt intended
as a proof of the goodnefs of that commodity, and ac¬
cordingly a feal was invented as a mark that the com¬
modity was made according to the ftatute ; but, it be-
. ing'now poffible to purchafe thefe feals, they are affix¬
ed, whenever the vender pleafes, to all cloaths indifcri-
minately, to the great prejudice of our woollen manu¬
factures.
ALNAGER, Alneger, or Aulneger, q. d. mea-
furer by the ell; fignifies a fworn public officer, who by
himfelf, or deputy, is to look to the affize of woollen
cloth made throughout the land, i. e. the length, width,
and work thereof; and to the feals for that purpofe
ordained. The office of king’s aulnager feems to have
been derived from the ftatute of Richard I. A.D. 1197,
which ordained, that there ffiould be only one weight
and one meafure throughout the kingdom; and that
the'cuftody of the affize, or ftandard of weights and
meafures, ffiould be committed to certain perfons in e-
very city and borough. His bufinefs was, for a cer¬
tain fee, to meafure all cloths made for fale, till the of¬
fice was aboliffied by the ftatute 11 and 12 W. III.
cap. 20.
ALNUS, the Alder-tree, a fpecies of betula. See
Betula.
Alnus, in the ancient theatres, that part which was
tnoft diftant from the ftage.
ALNWICK, a thoroughfare town in Northumber-
| land, on the road to Scotland. Here Malcolm, king
of Scotland, making an inroad into Northumberland,
was killed, with Edward his fon, and his army defeated
by Robert Mowbray, earl of this county, anno 1092.
Likevvife William, king of Scotland, in 1174, inva¬
ding England with an army of 80,000 men, was here
encountered, his army routed, and himfelf made pri-
foner. The town is populous, and in general well
built; it has a large town-houfe, where the quarter-
feffions and county-courts are held, and members of
parliament elecled. It has a fpacious fquare, in which Alnwick
a market is held every Saturday. Alnwick appears
to have been formerly fortified, by the veftiges of a > ^ «
wall ftill vifible in many parts, and three gates which
remain almoft entire. It is governed by four chamber¬
lains, who are chofen once in two years out of a com¬
mon council, confifting of 24 members. It is orna¬
mented by a ftately old Gothic caftle, which has been
the feat of the noble family of Piercy, earls of North¬
umberland. As the audits for receipt of rents have
ever been in this caftle, it has always been kept in to¬
lerable repair; and not many years ago, it was repaired
and beautified by the duke of Northumberland, who
made very confiderable alterations, upon a moft elegant
plan, with a view to refide in it fome part of the fum-
mer-feafon. The manner of making freemen is pecu¬
liar to this place, and indeed is as ridiculous as lingu¬
lar. The perfons who are to be made free, or, as the
phrafe is, leap the well, affemble in the market-place,
very early in the morning, on the 25th of April, being
St Mark’s day. They appear on horfe-back, with e-
very man his fword by his fide, dreffed in white, and
with white night-caps, attended by the four chamber¬
lains and the c'aftle-bailiff, mounted and armed in the
fame manner; from hence they proceed, with mufic
playing before them, to a large dirty pool, called Free-
man’s-well, where they difmount, and draw up in a
body, at fome diftance from the water ; and then ruffi
into it all at once, and fcramble through the mud as
fall as they can. As the water is generally very foul,
they come out in a dirty condition; but taking a dram,
they put on dry clothes, remount their horfes, and
ride full gallop round the confines of the dillridl;
then re-enter the town, fword in hand, and are met
by women dreffed in ribbons with bells and garlands,
dancing and finging. Thefe are called timber-wajh.
The houfes of the new freemen are on this day diftin-
guiffied by a great holly-buffi, as a fignal for their friends
to affemble and make merry with them after their re¬
turn. This ceremony is owing to king John, who was
mired in this well; and who, as a puniffiment for not
mending the road, made this a part of their charter.
Alnwick is 31 o miles north by weft from London, 3 3
north of Newcaftle, and 29 fouth of Berwick. Long.
1. 10. Lat. 55. 24.
ALOA, in Grecian antiquity', a feftival kept in ho¬
nour of Ceres by the huffiandmen, and fuppofed to re-
femble our harveft-home.
ALOE, in botany, a genus of the monogynia or¬
der, belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants ; and, in
the natural method, ranking under the 10th order,
Coronarix. The characters are : There is no calyx;
The corolla is monopetalous, ereCt, fix-cleft, and ob¬
long ; the tube gibbous; the border fpreading, and
fmall; with a neftary-bearing bottom : The Jlamina
confift of fix tabulated filaments, rather furpaffing the
corolla in length, and inferted into the receptacle; the
anthers are oblong and incumbent: The piftillum has
an ovate germen ; the llylus is fimple, the length of
• the ftamina ; the ftigma is obtufe and trifid : The pe-
ricarpium is an oblong capfule, three-furrowed, three-
celled, three-valved : The feeds are many and angular.
Of this genus, botanical writers enumerate ten fpecies ;
of which the moft remarkable are,
x. The diilicha, by fome called the foap aloe, by
3 P 2 others
A L O [ 484 1 A L O
others calalline aloe. This feldom rifes above two
' feet high. The leaves are very broad at the bafe,
where they clofely embrace the ftalk, and gradual¬
ly decreafe to a point. The edges are fet with
lharp fpines, and the under leaves fpread open horizon¬
tally every way. Thefe are of a'dark green colour
fpotted with white, fomewhat refembling the colour
of foft foap, from whence the plant got the name of
Jbap-aloe. The flowers grow in umbels on. the tops of
the (talks, are of a beautiful red colour, and appear
in Augtift and September. 2. The variegata, or
partridge-bread aloe, is a low. plant, feldom rifing
above eight inches high. The leaves of this are trian¬
gular, and curioufly veined and fpotted, fomewhat like
the feathers of a partridge’s breaft. The flowers grow
in very loofe fpikes, and are of a fine red colour tip¬
ped with green. 3. The vifeofa, with funnel-fliaped
flowers, grows ftear a foot high, with triangular
leaves of a dark green colour. The flowers grow
thinly upon very (lender footftalks, are of an herba¬
ceous colour, and their upper part turns backward.
4. The fpiralis, with oval crenated flowers^ grows fome¬
what like the former; only tire flowers grow upon tal¬
ler ftalks, which branch out and grow, in very long
clofe fpikes, 5. The linguisformae, or tongue-aloe,
has its leaves about fix. inches indength, and (haped like
a tongue.. The flowers grow in flender loofe fpikes,
each hanging downward, of a red colour below, and
green at; the top. 6. The margaritifera, or pearl
aloe, is a very beautiful plant. It is fmaller than mod
of the aloe kind. The leaves are (hort, very thick,
fharp pointed, and turning down, with a large thick
end, appear there triangular. The colour of the leaves
is a fine green, dripped in an elegant manner with
white, and frequently tipped with red at the point*
The flower-dalk, which rifes in the midd of the leaves,
is round, fmooth, of a purple colour, and generally
about eight inches high. When the plant has been
properly cultivated, the flowers are dripped with green
and white ; and fometimes they are entirely white.
This aloe is Angular in not having the hitter refinous
juice with which the leaves of mod others abound ;
when a leaf of this fpecies .is cut, what runs from it is
watery, . colourlefs, and perfeftly infipid. 7. The
perfoliata, or focotorine aloe, hath long, narrow, fuccu-
Jent leaves, which eome out without any order, and
form large heads. The dalks grow three or four feet
high; and have two, three, and fometimes four, of thefe
heads branching out from it. The flowers grow in
long fpikes, each danding on a pretty long footdalk ;
they are of a bright red colour tipped with green,
and generally appear in the winter feafon.. 8. The
retufa, or cufliion aloe, hath very fhort, thick, fucculent
leaves, comprefled on the upper fide like a cufliion.
This grows very clofe to the ground ;. the flowers grow
on flender dalks, and are of an herbaceous colour..
Culture. The proper earth for planting thefe veger
tables in, is, one half frefli light earth from a com¬
mon, and the red an equal mixture of white fea-fand
and fifted lime-rubbifli. This mixture (hould be al¬
ways made fix or eight months before the plants are to
be fet in it. The common aloe will live in a dry green-
houfe in winter; and may be placed in the open air in
fummer, in a flickered fituation, but mud have very lit-
tl'e water. Mod of the other aloes are bed preferved
in an airy glafs-cafe, in which there is a dove, to make Aide*
a little fire in very bad weather., The tendered kinds '*
require a greater (hare of heat to preferve them in win¬
ter, and fliQuld be kept in a good dove, in a degree of
heat ten degrees above temperate. Many other kinds
may alfo be kept in-this heat; but the greater the
heat, the- more water they always-require. About the
beginning of June,, it is ufual in England to fet the
pots-of aloes out of the houfe : but they fliould be fet
under the (belter of hedges or trees; to keep them front
the violence of the fun ; the rains alfo, which ufually
fall in this and the following month, are apt to rob
them* It ia therefore bed to keep them under cover
the greated part of the year. The bed time to fliift
thefe plants is the middle of July. They are, on this
occafion, to be taken out of the pots, the loofe earth-
to be picked from about their roots, and the decayed'
or mouldy parts of them cut off; then a few dones
are to be put at the bottom of the pot, and it is to be
filled with the compofition before deferibed, and the
plants carefully put in, the roots being fo difpofed as
not to interfere with one another. They are to be
carefully watered after this, at times, for three weeks,
and fet in a fliady place. The common kind will bear
the open air from May to October, and (hould be ftiif-
ted every year. All the aloes are propagated by off--
fets, or by planting the leaves.. The off-fets fliould be
taken from the mother plant, at the time when it is
drifted: they are to be planted in very fmall pots of
the proper mixed earth; and if that part of then*
which joined to the mother-plant be obferved to be
mold when taken off, it (hould lie on the ground in a
(hady place two or three days before it is planted, o»
therwife it will rot. After planting thefe, they (hould
remain in a fliady place a fortnight; and then be re¬
moved to a very moderate hot-bed, plunging the pots.
therein, which will help their driking new roots. To¬
wards the end of Augud they mud be, by degrees,
hardened to the open air, by taking off the glaffes of
the hot-bed; and in September they may be removed
into the green-houfe.
Properties, &c. The aloe is a kind of fymbolid
plant to the Mahometants, efpecially in Egypt, and
in fome meafure dedicated to the offices of religion ;
for whoever returns from a pilgrimage to Mecca,,
hangs it over his dreet-door, as a token of his ha¬
ving performed that holy journey. The fuperditious
Egyptians believe that this plant hinders evil fpirits
and apparitions from entering the houfe ; and on this
account, whoever walks the dreets in Cairo, will find
it over the doors both of Chridians and Jews. Front
the fame plant the Egyptians diflil a water, which is
fold in the apothecaries (hops at Cairo,.and recommen--
ded in coughs, hyderics, and adhmas.. An unexpe¬
rienced French furgeon, fays Haffelquid, gave a Cop-
tite, 40 years old, afflicted with the jaundice, four tea¬
cups full of the diddled water of this fpecies of aloe,
and cured him in four days.. This remedy, unknown
to our apothecaries, is not difficult to be obtained, as
the plant might eafily be raifed in the warm fouthern
parts of Europe. The Arabians call it fittara.
Of the leaves of the Guinea aloe, mentioned by Mr
Adanfon in his voyage to Senegal, the negroes make
very good ropes, not apt to rot in the water.
Dr Sloane mentions two forts of aloe; one of which
is
A L O [ 4S5 ] A L O
rs ufed for fifhing-lines, bow-ftrings, ftockings, and
hammocks; the other has leaves which, like thofe of
the wild-pine and banana, hold rain-water, and there¬
by afford a very neceffary refrefhment to travellers in
hot countries, where there is generally a fcarcity of
wells and water.
In Mexico, the maguei, a fpecies of aloe, yields
almolt every thing neceffary to the life of the poor.
Befides making excellent hedges for their fields, its
trunk ferved in place of beams for the roofs of their
houfes, and its leaves inftead of tiles. From thofe
leaves they obtained paper, thread, needles, clothing,
fhoes, and ftockings,. and cordage; and from its co¬
pious juice they made wine, honey, fugar, and vine¬
gar. Of the trunk, and thickeft part of the leaves,
when well baked, they made a very tolerable difh of
food. Laftly, it was a powerful medicine in feveral dif-
orders, and particularly in thofe of the urine. It is
alfo at prefent one of the plants the moft valued and
moft profitable to. the Spaniards..
The medical fubftance known by the name of aloes
is the infpiffated juice of fome of the abovementioned
fpecies. The ancients diftinguilhed two forts of aloes:
the one was pure and of a yellowifh colour, inclining to
red, refembling the colour of a liver, and thence na¬
med hepatic; the. other was full of impurities, and
hence fuppofed to be only the drofs of the better kind.
At prefent, various forts are met with in the fhops;
which are diftinguifhed either from the places, from
the fpecies of the plants, or from fome difference in the
juices themfelves. Thefe may be all ranged in three
claffes w
1. Alou Perfoliata, focotorine aloes, brought from
the ifland Socotora in the Indian ocean, wrapt in lltins;
it is obtained from the 15th fpecies abovementioned.—
This fort is the pureft of the three : it is of a gloffy
furface, clear, and in fome degree pellucid; in the
lump, of a yellowilh red colour, with a purple call;
when reduced to powder, of a bright golden colour. It
is hard and friable in the winter, fomewhat pliable in
fummer,. and grows foft betwixt the fingers. Its tafte
is bitter, accompanied with an aromatic flavour, but
infufficient to prevent its being difagreeable : the fmell
is not very unpleafant, and fomewhat refembles that of
myrrh.
2. A lor Hepatica, hepatic, Barbadoes, or common
aloes (the juice of a variety of the former), is not fo clear
and bright as the foregoing fort; it is alfo of a darker
colour, more compaft texture, and for the moft part
drier. Its fmell is much ftronger and more difagree¬
able ; the tafte intenfely bitter and naufeous, with lit¬
tle or nothing of the fine aromatic flavour of the focor
torine.—The beft hepatic aloes come from Barbadoes
in large gourd-fhells; an inferior fort of it (which is ge¬
nerally foft and clammy) is brought over in calks.
Of the cultivation and preparation of hepatic aloes
in the ifland of Barbadoes, we have the following ac¬
count in the London Medical Journal*. “ The lands in
the vicinity of the fea, that is, from tv/o to three
miles, which are rather fubjeftto drought than other-
wife, and are fo ftony and lhallow as not to admit of
the planting of fugar canes with any profpeft of fuc-
cefs, are generally found, to anfwer beft for the aloe
plant. The Hones, at leaft the larger ones, are firft
picked up, and either packed in heaps, upon the moft
lhallow barren fpots, or laid round the field as a dry Aloe.'
wall. The land is then lightly ploughed, and very
carefully cleared of all noxious weeds, lined at one foot
dillance from row to row, and the young plants fet,
like cabbages, at about five or fix inches from each o-
ther. This regular mode of lining and fetting the
plants is pra&ifed only by the moft exaft planters, in
order to facilitate the weeding of theni, by hand, very
frequently; beeaufe, if they are not kept perfectly
clean and free from weeds, the produce will be but
very fmall. They will bear being planted in any fea-
fon of the year, even in the drieft, as they will live on
the furface of the earth for many weeks without a drop
of. rain. The moft general time,, however, of planting
them, is from April to June.
“ In the March following, the labourers carry a
parcel of tubs and jars into the field, and each takes a
flip or breadth of it, and begins by laying hold of a
bunch of the blades, as much as he can conveniently
grafp with one hand, while with the other he cuts it
juft above the furface of the earth, as quickly as poffi-
ble (that the juice may not be wafted), and then pla¬
ces the blades in the tub, bunch by bunch, or handful
by handful. When the firft tub is thus packed quite
full, a fecond is begun (each labourer having two);
and by the time .the fecond is filled, all the juice is
generally drained out of the blades in the firft tub.
The blades are then lightly taken out, and thrown o-
ver the land by way of manure and the juice is pour-
' ed out into a jar. The tub is then filled again with
blades, and fo alternately till the labourer has produ¬
ced his jar full, or about four gallons and an half of
juice, which is often done in fix or feven hours, and he
has then the remainder of the day to himfelf, it being
his employer’s intereft to get each day’s operation as
quickly done as poffible.—It may be obferved, that al¬
though aloes are often cut in nine, ten, or twelve
months after being planted, they are not in perfedtion
till the fecond and third year; and that they will be
productive for a length of time, fay 10 or 12 years,
or even for a much longer time, if good dung, or mar
nure of any kind, is ftrewed over the field once in three
or four years, or oftener if convenient^
“ The aloe juice will keep for feveral weeks without
injury. It is therefore not boiled .till a fufficient quan¬
tity is procured to make it an objedt for the boiling,-
houfe. In the large wayj three boilers, either of iron
or of copper, are placed to one fire, .though fome have
but two, and the fmall planters only one. The boilers
are filled with the juice ; and, as it ripens or becomes
more infpiffated, by a conftant but regular fire, it is
ladled forward from boiler to boiler, and frelh juice is
added to that fartheft from the fire, till the juice in
that neareft to the fire (by much the; fmalleft of the
three, and commonly called by the name of latch, as
in the manufactory of firtar) becomes of a proper eon-
fiftency to be flapped or ladled out into gourds, or o-
ther fmall veffels, ufed for its final reception. The
proper time to fkip or ladle it out of the tatch, is when it
is arrived at what is termed a refin height, or when it
cuts freely, or in thin flakes, from the edges of a fmall
wooden flice, that is dipped from time to time into the
tatch. for that purpofe. A little lime-water is ufed by
fome .aloe-boilers, during the procefs, when the ebulH=
tion is too great.
“•As*
Aloe.
A L O [ 486 ] A L O
“ As to the fun-dried aloes (which is moft appro¬
ved for medicinal purpofes), very little is made in Bar-
badoes. The procefs is, however, very fmnple, though
extremely tedious. The raw juice is either put into
bladders, left quite open at top, and fufpended in the
fun, or in broad fhallow trays,of wood, pewter, or tin,
expofed alfo to the fun, every dry day, until all the
'fluid parts are exhaled, and a perfeft refin formed,
which is then packed up for ufe, or for exportation.”
The Barbadoes aloes is faid to be common alfo in
the other Weft India iflands; and the following ac¬
count of the manner of preparing it in Jamaica is gi¬
ven by Dr Wright in the fame volume of the Medical
Journal, art. x. “ The plant k pulled up by the roots,
and carefully cleanfed from the earth or other impuri¬
ties. It is then fliced and cut in pieces into fmall
hand-bafkets or nets. Thefe nets or bafkets are put
into large iron boilers with water, and boiled for ten
minutes, when they are taken out, and frelh parcels
fupplied till the, liquor is ftrong and black. At this
period the liquor is thrown through a ftrainer into a
•deep vat, narrow at bottom, to cool, and to depofite
its feculent parts. Next day the clear liquor is drawn
•off by a cock, and again committed to the large iron
veffel. At firft it is boiled brilkly ; but towards the
•end of the evaporation is flow, and requires conftantly
ilirring to prevent burning. When it becomes of the
•confiftence of honey, it is poured into gourds or cala-
baflies for fale. This hardens by age.”
3. Aloe-CAbaHina, fetid, caballine, or horfe-aloes, is
fuppofed to be a coarfer fort obtained from the fame
fpecies with the foregoing; according to others, it is
the produce of the difticha. It is chiefly diftinguilh-
able by its ftrong rank fmell. .
All the different kinds are gum-refins, which contain
more gummous than relinous parts. Water, when of
a boiling heat, diffolves all the foluble parts of aloes ;
but if let ftand till it grows cold, it lets drop moft of
its refin- A ftrong fpirit diffolves and keeps fufpended
almoft the whole of aloes, though it contains fuch a
large portion' of gummous parts; hence it is evident,
that aloes contains fome principle, faline or other, which
renders water capable of diffolving refin, and fpirit ca¬
pable of diffolving gum.
Aloes is a ftimulating ftomachic purge, which, given
in fmall quantity, operates mildly by ftool; but in large
<lofes a efts roughly, and often occafions an irritation a-
bout the anus, and fometimes a difeharge of blood.
It is a good opening medicine to people of a lax ha¬
bit, or who live a fedentary life ; and to thofe whofe
ftomach and bowels are loaded with phlegm or mucus,
or who are troubled with worms, or are debilitated ;
becaufe at the fame time that it carries off thofe vif-
cid humours which pall the appetite, and overload the
inteftines, it ferves as a ftrengthener and bracer. In
fmall dofes, repeated from time to time, it not only
cleanfes the prima vke, but likewife tends to promote
the menftrual difeharge in women ; and therefore it is
frequently employed in chlorofis, or where the men-
ftrua are obftruifted. It is a good ftomachic purge, and
is given in all cafes where fuch a one is wanted ; but it
is looked upon as a heating medicine, and not proper
in bilious habits, or where there is much heat or fever ;
and its continued ufe is apt to bring on the piles.
It is given in fubftance from five grains to a fcruple.
though formerly it ufed to be preferibed in dofes of two Aloe
or three times that quantity; but thefe large dofes A^0f
fometimes brought on troublefoihe fymptoms. As it , ''
is a flow working purge, it is generally taken at bed¬
time, and it operates next day.
With regard to this, as well as all other refinous ,
purges, it ought to be obferved, that when they are
given in fubftance without any mixture, they are apt |
to adhere to the coats of the inteftines, and to occafion
griping and uneafinefs; for thefe reafons aloes is gene¬
rally mixed with fome faponaceous or refolvent body,
to deftroy its vifeid tenacity, before it is given in fub¬
ftance. The fubftances which are moft ufed for this
purpofe are, a fmall quantity of the fixt alkaline falts;
foap ; the yolk of an egg ; and gummous vegetable ex-
trafts. Mr Barton alleges*, that by triturating aloes * 'j’reatife I
with a fmall quantity of alkaline falts, its tenacity WaSoftbe Ma- |
more effectually deftroyed than by any other thing \iz.'nufaaute cf \
tried: that Caftile foap and the yolk of an egg an-
fwered belt, next to it; that manna, fugar, and ho- 7 ' *
ney, were far inferior to them ; and that gummous, or
mucous vegetable extracts, fuch as the extracts of gen¬
tian, or of liquorice root, triturated with the aloes, in
the proportion of one part of the extraCt to two of the
aloes, and then made up into pills with a fufficient
quantity of fyrup, deftroyed the vifeidity of the aloes,
and rendered its operation mild.
Socotorine aloes contains more gummy matter than
the hepatic; and hence it is likewife found to purge
more, and with greater iiritation. The firft fort there¬
fore is moft proper where a ftimulus is required, as for
promoting or exciting the menftrual flux ; whilft the
latter is better calculated to aft as a common purge.
For the aloetic preparations, fee Pharmacy. Index.
AtoEs-lVood. See Xx 1.0-Aloes.
American Aloe. See Agave.
ALOGIANS, in church-hiftory, a feft of ancient
heretics, who denied that Jefus Chrift was the Logos,
and confequently rejefted the gofpel of St John—The
word is compounded of the privative «> and xoyos, q. d.
'without Logos or JVord.—Some aferibe the origin of
the name, as well as of the feft of Alogians, to Theo¬
dore of Byzantium,' by trade a currier ; who having
apoftatized under the perfecution of the emperor Seve-
rus, to defend himfelf againft thofe who reproached
him therewith, faid, that it was not God he denied,
but only man. Whence his followers were called in
Greek ^Loyoi} becaufe they rejefted the Word. But
others, with more probability, fuppofe the name to
have been firft given them by Epiphanius in the way
of reproach, They made their appearance toward the
clofe of the fecond century.
ALOGOTROPHIA, among phyficians, a term
fignifying the unequal growth or nourifliment of any
part of the body, as in the rickets.
ALOOF, has frequently been mentioned as a fea-
term ; but whether juftly or not, we fhall not prefume
to determine. It is known in common difeourfe to im¬
ply at adijlance; and the refemblance of the phrafes keep
a loof, and keep a luff, or keep the luff, in all probability
gave rife to this conjefture. If it was really a fea-phrafe
originally, it feems to have referred to the dangers of
a lee-fliore, in which fituation the pilot might naturally
apply it in the fenfe commonly underftood, viz. keep
all off, or quite off: it is, however, never expreffed in
t 487 1 ALP
It may not a dean, and twelve canons. Here is a convent of Car- Alpha,
melites, another of capuchxnes, another of bare-footed Alphabet.*
Carmelites, three nunneries, an hofpital, and a convent v
of Guillemins, in which is the tomb of Theodore Mar¬
tin, who brought the art of printing out of Germany
into the Low Countries. He was a friend of Erafmus,
who wrote his epitaph. E. Long. 4. 10. N. Lat,
49- 55-
ALPHA, the name of the firft letter of the Greek
alphabet, anfwering to our A.—As a numeral, it Hands
for one, or the firil of any thing. It is particularly
ufed, among ancient writers, to denote the chief or firlt
man of his clafs or rank. In this fenfe, the word Hands
A L O
that manner by feamen now. See Luff.
be improper to obferve, that befides ufing this phrafe
in the fame fenfe with us, the French alfo call the
" v eather-fide of a fhip, and the weather-clue of a courfe,
lei of.
ALOPECE, Alopecia (anc. geog.), an ifland
placed by Ptolemy at thfe mouth of the Tanais, and
called the ifland Tanais : now /’Ijle des Renards (Bau-
drand). Alfo an ifland of the Bofporus Cimmerius
(Pliny); and another in the Egean fea, over-againH
Smyrna.
ALOPECIA, a term ufed among phyficians to
denote a total falling off of the hair from certain parts,
occafloned either by the defedt of nutritious juice, or contradiffinguifhed from beta, which denotes the fe-
by its vicious quality corroding the roots of it, and lea¬
ving the Ikin rough,and colourlefs.
The word is formed from vulpss, “ a fox
whofe urine, it is faid, will occafion baldnefs ; or be-
caufe it is a difeafe which is common to that creature-
It is diredted to walh the head every night at going to
bed with a ley prepared by boiling the afnes of vine
branches in red wine. A powder made by reducing
cond perfon. Plato was called the slipha of the wits:
Eratoffhenes, keeper of the Alexandrian library, whom
fome called a Second Plato, is frequently named Beta.
Alpha is alfo ufed to denote the beginning of any
thing. In which fenfe it Hands oppofed to omega,
which denotes the end. And thefe two letters were
made the fymbol of Chriffianity; and accordingly were
engraven on the tombs of the ancient ChriHians, to dl-
hermodaftyls to fine flour, is alfo recommended for the ffinguifh them from thofe of idolaters. Moralez, a Spa-
fame purpofe.
nifti writer, imagined that this cuHom only commen-
In cafes where the baldnefs is total, a quantity of ced flnce the rife of Arianifm; and that it was peculiar
the fineff burdock roots are to be bruifed in a marble to the orthodox, who hereby made confeffion of the
mortar, and then boiled in white wine until there
mains only as much as will cover them. This liquor,
carefully Hrained off, is faid to cure baldnefs, by wafli-
ing the head every night with fome of it warm. A
ley made by boiling afhes of vine branches in common
water, is alfo recommended with this intention. A
eternity of Chriff: but there are tombs prior to the age
of ConHantine whereon the two letters were found, be¬
fides that the emperor juff mentioned bore them on his
laharum before Arius appeared.
ALPHABET, the natural or cuflomary feries of
the feveral letters of a language (fee Language and
frefli cut onion, rubbed on the part until it be red and Writing). The word is formed from alpha neiisbeta,
itch, is likewife faid to cure baldnefs. the firH and Lcond letters of the Greek alphabet. The
A midtitude of fuch remedies are every where to be number of letters is different in the alphabets of differ-
found in the works of Valefcus de Taranta, Rondele- ent languages. The Englifh alphabet contains 24 let-
tius, Hollerius, Trincavellius, Celfus, Senertay, and ters; to which if we add j and v confonant, the funs
other practical phyficians. See alfo Buxus. will be 26: the French contains 23; the Hebrew,.
ALOPECURUS, or Fox-tail grass, in botany: Chaldee, Syriac, and Samaritan, 22 each ; the Arabic
A genus of the triandria digynia clafs; and in the na- 28 ; the Perfian 31 ; the Turkiih 33 ; the Georgian
iural method ranking under the 4th order, Gramma. 36 ; the Coptic 32 ; the Mufcovite 43; the Greek 24;
The chara&ers are : The calyx is a fingle-flower’d bi- the Latin 22 ; the Sclavonic 27 ; the Dutch 26 ; the
valve glume : The corolla is one-valved : The Jlamina Spanifli 27 ; the Italian 20 ; the Ethiopic and Tarta-
eonfiH of three capillary filaments; the antheras bifur- rian, each 202 ; the Indians of Bengal 21 ; the Bara-
eatedat both ends: Theis a roundifli germen; mefe 19. The Chinefe have, properly fpeaking, no
there are two ffyli; and the-ffigmata are Ample : The alphabet, except we call their whole language by that
pericarpium is a corolla cloathing the feed ; and the name ; their letters are words, or rather hieroglyphics,
feed is Angle and roundifh. There are eight fpecies,
viz. the pratenAs, or meadow fox-tail grafs; the bul-
bofus, or bulbous,fox-tail grafs; the geniculatus, or
flote fox-tail grafs ; and the myofuroides, or Held fox¬
tail grafs; thefe four grow wild in Britain: the agreffii
amounting to about 80,000.
It has been a matter of conAderable difpute whether
the method of exprefiing our ideas by vifible fymbols,.
called letters, be really a human invention ; or whether
we ought, to attribute an art fo exceedingly ufeful, to
the monfpelienfis, the paniceus, and the hordeiformis, an immediate revelation from the Deity.—In favour of
2ire all natives of France and the fouthern parts of Eu- the latter opinion it has been urged, T
rope, except the laff, which is a native of India. See 1. The five books of Mofes are univerfally ackno.w- Arguments
Grass. ledged to be the moH ancient compofitions as well as A)r '■vntlI'S
ALOPEX, in zoology, a fpecies of the canis, with the moff early fpecimens of alphabetical writing we
a. Hrait tail and black tip. It is commonly called the have. If, therefore,, we fuppofe writing to be the re- iati0n,
field fox. fult of human ingenuity, it muH be different from all
ALQSA,. the fhad, or mother of herrings, a fpecies other arts, having been brought to perfection at once ;
of the clupea. See C'lupea. as it feems impoflible to make any real improvement on
ALOST, a town in Flanders, belonging to the the Hebrew alphabet. It may indeed be replied, that
houfe of Auffria, feated on the river Dender, in the alphabetical characters perhaps have exiffed many ages
midway between Bruffels and Ghent. It has but one before the writings of Mofes, though the more ancient
garifh; but the church is collegiate, and has a provoff, fpecimens have perifhed. This, however, being a-
ALP [ 488 ] ALP
Alphabet, tnere urifupported affertion, without any hiftorical te- fliould not one nation, it may be urged, adopt from
ftimeny to corroborate it, cannot be admitted as a the other the mode of expreffing the art as well as the
proof. Again, fetting afide the evidence to be deri- art itfelf ? To what purpofe did they take the trouble
•ved from Scripture on this fubjeft, the fimplicity of of inventing other charafters ? To this object ion it
manners predominant in the early ages, the fmall ex- may be replied, 1. From the inftance of our own lan-
tent of the intelleftual powers of mankind, and the guage we know what diverfities may be introduced in
little intercourfe which nations had with one another, this refpedt merely by length of time and an inter-
which would feem more particularly to render writing courfe with neighbouring nations. And fuch an effedt
neceflary, can fcarce allow us to fuppofe that fuch a would be more likely to take place before the art of
complex and curious contrivance as alphabetical writing printing had contributed to eftabliih an uniformity of
could be invented by a race of men whofe wants were character : For when every work was tranfcribed by
fo few, their advantages fo circumfcribed, and their the hand, v/e may eafily imagine how many variations
ideas fo limited. would arife from the fancy of the fcribe, and the mode
2. If alphabetical writing were a mere human in- of writing fo conllantly different in individuals. 2. This
vention, it might be expefted that different nations diverfity might fometimes arife from vanity. When
would have fallen upon the fame expedient independent an individual of another community had become ac-
of each other during the compafs of fo many ages, quainted. with this wonderful art, he might endeavour
But no fuch thing has taken place ; and the writing of to recommend himfelf as the inventor ; and, to avoid
every people on earth may be referred to one common detection, might invent other characters. 3. The cha-
original. If this can be proved, the argument from rafters of the alphabet might fometimes be acctfmmo-
fucceffive derivation, without a fingle inftance of inde- dated as much as poffible to the fymbolical marks al-
pendent difcovery, muft be allowed to amount to the ready in ufe amongft a particular people. Thefe ha-
very higheft degree of probability in favour of our hy- ving acquired a high degree of fanftity by the ufe of
-pothefis, which will now reft on the evidence for or many generations, would not be eafily fuperfeded with-
againfl this faft-; and which may be fummed up in the out the aid of feme fuch contrivance. 4. This is fup-
Following manner. ported by the teftimony of Herodotus; who informs
Among the European nations we find none who us, that “ thofe Phoenicians who came with Cadmus
can pretend any right to the difcovery of letters. All introduced many improvements among the Greeks,
-of them derived the art from the Romans, excepting and alphabetical writing too, not known among them
only the Turks, who had it from the Arabians. The before that period. At firft they ufed the Phoenician
Romans never laid claim to the difcovery ; but con- charafter; but in procefs of time, as the pronunciation
feffed that they derived their knowledge from the altered, the ftandard of the letters was alfo changed.
Greeks, and the latter owned that they had it from The Ionian Greeks inhabited at that time the parts
"the Phoenicians ; who, as well as their colonifls the adjacent to Phoenicia: who having received the art of
■Carthaginians, fpoke a dialeft of the Hebrew fcarcely alphabetical writing from the Phoenicians, ufed it, with
varying from the original. The Coptic, or Egyptian, an alteration of fome few charafters, and confeffed
refembles the Greek in moft. of its charafters, and is -ingenuoully, that it was called Phoenician from the in-
therefore to be referred to the fame original. The troducers of it.” He tells us that he had himfelf feen
Ghaldee, Syriac, and latter Samaritan, are dialefts of the charafters of Cadmus in a temple of Ifmenian
•the Hebrew, without any confiderable deviation, or Apollo at Thebes in Boeotia, engraven upon tripods,
many additional words. The Ethiopic differs more and very much refembling the Ionian charafters. 5. The
from the Hebrew, but lefs than the Arabic ; yet . old Samaritan is precifely the fame as the Hebrew lan-
thefe languages have all iffued from the fame flock, as guage; and the Samaritan Pentateuch does not vary
the fimilarity of their formation, and the numberlefs by a fingle letter in twenty words from the Hebrew-:
•words common to them, all fufficiently evince ; and the but the charafters are widely different: for the Jew's
Perfic is very nearly allied to the Arabic. Alterations adopted the Chaldaic leUers during their captivity at
indeed would naturally be produced, in proportion to Babylon, inflead of the charafters of their forefa-
the civilization of the feveral nations, and their inter- .thers.
courfe with others-; which will account for the fuperior 3* What we know of thofe nations who have con-
copioufnefs of fome above the reft. It appears then, tinued for many centuries unconnefted with the reft of
that all the languages in ufe amongft men that have the world, ftrongly militates againft the hypothefis of
been conveyed in alphabetical charafters, have been the human invention of alphabetical writing. The
the languages of people connefted ultimately or im- experiment has been fairly made upon the ingenuity of
mediately w-ith the Hebrews, who have handed down mankind for a longer period than that which is fup-
the earlieft fpecimens of writing to pofterity ; and we pofed to have produced alphabetical writing by regu-
have therefore the greateft reafon to believe, that their lar gradations; and this experiment determines pe-
method of writing, as well as their language, was de- remptorily in their favour. The Chinefe, a people
rived from the fame fource. famous for their difeoveries and mechanical turn of
This propofition will be farther confirmed from con- genius, have made fome advances tow ards the delinea-
fidering the famenefs of the artificial denominations lion of their ideas by arbitrary figns ; but have never-
of the letters in the Oriental, Greek, and Latin lan- thelefs been unable to accomplilh this exquiiite device --;
guages, accompanied ajfo by a fimilar arrangement, and after fo long a trial to no purpofe, we may rea-
as alpha, beta, &c. . It may Hill be objefted, how- fonably infer, that their mode of writing, which is
ever, that the charafters employed by the ancients to grow'ing more intricate and voluminous every day,
diferiminate their letters are entirely diffimilar. Why would never terminate in .fo clear, fo comparatively
2 fimple.
ALP [ 489 ] ALP
Alphabet, fitriple, an expedient as that of alphabetical characters.
The Mexicans, too, had made fome rude attempts of
the fame kind ; but with lefs fuccefs than the Chinefe.
We know alfo, that hieroglyphics were in ufe among
the Egyptians pofterior to the praftice of alphabetical
writing by the Jews; but whether the epiftelography,
as it is called, of the former people, which was in
vogue during the continuance of the hieroglyphics,
might not pofiibly be another name for alphabetical
writing, cannot be decided.
4. We fliall confider the argument on which the
commonly received fuppofition entirely depends: that
is, the natural gradation through the feveral fpecies of
fymbols acknowledged to have been in ufe with various
people, terminating at laft by an eafy tranfition, in
the deteftion of alphabetical characters. The ftrength
of this argument will be belt underltood from the fol¬
lowing reprefentation.
“ 1. The firll method of embodying ideas would
be by drawing a reprefentation of the objeCts them-
felves. The imperfection of this method is very ob¬
vious, both on account of its tedioufnefs and its ina¬
bility of going beyond external appearances to the
abftraCt ideas of the mind.
“ 2. The next method would be fomewhat more
general, and would fubllitute two or three principal
circumltances for the whole tranfaCtion. So two kings,
for example, engaging each other with military wea¬
pons, might ferve to convey the idea of a war between
the two nations. This abbreviated method would be
more expeditious than the former; but what it gained
in concifenefs would be loft in perfpicuity. It is a
defcription more compendious indeed, but ftill a de-
fcription of outward objeCts alone, by drawing their
refemblance. To this head may be referred the pic¬
ture-writing of the Mexicans.
“ 3. The next advance would be to the ufe of fym¬
bols : the incorporation, as it were, of abftraCt and
complex ideas in figures more or lefs generalized, in
proportion to the improvement of it. Thus, in the
earlier ftages of this device, a circle might ferve to ex-
prefs the fun, a femicircie the moon ; which is only a
contraction of the foregoing method. This fymbol-
writing in its advanced ftate would become more re¬
fined, but enigmatical and myfterious in proportion to
its'refinement. Hence it would become lefs fit for
common ufe; and therefore more particularly appro¬
priated to the myfteries of philofophy and religion.
Thus, two feet Handing upon water ferved to exprefs an
impoffibility ; a ferpent denoted the oblique trajectories
Of the heavenly bodies ; and the beetle, on account of
fome fuppofed properties of that infeCt, ferved to re-
prefent the fun. The Egyptian hieroglyphics were of
this kind.
“ 4. This method being ftill too fubtile and com¬
plicated for common ufe, the only plan to be purfued
was a reduction of the firft ftage of the preceding
method. Thus a dot, inftead of a circle, might
Hand for the fun ; and a fimilar abbreviation might be
extended to all the fymbols. On this fcheme every
objeCt and idea would have its appropriated mark :
thefe marks therefore would have a multiplicity pro¬
portionable to the works of nature and the operations
of the mind. This method was likewife pfaCtifed by
the Egyptians 5 but has been carried to greater per-
Vol. L Part II.
feCtion by the Chinefe. The vocabulary of the latter Alphabet,
is therefore infinite, or at leaft capable of being ex- ■v'—-'
tended to any imaginable length. But if we compare
this tedious and aukward contrivance with the aftonifti-
ing brevity and perfpicuity of alphabetical writing,
we muft be perfuaded that no two things can be more
diffimilar; and that the tranfition from a fcheme con-
ftantly enlarging itfelf, and growing daily more intri¬
cate, to the expreffion of every poffible idea by the
modified arrangement of four-and-twenty marks, is
not fo very eafy and perceptible as fome have imagined.
Indeed this feems ftill to be rather an expreffion of
things in a manner fimilar to the fecond ftage of fym-
bol-writing than the notification of ideas by arbitrary
figns.” _ _ *
To all this we fhall fubjoin the following remarks. Additional
which feem to give additional force to the foregoing remarks in
reafoning. tionoTthefe
“ 1. Pliny afferts the ufe of letters to have been eter- arguments,
nal; which {hows the antiquity of the praCtice to ex¬
tend beyond the asra of authentic hiftory.
“ 2. The cabaliftical doftors of the Jews maintain,
that alphabetical writing was one of the ten things
which God created on the evening of the Sabbath.
“ 3. Moft of the profane authors of antiquity aferibe
the firft ufe of alphabetical characters to the Egyptians ;
who, according to fome, received them from Mer¬
cury ; and, according to others, from their god
Tenth.
“ 4. There is very little reafori to fuppofe that even
language itfelf is the effeCt of human ingenuity and
invention.^ ^
Thus we have ftated the arguments in favour of the Anfwers to
revelation of alphabetical writing ; which are anfwer-the above
ed, by thofe who take the contrary fide, in the fol- ar2umcnts’
lowing manner.
1. Mofes no where fays that the alphabet was a
newr thing in his time ; nor does he give the leaft hint
of his being the inventor of it. The firft mention we
find of •writing is in the x 7th chapter of Exodus ;
where Mofes is commanded to •write in a book ; and
which took place before the arrival of the Ifraelites
at Sinai. This {hows that writing did not com¬
mence with the delivery of the two tables of the
law, as fome have fuppofed. Neither are we to
conclude that the invention had taken place only a
fuort time before ; for- the •writing in a book is com¬
manded as a thing commonly underftood, and with
which Mofes was well acquainted. It is plain, from
the command to engrave the names of the twelve tribes
of Ifrael upon Hones' like the engravings of a fignety
that writing had been known and prattifed among
them, as well as other nations, long before. We muft
alfo remember, that the people were commanded to
write the law on their dqor-pofts, &c. fo that the art ’
feems not only to have been known, but univerfally
praClifed among them. But had writing been a new
difeovery in the time of Mofes, he would probably
have commemorated it as well as the other inventions
of mufic, &c.: Nor is there any reafon to fuppofe
that God was the immediate revealer of the art; for
Mofes would never have omitted to record a circum-
ftance of fuch importance, as the memory of it would
have been one of the ftrongeft barriers againft ido¬
latry.
3 Again,
ALP
E 490 1
ALP
Alphabet Again, though feveral profane writers attribute the The former was called the curiolsgic, the latter the tro- Alphabet.:
origin of letters to the gods, or to fome divine perfon, ftcal hieroglyphic ; which lail was a gradual improve- v-"*J
Claim of
the Egyp¬
tians to the
invention
of letters.
yet this is no proof of its being actually revealed ;
but only that the original inventor was unknown. The
learned bifhop of Gloucefter obferves, that the ancients
gave nothing to the gods of whofe original they had
any records ; but where the memory of the invention
was loft, as of feed-corn, wine, writing, civil fociety,
&c. the gods feized the property, by that kind of right
which gives ftrays to the lord of the manor.
As neither tire facred nor profane hiftorians, there¬
fore, have determined any thing concerning the in¬
vention of letters, we are at liberty to form what con-
je&ures we think moft plaufrble concerning the origin
of them; and this, it is thought, might have taken
place in the following manner.
“ 1. Men, in their rude uncultivated ftate, would
have neither leifure, inclination, nor inducement, to
cultivate the powers of the mind to a degree fufficient
for the formation of an alphabet: but when a people
arrived at fuch a pitch of civilization as required them
to reprefent the conceptions of the mind which have
no corporeal forms, neceffity would occafion further
exertions, and urge them to find out a more expedi¬
tious manner of tranfa&ing their bufinefs than by pic¬
ture-writing.
“ 2. Thefe exertions would take place whenever a
nation began to improve in arts, manufactures, and
commerce ; and the greater genius fuch a nation had,
the more improvements would be made in the notation
of their language ; whilft thofe people who had made
lefs progrefs in civilization and fcience, would have a
lefs perfeft fyftem of elementary characters ; and per¬
haps advance no farther for many ages than the marks
or characters of the Chinefe. Hence we may fee,
that the bufinefs of princes, as well as the manufac¬
tures and commerce of each country, would produce
the neceffity of deviling fome expeditious manner of
communicating information to one another.”
The art of writing, -however, is of fo great anti¬
quity, and the early hiftory of moft nations fo full of
fable, that it muft be extremely difficult to determine
what nation or people may juftly claim the honour of
the invention. But as it is probable that letters were
the produce of a certain degree of civilization among
mankind, we muft therefore have recourfe to the hifto¬
ry of thofe nations who feem to have been firft civi¬
lized.
The Egyptians have an undoubted title to a very
early civilization; and many learned men have attributed.
the invention of letters to them. The late bilhop of
Gloucefter contends, that Egypt was the parent of all
the learning of Greece, and was reforted to by all the
Grecian legiflators, naturalifts, and philofophers ; and
endeavours to prove that it was one of the firft civilized
countries on the globe. Their writing was of four
kinds: 1. Hieroglyphic; 2. Symbolic; 3. Epijlolic;
and, 4. Hierograrnmatic, In the moft early, ages they
wrote like all other infant nations, by pictures; of
which fome traces yet remain amongtt the hierogly¬
phics of Horapollo, who informs us, that theyrepre-
fented fuller by a man’s two feet in water ; fire, by
fmoke afeending, &c. But to render this rude Inven¬
tion lefs incommodious,, they foon devifed the method
of putting one thing of limilar qualities for another.
ment on the former. Thefe alterations in the manner
of delineating hieroglyphic figures produced and per¬
fected another character, called the running-hand of
the hieroglyphics, refembling the Chinefe writing ; which
having been firft formed by the outlines of each figure,
became at length a kind of marks ; the natural effeCts
of which were, that the conftant ufe of them would
take off the attention from the fymbol and fix it on
the thing fignified. Thus the ftudy of fymbolic wri¬
ting would be much abbreviated ; becaufe the writer
or decypherer would have then little to do but to ret
member the power of the fymbolic mark; whereas before,
the properties of the thing or animal delineated were to
be learned. This, together with the other marks by in-
ftitution, to denote mental conceptions, would reduce
the characters to a fimilar ftate with the prefent Chi¬
nefe ; and thefe were properly what the ancients called
hieroglyphieal. We are informed by Dr Robert Hun¬
tingdon, in his account of the Porphyry pillars, that
there are fome ancient monuments of this kind yet re¬
maining in Egypt..
The facred book or ritual of the Egyptians, ac¬
cording to Apuleius, was written partly in fymbolic
and partly in thefe hieroglyphic characters, in the fol¬
lowing manner: He (the hierophant) drew out cer¬
tain books from the fecret repeiitories of the fanCtu-
ary, written in unknown characters, which contained
the words of the facred formula compendioufly ex-
preffed, partly by figures of animals, and partly by
certain marks or notes, intricately knotted, revolving
in the manner of a wheel, crowded together, and curled-
inward like the tendrils of a vine, fo as to hide the
meaning from the curiofity of the profane,” $
But though letters were of great antiquity in Egypt,d-erUr^
there is reafon to believe that they were not firft in-gVeri|e
vented in that country. Mr Jackfon, in his Chrono-. ^
logical Antiquities, has endeavoured to prove, that they-
were not invented or carried into Egypt by Taaut or
Tboth, the firft Hermes, and fon of Mifraim, who lived
about 500 years after the deluge ; but that they were in¬
troduced into that country by the fecond Hermes, who
livedabout 40a years after theformer. This fecond Her¬
mes, according to Diodorus, was the inventor of gram¬
mar and mufic, and added many words to the Egyp¬
tian language. According to tl^e fame author alfo,
he invented letters, rythm, and the harmony of founds.
This was the Hermes fo much celebrated by the
Greeks, who knew no other than hitnfelf. On the-
other hand, Mr Wife afferts that Mofes and. Cadmus
could not - learn the alphabet in Egypt; and that, the.
Egyptians had no alphabet in their time. He adduces
feveral reafons to prove that they had none till they
received what is called the Coptic, which was introdu¬
ced either in the time of the Ptolemies or under P:am-;
mitichus or Amafis; and the oldeft alphabetic letters
which can be produced as Egyptian, appear plainly to
have been derived from the Greek. Herodotus con-
feffes, that all he relates before the reign of Pfammiti-
chus is uncertain; and that he reports the early tranf-
aftions of that natron on the credit of the Egyptian
priefts, on which he did not greatly depend ; -and Dio¬
dorus Siculus is faid to have been greatly impofed upon
by them. Manetho, the oldeft Egyptian hillorian,
tranflated
(Alphabet.
6
Claim of
the Phoe; i-
nicians.
ALP L 49' ] ALP
tranflated the facred regifters out of Egyptian into The Greeks, as we have already obferved, knew no Alphabet,
Greek, which are faid by Syncellus to have been writ- older Hermes than the fecond, who lived about 400 v~~"
ten in the facred letters, and to have been laid up by
the fecond Mercury in the Egyptian temples. He al¬
lows the Egyptian gods to have been mortal men ; but
his hiilory was very much corrupted by the Greeks,
and hath been called in queftion by feveral writers from
the account which he himfelf gave of it. After Cam-
byfes had carried away the Egyptian records, the
priefts, to fupply their lofs, and to keep up their pre-
tenfions to antiquity, began to write new records;
wherein they not only unavoidably made great mi flakes,
but added much of their own invention, efpecially as
to diflant times.
The Phoenicians have likewife been fuppofed the
' inventors of letters ; and we have the ftrongeil proofs
of the early civilization of this people. Their mofl
ancient hiflorian, Sanchoniatho, lived in the time»of
Abibalus, father of Hiram king, of Tyre. He informs
us, that letters were invented by Taaut who lived in
Phoenicia in the 12th and 13th generations after the
creation. “ Mifor (fays he) was the fon of Hamyn ;
ffie fon of Mifor was Taci t, who invented the firfl
letters for writing.” The Egyptians call him Thoth ;
the Alexandrians Thcyth; and the Greeks Hermes,
or Mercury. In the time of^ this Taaut or Mercury
(the grandfon of Ham the fon of Noah), Phoenicia
and the adjacent country was governed by Uranus,
and after him by his fon Saturn or Cronus. He in¬
vented letters either in the reign of Uranus or Cronus ;
and flaid in Phoenicia with Cronus till the 32d year of
his reign. Cronus, after the death of his father Ura¬
nus, made feveral fettlements of his family, and tra¬
velled into other parts ; and when he came to the fouth
country, he gave all Egypt to the god Taautus, that
it fliould be his kingdom. Satichoniatho began his
hillory with the creation, and ended it with placing
Taautus on the throne of Egypt. He does not men¬
tion the deluge, but makes two more generations in
Cain’s line from Protagonus to Agrovenus (or from
Adam to Noah) than Mofes. As Sanchoniatho has
not told us whether Taaut invented letters either in
the reign of Uranus or Cronus, “ we cannot err much
(fays Mr Jackfon) if we place his invention of them
550 years after the flood, or 20 years after thedifper-
fion, and 2619 years before the Chriftian aera, and fix,
or perhaps ten years, before he went into Egypt.”
This prince and his pofterity reigned at Thebes in
Upper Egypt for 15 generations.
Several Roman authors attribute the invention of
letters to the Phoenicians. Pliny fays (a), the Phoeni¬
cians were famed for the invention of letters, as well
as for aftronomical obfervations and novel and martial
arts. Curtius informs us, that the Tyrian nation are
related to be the firfl who either taught or learned let¬
ters ; and Lucan fays, that they were the firfl who at¬
tempted to exprefs founds or words by letters. Eu-
febius alfo tells us from Porphyry, that “ Sanchonia¬
tho fludied with great application the writings of
Taaut, knowing that he was the firll who invented
letters.”
years after the Mezrite Taaut or Hermes. This fe¬
cond Hermes is called by Plato Theuth, and counfellor
or facred fcribe to king Thanius; but it is not faid
that he ever reigned in Egypt: but the former Taaut,
or Athothes, as Monetho calls him, was the immedi¬
ate fucceffor of Menes the firfl king of Egypt. This
fecond Mercury, if we may believe Manetho, compo-
fed feveral books of the Egyptian hiftory; and having
improved both the language and letters of that nation,
the Egyptians attributed the arts and inventions of the
former to the latter. The Phoenician language is ge¬
nerally allowed to have been a dialeft of the Hebrew;
and tho’ their alphabet does not entirely agree with the
Samaritan, yet there is a great fimilarity between them.
Aftronomy and arithmetic were much cultivated among
them in the-mofl early ages; their fine linen, purple,
and glafs, were much fuperior to thofe of other na¬
tions ; and their extraordinary Ikill in architedture and
other arts was fuch, that whatever was great, elegant,
or pleafing, whether in buildings, apparel, or toys,
was diflinguifhed by the epithet of Tyrian or Sidonian;
thefe being the chief cities of Phoenicia. Their great
proficiency in learning and arts of all kinds, together
with their engrofling all the commerce of the weftern
world, are likewife thought to give them a juft, claim
to the invention of letters. 7
The Chaldeans alfo have laid claim to the invention Of the
of letters; and with regard to this, there is a tradition c^a^eans<
among the Jews, Indians, and Arabians, that the E-
gyptians derived their knowledge from Abraham, who
was a Chaldean. This tradition is in fame degree
confirmed by moft of the weftern writers, who afcribe
the inventions of arithmetic and aftronomy to the
Chaldeans. Jofephus pofitively afferts, that the Egyp¬
tians were ignorant of the fciences of arithmetic and
aftronomy before they were inftrudled by Abraham ;
and Sir Ifaac Newton admits, that letters were*known
in the line of that patriarch for many centuries before
Mofes. The Chaldaic letters appear to have been de¬
rived from the Hebrew or Samaritan ; which are the
fame, or nearly fo, with the old Phoenician. Ezra is
fuppofed to have exchanged the old Hebrew characters
for the more beautiful and commodious Chaldee, which
are fill in ufe. Berofus, the moft ancient Chaldean
hiftorian, who was born in the minority of Alexander
the Great, does not fay that he believed his country¬
men to have been the inventors of letters. 8
The Syrians have alfo laid claim to the invention of the
letters. It is certain, indeed, that they yielded tonans*
no nation in knowledge and fkill in the fine arts.
Their language is faid to have been the vernacular of
all the oriental tongues, and was divided into three
diale&s. 1. The Aramean, ufed in Mefopotamia, and
by the inhabitants of Roha and Edefa of Harram, and
the Outer Syria. 2. The dialed of Paleftine ; fpoken
by the inhabitants of Damafcus, Mount Libanus, and
the Inner Syria. 3. The Chaldee or Nabathean dia¬
led, the moft unpolifhed of the three ; and fpoken in
the mountainous parts of Affyria, and the villages of
3 0^2 Irac
(a) See above, nR 2. where he fays that the knowledge of letters was eternal. What dependence can we
put in the teftimony of .fuch a writer ? 4
ALP [ 492 ] ALP
Alphabet. Irac or Babylonia. It lias been generally believed,
that no nation of equal antiquityhad a more confiderable
trade than the Syrians : they are fuppofed to have
firft brought the commodities of Perfia and India into
the weft of Afia ; and they feem to have carried on an
inland trade by engroffing the navigation of the Eu¬
phrates, whilft the Phoenicians traded to the moft di-
itant countries. Notwithftanding thefe circumftances,
however, which might feem to favour the claim of the
Syrians, the oldeft charadlers they have are but about
three centuries before Chrift. Their letters are of two
forts. 1. The Eftrangelo, which is the more ancient;
and, 2. The Fftiito, the iimple or common character,
9 which is the more expeditious and beautiful.
Of the In- We muft next examine the claims of the Indians,
dians. whofe pretenfions to antiquity yield to no other nation
on earth. Mr Halhed, who has written a grammar of
the Shanfcrit language, informs us, that it is not only
the grand fource of Indian literature, but the parent
of almoft every dialed! from the Perfian gulph to the
Chinefe feas, and which is faid to be a language of the
moft venerable antiquity. At prefent it is appropri¬
ated to religious records of the Bramins, and there¬
fore fhut up in their libraries; but formerly it appears
to have been current over the greateft part of the
eaftern world, as traces of* its extent may be found in
almoft every diitrict of Afia.
Mr Halhed informs us, that “ there is a great fimi-
larity between the Shanfcrit words and thofe of the
Perfian and Arabic, and even of Latin and Greek;
and thefe not in technical or metaphorical terms, but
in the main ground-works of language ; in monofylla-
bles, the names of numbers, and the appellations of
fuch things as would be firft difcriminated on the im¬
mediate dawn of civilization. The refemblance which
may be feen of the chara&ers on the medals and fignets
of different parts of Afia, the light they reciprocally
throw upon one another, and the general analogy which
they all bear to the grand prototype, affords another
ample field for curiofity. The coins of Affam, Na-
paul, Calhmiria, and many other kingdoms, are all
ftamped with Shanfcrit letters, and moftly contain al-
lufions to the old Shanfcrit mythology. The fame con¬
formity may be obferved in the impreffions of feals from
Bootan and Thibet.”
The country between the Indus and Ganges ftill
preferves the Shanfcrit language in its original purity,
and offers a great number of books to the perufal of
the curious ; many of which have been handed down
from the earlieft periods of human civilization.
There are feven different forts of Indian hand-wri¬
tings, all comprifed under the general term of Naagoree,
vyhich may be interpreted ‘writing. The Bramins fay
that letters were of divine original; and the elegant
Shanfcrit is ftyfed Daeb-naagoree, or the writings of
the Immortals, which might not improbably be a re¬
finement from the more fimple Naagoree of former
ages. The Bengal letters are another branch of the
fame ftock. The Bramins of .Bengal have all their
Shanfcrit books copied in their national alphabet, and
they tranfpofe into them all the Daeb-naagbree manu-
fcripts for their own perufal. The Moorifh dialed is
that fpecies of Hindoftauic which we owe to the con-
quefts of the Mahometans.
The Shanfcrit language contains about 700 radical
words; the fundamental part being being divided into Alphabet,
three claffes, viz. 1. Dbaat, or roots of verbs; 2. Shubd,
or original nouns; 3. Evya, or particles. Their al¬
phabet contains 50 letters ; viz. 34 confonants and 16
vowels. They affert that they were in poffeffion of
letters before any other nation in the world; and Mr
Halhed conjectures, that the long-boafted original ci¬
vilization of the Egyptians may ftill be a matter of dif-
pute. The Rajah of Kilhinagur affirms, that he has
in his poffeffion Shanfcrit books, where the Egyptians
are conftantly defcribed as.difciples, not as inftruftors;
and as feeking in Hindoftan that liberal education, and
thofe feiences, which none of their own countrymen
had fufficient knowledge to impart. Mr Halhed hints
alfo, that the learning of Hindoftan might have been
tranfplanted into Egypt, and thus have become fami¬
liar to Mofes. Several authors, however, are of opi-
nioo, that the ancient Egyptians poffeffed themfelve*
of the trade of the Eaft by the Red Sea, and that they
carried on a confiderable traffic with the Indian na¬
tions before the time of Sefoftris; whom they fuppofe
to have been cotemporary with Abraham, though Sir
Ifaac Newton conjeftures him to have been the Shifhak
who took Jerufalem in the time of Rehoboam.
In the year 1769, one of the facred books of the
Gentoos called Bagavadam, tranflated by Meridas
Poule, a learned man of Indian origin, and chief in¬
terpreter to the fupreme council of Pondicherry, was
fent by him to M. Bertin in France. In his preface
he fays, that it was compofed by Viaffer the fon of
Brahma, and is of facred authority among the worfhip-
pers of Vifchnow. This book claims an antiquity «f
5000 years ; but M. de Guines has ffiown, that its pre¬
tenfions to fuch extravagant antiquity are entirely in-
conclufive and unfatisfaftory: whence we may con¬
clude, fays Mr Aftle, that though a farther inquiry in¬
to the literature of the Indian nations may be laudable,
yet we muft by no means give too eafy credit to their
relations concerning the high antiquity of their manu-
fcripts and early civilization. 10
It is not pretended that the Perfians had any great Letters not
learning among them till the time of Hyftafpes the ‘a
father of Darius. The former, we are told, travelled er a *
into India, and was inftrudted by the Bramihs in the
feiences for which they were famed at that time. The
ancient Perfians defpifed riches and commerce, nor had
they any money among them till after the conqueft of
Lydia. It appears by feveral inferipfions taken from
the ruins of the palace of Perfepolis, which was built
near 700 years before the Chriftian xra, that the Per¬
fians fometimes wrote in perpendicular columns like
the Chinefe. This mode of writing was firft made ufe
of on the items of trees, pillars, or obeliiks. As for
thofe fimple characters found on the weft fide of the
ftair-cafe of Perfepolis, fome have fuppofed them to be
alphabetic, fome hieroglyphic, and others antediluvian.
Dr Hyde pronounces them to have been mere whim-
fical ornaments, though the author of Conjectural Ob-
fervations on Alphabetic Writing fuppofes them to be
fragments of Egyptian antiquity brought by Cambyfes
from the fpoils of Thebes. The learned are generally
agreed, that the Perfians were later in civilization than
many of their neighbours; and they are not fuppofed
to have any pretenfions to the invention of letters.
As the Arabians have been in poffeffion of the coun¬
try
Mphabet. try they now inhabit for upwards of 3700 years, with¬
out being intermixed with foreign nations, or fubjuga-
ted by any other power, their language muft be very
ancient. The two principal dialers of it were that
fpoken by the Hamyarites and other genuine Arabs ;
and that of the Koreifh, in which Mahomet wrote the
Alcoran. The former is named by oriental writers
for by the
trabians.
ALP
C 493 ]
ALP
their calculations ; and we have fhown, that thefe were Alphabet,
the parents of letters. This circumliance greatly fa-
vours their claim to the invention; becaufe Chaldea,
and the countries adjacent, are allowed by all authors,
both facred and profane, to have been peopled before
Egypt; and it is certain that many nations faid to
be defcended from Shem and Japhet, had their let-
the Arabic of Hamyar; the latter, the pure, or defecated ters from the Phoenicians, who were defcended from
Arabic. Mr Richardfon obferves, as a proof of the Ham.
richnefs of this language, that it confifts of 2000 radi¬
cal words.
setters
aioft pro¬
bably in¬
vented in
Phoenicia.
“ It is obfervable, that the Chaldeans, the Syrians,
Phoenicians, and Egyptians, all bordered upon each
The old Arabic characters are faid to have been of other; -and as the Phoenicians were the greateft as well
very high antiquity ; for Ebn Hafhem relates, that an
infcription in it was found in Yaman as old as the days
of Jofeph. Hence fome have fuppofed that the Ara¬
bians were the inventors of letters ; and Sir Ifaac New¬
ton is of opinion, that Mofes learned the alphabet from
the Midianites, who were Arabians.
The alphabet of the Arabs confifts of 28 letters li¬
the moft ancient commercial nation, it is very probable
that they communicated letters to the Egyptians, the
ports of Tyre and Sidon being not far diftant from
each other.
“ Mr Jackfon is evidently miftaken when he fays,
that letters were invented 2619 years before the birth
of Chrift. The deluge recorded by Mofes was 2349
milar to the ancient Cufic, in which the firft copies of years before that event; and if letters were not invent-
the Alcoran were written. The prefent Arabic cha-
rafters were formed by Ebn Moklah, a learned Ara¬
bian, who lived about 300 years after Mahomet. The
Arabian writers themfelves inform us, that their alpha¬
bet is not very ancient, and that they received it only
a Ihort time before the introduction of Iflamifm.
On this account of the pretenfions of different" na¬
ed till 550 years after, as he afferts, we muft date
their difcovery only 1799 years before the Chriftian
sera, which is 410 years after the reign of -Menes the
firft king of Egypt, who, according to Syncellus and
others, is faid to have been the fame perfon with the
Mifor of Sanchoniatho, the Mizraim of the Scriptures,
and the Ofiris of the Egyptians; but whether this be
tions to the invention of letters, Mr Aftle makes true or not, Egypt is frequently called in Scripture the
the following reflections. “ The vanity of each na- land of Mizraim.
tion induces them to pretend to the moft early civili¬
zation ; but fuch is the uncertainty of ancient hiftory,
that it is difficult to determine to whom the honour is
due. It Ihould feem, however, that the conteft may
be confined to the Egyptians, the Phoenicians, and the
Chaldeans. The Greek writers, and moft of thofe
who have copied them, decide in favour of Egypt, be-
This Mizraim, the fecond fon of Amyn or Ham,
feated himfelf near the entrance of Egypt at Zoan, in
the year before Chrift 2188, and 160 years after the
flood. He afterwards built Thebes, and fome fay
Memphis. Before the time that he went into Egypt,
his fon Taaut had invented letters in Phoenicia; and
if this invention took place ten years before the migra-
cahfe their information is derived from the Egyptians tion of his father into Egypt, as Mr Jackfon fuppofes,
   ’ ' ‘ we .may trace letters as far back as the year 2178 be¬
fore Chrift, or 150 years after the deluge recorded by
Mofes: and beyond this period, the written annals of
mankind, which have been hitherto tranfmitted to us,
themfelves. The pofitive claim of the Phoenicians does
not depend entirely upon the teftimony of Sanchonia¬
tho ; the credit of his hiftory is fo well fupported by
Philo of Byblus his tranflator, Porphyry, Pliny, Cur-
tius, Lucan, and other ancient writers, who might will not enable us to trace the knowledge of them;
have feen his works entire, and whofe relations deferve
at leaft as much credit as thofe of the Egyptian and
Greek writers. It muft be allowed, that Sanchonia-
tho’s hiftory contains many fabulous accounts; but
though this want of materials is no proof that letters
were not known until a century and an half after the;
deluge. As for the pretenfions of the Indian nations,
we muft be better acquainted with their records before
does not the ancient hiftory of the Egyptians, the we can admit of their claim to the firft ufe of letters;
Greeks, and moft other nations, abound with them to
a much greater degree ? The fragments which we
have of this moft ancient hiftorian are chiefly furniftied
by Eufebius, who took all poffible advantages to re-
prefent the Pagan writers in the worft light, and to
render their theology abfurd and ridiculous.
“ The Phoenician and Egyptian languages are very
fimilar; but the latter is faid to be more large and full,
which is an indication of its being of a later date. The
efpecially as none of their manufcripts of any great
antiquity have as yet appeared in Europe. That the
Arabians'were not the inventors of letters, has appeared
by their own confeffion.—Plato fomewhere mentions
Hyperborean letters very different from the Greek;
thefe might have been the characters ufed by the Tar¬
tars or ancient Scythians. j;
“ It may be expeCted that fomething ftiould be faid Of anteifi-
concerning thofe books mentioned by fome authors to1?vian 'vr*“
opinion of Mr Wife, however, that the ancient Egyp- have been written before the deluge. Amongft others, tin^‘
tians had not the knowledge of letters, feems to be
erroneous ; as they had commercial intercourfe with
their neighbours the Phoenicians., they probably had
Dr Parfons, in his Remains of Japhet, p. 346. 359.
fuppofes letters to have been known to Adam; and
the Sabeans produce a book which they pretend was
the knowledge of letters, if their policy, like that of written by Adam. But concerning thefe we have no
the Chinefe at this day, did not prohibit the ufe of guide to direft us any more than concerning the fup-
“ The Chaldeans, who cultivated aftronomy in the
moft remote ages, ufed fymbols or arbitrary marks in
pofed books of Enoch ; fome of which, Origin tells
us, were found in Arabia Felix, in the dominion of
the queen of Saba. Tertullian affirms, that he faw
and
ALP [ 494 ] ALP
aal.
Pngi-
Alphahet. ai1d read feveral pages of them ; and in his treatife De
v~     Habitu Mulierum, he places thofe books among the
canonical: but St Jerom and St Auftin look upon
them to be apocryphal. William Poftellus pretended
to compile his book De Originibas from the book of
Enoch ; and Thomas Bangius publifhed at Copenha¬
gen, in 1657, a work which contains many fmgular
relations concerning the manner of writing among the
antediluvians, which contains feveral pleafant ftories
concerning the books of Enoch.
“ With regard to this natriarch, indeed, St Jude
informs' us, that he prophejied, but he does not fay that
he ’wrote. The writings, therefore, attributed to the
antediluvians, muft appear quite uncertain ; though it
might be improper to affert that letters were unknown
before the deluge recorded by Mofes.”
All the al- Our author proceeds to (how, that all the alpha-
phahets in bets in the world cannot be derived from one origi-
the world nal; becaufe there are a variety of alphabets ufed in
'roved to <^®erent Pairts °f Afia, which vary in name, number,
arifeVrom order, and power, from the Phoenician, ancient
Hebrew, or Samaritan. In feveral of thefe alphabets
alfo, there are marks for founds peculiar to the lan¬
guage of the eaft, which are not necelfary to be em¬
ployed in the notation of the languages of Europe.
None of the alphabets to the eaft of Perfia have any
connexion with the Phoenician or its derivatives, ex¬
cept where the Arabic letters have been introduced by
the conquefts of the Mahometans. The foundation of
all the Indian chara&ers are thofe called Jhanfcrit, or
fungfkrit. This fignifies fomething brought to perfec¬
tion, in contradiftin&ion to prakrit, which fignifies
vulgar or unpolifhed. Hence the refined and religious
language and charadters of India are called Sungfkrit,
and the more vulgar mode of writing and expreffion
Prakrit. From this Shanfcrit are derived the facred
charafters of Thibet, the Cafhmirian, Bengalefe, Ma-
labaric, and Tamoul; the Singalefe, Siamefe, Maharat-
tan, Concanee, &c. From the fame fource we may
derive the Tangutic or Tartar charadters, which are
iimilar,in their great outlines, to the Shanfcrit; though it
is not eafily determined which is derived from the other.
The common Tartar is generally read, like the Chinefe,
from top to bottom.
There are, however, feveral alphabets ufed in diffe¬
rent parts of Afxa, entirely different not only from the
Shanfcrit and all thofe derived from it, but alfo from
the Phcenician and thofe which proceed from it. Some
of thefe are the alphabet of Pegu, the Batta charadters
ufed in the ifland of Sumatra, and the Barman or Bo-
man charadters ufed in fome parts of Pegu. The
names and powers of the letters of which thefe alpha¬
bets are compofed, differ entirely from the Phoenician,
or thofe derived from them. It is impoffible to affimi-
late their forms, and indeed it is by no means eafy to
conceive how the 50 letters of the Shanfcrit language
could be derived from the Phcenician alphabet, which
confiftcd originally only of 13 ; though it is certain,
that by far the greater number of alphabets now in
ufe are derived from the ancient Hebrew, Phoenician,
or Samaritan.
Mr Aftle next proceeds to confider what alphabets are Alphabet,
derived from the Phoenician. Thefe he fuppofes to have   
been immediately the ancient Hebrew or Samaritan ; Alp I^etg
the Chaldaic ; the Baftulian (a) or Spanilh Phceni-der/eri
cian ; the Punic, Carthaginian, or Sicilian; and the fro n the
Pelafgian. From the ancient Hebrew proceeded the ^ 'lucian
Chaidalc or fquare Hebrew; the round Hebrew ; and
what is called the running band of the Rabbins. The
Pelafgian gave birth to the Etrufcan, Eugubian, or
Umbrian, Ofcan, Samnite, and Ionic Greek, written
from the left. From the Chaldaic or fquare Hebrew
are derived the Syriac, and the ancient and modern
Arabic. The Syriac is divided into the Eftrangelo
and Mendasan, and the modern Arabic has given rife
to the Perfian and Turkifh. From the ancient Arabic
are derived the Kufic or Oriental, the Mauritanic or
Occidental; the African or Saracen, and the Moorifh.
The Ionic Greek gave rife to the Arcadian, Latin,
ancient Gaulifti, ancient Spanifh, ancient Gothic, Cop¬
tic, Ethiopic, Ruffian, Illynian or Sclavonic, Bulga¬
rian and Armenian. From the Roman are derived
the Lombardic, Vifigothic, Saxon, G illican, Franco-
Gallic or Merovingian, German, Caroline, Capetian,
and modern Gothic.
The Punic letters are alfo called Tyrian, and were much
the fame with the Carthaginian or Sicilian.. The Pu¬
nic language was at firft the fame with the Phoenician;
it is nearly allied to the Hebrew, and has an affinity
with the Chaldee and Syriac. Some remains of it are
to be met with in the Maltefe. To make a complete
Punic, Carthaginian, or Sicilian alphabet, we muft
admit feveral pure Phoenician letters.
The Pelafgi were likewife of Phoenician original;
and, according to Sanconiatho, the Diofcuri and Ca¬
bin wrote the firft annals of the Phoenician hiftory, by
order of Taaut the inventor of letters. They made
ffiips of burthen, and being caft upon the coaft near
mount Cafius, about 40 miles from Pelufium, where
they built a temple in the fecond generation after the
deluge related by Mofes, they were called Pelafgi
from their paffing by fea, and wandering from one coun¬
try to another. Herodotus informs us, that the Pe¬
lafgi were defcendants of the Phoenician Cabin-, and
that the Samothracians received and prac'difed the Ca-
biric myfteries from them. The Pelafgic alphabet pre¬
vailed in Greece till the time of Deucalion, when the
Pelafgi were driven out of Theffaly or Oenotria by the
Hellenes ; after which fome of them fettled at the
mouth of the Po, and others at Croton, now Cartona
in Tufcany. Their alphabet confifted of 16 letters,
and the Tyrrhenian alphabet, brought into Italy before
the reign of that prince, confifted of no more than 13.
Deucalion is faid to have reigned about 820 years af¬
ter the deluge, and 1529 before the Chriftian sera.
That the Tyrrheni, Tyrfeni, or Hetrufci, fettled in
Italy long before this period, appears from the tefti-
mony of Herodotus, who informs us, that a colony
went by fea from Lydia into Italy under Tyrrhenus;
and Dionyfius of Halicarnaffus proves that many au¬
thors called them Pelafgi. He then cites Hellanicus
Lefbicus, an author fomewhat more ancient than He¬
rodotus,
(a) The Baftuli are faid to have been a Canaanitifti or Phoenician people who fled from Joflrua, and fettled
afterwards in Spgin.
ALP C 495 1 ALP
Alphabet, rodotus, to prove, that they were firft called Pelafgi
Tyrrheni; and when they paffed into Italy, they fettled
in that part of it called Etruria. Their emigration
took place about the year of the world 2011, or 1993
years before the Chriftian sera, which is 350 years be¬
fore the Pelafgi left Greece. Bifhop Cumberland ad¬
duces many proofs to fhow that the Tyrrhenians origi¬
nally came out of Lydia into Italy. Several Roman
authors alfo fpeak of this Lydian colony; and Horace
compliments his patron Maecenas upon his Lydian de-
fcent:
Lydorum quicquid Etrufcos
Incoluit fines, nemo generofior ejl te.
The Etrufcan letters are Pelafgic, and feveral of the
Etrufcan infcriptions are written in the Pelafgic lan¬
guage. The Roman letters are Ionic. The Ofcan
language was a dialed of the Etrufcan ; their charac¬
ters are nearer the Ionic or Roman than the Etrufcan.
There is alfo very little difference between the Pelaf-
gian, Etrufcan-, and moft ancient Greek letters, which
are placed from right to left. The Arcadians were an¬
cient Greeks, and ufed the Ionic letters ; .but at what
time they began to write from left to right is not
known, as their chronology is very uncertain. The E-
trufean, Ofcan, and Samnite alphabets, are derived from
the Pelafgic ; they; differ from each other more in name
than in form, but a far greater number are derived from
the Ionic Greek; namely, the Arcadian, the Latin or
Roman, and the others already enumerated. The Ru¬
nic is immediately derived from the Gothic.
According to Dionyfius of Halicarnaffus, the fir3;
Greek colony , which came into Italy confifted of Ar¬
cadians under, the conduft of Oenotrus the fon of Ly-
caon, and fifth in defeent from Phoroneus the firfl
king of Argos, who reigned about 566 years before
the taking of Troy, and x 750 years before the Chri¬
ftian asra. Thefe Oenotrians were called Abo>igir.es ;
and after they had been engaged for many years in a
war with the ^Siculi, entered into an alliance with a
colony of the Pelafgi, who came out of Theffaly into
Italy, after having been driven from the former coun¬
try.—About 1476 B. C. another colony of the Pelaf¬
gi, who had been driven out of Theffaly by the Cu-
retes and Leleges, arrived in Italy, where they, affifted
the Aborigines to drive out the Siculi; polfeffing them-
felves of the greateft part of the country between the
Tiber and the Liris, and building, feveral cities. So-
linus and Pliny tell us, that the Pelafgi firft carried
letters into Italy ; and the latter diftinguifhes between
the Pelafgi and the Arcades : fo the letters firfl car¬
ried into Italy were not the Ionic Greek, but thofe
more ancient Pelafgi characters which the Pelafgi car-
ried with them before Deucalion and Cadmus are faid
to have come into Bceotia and Theflaly. The ftory
of Cadmus, is much involved in fable ; but it is agreed
by moft of the ancients, that the children of Agenor,
viz. Cadmus, Europa, Phoenix, and Cilix, carried
wi h them a colony, compofed of Phoenicians and Sy¬
rians, into Afia Minor, Crete, Greece, and Lybia,
where they introduced, letters, mufic, poetry, and
other arts, fciences, and cuftoms, of the Phoenicians.
Dionyfius enumerates the following Greek colonies
which came into Italy: 1. The Aborigines under Oe¬
notrus from Arcadia. 2. The Pelafgic colony which
came from Hoemoma or Theflaly. 3.^Another Arca¬
dian colony which came with Evander from Paiantium. Alphabet.^
4. Thofe who came from Peloponnefus with Hercules; *
and, 5. Thofe who came with CEneas from Troy. It is
not eafy to difeover when the Ionic way of writing from
left to right was introduced into Italy ; but it is cer¬
tain, that it did not univerfally prevail even in Greece
till feveral ages after it was found but. The Athenians
did not-comply with it till the year of Rome 350 ; nor
was it pra&ifed by the Samnites even in the fixth century
of that city, or 230 years before Chrift : for M. Gse-
belin, Vol. VI, pi. 2.'gives us the Samnite alphabet of
that century, wherein the letters are placed from right
to left; although the Ionic way of writing prevailed
in fome parts of Italy in the third century of Rome.
u In time (fays Pliny), the tacit confent of all nations
agreed to ufe the Ionic letters.5 The Romans confent-
ed to this mode about the time of Tarquinius Prifcus
their fifth king.” The letters brought by Damaratus
the Corinthian, the father of Tarquin, Mr Wife thinks;
mull have been the new or Ionic alphabet, and not the
fame with that brought1 by Evander 500 years before.
After the Romans had eftablifhed the ufe of the Ionic
letters, they feem not to have acknowledged the Pe-
l.'fgian and Etrufcan to have been Greek alphabets:
the moft learned of them knew none.older than the I-
onic, as appears from the Greek Farnefe infcriptions
of Herodes Atticus. This learned man, out of a re¬
gard to antiquity, caufed the oldeft orthography to
be obferved in the writing, and the letters to be deli¬
neated after the moft antique forms that could be
found? and they are plainly no other than the Ionic
or right-handed characters.
The ancient Gaulifti letters are derived from theSee Plates
Greek, and their writing approaches more nearly tb|^f^.X*
the Gothic than that of the Romans : this appears by mens ^ithe
the monumental infeription of Gordian, meffenger of ancient ak
the Gauls, who fuffered martyrdom in the third cen- phabets
tury with all his family. Thefe ancient Gaulifh c^a' mgrat "d ~
rafters were generally ufed by that people before themeraC
conqueft of Gaul by Caefar; but - after* that time the
Roman letters were gradually introduced. The ancient
Spaniards ufed letters nearly Greek before their inter-
courfe with the Romans. The ancient Gothic alpha¬
bet was- very fimiiar to the Greek, and is attributed to. -
Ulphilas, bilhop of the Goths, who lived in Mtefia a-
bout 370 years after Chrift. He tranflated the bible
into the Gothic tongue. This circumftance might
have occafioned the tradition of his having invented
thefe letters; but it is probable that thefe charafters .
were in ufe long before this time. The Runic alpha¬
bet is derived from the ancient Gothic.
The Coptic letters are derived immediately from tlii
Greek. Some have confounded them with the ancient
Egyptian; but there is a very material difference be¬
tween them. The Ethiopic alphabet is derived from
the Coptic.
The alphabet proceeding from that of the Scythians
eftablifhed in Europe, is the fame with what St Cyril
calls the Servien. The Ruffian, Illyrian or Sclavonic,
and the Bulgarian, are all derived from the Greek.
The Armenian letters differ very much from the Greek, ,
from which they are- derived,, as well as from the
Latin. 16 >
With regard to the alphabets derived from the La-^f^eta
tin, the Lombardic relates to the manuferipts of Italy1; tjje
the Batin.:
ALP
the Vifigothic to thofe of Spain ; the Saxon to thofe
of England; the Gallican and Franco-Gallic or Me¬
rovingian to the manufcripts of France; the German
to-thofe of that country; and the Caroline, Copetian;
and Modern Gothic, to all the countries of Europe
who read Latin. The firft fix of thefe alphabets are
before the age of Charlemagne, the laft three pofterior
[ 49<5 1
ALP
indeed nothing elfe than Latin writing degenerated. A'phaliet^
It began in the 12th century, and was in general ufe, »
efpecially among monks and fchoolmen, in all parts of
Europe, till the reftoration of arts in the 15th century,
and continued longer in Germany and the northern na¬
tions. Our ftatute-books are Hill printed in Gothic
letters. The moft barbarous writing of the feventh,
to it. They are more diftinguiihed by their names eighth, and ninth centuries, was preferable to the mo-
than the forms of their characters, and the former
indicate all of them to have been of Roman extraction.
Each nation, in adopting the letters of the Romans,
added thereto a tafte and manner peculiar to itfelf,
dern Gothic. It is diverfified in fuch a manner a
fcarce admit of defcription; and the abbreviations ufed
by the writers were fo numerous, that it became very
difficult to read it; which was one of the great caufes
which obvioufly dillinguiffied it from the writings of of the ignorance of thofe times. Along with tliisj
all other people ; whence arofe the differences between
the writings of the Lombards, Spaniards, French, Sax¬
ons, Germans, and Goths, and all the ftrange terms
obfervable in the writings of the Francic Gauls or Me¬
rovingians ; and thofe of the Carlovingians their fuc-
ceffors may be traced from the fame fource. From
thefe diitinclions the name of national 'writing was de¬
rived.
The writing of Italy was uniform till the irruption
of the Goths, who disfigured it by their barbarous
take. In 569, the Lombards, having poffeffed them-
felves of all Italy, excepting Rome and Ravenna, in¬
troduced that form of writing which goes under their
name ; and as the Popes ufed the Lombardic manner
in their bulls, the name of Roman was fometimes gi¬
ven to it in the nth century; and though the domi¬
nion of the Lombards continued no longer than 206
years, the name of their writing continued in Italy
from the 7th to the 13th century, and then ceafed;
when learning, having declined in that as well as in o-
ther countries, the manner of writing degenerated in¬
to the modern Gothic.
The Vifigoths introduced their form of writing into
Spain, after having over-run that country ; but it was
aboliffied in a provincial fynod held at Leon in 1091,
when the Latin characters were eftabliffied for all pub¬
lic inftruments, though the Vifigothic were ufed in
private writings for three centuries afterwards.
The Gauls, on being fubje&ed by the Romans, a-
dopted their manner of writing; but by fubfequent
additions of their own, their characters were changed
into what is called the Gallican or Roman Gallic mode.
This was changed by the Franks into the Franco-Gal¬
lic or Merovingian mode of writing, being praCtifed
under the kings of the Merovingian race. It took
place towards the clofe of the fixth century, and con¬
tinued till the beginning of the ninth.
The German mode of wilting was improved by
Charlemagne, and this improvement occafioned ano¬
ther diftinCtion in writing by introducing the alphabet
named Caroline, which declined in the 12th century,
and was fucceeded in the 13th by the modern Gothic.
In France it had degenerated by the middle of the
Ioth century, but was reftored in 987 by Hugh Ca¬
pet, whence it obtained the name of Capetian. It was
ufed in England as well as Germany and France.
The modem Gothic, which fpread itfelf all over
Europe in the 12th and 13th centuries, is improperly
named, as not deriving its origin from the writing an¬
ciently ufed by the Goths. It is, however, the worit
and moft barbarous way of writing, and originated a-
mong the fchoolmen in the decline of the arts; being
N°i3. 5
however, the Lombardic, Gothic, Roman, Caroline,
and Copetian modes of writing, were occafionally ufed
by individuals.
The idea that all the alphabets above mentioned are
derived from the Roman, tends to prove the diftindtion
of national writing, and is of great ufe in difcovering
the age of manufcripts: for though we may not be
•able exadtly to determine the time when a manufcript
was written, we may be able nearly to afcertain its age.
For example, if a writing is Morvingian, it may be
declared not to be pofterior to the ninth, nor prior to
the fifth, century. If another be Lombardic, it may
be affirmed to be pofterior to the middle of the 6th,
and prior to the 13th. Should it be Saxon, it cannot
be of an earlier date than the 7 th, nor later than a-
bout the middle of the 12th. I7
Having confidered whence the alphabets nowin ufe,Letters
throughout the various nations of the world are derived, co“ld ^ot
it remains to fay fomething concerning them as the ele-
ments of words, or how far they are capable of ex- decompofi-
preffing thofe founds, which, by proper combination tion of ian-
and arrangement, eonftitute articulate language. The gua2e*
number of Ample founds in any language cannot be
very numerous; and it is plainly thefe fimple founds a-
lone that wfe have occafion to reprefent by alphabetical
characters. Hence the perfon who firft invented let¬
ters, muft have been capable of analyfing language in
a manner which feems by no means eafy to do, and
concerning which even the learned among ourfelves are
not yet agreed. It is this difficulty which has pro¬
duced the great diverfity in the number of alphabetical
characters ufed by different nations ; and where we fee
a vaft number of them ufed, we may account the wri¬
ting not the better, but much the worfe for it; and
whoever the pretended inventor was, it is more rea-
fonable to fuppofe that he disfigured an alphabet al¬
ready invented, by unneceffary additions, than been
the author of one himfelf.
When we confider alphabetical charafters as thus re- Probably .
fulting from an analyfis of language, it will by no means Je*
appear probable that it was derived from a gradual and progreflive
progreffive operation of the human mind through many evolution of
ages. There is not the leaft affinity betwixt reprefent- the human
ing any objeft by a picture and finding out the foundsPowers-
which compofe the word by which it is expreffed ; nor,
though a nation had been in ufe to reprefent things ei¬
ther in this method, or by any kind of arbitrary marks, for
thoufands of years, could the one ever have led to the
other. Arbitrary marks muft always be the fame with
pictures in this refpeCt, that they muft always be fixed
to particular objeCts, and thus be increafed ad infini¬
tum. Letters, on the other hand, are indifferent to
all
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alp [ 497 l ALP
i iHyhalicf. all objects; and therefore, by their combinations, which
'*■ i—-y—are more numerous than as many arbitrary marks as
we could remember, may exprefs all the objefts in na¬
ture. This might furnifh an argument of fome ftrength
for the divine revelation of writing, were it not that
other arts feemingly as ufeful, and as difficult to be in¬
vented, had not been exprefsly afcribed to particular
perfons whom we cannot fuppofe to have been divinely
infpired. Thus metallurgy, mulic, the keeping of
cattle, and ufe of tents, are all afcribed to a fmgle fa¬
mily ; and though writing be not exprefsly mentioned
as an invention in Scripture, there is no reafon to have
recourfe to a revelation for it as long as the human fa¬
culties are known to have been fufficient for the inven¬
tion of it. Nevertheiefs, if we take a review of the
different arts which mankind have invented, we fhall
find, that few of them refulted from any gradual pro-
grefs or evolution of the powers of the human mind,
but rather by fome fudden and almoft unaccountable
turn of thought in an individual. Thus, the art of
printing, little inferior in its utility to that of writing,
lay hid for ages, and was at laft invented we fcarce
know how; fo that if one inclined to fuppofe this a
divine revelation, he could be at little lofs for argu¬
ments to fupport his hypothefis. This was what all
the inventions and evolutions of human powers fince
the creation had never been able to accomplifli; yet
ndbody believes that it required fupernatural abilities
to be the author of this art, becaufe we fee plainly
that it might have occurred to the human mind from
various fources, and are furprifed that it did not occur
long before. In like manner, the method of account¬
ing for the celeftial motions by the united forces of
proje&ion and gravitation, was no refult of the pro-
grefs that mankind had made In fcience, but luckily
occurred to Mr Horrox, without any thing that we
know to direct him, or perhaps from caufes alraoft un¬
known to himfelf. Thus alfo, the fteam-engine, aero-
ilation, &c. were fuddenly invented only by a flight re¬
view of principles well known before, and which had
been a thoufand times overlooked by thofe who might
have invented both. Alphabetic writing, therefore,
might have been no deduction from hieroglyphic or
picture writing, from which it is erflentially different;
and it feems to be fome confirmation of this, that all
nations who ever pretended to the invention of letters,
have afcribed it-to the labours of one particular per-
fon, without taking notice of the progrefs made to¬
wards it in preceding ages.
Of th<fele- The learned author of Hermes informs us, that to
Ttientarv about 20 plain elementary founds, we owe that variety
i founds of of articulate voices which have been fufficient to ex-
i language, plain the fentiments of fuch an innumerable multitude
:as all the pail and prefent generations of men. Mr
;Sheridan fays, that the number of fimple founds in our
tongue are 28 ; while Dr Kenrick fays, that we have
only 11 diftinft fpecies of articulate founds, which e-
ven by contraftion, prolongation, and compofition, are
increafed only to the number of 16; every fyllable or
articulate found in our language being one of the num¬
ber. Bifliop Wilkins and Dr William Holder fpeaks
of 33 diftinft founds.
After the analyfis or decompofition of language in¬
to the elementary founds, the next towards the nota¬
tion of it by alphabetical characters, would be the de-
Vol. I. Part IL ;
lineation of a feparatc mark or letter to reprefent each Alphabet,
found; which marks, though few in number, would
admit: of filch a variety of arrangements and combina¬
tions, as might be capable of producing that infinity of
articulate founds which compofe language. The inge¬
nious Wachter, in his Natura et Scripiura Concordiat
p. 64, endeavours to fliow, that ten marks or charac¬
ters are fufficient for this purpofe.—-His fcheme is as
follows :
If this is the cafe, then the moil fimple alphabet,
which confifted only of 13 letters, muff have been a-
bundantly fufficient to anfwer all the purpofes of man¬
kind, and much of our twenty-four letter alphabet may
appear fuperfluous. That able mathematician Tacquet
has calculated the various combinations of the 24 let¬
ters, even without any repetition, to amount to no
fewer than 620,448,401,733,239,439,360,000 ; while
Clavius makes them only 5,852,616,738,497,664,000,
Either of thefe numbers, however, is infinite to
the human conceptions, and much more than fuffi¬
cient to exprefs all the founds that ever were articula- 2a
ted by man. As there are more founds in fome lan- Number of
guages than in others. It follows of eourfe, that the J,e^.ers in
number of elementary characters, or letters, muff vary
in the alphabets of different languages. The Hebrew, *
Samaritan, and Syriac alphabets, have 22 letters; the
Arabic 28, the Perfian and Egyptian, or Coptic, 32 ;
the prefent Ruffian 41 ; the Shanfcrit 50; while the
Caflimirian and Malabaric are ilill more numerous. The
following is the fcheme of the Engliih alphabet as gi¬
ven by Mr Sheridan in his Rhetorical Grammar, p. 9.
Number of fimple founds in our tongue 28.
9 Vowels, a a a e o o e i u
hall hat hate beer note noofe bet fit but
w y
ftiort 00 fhort ee
,9 Cwfinant,, f1 ef CS 'k f, era. en,e? M
y J 7 3 et ev ez etfi eth efh ezh mg.
2 Superfluous, c, which has the power of ck or efs;
q, that of ek before u.
3 R 2 Compound,,
Alphabet,
i
ALP [
2 Compound, j, which (lands for edzh;
x, for ks or gz.
l No Utter, h, merely a mark of afpiration-
Confonants divided into Mutes and Semivowels*
6 Mutes, eb ed eg ek ep et.
3 Pure Mutes, ek ep et.
3 Itnpure, eb ed eg.
13 Semivowels, 7 ef el em en er efs ev ez etfi eth
or liquids, 5 ezh ing.
9 Vocal, el em en er ev ez eth ezh ing.
4 Afpirated, ef efs eth efh.
Divided again into
4 Labial, eb ep ev ef.
8 Dental, ed et eth etri ez efs ezh efh.
4 Palatine, eg ek el er.
3 Nafal, em en ing.
Imperfec- Mr Sheridan obferves, that our alphabet is ill calcu-
tion in the Jated for the notation of the Englifh tongue, as there
a'~ are many founds for which we have no letters or marks:
y ’ and there ought to be nine more charafters or letters
to make a complete alphabet, in which every fimple
(bund ought to have a mark peculiar to itfelf. The
reafon of the deficiency is, that the Roman alphabet
was formerly adopted for the notation of the Englifh
language, though by no means fuited to the purpofe.
Of the It now remains only to take fome notice of the forms
forms of of the different letters; fome knowledge of which is
Otters. abfolutely heceffary for afcertaining the age and au¬
thenticity of infcriptions, manufcripts, charters, and
ancient records. Many authors are of opinion that
letters derive their forms from the pofitions of the or¬
gans of fpeech in their pronunciation. Van Helmont
has taken great pains to prove* that the Chaldaic cha-
rafters are the genuine alphabet of Nature; becaufe,
according to him, no letter can be rightly founded'
without difpofing the organs of fpeech into an uniform
pofition with the figure of each letter; and in fupport
of this fyflem, he has anatomifed the organs- of articur
lation.
Mr Nelme has endeavoured, to (how, that all elemen¬
tary charaflers or letters derive their forms from the
line and the circle. His alphabet confifts of 13 radical
letters, four dimini Hied, and four augmented.—The
radicals are L, O, S, A, B, C, D, N, U, I, E, M,
R.—H, according to him,, is derived from A ; P from
B ; T from D ; and F from U : thefe are called dir
minifhed letters. The augmented ones, are Z from S;
G from C ; W from U ; and Y from I. He proves
that his charafters are very fimilar to thofe of the an¬
cient Etrufqans: but all characters are compofed either
of lines and circles of the former, and of parts of the
latter.—Mr Gebelin deduces them from hieroglyphic
reprefentations, and has given feveral delineations of
human figures, trees, &c. in confirmation of his. hypo-
thefis.
One of the moft fimple alphabets has been formed,
by making two perpendicular and two horizontal.lines:
a |b | c
thus, hi, |f from which may be de-
E I !i | i
duced nine different charadters or letters ; thus
£ lii tH 0 071 l“t IT
498 ] ALP
Nine more may be made by adding a point to each, Alp!usnf%
k | 1 | m ^ Alphery. ^
and as many more as » | 0 j P may be fufficient
JT1TJ
for the notation of any language, by adding two or more
points to each character. Though thefe fquare cha-
radlers are not calculated for difpatch ; yet they may
be made as expeditioufly, or more fo, than the Tartar,,
the Bramin, the Caflimirian, or many others. Writing
compofed of thefe characters, is at firft fight fomewhat Z3
like the Hebrew.—Mr Dow, author of the Hiftory of New lan- !
Indoftan, lately- formed a new language and alphabet. BuaKe in- |
This language, and the characters formed for its nota-
tion, were fo eafy, that a female of his acquaintance ac- °W>
quired the knowledge of them in three weeks, and cor-
refponded with him therein during their intimacy.
ALPHiENIX, white barley-fugar, to which is gi¬
ven an extraordinary name, to render it more valuable.
This fugar, which is thought good for colds, is made
of common fugar, which is boiled until it becomes eafy
to crack, when they pour it upon a marble table, grea-
fed with oil of fweet almonds, and mould it into vari¬
ous figures with a brafs crotchet. It is eafily falfified
with ftarch.
ALPHERY (Mikipher), born in Ruffia, and of
the Imperial line. When that country was torn to
pieces by inteftine quarrels, in the latter end of the 1 d'1*
century, and the royal houfe particularly was fo fe*
verely perfecuted by impoftors, this gentleman and his.
two brothers were fent over to England, and recom¬
mended to the care of Mr Jofeph Bidell, a Ruffia mer¬
chant. Mr Bidell, when they were of age fit for the
univerfity, fent them all three to Oxford, where the-
fmall-pox unhappily prevailing, two of them died of it.
We know not whether this furviving brother took any
degrees or not, but it is very probable he did, fince he
entered into holy orders; and in the year 1618, had
the reftory of Wooley in Huntingtonlhire, a living of
no very confiderable value, being rated at under L. 10
in, the king’s books. Here he did his duty with great
cheerfulnefs and alacrityand although he was
twice invited back to his native country by fome who
would have ventured their utmoft to have fet him on
the throne of his anceftors, he. chofe rather to re¬
main with his flock, and to ferve God in the humble
ftation of a pari (h prieft. Yet in 1643, he underwent
the fevered trials from the rage of the fanatics; who,
not fatislied with depriving him of his living, infulted
him in the mod barbarous manner ; for having procu¬
red a file of mufqueteers to pull him out of his pulpit*
as he was preaching on a Sunday, they turned his wife
and fmall children into the dreet, into which alfo they
threw his goods. The poor man in this didrefs railed
him a tent under fome trees in the church-yard, over
againd his houfe, where he and his family lived for a
week. One day having gotten a few eggs, he picked
up fome rotten wood and dry dicks, and with thefe
made a fire in the church-porch in order to boil them;
but fome of his adverfaries, to (how how far they could
carry their rage againd the church, for this poor man
was fo harmlefs they could have none againd him, came
and kicked about his fire, threw down his Jkillet, and
broke his eggs. After this, having dill a little money;
he made a fmall purchafe in that neighbourhood, built
him*
ALP [ 499 1 ALP
jUph&is him a houfe5 and lived there fome years. He was en-
i Ai . ^ f couraged to this by a preibyterian minifter who came
''i p us‘ in his room, who honellly paid him the fifth part of
the annual income of the living, which was the allow¬
ance made by parliament to ejected minifters, treated
him with great humanity, and did him all the fervices
in his power. It is a great misfortune that this gentle¬
man’s name is not preserved, his conduft in this refpeft
being the more laudable, becaufe it was not a little fih-
gular. Afterwards, probably on the death or removal
©f this gentleman, Mr Alphery left Huntingtonlhire,
and came and refided at Hammerfmith till the Refto-
ration put him in pofleffion of his living again. He
returned on this occafion to Huntingtonfhire, where he
did not ftay long; for being upwards of 80, and withal
very infirm, he could not perform the duties of his
funftion. Having, therefore, fettled a curate, he re¬
tired to his eldeft foil’s houfe at Hammerfmith, where
ihortly after he died, full of years and of honour.
ALPHEUS, (Strabo); Alpheius, (Ptolemy); a
noted and large river of the Peleponnefus; which, ri¬
ling in, and after feveral windings running through,
Arcadia, and by Olympia in Elis, with a fouth-weft
courfe, pours into the Sinus Chelonites, about ten miles
to the fouth of Olympia. It has a common fpring with
the Eurotas, at the foot of mount Parthenius, near the
village Afea, (Strabo.) The Alpheus and Eurotas
mix and run together for 20 ftadia ; after which, they
enter a fubterraneous paffage at Mantinea ; then again
emerge, the Eurotas in Laconica, and the Alpheus in the
territory of Megalopolis, (Paufanias.) The poets fable
ftrange things of this river; particularly, that, out of love
to the nymph Arethufu, it runs under the fea to Sicily,
and burfts out at the fountain of that name in Syra-
cufe, (Virgil). Its waters were reckoned good in the
leprofy, which is called A\pof by the Greeks; and hence
the name Alpbeas.—Paufanias adds, that the Eleans
had a law, which condemned any woman to death that
Ihould either appear at the Olympic games, or even
crofs this river during that folemnity: and the Eleans
add, that the only woman who tranfgrefied it, had dif-
guifed herfelf in the habit of a matter or keeper of thefe
games, and conducted her fon thither; but when Ihe
faw him come off victorious, her joy made her forget
her difguife, fo that her fex was difcovered. She was
pardoned, but from that time u law was made that the
keepers fliould appear there naked-
ALPHONSIN, in furgeiy, an inftrument for ex¬
tracting bullets out of gun-fhot wounds. This inftru-
mertt derives its name from the inventor Alphonfus Fer-
vier, a phyfician of Naples. It confifts of three branch¬
es, which are olofed by a ring. When clofed and in¬
troduced into the wound, the operator draws back the
ring towards the handle, upon which the branches o-
peningtake hold of the ball; and then the ring is puflr-
ed from the haft, by which means the branches grafp
the ball fo firmly, as to extraCt it from the wound.
ALPHONSUS X, king of Leen and Caftile, fur-
tiamed the Wife, was author of the aftronomical tables
called Alphonftne. Reading of Quintus Curtius gave
• him fuch delight, that it recovered him out of a danger¬
ous illnefs. He read the Bible fourteen times, with fe¬
veral comments on it. He is faid to have found fault
with the ftrudture of the mundane fyftem, and has been
charged with impiety on that fcore; but Unjitttly, for Afpinl,
he only found fault with the involved fyftem of fome A‘rl0‘3'
aftronomers. He was dethroned by his fon Sancho ; v
and died of grief, A. D. 1284.
ALPINI (Pfofpero), a famous phyfician and bo-
tanift, born in the Venetian territory, in 1553. He
travelled in Egypt to acquire a knowledge of exotic
plants, and was the firft who explained the fructifica¬
tion and generation of plants by the fexual fyttem.
Upon his return to Venice, in 1586, Andrea Doria,
prince of Melfi, appointed him his phyfician : and he
diftinguilhed himfelf fo much in this capacity, that he
was efteemed the firft phyfician of his age. The repu¬
blic of Venice began to be uneafy, that a fubjeCt of
theirs, of fo great merit as Alpini, ihould continue at
Genoa, when he might be of fo much fervice and ho¬
nour to their ftate: they therefore recalled him in
1593, to fill the profefforihip of botany at Padua ;
and he had a falary of 200 florins, which was after¬
wards raifed to 750. He difcharged this office with
great reputation ; but his health became very precari¬
ous, having been much broke by the voyages he had
made. According to the regifter of the univerfity of
Padua, he died the 5th of February 1617, in the 64^*
year of his age ; and was buried the day after, without
any funeral pomp, in the church of St Anthony.—Al¬
pini wrote the following works in Latin: 1. Of the
phyfic of the Egyptians, in four books. Printed at Ve¬
nice, 1591, in 4to. 2. A treatife concerning the plants
of Egypt. Printed at Venice, 1592, in 4to. 3. A
dialogue concerning balfams. Printed at Venice, 1592,
in 4t0. 4. Seven books concerning the method of form¬
ing a judgment of the life or death of patients. Print¬
ed at Venice, 1691, in 4to. 5. Thirteen Books con¬
cerning methodical Phyfic. Padua, 1611, folio ; Ley¬
den, 1719, in 4t0. 6. A Deputation held in the fchool
at Padua, concerning the Raphonticum. Padua, 1612,
and 1629, 4r°. 7. Of exotic plants, in two books. Ve¬
nice, 1699, in 4t0. He left fcveral other works, which
have never been printed ; particularly, 8. The fifth book
concerning the phyfic of the Egyptians. 9. Five books
concerning the natural hiftory of things obferved in E-
gypt, adorned with a variety of draughts of plants,
ftones, and animals.
ALPINIA, in botany : A genus of the monogy-
nia order, belonging to the monandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 8th or¬
der, Scitamine<s. The carafters are : The calyx is a
perianthium above, fmall, and trifid: The corolla is
monopetalous, unequal, and as if doubled : The /lami¬
na confift of one filament, with linear antherae joining
to the margin : The piflillum has a roundifh germen,
beneath ; the ftylus fimple, and the ftigma obtufely tri¬
gonous : The pericarpiutJi is a flefliy ovate trilocular
capfule, with three valves : The feeds are ovate, and
very numerous; the receptaculurfi is pulpy and very
large. Of this genus there is but one fpecies, which,
is a. native of the Weft Indies, w’ncre it grows naturally
in moift places. The leaves decay every winter, and
are pufhed out from the roots in the fpring, like the
ginger and maranta ; fo muft be managed in the fame
manner as directed for thefe two plants, and maybe
propagated by parting the roots when the leaves de-
ALPISTE,
ALP [ <;oo 1 ALP
ALPISTE, or Alpia, a fort of feed ufed to feed
,s^ , birds with, efpecially when they are to be nourifhed
for breeding:! The alpifte feed is of an oval figure, of
a pale yellow, inclining to an ifabel colour, bright and
glofly. It is an article of the corn-chandlers and feedf-
mens trade.
ALPS (anc. geog.), a range of high mountains, fe-
parating Italy from Gaul and Germany, in the form of
a crefcent. They take their rife from the Vada Saba-
tia, or Savona; and reach to the Sinus Flanaticus (now
Golfo di Carnaro of the Adriatic), and the fprings of
the river Colapis (now the Kulpe); extending, accord-
to Livy, 2000 ftadia in length, or 25O miles: they are
divided into fevend parts, and accordingly have different
names. From Savona to the fprings of the Varus, where
the Alps lie againil the fea of Genoa, they are called
Maritime, now le Montague di Tenda. Thefe extend
from fouth to north, between Gaul to the weft-, and
Genoa to the call, beginning at Monaco on the Medi¬
terranean ; then running out thro’ the eaft of the coun¬
ty of Nice, and between that and the marquifate of
Saluzzo, terminate at length at mount Vifo, between
Dauphitre and PiedmOllt. Hence to Sufa run the Alpes
Cottiie (Sueton.) ; Cottana (Tacitus) ; mountains ex¬
tremely high, feparating EHfUphine from Piedmont, and
extending from mount Vifo to Mount Cenis, between
the Alpes Mariilmx to the fouth, and the Grdix to
the north. The Alpes Grata: (Pliny), fo called from
the paffage of Hercules, begin from mount Genis,' where
the Cottice terminate ; and run out between Savoy and
the Tarehtefe to the weft, and Piedmont and the Duche
d’Aoufte to the eaft, quite to the Great St Bernard,
where the Alpes Penninx begin. They are alfo called
by fotne Grata Alpes., and Grains Dions (Tacitus) ;
which extend from weft to eaft, between St Bernard
and the Adula, or St Godart; and thus they run out
between the Valefe to the north, and the Milanefe to
the fouth. With thefe are Contihued the Alpes Rhx-
tica, to the head of the river Piave ; a part of which
are the Alpes Tridentina, to the north of Trent. To
thefe Join the Alpes Nor tea, reaching to Doblach in
Tyrol, to the north of the river Tajamento: thence
begin the Alpes Carnica, or of Carniola, extending to
the fprings of the Save: and the laft, called Alpes Pan-
mnica, and Julia, extend to the fprings of the Kulpe.
Some, however, extend the Alps to the north of Dal¬
matia ; others, again, to Thrace and the Euxine. But
their termination at the Kulpe, as above, is more ge¬
nerally received. They were formerly called Albia, and
Alpionia (Strabo). Through thefe mountains Hannibal
forced his palTage into Italy, by pouring vinegar on
the rock, heated by burning large piles of wood on
them, by which means they became crumbled (Livy).
They are covered with perpetual foow.
The Alps are the higheft mountains in Europe;
feeing, according to fome geometricians, about two
miles in perpendicular height. They begin at the Me-
diterranen ; and ftretching northward, feparate Pied-
fnont and Savoy from the adjacent countries; whence
dire&ing their courfe to the eaft, they form the boun¬
dary between Switzerland and Italy, and terminate
near the extremity of the Adriatic Sea, north-eaft of
Venice. It was over the weftern part of thofe moun¬
tains, towards Piedmont, that Hannibal forced his
paffage into Italy-
The profpeft from many parts of this enormous Alps.
range of mountains is extremely romantic, efpecialljr' 
towards the north-weft. One of the moft celebrated
is the Grande Chartreufe, where is a monaftery found¬
ed by St Bruno about the year 1084. From Echelles,
a little village in the mountains of Savoy, to the top
of the Chartreufe, the diftance is fix miles. Along this
courfe, the road runs winding up, for the moft part
not fix Feet broad. On one hand is the rock, with
woods of pine trees hanging over head; on the other
a prodigious precipice almoft perpendicular; at the
bottom of which rolls a torrent, that, fometimes tum¬
bling among the fragments of ftone which have fallen
from on high, and fometimes precipitating itfelf down
vaft: defcents with a noife like thunder, rendered yet
more tremendous by the echo from the mountains on
each fide, concurs to form one of the moft folemn, the
fnoft romantic, and moft aftonifhing feenes in nature.
To this defcriptioti may be added the ftrange views
made by the craggs and cliffs, and the numerous caf-
cades which throw themfelves from the very fummir
down into the vale. On the top of the mountain is
the convent of -St Bruno, which is the fuperior of the
whole order. The inhabitants confift of 100 fathers,
with 300 fervatlts, who grind their corn, prefs their
wine, and perform every domeftic office, even to the
making of their clothes. In the Album of the fathers
is admired an aleaic ode, written by the late ingenious
Mr Gray when he vifited the Chartreufe, and which
has fince been publifhed among his works.
The glaciers of Savoy are alfo juftly reckoned among
the moft ftupendoiis works of nature. Thefe are im-
menfe maffes of ice, lodged upon the gentler declivities
amidft the Alps, and exhibiting reprefentations be¬
yond conception fantaftic and pi&urefque. In the
extraordinary narrative of Mr Bourrit’s journey hither,
we meet with the following account of the Pricure, m
the valley of Chamouni. We had, fays he, the mag¬
nificent profpeft of a chain of moimtaius, equally in-
acceffible, and covered with ice; and above the reft
that of Mount Blanc, whofe top feemed to reach, and
even pierce, the higheft; region of the clouds. The
chain upon which this mountain looks down like a
giant, is compofed of maffes of rocks, which terminate
in pikes or fpires, called the Needles, and which are
ranged like tents in a camp. Their fides appear lighter
and more airy, from the ornament of feveral hollow
breaks and furrows fretted in the rock itfelf, as well
jas from the different ftreaks and panes of ice and fnow,
which, without changing the general charafter of their
form, or the majefty of their appearance, give them a
pi&urefque variety. Lower down, the eye furveys
with ravifhment the gills of ice, and the feveral gla¬
ciers, extending almoft into the plain, whilft this ap¬
pears like an artificial garden, embellilhed with the
mixture of a variety of colours. We have a pi&urefque
oppofition to this chain, which is formed by innumer¬
able mountains at the diftance of near 50 leagues, be¬
tween whofe tops we have a glimpfe of thofe feveral
plains which they environ.
M. de Saufthre, who had vifited thofe mountains
about two months before M. Bourrit, felt h'imfelf na¬
turally ele'&rilied in this place. This extraordinary
phenomenon feems not to have been experienced by
the latter or his company ; but they heard a long-con¬
tinued
ALP [ 501 1 ALP
Alps, tinned rumbling noife, like that of thunder, which
was rendered more awful by the lilence of the place
where they flood. This noife proceeded from the fub-
fequent caufes, viz. the avalanches of fnow, which fe-
parated from the tops of the mountains, and rolled
down to the bottom ; confiderable fragments of the
rocks which followed them, overturning others in their
fall; and mafly blocks of ice, which precipitated from
the fummits.
The valley of Montanvert appears to be peculiarly
romantic. Here, fays M. Bourrit, we beheld a fpaci-
ous icy plain entirely level. Upon this there rofe a
mountain all of ice, with fteps afcending to the top,
which feemed the throne of fome divinity. It likewife
took the form of a grand cafcade, whofe figure was be¬
yond conception beautiful; and the fun, which ihone
upon it, gave a fparkling brilliance to the whole. The
valley on our right hand was ornamented with prodi¬
gious glaciers, that, (hooting up to an immeafurable
height between the mountains, blend their colours with
the (kies, which +hey appear to reach.
Alps, befides its proper (ignification, by which it
denotes a certain chain of mountains which feparate
Italy from France and Germany, is frequently ufed as
an appellative to denote any mountains of extraordi¬
nary height or extenfive range. In this fenfe, Aufo-
nius and others call the Pyrenean mountains, Alps;
and Gellius the Spanifh Alps, Alpini Htfpani.
Hence alfo we fay, the Britijl) Alps, the Afiatic
Alps, the Alps cf America.
The Scottijh Alps terminate in a moft fublime and
abrupt manner, at the great promontary the Alta Ripa
of Ptolemy, the Ord or Aird, i. e. the Height, vfCaithnefs.
The upper part is covered with gloomy heath; the lower
is a ftupendous precipice, excavated into vaft caverns,
the haunt of feals and different fea-fowl. On the eaftem
fide of the kingdom, this is the ftriking termination of
the vaft mountains of Scotland which form its High¬
lands, the habitation of the original inhabitants, driven
from their ancient feats by the anceftors of Lowland
Scots, defcendants of Saxons, French, and Normans;
congenerous with the Englifii, yet abfurdly and invi-
dioufly diftinguiflied from them. Language, as well
as firiking natural boundaries, mark their place. Their
mountains face on the weft the Atlantic ocean ; wind
alongthe weft of Caithnefs; among which Morvern and
Scaraben, Ben-Hop and Ben-Lugal, arife pre-eminent.
Sutherland is entirely Alpine, as are Rofsfhire and In-
vernefslhire. Their Summit Alpes are, Meal Fourvou-
nicb, the Coryarich, Benew'ifli, and Benevifti near Fort
William; the laft of which is reported to be 1450 yards
in height. Great part of Aberdeenlhire lies in this
tract. It boafts of another Morvern, foaring far be¬
yond the others. This is in the centre of the Grampian
hills, and perhaps the higheft from the fea of any in
Great Britain. They again comprehend the eaftern
part of Perthlhrre, and finifh on the magnificent (bores
of Lochlomond; on the weftern fide of which Ben-
lomond riles, diftinguiftied among its fellows. From
hence the reft of North Britain forms a chain of hum¬
bler hills ; but in Cumberland, part of Weftmoreland,
York(hire, Lancalhire, and Derbylhire, the Alps re¬
fume their former majefty. A long and tame interval
fucceeds. The long fublime trail of Wales arifes, the
ancient poffeffion of the ancient Britilh race. From the
Ord, the great mountains recede inland, and leave a vaft Alps,
flat between their bafes and the fea, fronting the waves
with a feries of lofty rocky precipices, as far as the little
creek of Staxigo ; the whole a bold, but moft inhof-
pitable (hore for (hipping. Wick and Staxigo have
indeed their creeks, or rather chafms, u'hich open be¬
tween the cliffs, and may accidentally prove a retreat,
unlefs in an eaftern gale.
The AJiatic Alps are defcribed under the articles Al~
rjic Chain and Wertukian Mountains.
The American Alps are, The Andes or Cordilleras,
in South America; and the Apalachian ox Allegany
mountains, in North America.
The higheft ground in North America is placed by
Captain Carver in lat. 470 w'eft long, from Lond. 98*
between a lake from which the Oregon flows, and a-,
nother called White-bear- Lake, from which arifes the
Miffifippi.
This exalted fituation is part of the Shining Moun¬
tains, which are branches of the vaft chain which per->
vades the whole continent of America. It may be
fairly taken from the fouthern extremity, where Staten
Land and Terra del Fuego rife out of the fea as infu-
lated links to an immenfe height, black, rocky, and
marked with rugged fpiry tops, frequently covered
W'ith fnovv. New Georgia may be added as another
horribly congenial, rifing detached farther to the eaft.
The mountains about the Straits of Magellan foar to
an amazing height, and infinitely fuperior to thofe of
the northern hemilphere under the fame degree-of la¬
titude. From the north fide of the Straits of Ma¬
gellan, they form a continued chain through the king¬
doms of Chili and Peru, preferving a courfe not re¬
mote from the Pacific Ocean. The fummits, in many
places, are the higheft in the world. There are not
lefs than 12, which are from 2400 toifes high to above
3000. Pichmcha, which impends over Quito, is about
35 leagues from the fea; and its fummit is .2430 toifes
above the furface of the water. Cayambc, immedi¬
ately under the equator, is above 3000 ; and Chimbo¬
razo higher than the laft by zoo. Moft of them have
been volcanic, and in different ages marked with erup¬
tions far more horrible than have been known in other
quarters of the globe. They extend from the equator
through Chili; in which kingdom is a range of volca¬
noes, from lat. 26. fouth, to 45. 30. and pofiibly from
thence into Terra del Fuego itielf; which, forming
the Straits of Magellan, may have been rent from
the continent by fome great convullion, occafioned by
their labourings; and New Georgia forced up from
the fame caufe. An unparalleled extent of plain ap¬
pears on their eaftern fide. The river of Amazons
runs along a level cloathed with fbrefts, after it burfts
from its confinement at the Pongo of Borjas, till it
reaches its fea-like difcharge into the Atlantic Ocean.
In the northern hemifphere, the Andes pafs through
the narrow Ifthmus of Darien into the kingdom of
Mexico, and preferve a majeftic height and their vol¬
canic difpofition. The mountain Popocatepec made
a violent eruption during the expedition of Cortez,
which is moft,beautifully defcribed by his hiftorian An¬
tonio de Solis. This, poffibly, is the fame with the
volcano obferved by the Abbe d’Auteroche, in his way
from Vera Cruz to Mexico ; which, from the naked-
nek of the lavas, he conjectured to have been but late-
ALP _ [ 50i ] ALP
Alps, ly extlnguifhed. From the kingdom of Mexico, this though much corrupted. Here is a rivulet between Alquiar !
. puxarras, chajn js continued northward, and to the eaft of Cali- Pitros and Portugos, which dyes linen that is dipped in H
fornia ; then verges fo greatly towards the weft, as to it black in an inftant. Near this rivulet is a cavern, from , Alfecc- ,
leave a very inconfiderable fpace between it and the which proceeds fo malignant a fteam, that it deftroys
Pacific Ocean; and frequently detached branches jut fuch animals as come near it. The Morifcos culti-
into the fea, and form promontories ; which, with vate the foil extremely well, and plant fruit-trees; fame
parts of the chain itfelf, were often feen by our navi- of which grow to a prodigious height and thicknefs,
gators in the courfe of their voyage. -Some branches, and give the mountains a very agreeable afpe&.
as we have before obferved, extend towards the eaft, ALQtJIER, a liquid meafure, ufed in Portugal to
but not to any great diftance. A plain, rich in woods meafure oil, two of which make an almond. See
and favanrtas, fwarming with bifons or buffaloes, flags, Almond.
and Virginian deer, with bears, and great variety of ALQUIFOU, or Arquifou, is a fort of lead-ore,
game, occupies an amazing tra<ft, from the great lakes which, when broken, looks like antimony. It is ufed
of Canada, as low as the Gulph of Mexico ; and -esft- by the jpotters to give a green varnifh to their works,
ward to the other great chain of mountains, the Apa- and thence ’is called potter’s ore. It is met with in
lachian, which are the Alps of that fide of northern Cornwall, See. The potters mix a fmall portion of man-
America. Its commencement is fuppofed to be about ganefe with the alquifou, and then the varnifh or gla-
i.ake Champlain and Lake George, with branches zing on their ware is of a blackifh hue.
pointing obliquely to the river St Laurence eaftward, ALREDUS, Alured, or Alureous, of Bever-
and rifing on its oppofite coafts; others extending, ley, one of the moll ancient and heft Englifh hiftorians.
with lowering progrefs, even into our poor remnant He wrote in the reign of Henry I. There are no cir-
ef the new world, Nova Scotia. The main chain pafies cumftances of his life known with any degree of cer-
through the province of New York, where it is diftin- tainty. It is generally believed that he was educated
guifhed by the name of the Highlands, and lies within at Cambridge, and that he afterwards became one of
40 miles of the Atlantic. From thence it recedes the canons and treafurerof St John’s at Beverley. And
from the fea, in proportion as it advances fouthward ; we learn in a note of bifhop Tanner’s, that, for the fake
and near its extremity in South Carolina is 300 miles of improvement, he travelled through France and Italy ;
diftant from the water. It confifts of feveral parallel and that at Rome he became domeftic chaplain to car-
ridges, divided by moft enchanting vallies, and gene- dinal Othoboni. He died in the year 1128 or 1129;
rally cloathed with variety of woods. Thefe ridges leaving behind him the following works: 1. The An-
rife gradually from the eaft, one above the other, to nals of Alured if Beve> ley. Oxford, 1726. Publiftied
the central; from which they gradually fall to the by Mr Hearne, from a manufeript belonging to Tho-
weft, into the vaft plains of the Miflifippi. The middle mas Rawlinfon, Efq. It contains an abridgment of our
ridge is of an enormous bulk and height. The whole hiftory from Brutus to Henry I. written in good La-
extends in breadth about 70 miles ; and in many pla- tin; and with great accuracy. 2. l.ibertates ecclefa
ces leaves great chafms for the difeharge of the vaft 5. fohannis de Beverlac, &c. a manufeript in the Cot-
and numerous rivers which rife in the bofoms of the ton library. It is a colledftion of records relative to
mountains, and empty themfelves into the Atlantic the church at Beverley, tranflated by our author from
Ocean, after yielding a matchlefs navigation to the the Saxon language. The Biographia Britannica evi-
provinces they water. dently proves thefe to be all that were written by Alredus,
Beyond the branch of the Apalaehian mountains ALRESFORD, a town of Hampfiiire, feated on
called The Endlefs, is another of amazing extent, the road.from London to Southampton, clofe by the
nearly as high as the mountains themfelves. This river Itching, which feeds a great pond to the left of
plain (called the Upper Plains') is exceedingly rich the town. Part of a Roman highway runs from hence
land; begins at tire Mohock’s River; reaches to to Alton. It is a reftory, with the mediety of Old
within a fmall diftance of Lake Ontario; and to Alresford, of L.49 : x2 2 8 in the king’s books. It
the weftward forms part of the extenfive plains of confifts of about 200 houfes; has one church; two
the Ohio, and reaches to an unknown diftance be- principal ftreets, which are large and broad; and a
yond the Miffifippi. Vaft rivers take their rife, and i'mall manufacture of linfeys.
fall to every point of the compafs ; into Lake Ontario, ALSA, a river of Carniola (Pliny), now the Aufa ;
into Hudfon’s River, and into the Delawar and Suf- running by Aquileia, with a fhort courfe from north to
quehanna. The tide of the Hudfon’s River flows thro’ fouth, into the Adriatic; where Conftantine, the fon of
its deep-worn bed far up, even to within a fmall di- Conftantine the Great, fighting againft Conftans his
ftance of the head of the Delawar; which, after a fu- brother, loft hf's life.
rious courfe down a long defeent, interrupted with ra- ALSACE, a province of France, bounded cn the
pids, meets the tide not very remote from its dii'charge eaft by the Rhine, on the fouth by Swiflerland, on ti c
into the ocean. weft by Lorrain, and on the north by the palatinate of
ALPUXARRAS, or Alpaxares, mountains of the Rhine. It was formerly a part of Germany, but
Spain, in the province of Granada, on the coaft of the was given to France by the treaty of Munfter. It is
Mediterranean fea. They are about 17 leagues in one of the moft fruitful and plentiful provinces of E -
length, and 11 in breadth, reaching from the city of rope, abounding in corn, wine, wood, flax, tobaccr,
Velez to Almeria. They are inhabited by Moors, who pulfe, fruits, &c. The mountains which divide it from
are the remains of the difperfion and ruin of their em- Lorrain are very high ; and generally covered with fir,
pire. They embraced the Chriftian religion ; but pre- beech, oak, and horn-beam. Thofe on the fide of
ferve their owrn manner of living, and their language, Swifferland are lefs high ; and furnifhed with all forts of
i wood,
A L S
r 503 ]
A L S
wood, as well for fuel as building. The country itfelf of them poffefs any remarkable properties, except the AlCrat
is diverfified with rifing hills and fertile vales, befides
large forefts; but that between the rivers 111, Hart, and
the Rhine, as far as Strafburgh, is inferior to the reft,
on account of the frequent! overflowing of the Rhine.
In High Alface there are mines of filver, copper, and
media, or common chickweed, with white bloffoms,
which is fo well known as to need no particular de- u
feription.—This fpecies affords a notable inftance of
what is called the Jleep of plants : for, every night,
the leaves approach in pairs, fo as to include within
lead. They however work none but thofe of Giromany, their upper furfaces the tender rudiments of the new
from which are annually drawn 1600 marks of filver, fhoots ; and the uppermoft pair but one at the end of
each mark being eight ounces ; and 24,000 pounds of the ftalk are furniflred with longer leaf-ftalks than the
copper i but the expence of working them is afmoft
equal to the profit. There are iron-works in feveral
parts of Alface, and particularly at Betford. There is
a mineral fpring at Sultfbach, near Munfter, in High
Alface; which is in great reputation for the palfy,
weaknefs of the nerves, and the gravel.—The original
inhabitants of Alface are honeft and good-natured,
but wedded to their own manners and cuffoms. The
fruitfulnefs of their country renders them indolent and
ina&ive; for the Swifs make their hay and reap their
corn.
others 5 fo that they can clofe upon the terminating
pair, and protect the end of the branch. The young
fhoots and leaves, when boiled, can hardly be diftin-
guilhed from fpring fpmach. They are deemed refri¬
gerating and nutritive, and an excellent food for per-
fons of a confumptive habit of body.—Swine are ex¬
tremely fond of chickweed; cows and horfes eat it;
ffieep are indifferent to it; and goats refufe it.
ALSIRAT, in the Mahometan theology, denotes-
a bridge laid over the middle of hell, finer than a hair,
well as manage the vintage of High Alface, and fharper than the edge of a fword, over which peo*
which fends a great deal of money out of the province, pie are to pafs, after their trial, on the day of judge-
The common language is the German : however, the
better fort of people fpeak French in the towns ; and
even in the country, they Ipeak French well enough
to be underftood.
ALSEN, an iftand of Denmark in the I’efler Belt,
or entrance into the Baltic fea, between. Slefwick and
Funen. It is remarkable for nothing except two cattles,
and producing large crops of anifeeds, a carminative
much ufed in feafoning the food and mixing with the
bread all over the Danifti dominions. E. Long. to. 12.
N. Lat. 55. 12.
ALSFIELD, a town of Germany, in the landgra-
vate of Heffe Caffel, ten miles north-weft of Marpurg,
and 35 fouth of Heffe Caffel. It is an ancient town,
ment. To add to the difficulty of the paffage, Ma¬
homet affures, that the alfirat, narrow as it is, is be-
fet with briars and thorns; none of which, however,,
will be any impediment to the good, who fhall fly over
it like the wind ; Mahomet and his muffulmen lead
the way; whereas the wicked, by the narrownefs of
the path, the entangling of the thorns, and extin&ion
of the light which direfted the former to paradife,,
will foon mifs their footing, and tumble headlong int®
hell, which is gaping beneath to receive them.
ALSIUM, a city of ancient Etruria, occupying
(according to Cluverius) the fpot on which Pala now
ftands. We are told by Dionyfius Halicarnaffenfis, that
Alfium was built by the Aborigines, long before the
and well-built; and the inhabitants were the firft of Tyrfenians invaded Italy. In this cafe it muft havi
this country who embraced the Reformation. E.Long;
9. 5. N. Lat. 50. 40.
ALSHASH, a very beautiful city in Bukhavia,
fuppofed to be the fame with that which is now called
Tajhcant, the capital of the eaftern part of Turkeftan,
poffeffed by the Kaffats. It is fituated' on the river Si-
hun, now Sir, and had a well-watered garden for every
houfe ; but was ruined by Jenghiz Khan, wlio took
the city, and caufed a great number of its inhabitants
to be maffacred..
ALSHEDA, a parifh of Sweden, in the province
of Smaland, where a gold mine was difeovered in
*738.
ALSINA,. in botany, a fynonime of the theligo-
num. See Theligonum.
ALSINASTRUMj in botany, the trivial name and
alfo a fynonime of the elatine. See Elatine.
ALSINE, or Chickweed: A genus of the trigynia
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants; and;
in the natural' method, ranking under the 22d order,
Garyophyllei. The characters are : The calyx is quin-
quephyllous : The corolla confifts.of five equal petals,
Ibnger than the calyx : The ft ami n a confift of five ca¬
pillary filaments ; the antherae are roundifti: The pi-
JHllum has an oval germen, three filiform ftyli, and ob-
tufe ftigmata The pericarpium is an ovate unilocular
capfule, with three valves : The feeds are roundilh and
numerous. Of this genus a great number of fpecies
are enumerated by fome botanical writers;, but none
been founded not long after the difperfion in the days
of Peleg. Its founder is laid to have been one Alee fits >
Alefus, or Alifa ; whom fome eonjefture to have been
Alifah, or Eliftia, the fon of Javan, mentioned in ferip—
ture.
ALSO? (Anthony); a divine and poet, was edu¬
cated at Weftminfter-fchool, and thence ele&ed to
Chrift-church, Oxford, where he took the degree of
M. A. in March 1696, and of B. D. in Decern. 1706;
On his coming to the univerfity, he was very foon di-
ftinguilhed by Dean Aldrich, and publifhed Fabula-
rum Mfipicarum Delettus, Oxon.. 1698, 8vo. with a
poetical dedication to lord vifeount Scudamore, and a
preface in which he took part againft Dr Bentley ia
the famous difpute with Mr Boyle. He paffed through
the ufual offices in his college to that of cenfor with
confiderable reputation ; and for fome years had the
principal noblemen and gentlemen.belonging to thefo-
ciety committed to his care. In this employment he
continued till his merit recommended him to Sir Jona¬
than Trelawney, bifhop of Winchefter, who appointed
him his chaplain, and foon after gave him a prebend in
his own cathedral, together with the reftory of Bright-
well in the county of Berks, which afforded him ample
provifion for a learned retirement, from which he could:
not be drawn by the repeated felicitations of thefe who
thought him qualified for a more public chara&er and
a higher ftation. In 1717 an aftion w'as brought a*
gainft him by Mrs Elizabeth Aftrey of Oxford, for a
breads
A L S [ 504 ] A L S
-A!fop. breach of a marriage-contraft ; and a verdict obtained
v ' againft him for 20001. which probably occafioned him
to leave the kingdom for fome time. His death, which
happened June 10, 1726, was occafioned by his falling
into a ditch that led tp his garden-door. A quarto vo¬
lume was publifhed in 1752, under the title of An-
tonrii Alfopi, JEdis ChriJU olim Aluniui Odarum li-
Iri duo* Four Englifti poems of his are in Dodfley’s
Colledtion, one in Pearch’s, feveralinthe early volumes
of the Gentleman’s Magazine, and fome in “ The Stu¬
dent.” Mr Alfop is refpeftfully mentioned by the fa¬
cetious Dr King of the Commons (vol. I. p. 236), as
having enriched the commonwealth of learning, by
“ TranHations of Fables from Greek, Hebrew, and
Arabic and not lefs detraitingly by Dr Bentley,
under the name of “ Tony Alfop, a late editor of the
iEfopean Fables.”
Alsop (Vincent), an eminent divine, was educated
in St John’s college in Cambridge, where he took the
degree of Mailer of Arts. He received deacon’s or¬
ders from a bilhop, after which he went down into Rut-
landlhire, and fettled at Oakham,' where he was an af-
fillant to the mailer of the free-fchool. As he was a
man of a fprightly turn, he fell there into indifferent
company ; but was reclaimed by the frequent admoni¬
tions of the reverend Mr Benjamin King. He after¬
wards married that gentleman’s daughter, and beco¬
ming a convert to his principles, received ordination in
the Prefbyterian way, not being fatisfied with that
which he had from the bilhop. He was fettled at
Wilbee in the county of Northampton, whence he was
eje&ed in 1662, for nonconformity. After this he ven¬
tured to preach fometimes at Oakham, and at Welling¬
borough where he lived, and was once fix months in
prifon for praying by a fick perfon. A book he wrote
againft Dr Sherlock in a humorous ftyle, made him well
known to the world, and induced Mr Cawton, an emi¬
nent nonconformift in Weftminfter, to recommend him
to his congregation for his fucceffor. On receiving
this call, he quitted Northamptonfhire and came to
.London, where he preached conftantly, and wrote fe-
veral pieces which were extremely well received by the
public. His living in the neighbourhood of the cotirt
expofed him to many inconveniences ; but thefe ended
with the reign of Charles II. or at leaft in the begin¬
ning of the next reign, when Mr Alfop’s fon engaging
in treafonable practices was freely pardoned by king
James. After this our divine went frequently to court,
and is generally fuppofed to have been the perfon who
drew the Prefbyterian’s addrefs to that prince fen* his
general indulgence. After the Revolution, Mr Alfop
gave very public teftimonies of his affection for the go¬
vernment ; yet upon all occafions he fpoke very refpedl-
fully of king James, and retained a very high fenfe of
his clemency in fparing his only fon. The^remainder
of his life he fpent in the exercife of his miniftry,
preaching once every Lord’s day; befides which he had
a Thurfday lefture, and was one of the lefturers at Pin¬
ner’s hall. He lived to be a very old man, and pre-
ferved his fpirits to the laft. On grave fubjedls he wrote
with a becoming ferioufnefs ; but where wit might, pro¬
perly be fhovvn, he difplayed his to great advantage.
His funeral fermon was preached by Mr Slater, and his
memory will be always preferved by his own learned
N0 13.
and elegant writings. Of thefe the moft remarkable, Alfledius J
befides his fermons, are, I. Antifozzo; in vindication
of fome great truths oppofed by Dr William Sherlock, 1 ^ '" L. 1
8vo, 1675. 2* Melius Inquirendum; in anfvver to Dr
Goodman’s Compaffionate Inquiry, 8vo, 1679. 3. The
Mifchief of Impofitions ; in anfwer to Dr Stiilingfleet’s
Mifchief of Separation, 1680. 4. A Faithful Re¬
proof to a Falfe Report, with reference to.the Diffe¬
rences among the United Minifters in London^ 8vo.
ALSTEDIUS (John-Henry), a German Prote-
ftant divine, and one of the moil indefatigable writers
of the 17th century. He was fome time profeffor of
philofophy and divinity at Herborn in the county of
Naffau : from thence he went into. Tranfylvania, to be
profeffor at Alba Julia; where he^continued till his death,
which happened in 1638, being then 70 years,of age..
His Encyclopedia has been much efteemed even by the
Roman Catholics ; it was printed at Lyons, and fold
very well throughout all France. His Thefaurus Chro-
nologicus is by fome efteemed one of his beft works,
and has gone through feveral editions. He alfo wrote
Triumphtis Biblicns, to (how that the principles of all
arts and fciences are to be found in the Scriptures; but
he gained very few to his opinion^ He was a Millena-
rian ; and publifhed,. in 1627, a treatife De mi lie annis,
in which he afferted that the reign of the faints on earth
was to begin in 1694. ;
ALSTON-MORE, a town in Cumberland, feated
on a hill, at the bottom of which runs the river Tyne,
with a ftone bridge over it. Near this place is plenty
of lead-ore. W. Long, 2. 4. N. Lat. 54. 45.
ALSTONIA, in botany ; a genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants.
The characters are: The calyx is a perianthium be¬
neath, imbricated: The corolla is monopetalous, and
fhorter than the calyx; the border expanding, eight
or ten parted, with alternate divifions: The fiamina
confift of numerous ftiort filaments, the exterior ones
longer; the antherx are orbicular and furrowed : The
pijlillum has a fmall ovate germen above ; a fimple fty-
lus the length of the corolla, filiform and ereft; the
ftigma inverfe egg-headed. There is but one fpecics,
the theaformis, a native of America.
ALSTROEMERIA, in botany: A genus of the
monogynia order belonging to the hexandria clafs of
plants ; and, in the natural method, ranking under the
11 th order, Sarmcntacea. The charadlers are : There
is no calyx : The corolla is nearly bilabiated ; and con-
fifts of fix petals, the two inferior tubular at the bafe :
The Jlamina confift of fix fubulated filaments, declining
and unequal; the antherse oblong: The pijiillum has
an hexangular germen beneath ; the ftylus declining,
filiform, the length of the ftamina; and three oblong
bifid ftigmata : The pericarpium is a roundifli hexan¬
gular capfule, with three cells and three valves: The
feeds are globular and numerous. There are five fpe*
cies, natives of Italy and Peru.
ALT, in mufic, a term applied to the high notes
in the feale.
ALTAIC Chain, a range of mountains which
bounds Afia on the fouth. It begins at the vaft moun¬
tain Bogdo, paffes above the head of the Irtifch, and
then takes a courfe rugged, precipitous, clothed with
fnow, and rich in minerals, between the Irtifch and
Ob;
ALT [ W ] ALT
Altamwit Ofe ; then proceeds by the lake Telezkoi, the rife of
the Ob ; after which it retires, in order to comprehend
, Attar‘ the great rivers which form the Jenefei, and are locked
np in thefe high ■ mountains; finally, under the name
of the Sainnes, is uninterruptedly continued to the
lake of Baikal. A branch infinuates itfelf between
the fources of the rivers Onon and Ingoda, and thofe
of Ichikoi, accompanied with very high mountains,
running without interruption to the north-eaft, and
dividing the river of Amur, which difcharges itfelf
into the eaft, in the Chinefe dominions, from the river
Lena and lake Baikal. Another branch ftretches along
the Olecma, crofles the Lena below Jakoutfk, and is
continued between the two rivers Tongoufka to the
Jenefei, where it is loft in wooded and morafly plains.
The principal chain, rugged with fliarp-pointed rocks,
approaches and keeps near the fhores of the fea of
Ockhozt, and palling by the fources of the rivers Oiith,
Aldan, and Maia, is diftributed in fmall branches, which
range between the eaftern rivers which fall into the
Icy Sea ; befides two principal branches, one of which,
turning fouth, runs through all Kamtfchatka, and is
broken, from the cape Lopatka, into the numerous
Kurile illes, and to the eaft forms another marine chain,
in the iflands which range from Kamtfchatka to Ame¬
rica ; moft of them, as well as Kamtfchatka itfelf, di-
ftinguilhed by fierce vuicanoes, or the traces of vulcanic
fires. The laft chain forms chiefly the great cape
Tfchutfki, with its promontories and rocky broken
fhores.
ALTAMONT, a very handfome town of Italy, in
the kingdom of Naples,^ and in Calabria Citerior, 15
miles north-weft of Bafigniano. E. Long. 16. 22. N.
Lat. 39. 40.
ALTAMURA, a town of Naples, in the. territory
of Bari, with the title of a principality, feated on the
foot 'of the Apennine mountains. E. Long. 16. 54.
N. Lat. 41. 0..
ALTAR, a place upon which facrifices were an¬
ciently offered to fome deity..
The heathens -at firft made their altars only of turf;
afterwards they were made of ftone, of marble, of
wood, and even of horn, as that of Apollo in Delos.
Altars differed in figure as well as in materials. Some
were round', others fquare, and others triangular. All
of them were turned towards the- eaft, and ftood lower
than the ftatues of the gods ; and were generally adorn¬
ed with fculpture, reprefenting either the gods to whom
they were erefted, or their fymbols. See the Pagan
Altars reprefented on Plate XI. Upon the fides of
N° x. a trident and two dolphins are exhibited, which
denote it to have been dedicated to Neptune. NJ 2.
a four-fquare altar, was dedicated to the nymphs, as
the infcription imports. N0 3. exhibits a Bacchanal
holding a thyrfus in his hand, a mark of the altar’s be¬
ing built to Bacchus: it had two other fides, which
made it appear triangular. Of N° 4. which was alfo
triangular, each face or fide exhibited a genius, one of
whom (on the fide reprefented) carries an oar upon his
neck, which feems to denote it an altar of Neptune.
N 5. an altar of a round ftiape, is infcribed //ra Nep-
tuni: the god himfelf is there reprefented, all naked,
faring the pallium upon his fhoulder; and holding in
his left hand a trident, and in his right a- dolphin.
The height of altars alfo differed according to the
Vol. I. Part II.
different gods to whom they facrificed. According to
Servius, thofe altars fet apart for the honour of the
celeftial gods, and gods of the higher clafs, were placed
on fome pretty tall pile of building ; and for that rea-
fon were called altaria, from the words alta and ara,
“ a high elevated altar.” Thofe appointed, for the
terreftrial gods were laid on the furface of the earth,
and called ara’. And, on the contrary, they dug into
the earth and opened a pit for thofe of the infernal
gods, which they called \ctx.x,oit « fcrobiculi.” But
this diftinftion is not every where obferved : the beft
authors frequently ufe ara as a general word, under
which are included the altars of the celeftial and in¬
fernal, as well as thofe of the terreftrial, gods. Wit-
nefs Virgil, Eel. 5.
 -En quatuir arau
Where ar# plainly includes altaria ; for whatever we
make of Daphnis, Phoebus was certainly a celeftial
god. So Gicero, pro Quint. Aras delubraque Hecates
in Gracia vidimus. The Greeks alfo diftinguifhed two
forts of altars; that whereon they facrificed to the
gods was called/Wor, and was a real altar, different
from the other whereon they facrificed to the heroes^
which was fmaller, and called Pollux makes
this diftinftion of altars in his Onomafticon; he adds,
however, that fome poets ufed the word for the
altar whereon facrifice was offered to the gods. The
Septuagint verfion does fometimes alfo ufe the word
urynpet for a fort of little low altar, which may be ex-
preffed in Latin by craticula ; being a hearth rather
than an altar.
Before temples were in ufe, altars were eredted fome¬
times in groves, fometimes in the highways, andfome-
times on the tops of mountains ; and it was a cuftojn
to engrave upon them the name, enfign, or char after,
of the deity to whom they were confecrated. .
In the great temples of ancient Rome there were
ordinarily three altars: The firft was placed in the fa ac¬
tuary, at the foot of the ftatue of the divinity,- upon
which incenfe was burnt and libations offered ; the fe-
cond was before the gate of the temple, and upon it
they facrificed the riftims; and the third was a portable
altar, upon which were placed the offering and the fa-
cred veffels.
Befides thefe ufes of altars, the ancients fwore upon
them, and fwore by them, in making alliances, con¬
firming treaties of peace, and other folemn occafions.
Altars alfo ferved as places of refuge to all thofe who
fled to them, whatever crime they had committed.
Altars are doubtlefs as ancient as facrifices them-
felves ; confequently their origin is not much later than
that of the world ; Gen. ch. iv. Some attribute their
origin to the Egyptians ; others to the Jews; others
to the patriarchs before the flood. Some carry them
as far back as Adam, whofe altar is much fpoken of
by Jewifh, and even Chriftian writers. Others are con¬
tented to make the patriarch Enoch the firft who con¬
fecrated a public altar. Be this as it will, the earlieft
ahars we find any exprefs teftimony of are thofe ereft-
ed by Abraham.
Altars, in the patriarchal times, were very rude.
The altar which Jacob fet up at Beth-el was nothing
but a ftone, which ferved him inftead of a bolder; that
of Gideon, a ftone before his houfe: and the firft which
3 S God
ALT [ 506 ] ALT
Altar, God commanded Mofes to erect was probably of earth,
or unpolUhed ftones, without afiy iron ; for if any ufe
was made of that metal, the altar was declared im~
" pure.
The principal altars of the Jews were, The altar of
incenfe; that of burnt-offering; and the altar, or table,
f r the Jhow-bread.
The altar of incenfe was a fmall table of fhittim-
wood, covered with plates of gold, of one cubit in
length, another in width, and two in height. At
the four corners, were four kinds of horns, and all
round a little border or crown over it. This was the
altar hidden by Jeremiah before the captivity; and
upon it the officiating prieft offered, every morning
and evening, incenfe of a particular compofition. See
Plate XL
The altar of burnt-offerings was made of fhittim-
wood, and carried upon the fhoulders of the priefts by
(laves of the fame wood overlaid with brafs. In the
time of Mofes, this altar was five cubits fquare and
three high ; but in Solomon’s temple it was much lar¬
ger, being 20 cubits fquare and to in height. It was
covered with brafs; and at each corner was a horn or
(pire, wrought out of the fame wood with the altar, to
which the facrifices were tied. Within the hollow
was a grate of brafs, on which the fire was made;
through it fell the afhes, and were received in a pan
below. At the four corners of the grate were four
rings and four chains, which kept it up at the horns.
This altar was placed in the open air, that the fmoke
of the burnt-offerings might not fully the infide of the
tabernacle. See Plate XI.
The altar, or table, for the Jheox-bread, was likewife
of fhittim-wood, covered with plates of gold, having a
little border round it,, adorned with fculpture. It was
two cubits long, one wide,, and one and an half in
height. Upon this table, which flood in the holy of
holies, were put, every fabbath-day, 12 loaves,, with fait
and incenfe.
The Jewifh altars, after their return from the capti¬
vity, and the building of the fecond temple, were in
fome refpe£ts different from thofe defcribed above.
That of 'burnt-offerings was a large pile, built of un¬
hewn (tone, 32 cubits fquare at the bottom, and 24
fquare at the top. The afcent was by a gentle rifing,
32 cubits in length, and 16 in breadth.
Altar, is alfo ufed among Chriflians for the com¬
munion-table.
In the primitive church, the altars were only of
wood ; as being frequently to be removed from place
to place. But the council of Paris, in 509, decreed
that no altar fhould be built but of (lone.—At firfl
there was but one altar in each church ; but the num¬
ber foon increafed ; and from the writings of Gregory
the Great, who lived in the fixth century, we learn,
that there were fometimes in the fame church 12 or 13.
In the cathedral of Magdeburg there are no lefs than
49 altars.
The altar is fometimes fuftained on a fingle column,
as in the fubterraneous chapels of St Cecilia, at Rome,
fee. ; and fometimes by four' columns, as the altar of
St Sebaftian of Crypta Arenaria; but the cuflomary
form is, to be a maffive of (lone-work, fuflaining the
altar-table. Thefe altars bear a refemblance to tombs :
3
to this purpofe, we read in church-hiftory, that the Altar-thane,
primitive Chriflians chiefly held their meeting at the II |
tombs of the martyrs, and celebrated the myfteries of A ten’>ul'g’ ijj
religion upon them ; for which reafon, it is a (landing
rule to this day in the church of Rome, never t,o build
an altar, without inclofmg the relics of fome faint
in it.
ALTAR-thane, or Altarist, in old law-books,
an appellation given to the prieft or parfon of a parifli,
to whom the altarage belonged. See Altarage.
ALTARAGE, in law, altars erefted in. virtue of
donations, before the Reformation, within a parochial
church, for the purpofe of fmging of mafs for deceafed
friends.
Altarage likewife fignrfies the profits arifing to
the prieft on account of the altar.
AL-TAYEFF, a town of Hejaz, adiftrift of Ara¬
bia Felix. It is fituated about 60 miles eaft of Mecca,
behind mount Gazwan, where the cold is more intenfe
than in any other part of the diftrift, but the air very
wholefome. Its territory abounds in fountains, and
produces excellent raifins. The town’is furrounded
with a wall, but is not very large.
ALTDORF, a large handfome town in Swifferland,
and the chief of the canton of Uri. It is fituated below
the lake of the four cantons, in a plain, at the foot of
a mountain, whofe paflages are difficult, and ferve in-
ftead of fortifications. It has four churches and two
convents ; St Martin’s church and that of the Holy
Crofs are the fined. The town-houfe and the arfenal
are alfo worth feeing. E. Long. 8. 30. N. Lat. 46.
5°*
ALTEA, a fea-port town of Valencia, in Spain-.
It was taken in 1705, in favour of the archduke
Charles; but loft after the battle of Almanza. W. Long,
o. 15. N. Lat. 46. 34.
ALTEMBURG, a town of Tranfylvania, 17 miles
S. W. of Wifemburg, and 35 S. of Claufenbourg. E.
Long. 23. 5. N. Lat. 46. 25.
ALTENA, a fea-port town of Germany, in the
duchy of Holftein, in Lower Saxony. It is a modenr
town, built by the king of Denmark, and was burnt
by the Swedes in 1712 ; but has fince been beautiful¬
ly re-built. The merchandife brought from Afia, by
theDanifti Eaft-India company, is fold here. E. Long.
10. o. N. Lat. 53. 51.
ALTENBERG, an ancient town of Germany, fi¬
tuated on the river Pleifs, with a good caftle placed oa
a rock, in Mifnia, in the circle of the Upper Saxony.
It was formerly an Imperial city,butatprefent belongs
to the houfe of Saxony. Here is a college which has
always been in a flouriihing condition. In 1705, there
was a nunnery founded for women of a high rank, who.
are Proteftants. E. Long. 15. 8. N. Lat. 50. 59.
ALTENBURG, a fmall fortified town of Hun¬
gary, in the territory of Mofon, near the Danube, a-
bout 55 miles from Vienna. E. Long. 35. 30. N. LaU
48. 15.
Altenburg, or Owar, a fmall but ftrong town of
Hungary, feated in a marfh, with wide ftreets. It is near
the river Danube, and is furrounded with deep ditches.
It is 15 miles fouth of Pre(burg, 40 fouth-eaft of Vien¬
na, and 65 fouth-weft of Buda. E. Long. 17. 56.
N. Lat. 44. 0.
ALTE.
ALT [ 507 ] ALT
Alterants ALTERANTS, or AlteraIiv^ Medicines, fuch
AjtJ! as correft the bad qualities of the blood and other hu-
. r ^ mours, without occafioning any fenfible evacuation.
ALTERATION, in phyfics! the adt of changing
the circumftances and manner of a thing ; its general
nature and appearance remaining the fame. Or, it is
an accidental and partial change in a body; without
proceeding fo far as to make the fubjedl quite unknown,
or to take a new denomination thereupon.—Or, it may
be defined, the acquilition or lofs of fuch qualities as
are not effential to the form of the body. Thus, a piece
of iron, which before was cold, is faid to be altered,
when it is made hot; fince it may Hill be perceived to
be iron, is called by that name, and has all the proper¬
ties thereof. By this alteration is diltinguiihed from
generation and corruption; thofe terms expreffing an
acquifition or lofs of the effential qualities of a thing.—
The modern philofophers, after the ancient chemifts
and corpufeularians, hold all alteration to be effedled
by means of local motion. According to them, it al¬
ways confifts either in the emiffion, acceffion, union,
reparation, or tranfpofition, of the component par¬
ticles.
ALTERCATION, a debate or conteft between
two friends or acquaintance. The word comes from
altercari, which anciently fignified to converfe or hold
difeourfe together.—Thus, we fay, They never come
to an open quarrel, but there is continually fome little
altercation or other.
ALTERN-base, in trigonometry, a term ufed in
contradiilindfion to the true bafe. Thus in oblique
triangles, the true bafe is either the fum of the fides,
and then the difference of the fides is called the altern-
bafe; or the true bafe is the difference of the fides, and
then the fum of the fides is called the altern-lafe-
ALTERNATE, in a general fenfe, a term applied
to fuch perfons or things as fucceed each other by
turns. Thus, two who command each his day, are
faid to have an alternate command, or to command al¬
ternately.
Alternate, in heraldry, is faid in refpedf of the
fituation of the quarters. Thus the firft and fourth
quarters, and the fecond and third, are ufually of the
fame nature, and are called alternate quarters.
Alternate, in botany, when the leaves or branch¬
es of plants arife higher on oppofite fides alternately.
ALTERNATION, in its primary fenfe, denotes
a fucceffion by turns.
Alternation is fometimes ufed to exprefs the
different changes or alterations of orders in any num¬
ber of things propofed. This is alfo called permu¬
tation, &c. and is eafily found by a continual multi¬
plication of all the numbers, beginning at unity. Thus,
if it be required to know how many changes or alter¬
nations can be rung on fix bells, multiply the numbers
1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6, continually into one another; and the
Jail product gives the number of changes.
ALTERNATIVE, is particularly ufed for the
choice of two things propofed. In this fenfe we fay,
to take the alternative of two propofitions.
ALTELEA, Marshmallow: A genus of the po-
lyandria order, belonging to the monodelphia clafs of
plants; and, in the natural method, ranking under the
3 yth order, Columniferne. The characters are : The
calyx is a double perianthium, the exterior one nine-cleft:
The corolla confifts of five petals, coalefced at the bafe : Ahhica.
The Jlamina confift: of numerous filaments inferted into v'—
the corolla ; the antherse are kidney-fhaped. The pi-
jlillum has ari orbicular germen ; a ftiort cylindrical fty-
lus ; and numerous briltly ftigmata, the length of the
ftylus : The pericarpium confills of numerous arilke :
The feeds are folitary, and kidney-ftiaped. There arc
three /
Species. 1. The vulgaris, or common marfhmallow.
is a native of Britain, and hath a perennial root, and
an annual ftalk, which periihes every autumn. The
ftalks grow ere£t to the height of four or five feet.
Thefe are garniftied with leaves which are hoary, foft to
the touch, and placed alternately on the branches. The
fiowei s come out from under the wings of the leaves,
like the mallow, and are of a purplifli white. 2. The
hirfuta, or hairy marfhmallow, is a native of Spain and
Portugal. It is a low plant, whofe branches trail on
the ground, unlefs they are fupported by ftakeS. The
leaves and ftalks are befet with ftrong hairs, the flowers
come out like thofe of the common fort, but are fmall-
er, and have purplifh bottoms. 3. The cannabina, or
fhrubby marfhmallow, is a native of Hungary and If-
tria. It has a woody ftem, which rifes to the height of
four or five feet; and puts out many fide-branches. The
flowers come out in the fame manner as in the others,
but are of a deeper red colour. This fort feldom flow¬
ers the firft year, unlefs the fummer proves warm ; but
when the plants live through the winter, they will
flower early in the following fummer, and produce good
feeds.
Culture.- Though the firft fort is found naturally in
fait marfhes, it will thrive when tranfplanted into any
foil, or in any fituation ; however, it will always grow
larger in moift than in dry foil. It may be propagated
either by parting the roots in autumn when the ftalks
decay, or by lowing the feeds in the fpring. If the
feeds of the fecond fpecies are fown in April, the plants
will flower in July, and carry ripe feed in September.
They ought to be fown in the places where they are to
remain, as the roots fhoot deep in the ground; fo that
unlefs the plants are removed very young, they feldom
furvive it. The feeds of the cannabina ought alfo to
be fown where the plants are to remain, for the reafon
juft now given. They fhould have a flickered fituation
and a dry foil, otherwife they will not live through the
winter. Indeed they feldom continue in this country
above two years, with all the care that can be taken of
them.
Medicinal Ufes. The firft is the only fpecies ufed in
medicine. The whole plant, efpecially the root, a-
bounds with a mild mucilage. It has the general vir¬
tues of an emollient medicine ; and proves ferviceable
in a thin acrimonious, ftate of the juices, and where the
natural mucus of the inteftines is abraded. It is chief¬
ly recommended in (harp defluxions upon the lungs,
hoarfenefs, dyfenteries ; and likewjfe in nephritic and
calculous complaints: not, as fome have fuppofed, that
this medicine has any peculiar power of diffolving or
expelling the calculus; but as, by lubricating and re¬
laxing the veffels, it procures a more free and eafy paf-
fage. The root is fometimes employed externally for
foftening and maturating hard tumours; chewed, it is
faid to give eafe in difficult dentition of children.
This root gave name to an officinal fyrup, decoc-
3 S 2 ' tion,
ALT [ 508 ] ALT
tion, and ointment j and was likewife an ingredient in
the compound powder of gum tragacanth and the oil
and plailer of mucilages. But of all thefe formulae the
fyrup alone is now retained,
SUthjea Frutex. See Hibiscus.
ALTIMETRY, the art of meafuring altitudes or
heights, whether acceffible or inacceffible. See Geo¬
metry.
ALTIN, a money of account in Mirfcovy, worth
three copecs; one hundred of which make a ruble,
worth about 4s. 6d^ fterling.
ALTIN, a lake in Siberia,, from whence ifTues the
river Ob, or Oby, in N. Lat. 52. o. E. Long. 85°. 55'.
This lake is called by the Ruffians Telojkoi Qfero, from
the Teleffi, a Tartarian nation, who inhabit the borders
of it, and who give it the name of Altin-Kul. By the
Calmucks it is called'It is near ninety miles
long and 50 broad, with a rocky bottom.; The north
part of it is fometimes frozen fo hard as to be paffable
on foot, but the fouthern part is never covered with
ice. The water in the Akin lake, as well as in the ri¬
vers which run through the adjacent places, only rifes
in the middle of fummer, when the fnows on the moun¬
tains are melted by the heat of the fun.
ALTINCAR, among mineralifts, a fpecies of fac¬
titious fait ufed in the fuiion and purification of metals.
The altincar is a fort of flux powder.. Divers ways
of preparing it are given by Libavius.
ALTING (Henry), profeffor of divinity at Hei¬
delberg and Groningen, was born at Embden in
1583, of a family which had been long confpicuous in
Frifeland. His father, Menfo Altihg, was the firfl,
who, with two others, preached the reformation in the
territory of Groningen, about the year 156$, under
the tyrannical government of the duke of Alva ; and
the firft that preached in the.great church of Gronin¬
gen, after the redudtion of that town by the States Ge¬
neral in 1594. Henry was chofen, in 1605, preceptor
to the three young counts of Naffau, Solms, and Izen-
berg. After various difficulties, he fettled at Gronin¬
gen, where he continued till his death,-Augufl 25.
1644. He was a found protefHnt divine, a pious
Ghriflian, a ufeful member of fociety in many refpects,
and one who fuffered much for the truth. Mod of his
Works were never publifhed; thofe which have been
are the following: Not* in decadent prableinatum J,
Behm, 1618. Loci communes explicatio catecbefeos Pa-
latinee, 1646, in 3 vols. Exegtjis Augujianx confef.
1647. Methodus theologies, 1650. It appears from the
catalogue of his works annexed to his life, that the
Medulla hiji. prophanx, publifhed by Dr Pareus, was
compofed by Alting. The mod remarkable piece a-
mong Alting’s MMS. is, The ecclefiadical hidory of
the Palatinate, from the reformation to the adminidra-
tion of John Cafimir.
Alting (James), fon of the former, was born at
Heidelberg in 1618. He travelled into England in
1640, where he was ordained by the learned Dr Pri-
deaux, biffiop of Worceder. Pie afterwards accepted
of the profefforfhip of Groningen, vacant by the death
of Gomarus; but his fituation was rendered very dif-
agreeable by the continual difputes which he had with
his colleague Sam. des Marets, who favoured the fchool-
divinity. He died in 1697. He recortimended the edi¬
tion of his works to Menfo Alting (author of Notitia
German. Infer. Atriiqua, fol. Amd. 1679) ; but they
were publilhed in 5 vols. folio, with his life, by Mr
Bekker of Amderdam. They contain various analy¬
tical, exegetical, practical, problematical, and philofo-
phical tradls, which fhow his great indudry and know¬
ledge. Alting was a divine greatly addicted to the text
of the fcripture, to Cocceianifm, and Rabbinifm. He.
preached well in German, Dutch, and Englifh.
ALTITUDE, acceffible, and inacceffible. See
Geometry,
The method of taking eonfiderable terredrial, alti¬
tudes, of which thofe of mountains are the greatedj by
means of the barometer, is very eafy and expeditious. It
is done by obferving, on the top of the mountain, how
much the mercury has fallen below what it was at the
foot of the mountain. See Barometer. .
Altitude of the Eye, 'in perfpeftive, is a right line
let fall from the eye, perpendicular to the geometrical'
plane-.
Altitube, in adronomy,- is the didance of a dar,.
or other point, in the mundane fphere, from the ho¬
rizon.
This altitude may be either true or apparent.—If it
be taken from the rational or real horizon,, the altitude
is faid to be true or real;. if from the apparent or fen—
fible horizon, the altitude is apparent.—Or rather, the.,
apparent altitude is fuch as it appears to our obferva-
tion-,- and the true is that from which the refraction
has been fubtradted.
The true altitudes of the fun, fixed dars, and planets,,
differ but very little from their, apparent altitudes; be-
caufe of . their great didance from the centre of the
earth, and the fmallnefs of the earth’s femidiameter, „
when compared thereto. But the difference between
the true and apparent altitude of the moon is about
52'. This fubject is further explained under Astro¬
nomy.
Altitude Infrument, or Equal Altitude Injiru-
ment., is that.ufed to obferve a celedial objedt when it
has the fame altitude on the ead and wed ddes of the
meridian. See Astronomy, the lad fedtion.
ALTKIRK, a town of Alface in Germany, litua-
ted on the river 111,, in N. Lat. 47. 40. and E. Long.
7- I5-
ALTMORE, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Tyrone, and province of Ulder, fituated in N. Lat,
54, 34, and W. Long. 7. 2.
ALTON, a town in Hampffiire, feated on the ri¬
ver Wey ; W. Long. o. 46; N. Lat. 51. 5. It is go¬
verned by a conilable ; and confids of about 300 hou-
fes, indifferently built, chiefly laid out in one pretty
broad dreet. It haS one church, a Prelbyterian, and
a Quaker’s meeting, a-famous free fchool, a large ma¬
nufacture of plain and figured baragons, ribbed drug¬
gets, and ferges de Nifmes; and round the town is at
large plantation of hops....
Alton, or Avelton, a village in St’affordfhire,
five miles north of Utoxeter. There are the ruins of
a cadle here, which, feme would have to be built before
the Norman conqued ; but Dr Plott is pretty certain
that it was eredted by Theobald de Verdun, in the be¬
ginning of the reign of Edward II. A great part of
the walls are dill Handing, but they are in a very rui¬
nous condition.
ALTO et Basso, or in Alto o in Basso, in law,.
dignifies-
'A L V [509
fignifies tlie. abfolute reference of all differences, fmall ed
and great, high and low, to fome arbitrator or indif-
* ferent perfgn.-—univerfh per prafentes, quod Wil¬
li elmus Tylar de Tetton, iff Thomas Gaoxer de Almefire,
pofuerunt.fe in Alto & in Baffo, in arbitrio quatuor ha-
minum; viz. de qiiadani querela fendente inter eos in cu¬
ria.-—Nos ter ram mjlram alte & baffe ipjius domini
Regis fuppofuirnus voluntati.
Alto*Relievo, See Relievo.
] A I, V
1 marks of diflrefs the moment he was remo¬
ved from his prefence, and now thought and fpoke of
nothing but Alvares. He was therefore recalled; and,
being invelted with his ufual authority, revenged him-
felf feverely upon his enemies, by perfuading the king
to'banifh them. Of the 45 years he fpent at court,
he enjoyed for 30 of them fo entire an afcendancy o-
ver the king, that nothing could be done without his
exprefs orders: nay, it is related by Mariana, that the
Alto-Ripieno, in mufic, the tenor of the great king could not change an officer or fervant, or even
•chorus which fxngs and plays only now and then in Tome
particular places.
ALTO RF, a town, of the circle of Franconia, in
.Germany. It has a.phylic garden, with 2000 differ¬
ent plants; a theatre for diffeftions, which has many
curiofities in the anatomical way ; and a handfome li-
his clothes or diet, without the approbation of Alva-
reS. In fhort, he wanted nothing to complete his
grandeur but the name of king : he had all the places
in the kingdom at his difpofal; he was matter of the
treafury, and by bounties had fo gained the hearts of
the fubjefts, that the king, though his eyes r
brary. It is fubjeft to the houfe of Brandenburg; and opened, and his affe&ions fufficiently turned againft
is feated on the confines of Bavaria, 15 miles from Nu- him, durft not complain.
remberg. E. Long. 9. 35. N. Lat. 47. 46.
ALT-RANSTADT, a town in Saxony, famous
for the treaty between Charles jXII. king of Sweden
and Auguttus eledtor of Saxony, in 1706, wherein the
latter reiigned the kingdom of Poland.
ALTRINCHAM, a town of Chelhire in England,
upon the borders of Lancafhire, feven miles from Man-
chefter. W. Long. i. 30. N. Lat. 53. 25.
ALTZEG, a town of Germany in the- Lower
Palatinate’, the capital of a territory of the fame name,
with an old cattle. W, Long. 7, 25. N. Lat. 49. 44.
ALVA de Tormes, a confiderable town in Spain,
in the kingdom of Leon, and territory of Salamanca,
with a very handfbme cattle. It is feated on the north
bank of the river Tormes. W. Long.-6. x. N. Lat.
41. o.
ALVAH, the wood wherewith Mofes fweetened
the waters of Marah, Exod. cb. xv. ver. 25.—The
name of this wood is rtot found in fcripture ; but the
Mahometans give it that of alvah, and pretend to trace
its hittory from the patriarchs before the flood. Jo-
fephus, on the contrary, fays, that Mofes ufed the
wood which he found next lying before him.
ALVARES d'e luna, or as fome call him Alva¬
ro, is a charadfer too edifying to be omitted in this
work. He was the favourite of John II. king of Ca-
ftile: was famous for the prodigious afcendancy he
gained over this prince,. and for the punifhment which
at length overtook him. He was natural fon of Don
Alvaro de Luna, lord of Canete in Arragon, and of a
woman infamous for unbounded luft. He was born in
1388, and named Peter; but Pope Benedict XIII. who
was charmed with his wit tho'" yet a child, changed Pe¬
ter to Alvares. He was introduced to court in 1408,
and made a gentleman of the bedchamber to king
John, with whom he grew into the higheft favour. In
1427 he was obliged to retire: the courtiers exerted
all their endeavours to ruin him ; they complained,
that a man of no military fldll, of no virtues whatever,
fliould, by mere artifice and difiimulation, be advanced
to the higheft authority; and they could not bear that,
by the affiftance of a few upftart men, whom he had
raifed and fixed to his intereft, he fhould reign as ab-
folutely as if he were king.
They prevailed againft him, and Alvares was banilh-
ed from court a year and an half: but this was the
greateft affliction imaginable to the king; who ftiow-
4,
But the day of reckoning was approaching;, and at
length he was feized ; yet not direftly, openly, and vio¬
lently, but with fome of that management which up¬
on a fimilar occafion was formerly employed by Tibe¬
rius againft Sejanus. During his confinement^ he made
feveral attempts to fpeak to the king in perfon ; but
not being able to effeCt this, he lent the following let¬
ter, from which, as well as from the reft of Al-
vares’s hiftory, all court favourites may draw abundant
matter for edification and inftruciion; “ Sir, it is five-
“ and forty years fince I was admitted into your fer-
“ vice. I do not complain of the rewards I have re-
“ ceived s.they were greater than my merits or expec-
“ tation, as I fliall not deny. There was but one
“ thing wanting to'complete my happinefs ; and that
“ was to have fixed proper limits in time to this great
“ fortune of mine. While, inftead of choofing retire-
“ ment, after the example of the greateft men, I ftili
“ Continued in the employment, which I thought not
“ only my duty, but neceflary for your intereft, I fell
“ into this misfortune. It is very hard that I fiiould
“ be deprived of liberty, when I have Hiked life and
“ fortune more than once to reftore it to you. Grief
“ prevents me from faying more. I know that the
“ Deity is provoked againft me by my fins; but it will
be fufficient for me, if his anger is appeafed by the
“ calamities I now fuffer. I can no longer bear that
“ prodigious mafs of riches, which it was wrong in
“ me to have heaped together. I. ihould willingly
“ refign them, but that every thing I have is in your
“ power; and I am denied the opportunity of ftiowing
“ mankind, that you have raifed a perfon to the height
“ of greatnefs, who can contemn wealth as well as pro-
“ cure it, and give it back to him from whom he re-
“ ceived it. But I defire you in the ftrongeft terms,
“ that, as I was obliged by the lownefs of the trea-
“ fury to raife 10,000 or 12,000 crowns by methods
“ I ought not to. have taken, you will reftore them to
“ the perfons from whom they were extorted- If you
“ will not grant this on account of the fervices I have
“ done, yet I think it neceflary to be done from the
“ reafon of the thing.”
This letter, however, produced no effeft in his fa¬
vour : Alvares was tried, and condemned to lofe his head.
After condemnation, he was removed to Valladolid;
and, having 'confefled himfelf, and received the facra-
ment, he was carried upon a mule to the market-place,
ALU [ 510 ] ALU
Aludeh in the middle of which a large fcaffold was ere&ed.
II Mounting the fcaffold, he paid reverence to the croff,
. “m' , and prefently gave his hat and fignet to his page, fay¬
ing, “ Thefe are the laft gifts you will ever receive
“ from me.” He then fubmitted himfelf to the axe
with the utmoft intrepidity. Dr Geddes relates, that
Jie was executed the 4th of June, others the 5th of
July, 1453.
ALUDELS, in chermftry, are earthen pots with¬
out bottoms, inferted into each other, and ufed in fub-
limations.
ALVEARIUM, in anatomy, the bottom of the
concha, or hollow of the outer ear.
Alvearium alfo fignifies a bee-hive. The word is
formed of alveus, a “ channel or cavity in allufion to
the. alveoli, or cells in bee-hives.
Some of the ancients ufe alfo the word alvearium for
a bee-houfe, more ufually called among us apiary.
Alveariiim is fometimes alfo ufed figuratively, to
denote a collection. In which fenfe, alvearium amounts
to much the fame with what we otherwife call thefau-
rus, cornucopia, or the like. Vine. Boreus has publiih-
cd an alvearium of law.
ALVEOLUS, in natural hiftory, the name of the
waxen cells in bee hives. Alfo the name of a fea-follil
of a conic figure, compofed of a number of cells, like
bee-hives, joined into each other, with a pipe of com¬
munication.
Alveolus, in anatomy, the fockets in the jaws
wherein the teeth are fixed.— Some writers fpeak of
teeth growing without alveoli. Pliny mentions a per-
fon who had a tooth in his palate. Euftachius relates,
that he faw a man who at 60 had a tooth growing out
©f the middle of his fauces. Holler gives an inllance
of a perfon, whofe teeth were of a piece with his jaws,
^ without any infertion into alveoli.
, ALUM, in chemiftry, a clear and tranfparent fa-
[f line matter, ufually fold in large maffes, of a very a u ft ere
and aftringent tafte, ufeful in medicine and in various
arts.
Moft of the alum to be met with is artificially pre¬
pared by the methods related in their proper place under
the article Chemistry, or by others fimilar to them ;
though fometimes a fmall quantity is produced naturally.
This native alum is mixed with heterogeneous matters,
or efflorefees in various forms upon the ores during cal¬
cination. It rarely occurs in a cryftallized ftate, though
thus it is faid to be met with in Egypt, Sardinia, Spain,
Bohemia, and other places. It is alfo found in the wa¬
ters, impregnated with fixed air, but very feldom in
fountains or hot medicated waters.
There are .feveral kinds of alum to be met with ;
but thefe differ from one another only in being mixed
with fome falts which are not of the aluminous kind.
That called the Roman alum has been confidered as
preferable to any other. This is ufually met with in
imall cryftals, and has a reddifh colour, moft probably
owing to a fmall quantity of calx of iron, which, how¬
ever, does not in the leaft impair its qualities. The
other kinds of alum contain a portion either of vitrio-
' bated tartar or fal ammoniac, according to the nature
of the alkali ufed in its preparation. Mr Bergman in¬
forms us, that the vegetable alkali, if pure, docs not
hurt the alum, though it be added in the preparation ;
■hut that the volatile alkali, by adulterating it with a
portion of vitriolic fai ammoniac, renders it unfit for Alum,
fome purpofes. The alum, made by adding a portion ——v—
of clay to the liquor at the beginning of the boiling,
he confiders as equal, if not fuperior, to Roman alum.
He informs us alfo, that a kind of alum fome time ago
began to be manufactured at Brunfwick, which was
equal in quality to the Roman alum. On a chemical
analyfis of this alum he found it mixed with cobalt.
This fait is extremely ufeful in the art of dyeing; as
by means of it a great number of colours are fixed and
rendered permanent upon cloth, which otherwife would
either not adhere in any degree, or only for a very Ihort
time. In what manner this is accomplilhed we are
very much ignorant; the conjectures and theories on
this fubjeCt are related under the article Dyeing. It
conftitutes the bafis of crayons, which generally confift
of the earth of alum finely powdered and tinged for
the purpofe. In the preparation of Pruftian blue, it
prevents the bafis of martial vitriol, which is foluble
in acids, from being precipitated by the fuperfluous al¬
kali employed in the preparation of that pigment; that
is, the alkali which is not faturated by the colouring
matter. As this bafis adheres more ftrongly than the
clay to the vitriolic acid, and would form a green by
the mixture of its yellownefs, the white earth of alum
likewife, according to its quantity, dilutes the darker
colours, even black itfelf, and produces an infinite
number of ftiades. It is alfo of ufe in the making of
candles ; for being mixed with the tallow, it gives it
an hardnefs and confiftence which it has not naturally.
Wood fufficiently foaked in a folution of alum does not
eafily take fire, and the fame is true of paper impreg¬
nated with it; which for that reafon is very properly
employed in preferving gun-powder, as it alfo excludes
the moifture of the air. Paper impregnated with alum
is ufeful in whitening filver, and filvering brafs without
heat. Alum is alfo of ufe in tanning, where it afiifts
in reftoring the cohefion of the Ikins almoft entirely de-
ftroyed by the lime. Vintners fine down their wines, &c.
with alum ; filhers ufe it to dry codfilh with ; and ba¬
kers have mixed it with the flour to make their bread
compaft and white : to this laft ufe of it great objec¬
tions have been made, but unjuftly, for it is entirely in¬
nocent, and now feldom ufed.
In medicine it is of confiderable ufe as an aftringent
and tonic. It is reckoned particularly ferviceable for
reftraining hemorrhagies, and immoderate fecretions
from the blood ; but lefs proper in inteftinal fluxes. In
violent hemorrhagies, it may be given in dofes of 15
or 20 grains, and repeated every hour or half hour till
the bleeding abates: in other cafes, fmaller dofes are
more advifable ; large ones being apt to naufeate the
ftomach, and occafion violent conftipations of the
bowels. It is ufed alfo externally, in aftringent and
repellent lotions and collyria. Burnt alum taken in¬
ternally has been highly extolled in cafes of colic. In
fuch inftances, when taken to the extent of a fcruple
for a dofe, it has been faid gently to move the belly,
and give very great relief from the fevere pain. Its
officinal preparations are, for internal ufe, pulvis Jlyp-
ticus, and aqua Jlyptica for external applications,
the aqua aluminis, and coagulum aluminis and alumen
ufhim ; which laft is no other than the alum dried by
fire, or freed from the watery moifture, which, like o-
ther falts, it always retains in its cryftalline fqrm. By
Alum
Alyffum.
A L Y [ 511 ] A M A
tliis lofs of its water it becomes fharper, fo as to aft
as a flight efcharotic ; and it is chiefly with this inten¬
tion that it is employed in medicine, being very rare¬
ly taken internally. For thefe preparations, fee Phar¬
macy.
Alvm minet are faid to have been firll found in
Italy in the year 1460 ; and in 1506 king Henry VII.
made a monopolizing grant of this commodity to Au-
guftine Chigi, a merchant of Sienna. In the year
1608 the manufafture of alum was firit invented, and
fucceflively praftifed in England, meeting with great
encouragement in Yorkfhire, where it was firll made,
from Eord Sheffield, and other gentleman of that
county. King James I. by advice of his minillry, af-
fpmed the monopoly of it to himfelf, and therefore
prohibited the importation of foreign alum; and in
1625 the importation of it was further prohibited by
the proclamation of Charles I.
/huM-works, places where alum is prepared, and
manufaftured in quantities for fale. They differ from
alum-mines, as in the former an artificial alum, and in
the latter natural alum, is produced.
ALUNTIUM, Alontium, (anc. geog.) a town
in the north of Sicily, fituated on a fteep eminence, at
the mouth of the Chydas; faid to be as old as the war
of Troy. Now in ruins; from which arofe the ham¬
let St Filadelfo, in the Val di Demona. The inha¬
bitants were called Haluntini.
ALVUS, in anatomy, a term ufed for the belly in
general, but more frequently applied to the bowels.
ALWAIDII, a feft of Mahometans who believe
all great crimes to be unpardonable.—The Alwadii
Hand in oppofition to the Morgii. They attribute lefs
efficacy to the true belief in the falvation of men than
the reft of the Muffelmans.
ALYSSUM, Allysok, orAllysoides, Madwort;
(from aAuo-o-u, to be mad; becaufe it was believed to
have the property of curing madnefs) : A genus of the
filiculofa order, belonging to the tetradynamia clafs of
plants j and, in the natural method, ranking under the
39th order, Sihquofa. The charafters are : The calyx
is an oblong four-leav’d perianthium : The corolla con-
fifts of four cruciform petals ; with claws the length
of the calyx, the petals fhorter: The Jlamina confift of
fix filaments, the length of the calyx, two of them ra¬
ther fhorter and denticulated; the antherae are ereft
and expanding : The pljlilium has an ovate germen ;
the ftylus is fimple, and the length of the flamina; the
ftigma is obtufe: The pericarpium is a fub-globular
emarginated filicle, furnifhed with a bilocular ftylus,
having an elliptic partition : The feeds are few, orbi¬
cular, and affixed to filiform receptacles.
Species. Of this genus, Linnaeus enumerates 19
fpecies; but none of them are remarkable either for
beauty, or any other property, except the halimifo-
lium, or madwort with whole fpear-fhaped leaves.
This fpreads itfelf upon the ground, and never rifes
to any height. It produces, at the extremity of its
branches, very pretty tufts of fmall white flowers ; of
which it is feldom deftitute for fix or feven months
fuccefiively ; for which reafon it well deferves a place in
the gardens of the curious.
Culture. Though thefe plants are natives of the
fbuthern parts of Europe ; yet, if planted on a dry,
lean, or rubbifhy foil, they will endure our fevereft win¬
ters in the open air.—-The halimifolium feldom conti- Alytarcha
nues above two or three years, and muft therefore be Ama|aj,at
often fown to preferve it; or if the feeds are fuffered > ^ 1
to fall, the plants will rife without any trouble. It
may-alfo be propagated by cuttings, which ought to
be planted in April or May, and are very apt to take
root, if kept fhaded in the heat of the day, and gently
refreflied with water.
This plant, as already obferved, was thought to
cure fome kinds of madnefs; but the preferj; praftice
has entirely rejefted it for this or any other purpofe.
ALYTARCHA, a prieft of Antioch in Syria, who-,
in the games inftituted in honour of the gods, prefided
over the officers who carried rods to clear away the
crowd and keep order.
In the Olympic games, the alytarches had the fame
command, and obliged every perfon to preferve order
and decency.
ALZIRA, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of
Valencia, feated on the river Xucar, E. Long. o. 20.
N. Lat. 39. 10.
AMA, in ecclefiaftical writers, denotes a veffel
wherein wine, water, or the like, were held, for the
fervice of the eucharift. In this fenfe the word is alfo
written amula ; fometimes alfo hama, and hamula;
Am a is fometimes alfo ufed for a wine-meafure, as
a calk, pipe, or the like.
AMABYR, a barbarous cuftom which formerly
prevailed in feveral’ parts of England and Wales, being
a fum of money paid to the lord when a maid was man¬
ned within his-lordfhip. The word is-old-Britilh, and
fignifies “ the price of virginity.”
AMADABAT, a corruption-from Ahmed abad,
or Ahmed's city (fo-called from-a king of that name)}
a large and populous city of Indoftan, and the capital
of the province of Guzerat. It is-fituated in E. Long.
72. 12. N. Lat. 23. O. Amadabat was formerly called
Guzerat; and by Shah Jehan nicknamed Gherd-abud,
or “ the habitation of dull,” becaufe. it was much in¬
commoded therewith.- It was the feat of the Guzerat
kings, as it is now of the Mogul governor. The city
Hands in a beautiful plain ; and is watered by the little
river Sabremetti, which, though not deep, in time of
rains overflows the plains prodigioufly. The walls
are built with Hone and brick, flanked at certain di-
ftances with great round towers and battlements. It
has twelve gates ; and, including the fuburbs, is about
four miles and an half long. The ftreets are wide-
The meyddn fhdh, or king’s fquare, is 700 paces
long and 400 broad, planted round with trees. Oh
the weft fide is the caftle, well walled with free ftone,
and as fpacious as a little city ; but its inward appear¬
ance is not conformable to its external magnificence-
The caravanfera is on the fouth of the fquare, and its-
chief ornament. Near the meydan alfo is the king’s
palace, whofe apartments are richly ornamented : and
in the midft of the city is the Englifti faftory, where
they purchafe fine chintz, callicoes, and other Indian
merchandize. The place is fo full of gardens ftored
with fruit-trees, that from an eminence it looks like a
wood. The Hindoos have here an hofpital for fick
beafts, and another, for fick birds, which they take
great care of. According to fome late accounts, this-
city is little inferior to the beft in Europe, and is.,
thought to yield ten times as much revenue as Surat.
AMADAN*
A M A [ 512 ] A M A
AMADAN, or Hamadan, a town of Perfia, be- over which there is a draw-bridge. Amalc is about AmaT,
tween Taurus and Ifpahan, E. Long. 47. 4. N. Lat. four rrtiles long and twu broad ; and is chiefly peopled Amalek.
rr it i- by: the defendants of a colony from Eaft Friefland, to v ^
whom the ifland was conSgned by Chriftian II. at the
requeft of his wife Elizabeth, lifter of Charles V. for
the purpofe of fupplying her with vegetables, cheefe,
and butter. From the intermarriages of thefe colonies
with the Danes, the prefent inhabitants are chiefly de~
feeuded ; but as they Wear their own drefs, and enjoy
peculiar privileges, they appear a diftindt race from
^ 35. 15. It is feated at the foot of a mountain, where
there are a great many fprings, which water the adja-
cent country. The extent of the city is very large ; but
there are a great many wafte fpots within it, as well as
cultivated land. The houfes are built of brick harden¬
ed in the fun, and have but a very indifferent g.fpe£t.
There is but one tolerable ftreet; and that is where
, garments, and the like, are expofed to fale : it
is ftraight, long, and wide : and the ftiops are very well the natives. The ifland contains about fix villages,
furnilhed. The adjacent parts are fruitful in corn and and between 3000 and 4000 fouls. It has two church-
-:ce, infomuch that the neighbouring provinces are fup- es, in which the minifters preach occafionally in Dutch
plied from hence. It is faid to enjoy a very falubrious
air, but the cold in winter is intenfe. The Armenians
have a church in this town, but it is a very ill-contrived
ftrufture. The Jew's have a fynagogue near- a tomb,
where they pretend Efther and Mordecai lie interred.
To this place they come in pilgrimage from feveral
parts of the Levant. About a league from Amadan,
there is a mountain called Nalbana, which abounds with
all forts of curious herbs. In the fpring, people flock
and Danilh. The inhabitants have their own inferior
tribunals; but in capital offences are amenable to the
king’s court of juftice at Copenhagen. The old na¬
tional habit, brought by the original colony-when they
firft migrated to the ifland, is ftill in ufe amongft therm
It refembles the habit of the ancient quakers, as repre-
fented in the pictures of the Dutch and Flemilh pain¬
ters. The men wear broad-brimmed hats, black jac¬
kets, full glazed breeches of the fame colour, loofe at
to this mountain from all parts to recover their the knee, and tied round the waift. The women were
health, by fucking in the falutary effluvia with their dreffed chiefly in black jackets and petticoats, with a
breath. piece of blue glazed cloth bound on their heads. The
Amadan is a very ancient city. It is faid to have ifland is laid out in gardens and paftures; and ftill, ac-
been deftroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, and rebuilt by cording to the original defign, fupplies Copenhagen
Darius, who brought hither all his riches. The kings with milk, butter, and vegetables. E. Long. 12. (O
of Perfia frequently retired to this place on account of N. Lat. 55. 20.
its delightful fituation ; for which reafon it obtained AMAL, a town of Sweden, in the province of Da-
the name of the Royal city. It was conquered by the
khalif Othman, and narrowly efcaped being deftroyed
by Jenghiz Khan in 1220. It had then ftrong walls
and a good caftle, which are nowin ruins. Its prefent
beauty confifts in its gardens and fprings.
AMADANAGER, a town in the hither peninfu-
,1a of India, in the province of Decan. E. Long. 74.
15. N. Lat, 18. 10. — It was taken by the Moguls in
1598, after a fiege of fix months ;■ being at that time
land, feated on the river Wefer. It has a good har¬
bour; and carries on a great trade, efpecially in timber,
deals, and tar. E. Long. 12. 40. N. Lat. 58; 50.
AMALEK, the fon of Eliphaz, by Timna his
concubine, and the grandfon of Efau. Gen. xxxvi. 12.
and 1 Chr. i. 36. Amalek fucceeded Gatam in the go¬
vernment of Edom. He was the father of the Ama-
lekites; a powerful people who dwelt in Arabia Pe-
traea, between the Dead Sea and the Red Sea, or be-
defended by a ftrong caftle, fituated' on an eminence, 'tween Havila and Shur (1 Sam. xv. 7.); fometimes in
and furrounded with deep ditches, into which feveral
fprings difcharged their waters.
AMADIA, a trading town of Afia, in Curdiftan,
belonging to the Turks; feated on a high mountain.
E. Long. 43. 1. N; Lat. 36. 25.
AMADOW, a kind of black-match, tinder, or
touch-wood, which comes from Germany. It is made
of a fort of large mufliroms, or fpungy excrefcences,
which commonly grow on old trees, efpecially oaks,
one canton, and fometimes in another. It does not
appear that they had cities : for there is no mention
of any but one in the Scriptures (/W. »7>, 5.) ; they li¬
ving generally in hamlets, caves, or tents.
The Ifraelites had fcarce paffed the Red Sea on their
way to the wildernefs, before the Amalekites came to
attack them in the defarts of Raphidim (Ex. xvii. 8,
&c.); and put thofe cruelly to the fword who were ob¬
liged, either through fatigue or weaknefs, to remain be-
alh, and firs. This fubftance being boiled in common hind. Mofes, by divine command, direftedjofliua to fall
water, and afterwards dried and well beaten, is then put upon this people; to record the aft of inhumanity which
into a ftrong lye prepared with falt-petre, after which they had committed in a book, in order to have it always
it is again put to dry in an oven. The druggifts fell
this match wholefale in France, and feveral hawkers re¬
tail it. Some give to the amadow the name of Pyro-
tcchnical Spurge, becaufe of its aptnefs to take fire.
AMADOWRY, a kind of cotton which comes from
Alexandria, by the way of Marfeilles.
AMAIN, in the fea-language, a term importing
•to lower fomething at .once. Thus, to Jirike amain.
before his eyes ; and to revenge it in the moft remark¬
able manner. Jofhua therefore fell upon the Ama¬
lekites, and defeated them' while Mbfes was upon the
mountain, with Aaron and Hur in company. Mofes,
during the time of the engagement, held up his hands,
to which the fuccefs of the battle was owing; for as
often as he let them down, Amalek prevailed. But
Mofes’s hands being tired, Aaron and Hur fupported
to lower, or let fall, the top-fails; to nnave amain, is "to his arms, and held them extended, while the battle
make a fignal, by waving a drawn fword, or the like, lafted, which was from morning till the approach of
as a demand that the enemy ftrike their top-fails. night, when the Amalekites were cut in pieces. This
AMAK, a fmall ifland in the Baltic fea, near Co- happened in the year of the world 2513, before Chrxft
penhagen, from which it is feparated by a canal, 1491.
N® 13.
The
A M A
The ground of the enmity of the Amalekites againft
the Ifraelites is generally fuppofed to have been an in¬
nate hatred from the remembrance of Jacob’s depri¬
ving their progenitor both of his birthright and blef-
fmg. Their falling upon them, however, and that
without any provocation, when they faw them reduced
to fo low a condition by the fatigue of their march
and the exceffive drought they laboured under, was an
inhuman a&ion, and juftly deferved the defeat which
Jofhua gave them. Under the Judges (v. 3.), we fee
the Amalekites united with the Midianites and Moab¬
ites, in a delign to opprefs Ifrael; but Elrud delivered
the Ifraelites from Eglon king of the Moabites (Judges
iii.), and Gideon (chap, viii.) delivered them from the
Midianites and Amalekites. About the year of the
world 2930, Saul marched againfl the Amalekites, ad¬
vanced as far as their capital, and put all the people
of the country to the fword; but fpared the beft of all
the cattle and moveables, contrary to a divine com¬
mand; which a£! of difobedience was the caufe of Saul’s
future misfortunes.
After this war, the Amalekites fcarce appear any
more in hiftory. However, about the year of the
w'orld 2949, a troop of Amalekites came and pillaged
Ziklag, which belonged to David (1 Sam. xxx.), wdiere
he had left his two wives Ahinoam and Abigail; but
he returning from an expedition which he had made in
the company of Achifh into the valley of Jezreel, pur-
fued them, overtook and difperfed them, and recover¬
ed all the booty which they had carried off from Zik-
la£-
The Arabians maintain Amalek to have been the
fon of Ham and grandfon of Noah ; that he was the
father of Ad and grandfather of Schedad. Calmet
thinks that this opinion is by no means to be reje&ed;
as it is not very probable that Amalek the fon of Eli-
phaz, and grandfon of Efau, Ihould be the father of a
people fo powerful and numerous as the Amalekites
were when the Ifraelites departed out of Egypt. Mofes
in the book of Genefis (xiv. 7,) relates, that in Abra¬
ham’s time, long before the birth of Amalek the fon '
of Eliphaz, the five confederate kings carried the war
into Amalek’s country, about Kadefli; and into that
of the Amorites, about Hazezontamar. The fame
Mofes (Numb. xxiv. 20.) relates, that the diviner Ba¬
laam, obferving at a diftance the land of Amalek, faid,
in his prophetic ftyle, “ Amalek is the firft, the head,
the original of the nations ; but his latter end ihall be
that he perifii for ever.” Our commentator obferves,
that this epithet of the firft of nations cannot certainly
agree with the Amalekites defcended from the fon of
Eliphaz, becaufe the generation then living was but
the third from Amalek. Befides, Mofes never re¬
proaches the Amalekites with attacking their brethren
the Ifraelites; an aggravating circumftance which he
would not have omitted were the Amalekites defcended'
from Efau; in which cafe they had been the brethren
of the Ifraelites. Laftly, We fee the Amalekites almoft
always joined in the Scripture with the Canaanites and
Philiftines, and never with the Edomites; and when Saul
made war upon the Amalekites, and almoft utterly de-
ftroyed them, we do not find that the Edomites made
the leaft: motion towards their afliftance, nor to revenge
them .afterwards. Thence it is thought probable, that
the Amalekites who are fo often mentioned in Scrip-
Vot. I. Part II.
A M A
ture were a free people defcended from Canaan, and Air,a'
devoted to the curfe as well as the other Amorites, and , ' ma “
very different from the defendants of Amalek the y
grandfon of Efau.
The accounts which the Arabians give us of the
Amalekites deftroyed by Saul are as follow. Amalek
was the father of an ancient tribe in Arabia, extermi¬
nated in the reign of Saul. This tribe contained only
the Arabians who are called Pure; the remains where¬
of were mingled with the pofterity of Joktan and Ad-
nan, and fo became Mofarabes or Moftaarabes ; that is
to fay, Arabians blended with foreign nations. They
farther believe, that Goliah, who was overcome by
David, was king of the Amalekites; and that the
giants who inhabited Paleftine in Jofhua’s time were
of the fame race. That at laft part of the Amalekites
retired into Afric while Jofliua was yet living, and fet¬
tled upon the coafts of Barbary, along the Mediterra¬
nean fea. The fon of Amalek was Ad, a celebrated
prince among the Arabians. Some make him the fon
of Uz, and grandfon of Aram the fon of Shem. Let
this be as it will, the Mahometans fay that Ad was
the father of an Arabian tribe called /Idites; who were
exterminated, as they tell us, for not hearkening to
the patriarch Eber, who preached the unity of God
to them. Ad had two fons, Schedad and Schedid.
AMALFI, an ancient city of Italy, fituated in E.
Long. 15. 20. N. Lat. 40. 35.—It is faid to have de¬
rived its origin from a number of Roman families, who,
about the middle of the fourth century, either from
private views of emolument, or in confequence of com-
pulfory orders from the emperor, had left Rome and
embarked for Conftantinople; but meeting with ftorms
on their paffage, were caft away on the fliores of Sa¬
lerno, and deprived of the means of purfuing their
voyage. In this ftate of perplexity they long remain¬
ed, but at laft came to the refolution of fettling on the
prefent fite of Amalfi, where they expedted to enjoy
fecurity and fufficient plenty of the neceffaries of life.
The earlieft notice of them in this fettlement dates no
higher than the latter end of the fixth century. Im¬
pervious mountains and inacceffible coafts preferved
their infant ftate from the firft fury of the Lombards,
who feldom attempted the conqueft of'a maritime
people.
. In the year 825, when this little republic had, under
the patronage of the eaftern emperors, attained a der
gree of wealth and reputation fufficient to excite the
ambition of its neighbours, Sico, prince of Salerno,
marched a body of troops by night; furprifed Amalfi;
and, carrying off the greateft part of the inhabitants,
compelled them to fix at Salerno, which had lately
fuffered a great lofs of people by an epidemical difor-
der. But before the fourth year of their captivity was
expired, the Amalfitans took advantage of the abfence
of the Salernitan chiefs, who were than carrying on a
war with the Beneventans ; armed themfelves ; and,
after burning and plundering Salerno, marched in tri¬
umph back to their own country.
Here they framed a better fyftem of government,
and reformed many abufes in their former legiftation ;
adopting various meafures that were likely to promote
internal concord and defeat the evil intentions of fo¬
reign enemies. Their firft plan was to veil the fupreme
authority in a temporary prefect; but the experience
[ 513 1
A M A
[ 5H 1
A M A
Amalfi of a few years caufed them to prefer lodging that heat; neverthelefs, heat confiderably facilitates the o- Amalthaa
power in the hands of a duke eledfed for the term of peration,
. puwci lil LilC iictuud tJl Cl UUA.C Itli Lilt U1 VJI.
mation. natural life. Under thefe governors Amalfi at-
tained the fummit of her military and commercial glo-
To amalgamate without heat requires nothing more ^
than rubbing the two metals together in a mortar;
ry. It extended its territory, which reached eaftward but the metal to be united with the mercury fhould be
from Vico Vecchio, and weftward to the promontory
of Minerva, including likewife the ifland of Caprea,
and the two iflands of the Galli. Towards the north
it comprehended the cities of Lettere/ Gragnans, Pi-
montio, and Capule di FrancHi; towards the fouth,
thofe of Scala, Ravelli, Minori, Majuri, Atrani, Tra-
monti, Agerula, Citara, Prajano, and Rofilano.
L,eo IV. found the Amalfitans an ufeful ally in his
wars with the infidels, and honoured the commonwealth
with the title of Defender of the Faith. The Neapo¬
litans, with whom, as Greek vaffals, they were uni¬
ted in flridl bonds of friendlhip, experienced many fig-
nal favours at their hands ; and the Muffulmen them-
felves found it expedient to court their alliance, and to
enter into treaty with them. Their fituation had from
the beginning given them a turn to commerce, and
their attention to naval affairs fo much confequence in
the eyes of their proteftor, the emperor of Conflanti-
fiople, that by his orders a court was eftablifhed at
Amalfi for the decifion of all controverfies ariling in
maritime tranfaftions. Its code and reports became the
general rule in thofe cafes throughout this part of Eu¬
rope •, its precedents and decrees were allowed to be
good authority to found judgment upon even in foreign
tribunals.—To crown the mercantile and naval glory
of the republic, it was referred to the lot of an Amal-
fitan to make, or at leafl to perfedt, the moft import¬
ant difcovery ever made for the improvement of navi¬
gation. Pafitano, a village which Hands on the fhore
a few miles weft of Amalfi, boalts of having given
previoufly divided into very thin plates or grains.
When heat is ufed (which is always moft effedtual, and
with fome metals indifpenfably neceffary), the mercury
fhould be heated till it begins to fmoke, and the grains
of metal made red-hot before they are thrown into it.
If it be gold or filver, it is fufficient to ftir the fluid
with an iron rod for a little while, and then throw it
into a veflel filled with water. This amalgam is ufed
for gilding or filvering on copper, which is afterwards
expofed to a degree of heat fufficient to evaporate the
mercury.
Amalgamation with lead or tin is effected by pour¬
ing an equal weight of mercury into either of thefe
metals in a ftate of fufion, and fliiring with an iron
rod. Copper amalgamates with great difficulty, and
iron not at all.
AMALTHjEA, the name of the Cumsean Sibyl,
who offered to Tarquinius Superbus nine books, con-
taininglhe Roman deftinies, and demanded 300 pieces
of gold for them. He derided her; whereupon fhe
threw three of them into the fire: and returning, allied
the fame price for the other fix ; which being denied,
fhe burnt three more; and returned, ftill demanding the
fame price. Upon which Tarquin confulting the
pontiffs, was advifed to buy them. Thefe books were
in fuch elteem, that two magiftrates were created to
confult them upon extraordinary occafions.
Amalthea, in pagan mythology, the daughter of
Meliffus, king of Crete, and the nurfe of Jupiter,
whom fhe fed with goat’s milk and honey. Accord-
birth to Flavius Gioia, the inventor of the mariner’s ing to others, Amalthea was a goat, which Jupiter
eompafs.
tranflated into the fky, with her two kids, and gave
The merchants of this town engroffed the trade of one of her horns to the daughters of Meliffus, as
the Levant, and tranfafted the commercial bufinefs of
the world in a lucrative and exclufive manner. The
Pifans, Venetians, and Genoefe, rofe upon their
-ard for the pains theyr had taken in attending him.
This horn had the peculiar property of furnifhing them
with whatever they wifhed for; and was thence called
and after monopolizing the emoluments of trade for the cornucopia, or horn of plenty.
fome ages, made way for the more comprehenfive and
daring fpirit of the prefent maritime powers.
At prefent Amalfi is fubjett to Naples, and is the
fee of an archbifhop. It is but a fhadow of what it
was in its flourifhing ftate, when it extended over the
ftupendous rocks that hang on each fide, ftill crowned
AMALTHifeUS (Jerome, John Baptifta, and Cor-
nielle), three celebrated Latin poets of Italy, whoflou-
riflied in the 16th century. Their compofitions were
printed at Amfterdam in 1685. One of the prettieft
pieces in that colleftion is an epigram on two children,
whofe beauty was very extraordinary, though each of
with battlemented walls and ruined towers. Its build- them was deprived of an eye;
ings, Mr Swinburne fays, are not remarkable for ele¬
gance or fize ; and contain at moft 4000 inhabitants,
who feem to be in a poor line of life. The cathedral
is an uncouth building. Under the choir is the cha¬
pel and tomb of the apoftle St Andrew; in whofe
honour the edifice was dedicated, when Cardinal
‘ Lumine Aeon dextro, capta eft Leonilla finiftro i
‘ Et poterat forma vincere uterque deos.
‘ Parve puer, lumen quod habes concede forori;
‘ Sic tu cascus Amor, fic erit ilia Venus.’
AMAMA (Sixtinus),profefibrof the Hebrew’tongue
Capuano in 1208 brought his body from Conftanti- in the univerfity of Franeker, a man of great learning,
aople.
AMALGAM, mercury united with fome metal.
AMALGAMATION, the operation of making a
amalgam, or mixing mercury with any metal.
For the combination of one metal wfith another,
was born in Friefland, and had ftudied under Drufius.
He publiftied a criticifm upon the tranflation of the
Pentateuch ; collated the Dutch tranflation of the Bi¬
ble wfith the original and the moft accurate tranflations;
and wrote a cenfure of the Vulgate tranflation of the
is generally fufficient that one of them be in a ftate of ' hiftorical books of the Old Teftament, Job, the Pfalms,
fluidity. Mercury being always fluid, is therefore and Canticles. It is impoflible to anfwer the reafons.
capable of amalgamation with Other metals without whereby he fhows the neceffity of confulting the origi-
nals»
A M A [ 515 ] A M A
Amance nals. This he recommended fo earneftly, that fome lje, (Strabo); Amani Portae, (Pliny): ftraits or Amaijtea
lAmanicse fyn0^s> being influenced by his reafons, decreed, that defiles in mount Amanus, through which Darius en- il
i. jucas^ none fliculd be admitted into the miniftry but fuch as tered Cilicia ; at a greater diftance from the fea than A^aur^n“
. had a competent knowledge of the Hebrew and Greek the Pylae Ciliciae or Syrias, through which Alexander ■ ^ ' ■■
text of the Scripture. He died in 1629.
AMANCE, a town in the duchy of Lorrain, upon
a rivulet of the fame name. E. Long. 6. 10. N. Lat.
48.45.
AMAND (Mark-Anthony-Gerard, fieur de St.), a
French poet, was born at Roan in Normandy in 1594.
In the epiftle dedicatory to the third part of his works.
paffed.
AMANTEA, a fea-port town and biihop’s fee of
the kingdom of Naples, fituated near the bay of Eu-
phemia in the province of Calabria, in E. Long. 16.
20. N. Lat. 39. 15.
AMANUS, a mountain of Syria, feparatingit from
Cilicia; a branch of mount Taurus, (Cicero, Strabo,
he tells us, that his father commanded a fquadron of Pliny); extending chiefly eaftward, from the fea of Ci-
(hips in the fervice of Elizabeth queen of England for licia, to the Euphrates : now called Monte Negro, or
22 years, and that he was for three years prifoner in rather Montagna Neres, by the inhabitants; that is,
the Black Tower at Conftantinople. He mentions al- the watery mountain, as abounding in fprings and ri-
fo, that two brothers of his had been killed in an en- vulets.
gagement againll the Turks. His own life was fpent
in a continual fucceflion of travels, which was of no ad¬
vantage to his fortune. There are mifcellaneous poems
of this author, the greateft part of which are of the
comic or burlefque, and the amorous kind. Though
there are many blemiflies in his poems, yet he had the
talent of reading them in fo agreeable a manner, that
every one was charmed with them. In 1650, he pu-
bliihed “ Stances fur la groffeffe de la reine dePologne
et de Suede.” There are fix ftanzas of nine verfes
each. In 1653, he printed his “ Moife fauve, idyle
heroique.” This poem had at firft many admirers : _
Monf. Chapelain called it a /peaking picture; but it has reprefented fome deity as it fell to his lot. The queen
fince fallen into contempt. Amand wrote alfo a very affumed the name of Amarante; that is, unfading, or
devout piece, intitled “ Stances a M. Corneille, fur fon Immortal. The young nobility, drelfed in the habit of
AMAPALLA, a city and port-town of North A«
merica, in the province of Guatimala, feated on the
gulph of the fame name, in the Pacific ocean. W.
Long. 63. 20. N. Lat. 12. 30.
AMARANTE, an order of knighthood, inftituted
in Sweden by queen Chriftina, in 1653, at the clofe
of an annual feaft, celebrated in that country, called
Wirtfchaft. This feaft was folemnized with entertain¬
ments, balls, mafquerades, and the like diverfions, and
continued from evening till the next morning.—That
princefs, thinking the name too vulgar, changed it into
that of the feaft of the gods, in regard each perfon here
imitation de Jefus Chrift,” which was printed at Paris
in 1656. Mr Broffette fays that he wrote alfo a poem
upon the moon, wherein he paid a compliment to
nymphs and ftiepherds, ferved the gods at the table.—
At the end of the feaft, the queen threw off her habit,
which was covered with diamonds, leaving it to be
Lewis XIV. upon his fltill in fwimming, in which he pulled in pieces by the mafques; and, in memory of fo
ufed often to exercife himfelf when he was young,
the river Seine; but the king could not bear this poem
to be read to him, which is faid to have affedted the
author to fuch a degree, that he did not furvive it long.
He died in 1661, being 67 years of age. He was ad¬
mitted a member of the French academy, when it was
firft founded by cardinal Richlieu, in the year 1633,
and Mr Peliffon informs us, that, in 1637, at his own
defire, he was excufed from the obligation of making a
fpeech in his turn, on condition that he would compile
the comic part of the didtionary which the academy
had undertaken, and colledl the burlefque terms. This
was a talk well fuited to him ; for it appears by his
writings that he was extremely converfant in thefe
terms, of which he feems to have made a complete col-
leftion from the markets and other places where the
lower people refort.
Aman.d (St.), a city of France, in Bourbonois, on
the confines of Berry, feated upon the river Cher. It
was built in 1410 on the ruins of Orval. E. Long. 3.
•30. N. Lat. 46. 32.
Amand (St.), a city of the Low Countries, in the
-earldom of Flanders, feated upon the river Scarpe. It
contains about 600 houfes, and 3000 or 4000 inhabi¬
tants. The abbot of the place is the temporal lord,
gallant a feaft, founded a military order, called in Swe¬
ft ifh Cefchilfchafft, into which all that had been prefent
at the feaft were admitted, including 16 lords and as
many ladies, befides the queen. Their device was the
cypher of Atnarante, compofed of two A’s, the one e-
reftt, the other inverted, and interwoven together ; the
•whole inclofisd by a laurel crown, -with this motto,
Dolce nella memoria.
Bulftrode Whitlock, the Englifii ambaffader from
Cromwell to the court of Sweden, was made a knight
of the order of Amarante; on which account it feems
to be, that w-e fometimes find him ftyled Sir Buljlrcde
Whitlock.
AMARANTHOIDES, in botany,the trivial name
of a fpecies of illecebrum. See Illecebrum.
AMARANTHUS >(of « privative, and to
•wither, becaufe the flower of this plant when cropped
does not foon wither). Amaranth, or flower-gen¬
tle : A genus of the pentandria order, belonging to
the monoecia clafs of plants; and, in the natural me¬
thod, ranking under the 54th order, Mifcellanex. The
chara&ers are-: The male-calyx is a five or three leav’d
perianthium, erett, coloured, and perfiftent: There is
no corolla: Theftamina confift of five -or three ereftf
capillary filaments, the length of the calyx ; the a
and difpofes of the magiftracy. It was given to France therae are oblong and verfatile : The female calyx the
by the treaty of Utrecht. E. Long. 2. 35. N. Lat. fame as the male, and no corolla.: The pif ilium has an
$0. 27. ovate germen ; the ftyli are three, fhort, and Tubulated-;
AMANICiE p.vl/E, (Ptolemy)^ Amanides Py- the ftigmata Ample and perfiftent : Thepericarpium is
3 T 2 an
A M A [51
Amaran- an ovate capfule, three-beaked, unilocular, and cut
thu?» round: The feed is one, globular, compreffed, and
^1!!: large.-
Species. Of this genus Linnaeus enumerates 19
fpecies; the moft remarkable of which are the follow¬
ing. 1. The tricolor, or three-coloured amaranthus.
This has been Long cultivated in gardens, on account
of the beauty of its variegated leaves, which are of
three colours, green, yellow, and red; and very ele¬
gantly mixed. When the plants are in full vigour,
the leaves are large, and clofely fet from the bottom
to the top of the ftalks, and the branches form a fort
of pyramid; fo that there is not a more beautiful plant
than this when it is in full luftre. 2. The melancho-
licus, bicolor, of- two-coloured amaranthus. This
greatly refembles the former in its manner of growth ;
but the leaves have only two colours, which are an
obfcure purple, and a bright crimfon. Thefe are fo
blended as to fet off each other, and, when the plants are
vigorous, make a fine appearance. 3. The caudata,
with very long hanging cylindrical fpikes. This fpe-
eies is a native of America. It hath an upright ftem
three feet high; the leaves and ftalks are of a pale
green colour. The fpikes of flowers are produced
from the wings of the ftalks, and alfo at the extre¬
mities of the branches. They are of a bright purple
colour, and hang downward, fometimes to the length ,
of two feet and an half, fo that many of them touch
the ground. 4. The maximus, or tree-like amaran¬
thus, grows with a ftrong ftem, to the. height of
feven or eight feet. Towards the top it fends forth
manyr horizontal branches, garniftied' with oblong
rough green leaves. At the extremity of every fhbot,
the cylindrical fpikes of flowers are produced. They
are of a purple colour, and hang downward like the
laft; but are feldom half the length, tho’ much thick¬
er than the former. 5. The fanguineus, with com¬
pound fpikes, and oblong oval leaves.. This is a na¬
tive of the Bahama iflands. It is an efculent plant,
and bears fine flowers.. It grows to the height of three
feet, with purple ftalks and leaves. The fpikes are fliort
and cylindrical, , of-, a bright purple at firft, but after¬
wards fade to a darket colour. They are frequently
produced from the wings of the ftalks; but at the ex¬
tremity of the ftalk arifes a large clufter of fpikes,
which are placed crofs-wife, with one upright ftalk
in the middle. 6. The, oleraceus, with obtufe indent¬
ed leaves.:. This has no beauty ; but it is ufed by the
Indians as a fubftitute to cabbage.
Culture. The two firft of thefe fpecies being ten¬
der, require fome art and care to bring them to per¬
fection in Britain, by a fucceffion of hot-bed, with
proper waterings, airings, and fhadings.
Where people are curious in having thefe annual
plants in great perfection, there ftiould be a glafs-cafe
ereCted, with upright and Hoping glafles on every fide,
with a pit in the bottom for tan, in which the pots
{hould be plunged. If this is raifed eight or nine feet
to the ridge, and the upright glafles are five feet, there
will be room enough to raife thefe and other annual
plants to great perfection ; and in fuch a building*
many tender vegetables, which rarely perfeCt their feeds
in this climate, may be every year brought forward fo
as. to ripen their feeds.
AMARYLLIS, lily-asphqdel : A genus of the
6 ] A M A
monogynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of AmaryIIi*|
plants; and, in the natural method, ranking under the
9th order, Spathaceee. The charaCters are : The calyx
is an oblong obtufe fpatha, emarginated, and wither¬
ing : The corolla confifts of fix petals, lanced: The.
Jlaviina confift of fix Tubulated filaments; the anther®
oblong, incumbent, and afeending : The pijlillum has-,
a roundifh fulcated germen beneath ; a filiform ftylus,.
nearly the length of the ftamina ; the ftigma trifid and
flender: The pericarpium is an ovate trilocular capfule,
with three valves: The feeds are many.
Principal Species. 1. The lutea, or autumnal narciffus..
This is ufually fold by gardeners, along with colchicums,,
for autumnal ornaments to gardens. For this purpofe it
is very proper, as it will keep flowering from the begin¬
ning of September to the middle of November, provided
the froft is not fo fevere as to deftroy the flowers. Al¬
though there is but one flower in each cover, yet there
is a fucceflion of flowers from the -fame root, efpecially
when they are fuffered to . remain three or four years
unremoved. The flowers feldom rife above three or
four inches high. They are fliaped fomewhat like the
flowers of the yellow crocus; the green leaves come up
at the fame time, like the faffron ; and, after the flow¬
ers are paft,. the leaves increafe all the winter. The
rootsare bulbous, and fliaped like thofe of the n arc if-
fus; fo are proper ornaments for fuch borders as are
planted with cyclamens, faffron, autumnal crocus, col¬
chicums, and fuch low autumnal flowers. 2. The
formofiffima, or jacohaea lily, produces its flowers J
two or three times in a year, without being regu¬
lar to any feafon. The flowers are of a deep red, the
under petals very large, and the whole flower flands
nodding on one fide of the ftalk, making a beautiful ap¬
pearance. The Items of thefe flowers are produced from
the iides of the bulbs ; fo that when the flowers produ¬
ced on one fide are decayed, another italk arifes from
the other fide of the bulb; but there is no more than
one- flower produced on the fame ftalk. When the
roots are in vigour, flowers will be produced from
March to the beginning of September. 3. The far-
nienfis, or Guernfey lily, is fuppofed to have come ori¬
ginally from Japan, but has been many years cultivated
in the gardens of Guernfey and Jerfey ; in both which-
places they feem to thrive as well as if it was their na¬
tive country, and from thefe iflands their roots are
fent annually to the curious in moft parts of Europe.
The flowers of this fpecies are admired for the richnefs .
of their colour, which is commonly red, though they
have no feent. They-appear towards the end of Sep¬
tember ; and, if properly managed, will continue a
month in beauty. The roots of thefe plants do not
flower again the fucceeding year, as is the cafe with
many other bulbs : but if their bulbs contain two buds
in their centre, which is often the cafe, they frequent¬
ly flower twice in three years ; after which the fame in¬
dividual root does not flower again in feveral years, but
only the offsets from it. 4. The regina, or belladon- .
na lily, is a native of Portugal, where it was formerly
cultivated in great plenty ; but of late it lias been fup-
planted by the jacohrea lily, fo that the roots which
have been brought. from that country for.fome time
paft for the belladonna, have generally proved the ja-
cobsea lily. This kind, if properly managed, will
fometimes put out two or three items, growing near
three
A M A [5
Amaryllis, three feet high, and produce many flowers in each um-
Arnaryn- make a fine appearance during the month
. 1 Us~ 1 of Oftober. 5. The zeylanica, or Ceylon lily, is a
native of the Weft Indies, and ufually flowers in June.
Sometimes the fame root will' flower again in autumn,
but the flowers are of no long duration. 6. The ori-
entalis, or lily daffodil, with leaves ftiaped like a tongue.
This is a native of the Cape of Good Hope. The bulbs
of the root are large and almoft round; the leaves long,
broad, and rounded at their extremities ; thefe fpread
two ways on the furface of the ground, and do not come
up till after the flower-ftem appears, which is generally
in November. After the flowers are paft, the leaves in-
creafe till fpring, and in May they begin to decay ; fo
that from the middle of June to Odtober the roots are
entirely deftitute of leaves.
Culture. The firft fort is very hardy, and will thrive
in almoft any foil or firuation ; but will fucceed beft in
a freflx light dry foil, and not too near the dripping of
trees, or too near walls. It increafes very fall by off-
fets, by which all the other fpecies are alfo to be pro¬
pagated. Thefe roots may be tranfplanted any time
from May to the end of July ; after which it will be too
lateto remove them.—The jacobsea ought to be keptina
moderate ftove all winter ; in which cafe it will fend forth
plenty of offsets, that will produce vigorous plants.—
The roots of the Guernfey lily are generally brought
over in June and July ; but the fooner they are taken,
out of the ground after the leaves decay, the.better: for
alt ho’ the roots which are taken up when their flower-
ftems begin to appear, will flower ; yet their flowers will
not be fo large, nor will their roots be near fo good af¬
ter, as thofe which vtere removed before they fent forth
frefli fibres. When thefe roots come over, they ftiould be
planted in pots filled with frefli, light, fandy earth,mixed
with a little very rotten dung, and placed in a warm litua-
tion, obferving now and then to refrefh the earth with
water: but by no means let them have too much wet*
which would rot their roots, efpeeially before they come
up. About the middle of September, fuch of the roots
as are ftrong enough to flower will begin to ftiow the
bud of their flower-ftem r therefore thefe pots ought to
be removed into a fituation where they may have the
benefit of the fun, and be flickered from ftrong winds.,
When the flowers begin to open, the pots ftiould be
removed under {belter, to prevent injury from too much
wet.—After the flowers are decayed, the green leaves
will begin to fhoot forth in length * and, if {belter-*
ed from fevere cold, will continue growing all win¬
ter : but they muft have as much free air as pofiible
in mild weather, and are to be covered only in great
rains or frofts. For this purpofe, a common hot-bed
frame is the moft proper {belter for them ; the glaffes
of which may be taken off every day in dry open wea¬
ther, which will encourage the leaves to grow ftrong
and broad. The roots ftrould be tranfplanted every
fourth or fifth year, toward the end of June or begin¬
ning of July-; the offsets alfo fliould be taken off and
planted in pots, w'here in three years time they-will
produce flowers. The other fpecies of the amaryllis
may eafilybe raifed by taking care to {belter them in
a. ftove from the winter’s cold.
AMARYNTHUS (anc. geog.), a hamlet of Ere-
tsias, in the. ifland of Euboea, about feven ftadia diftant
fifim its walls. Here Diana, was worihipped by an
i-7 ] A M A
annual folemnity, at which thofe of Caryftus aflifted ; Amafia
hence the title of the goddefs was Amcv ynthis, and A- , U .
r 0 ■' Amazon::
maryjia. ,
AMASIA (anc. geog.), now Marpurg, a city in
the landgraviate of Heffe, on the Lahn. According:
to others, it is Embden in Weftphalia.
Amasia, an ancient town of Turkey, in Natolia,
remarkable for the birth of Strabo the geographer.
It is the refidence of a bafttaw, and gives its name to
the province it ftands in, where there are the beft wines
and the beft fruits in Natolia. It is feated near the ri¬
ver Iris or Cafalmack; and was anciently the refidence:
of the kings of Cappadocia. E. Long. 36. 10. ’ N.
Lat. 39. 33.
Amasia, the name of the northern divifion of Lef-
fer Afia, lying on the fouth fliore of the Euxine fea in-
Natolia. It takes its name from Amafia the capital, ,
mentioned in the preceding article.
A.MASONIA, in botany: A genus of the angio-
fpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of
plants ; the characters of which are: The calyx is a-
tripartite pnonophyllous perianthium, bell-fhaped and-
perfiftent: The torolla is monopetalous and tubular;
the border quinquefid, expanding, and fmall: The /la¬
mina confift of four filaments longer than the corolla
the antherae oval and incumbent: Thepijlillum has an-
ovate germen ; the ftylus the length of the ftamina;
the ftigmata two, acute :. There is no pericarpium :
The feed is an ovate unilocular nut, the length of the
calyx.
AMATHUS, a very ancient town in' the fouth of
Cyprus (Strabo, Ptolemy) : .fo called from Amathus
the founder; or, according to others, from Amath, a
Phoenician town facred to Venus, with a very ancient
temple of Adonis and Venus : and hence Venus is de¬
nominated Amathufia (Tacitus); According to Ovid*
it was a place rich in copper-ore, and where the in
habitants became Cer^/?^, or . horned. Now called
Limiffoi,
Amathus (anc. geog.), a town of the tribe of Gad,
beyond Jordan ; but whether at a greater or lefs diilance
from it, is not fo eafy to determine- Eufebius places ;
it in the Lower Penea ; Reland, in Ramoth-Gilead.
Gabinius,. proconful of Syria, eftabliftied five juridical
conventions in Judea ; two of which were on the. other
fide Jordan ; one at. Gadara, the. other at. Amathus
(Jofephus).
AMATORII musculii, in anatomy, a term fome-
times ufed for the obliquus fuperior and obliquus infe¬
rior mufcles of the eye, as thefe mufcles affift in ogling
or drawing the eye fideways.
AMATRICE, a city of the kingdom of Naples, in
the farther Abruzzo, upon the confines of the pope’s
territories, and the marquifate of Ancona. .
AMAUROSIS, in medicine, a deprivation of fight,
the eye remaining fair and feemin’gly unaffe&ed. A
perfedl amaurofis is when the blindnefs is total; when
there is ftill a power of diftinguiftiing light from dark-
nefs, the difeafe is called by M. de St Ives an impetfefl
amaurojtu There is a periodical fort which comes on
inftantaneoufly, continues for hours, or days, and then
difappears. Mr Hey, furgeon at Leeds, mentions fe-
veral cafes of patients afflifted with the amaurofis who
were relieved by being eledtrified.
AMAZONIA, or the country of the American
A M A [51
Amazonia. Amazons, is fituate between 50 and 70 degrees of
' weft longitude'; and between the equator and 15 de¬
grees of fouth latitude; being bounded on the foutli
by La Plata, on the weft by Peru, on the north by
the province of Terra Firma, and on the eaft by
Brazil.
With refpecft to the Amazons faid to have given
name to this territory, they have been reprefented as
governed and led to war only by their queen. No men
were fuffered to live among them; though thofe of
Lome neighbouring nations were fuffered to vifit them,
at a certain feafon, for the fake of procreation. The
females iffuing from this commerce were bred up with
care, and inftrufted in what relates to war and govern¬
ment ; as to the males, they were fent away into the
country of their fathers. But no fuch nation is at
.prefent to be found, any more than the giants and ca-
nibals mentioned by the firft adventurers thither.
Amazonia is generally a flat region, abounding in
'•woods, lakes, rivers, bogs, and moraffes. The chief
river, and one of the largeft in the world, is that call¬
ed the river of Amazons, or the Orellana, which is
formed by two large rivers, the one riling in the pro¬
vince of Quito, a little fouth of the equator, in 73
degrees of weft longitude, and the other, named Xauxa,
rifing in the lake of Bourbon, near the Andes, in ten
degrees of fouth latitude. Thofe two rivers uniting
on the confines of Peru and Amazonia, in three de¬
grees odd minutes of fouth latitude, affume the name
of Amazon ; whence running eaftward upwards of 200
miles, and afterwards inclining to the north, they fall into
the Atlantic ocean by 84 channels, which in the rainy
feafon overflow the adjacent country. Befides the two
ftreams mentioned, a multitude of others, both on the
north and fouth fide, contribute to the formation of
this extraordinary river. As it runs almoft acrofs the
broadeft part of South America, it is computed to be
between four and five thoufand miles in length, inclu¬
ding all its windings. Its channel from Junta de los
Reyos, about 60 degrees from its head, to the river
Maranhon, is from one to two leagues broad ; it then
widens from three to four, and becomes gradually
broader as it approaches the ocean. Between the places
laft mentioned, its depth is from five to ten fathom ;
but from Maranhon to Rio Negro it increafes to 20
fathom ; after which it is fometimes 30, and fometimes
50 fathoms, or more, till it comes near the end of its
courfe. It has no fand-banks, nor does the ftiore ftielve
fo as to render it dangerous for veffels. The manetu
and tortoife abound both upon the banks of this and
the other rivers ; and the filhermen muft be upon their
guard againft the crocodiles, alligators, and water-fer-
pents, which alfo fwarm here.
The air, as in the countries under the fame parallel,
is obferved to be nearly as cool under the equator as
about the tropics, on account of the rains continuing
longer, and the Iky in that feafon being clouded. Be¬
fides, an eafterly wind fets from the Atlantic up the
river fo ftrong, that veffels are carried by it againft the
ftream.
The produce of the country is Indian corn and the
caffavi root, of which they make flour and bread ; to¬
bacco, cotton, fugar, farfaparilla, yams, potatoes, and
ether roots. They have alfo plenty of venifon, fifti,
and fowl. Among the latter are vaft flocks of parrots
8 ] A M A
of all colours, the flefh of which ferves for food and Amazonia^
the feathers for ornament. All the trees here are ever- Amazons.^
greens; and fruits, flowers, and herbage, are in per- v
fedtion all the year round. The principal fruits are
cocoa-nuts, ananas or pine-apples, guavas, bananas,
and fuch others as are ufually found between the tro¬
pics. The foreft and timber trees are cedar, Brazil
wood, oak, ebony, logwood, iron-wood, fo called from
its weight and hardnefs, and feveral forts of dyeing
wood.
The natives are of the common ftature, with good
features, a copper complexion, black eyes and hair.
It is computed that there are of them about 150 dif¬
ferent tribes or nations, and the villages are fo nume¬
rous as to be within call of one another. Among thofe
the Homagues, a people near the head of the river,
are famous for their cotton manufactures; the Jurines,
who live between five and ten degrees of latitude, for
their joiners works ; and the Wrofiffares for their earthen
ware. The Topinambes, who inhabit a large ifland
in the river, are remarkable for their ftrength. Some
of thofe nations frequently make war upon each other.
Their armour confifts of darts, javelins, bows and ar¬
rows, and they wear targets of cane, or filh-lkin. They
make flaves of their prifoners, whom they otherwife
ufe very well. Every tribe is governed by its refpective
chief or king, the marks of whofe dignity are a crown
of parrots feathers, a chain of lions teeth or claws hung
round his neck, or girt about his waitt, and a wooden
fword, which he carries in his hand.
Moft of thofe nations, except the Homagues, go
naked. The men thruft pieces of cane through their
ears and under-lips, as well as through the Ikin of the
pudenda. At the griftle of their nofes they alfo hang
glafs beads, which wag to and fro when they fpeak.
They are fuch Ikilful markfmen, that they will flioot
fifti as they fwim ; and what they catch they eat with¬
out either bread or fait. They worfhip images, which
they always carry with them on their expeditions ;
but they neither have temples nor any order of priefts;
and permit both polygamy and concubinage.
The country affords neither gold nor lilver mines;
only a fmall quantity of the former is found in the ri¬
vulets which fall into the Amazon near its fources in
Peru. While the Spaniards imagined that it contained
thofe metals, they made great efforts from Peru to re¬
duce this territory to fubjeCtion ; till being at length
undeceived, they abandoned the defign.
AMAZONS, in antiquity, a nation of female war¬
riors, who founded an empire in Afia Minor, upon the
river Thermodoon, along the coafts of the Black Sea.
They are faid to have formed a ftate out of which men
were excluded. What commerce they had with that
fex, was only with ftrangers; they killed all their male
children ; and they cut off the right breafts of their fe¬
males, to make them more fit for the combat. From
which laft circumltance it is, that they are fuppofed to
take their name, viz. from the privative «, and
mamma, “ breaft.” But Dr Bryant, in his Analyfis
of Ancient Mythology, explodes this account as fa¬
bulous ; and obferves, that they were in general Cu-
thite colonies from Egypt and Syria, who formed fet-
tlements in different countries, and that they derived
their name from zon, the “ fun,” which was the na¬
tional objedl of worfhip. Vol. iii. p. 463.—It has in¬
deed
A M A [ 5
Amazons, deed been controverted even among ancient writers,
" v whether ever there really were fuch a nation as that of
the Amazons. Strabo, Palasphatus, and others, deny
it. On the contrary, Herodotus, Paufanius, Diodo¬
rus Siculus, Trogus Pompeius, Juftin, Pliny, Mela,
Plutarch, &c. exprefsly affert it.
M. Petit, a French phyfician, publilhed a Latin dif-
fertation in 1685, to prove that there was really a na¬
tion of Amazons; it contains abundance of curious in¬
quiries, relating to their habit, their arms, the cities
built by them, See. Others of the moderns alfo main¬
tain, that there exiftence is fufficiently proved by the
teftimony of fuch of the hiftorians of antiquity as are
moft worthy of credit; by the monuments which many
of them have mentioned; and by medals, fome of which
are ftill remaining; and that there is not the leaft room
to believe that what is faid of them is fabulous.
The Amazons are mentioned by the moft ancient of
the Greek writers. In the, third book of the Iliad,
Homer reprefents Priam fpeaking of himfelf as ha¬
ving been prefent, in the earlier part of his life, in a
battle with the Amazons: and fome of them after¬
wards came to the affiftance of that prince during the
fiege of Troy.
The Amazons are particularly mentioned by Hero¬
dotus. That hiftorian informs us, that the Grecians
fought a battle with the Amazons on the river Ther-
modoon, and defeated them. After their vieftory, they
carried off all the Amazons they could take alive, in
three (hips. But whilft they were out at fea, thefe
Amazons confpired againft the men, and killed them
all. Having, however, no knowledge of navigation,
nor any Ikill in the ufe of the rudder, fails, or oars,
they were driven by wind and tide till they arrived
at the precipices of the lake Mssotis, in the territories
of the Scythians, Here the Amazons went afhore,
and marching into the country, feized and mounted the
firft horfes they met with, and began to plunder the
inhabitants. The Scythians at firft conceived them
to be men ; but after they had had Ikirmifhes with
them, and taken fome prifoners, they difeovered them
to be women. They were then unwilling to carry on
hoftilities againft them; and by degrees a number of
the young Scythians formed connexions with them, and’
were delirous that thefe gentle dames fhould live with
them as wives, and be incorporated with the reft of
the Scythians. The Amazons agreed to continue their
connexion with the Scythian hufbands, but refufed to
affociate with the reft of the inhabitants of the coun¬
try, and efpecially with the women of it. They af¬
terwards prevailed upon their hufbands to retire to Sar-
matia, where they fettled. “ Hence,” fays Herodo¬
tus, “ the wives of the Sarmatians ftill continue their
ancient way of living. They hunt on horfeback in the
company of their hufbands, and fomedmes alone. They
march with their armies, and wear the fame dfefs with
the men. The Sarmatians ufe the Scythian language,
but corrupted from tire beginning,, becaufe the Ama¬
zons never learned to fpeak correXly. Their marriages
are attended with this circumftance: no virgin is per¬
mitted to marry till- {he has killed an enemy in the
field; fo that, fome always grow old before they can.
qualify themfelves as the law requires.”
Diodorus Siculus fays, “ There was formerly a na¬
tion, who dwelt near the river Thermodoon, which was
'■9 ] A M A
fubjeXed to the government of women, and in which Amazons,
the women, like men, managed all the military affairs. v—^
Among thefe female warriors, it is faid, was one who
excelled the reft in ftrength and valour. She affembled
together an army of women, whom fhe trained up in
military difeipline, and fubdued fome of the neighbour¬
ing nations, Afterwards, having by her valour in-
creafed her fame, fhe led her army againft the reft;
and being fuccefsful, Ihe was fo puffed up, that fhe fty-
led herfelf the daughter of Mars, and ordered the men
to fpin wool, and do the work of the women within
doors. She alfo made laws, by which the women were
enjoined to go to the wars, and the men to be kept at
home in a fervile ftate, and employed in the meaneft
offices. They alfo debilitated the arms and thighs of
thofe male children wLo were born to them, that they
might be thereby rendered unfit for war. They (ear¬
ed the right breafts of their girls, that they might be
no hinderance to them in fighting: from whence they
derived the name of Amazons. Their queen, having
become extremely eminent for flcill and knowledge in
military affaix-s, at length built a large city at the
mouth of the river Thermodoon, and adorned it with
a magnificent palace. In her enterprizes fhe exaXly
adhered to military difeipline and good order ; and fhe
added to her empire all the adjoining nations, even to
the river Tanais. Having; performed thefe exploits,
fhe at laft ended her days like a hero, falling in a bat¬
tle, in which fhe had fought courageoufly. She was
fucceeded in the kingdom by her daughter, who imi¬
tated the valour of her mother, and in fome exploits
excelled her. She caufed the girls from their very in¬
fancy to be exercifed in hunting, and to be daily train¬
ed up in military exercifes. She inftituted folemn fe-
ftivals and facrifices to Mars and Diana, which were
named Tauropoli, She afterwards carried her arms
beyond the river Tanais, and fubdued all the people of
thofe regions, even unto Thrace Returning then
with a great quantity of fpoils into her own kingdom,
fhe caufed magnificent temples to be ereXed to the
deities before mentioned; and fhe gained the love of
her fubjeXs by her mild and gentle government. She
afterwards undertook an. expedition againft thofe who
were on the other fide of the river, and fubjeXed to
her dominion a great part of Afia, extending her arms
as far as Syria.”
Diodorus alfo mentions another race of Amazons
who dwelt in Africa ; and whom he fpeaks of as being
of greater antiquity than thofe who lived near the ri¬
ver Thermodoon.. “ In the weftern parts of Lybia,”
fays he, “ upon the borders of thofe traXs that are
habitable, there was anciently a nation under the go¬
vernment of women, and whofe manners and mode of
living were altogether different from ours. It was the
cuftom for thefe women to manage all military affairs ;
and for a certain time, during which they preferved
their virginity, they went out^as foldiers into the field.
After fome years employed in this manner, when the
time appointed for this purpofe was expired, they affo-
ciated themfelves with men, in order to obtain children.
But the magiftracy, and all public, offices, they kept
entirely in their own hands. The men, as the women
are with us, were employed in houfehold affairs, fub-
mitting themfelves wholly to the authority of their,
wives. They were not permitted to take any part in
military/
A M A [ 520 ] A M A
Amazons, military affairs, or to have any command, or any pub-
i;c authority, which might have any tendency to en¬
courage them to call off the yoke of their wives. As
foon as any child was born, it was delivered to the fa¬
ther, to be fed with milk or fuch other food as was
fuitable to its age. If females were born, they feared
their breafts, that they might not be burdenfome to
them when they grew up ; for they confidered them as
great hindrances in fighting.”
Juftinian reprefents the Amazonian republic to have
taken its rife in Scythia. The Scythians had a great
part of Alia under their dominion upwards of 400
years, till they were conquered by Ninus, the founder
of the Affyrian empire. After his death, which hap¬
pened about 1150 years before the Chriftian sera, and
that of Semiramis and their fon Ninias, Ilinus and Sco-
lopites, princes of the royal blood of Scythia, were dri¬
ven from their country by other princes, who like them
afpired to the crown. They departed with their wives,
children, and friends; and being followed by a great
number of young people of both fexes, they paffed in¬
to Afiatic Sarmatia, beyond mount Camaffus, where
they formed an eftablilhment, fupplying themfelves with
the riches they wanted, by making excurfions into the
countries bordering on the Euxine Sea. The people
of thofe countries, exafperated by the incurfions of
■their hew neighbours, united, furprifed, and maffacred
the men.
The women then refolving to revenge their death,
and at the fame time to provide for their own fecurity,
refolved to form a new kind of government, to choofe
a queen, ena6l laws, and maintain themfelves, without
men, even againft the men themfelves. This defign
was not fo very furprifing as at firil fight appears : for
the greateft number of the girls among the Scythians
had been inured to the fame exercifes as the boys ; to
draw the bow, to throw the javelin, to manage other
arms ; to riding, hunting, and even the painful labours
that feem referved for men ; and many of them, as- a-
mong the Sarmatians, accompanied the men in war.
Hence they had no fooner formed their refolution, than
they prepared to execute it, and exercifed themfelves
in all military operations. They foon fecured the peace¬
able poffeffion of the country ; and not content with
Ihowing their neighbours that all their efforts to drive
them thence or fubdue them were ineffectual, they
made war upon them, and extended their own frontiers.
They had hitherto made ufe of the inftruftions and af-
fiftance of a few men that remained in the country; but
finding at length that they could Hand their ground,
and aggrandize themfelves, without them, they killed
all thofe whom flight or chance had faved from the fury
of the Sarmatians, and for ever renounced marriage,
which they now confidered as an infupportable flavery.
But as they could only fecure the duration of their new
kingdom by propagation, they made a law to go e-
very year to the frontiers, to invite the men to come
to them; to deliver themfelves up to their embraces,
without choice on their part, or the leaft attachment;
and to leave them as foon as they were pregnant. All
thofe whom age rendered fit for propagation, and were
willing to ferve the ftate by breeding girls, did not go
at the fame time in fearch of men: for in order to ob¬
tain a right to promote the multiplication of the fpe-
cies, they mull firft have contributed to its deffrudlion;
No 13. 4
nor was any thought worthy of giving birth to chil* Amazons,
dren till (he had killed three men. <——y—j
If from this commerce they brought forth girls, they
educated them; but with refpeft to the boys, if we
may believe Jullin, they ftrangled them at the moment
of their birth: according to Diodorus Siculus, they
twilled their legs and arms, fo as to render them unfit
for military exercifes; but Quintus Curtius, Philo-
ftratus, and Jordarus, fay, that the lefs favage fent them
to their fathers. It is probable, that at firll, when their
fury againft the men was carried to the greateft height,
they killed the boys : that when this fury abated, and
moll of the mothers were filled with horror at depriving
the little creatures of the lives they had juft received from
them, they fulfilled the firft duties of a mother; but, to
prevent their caufing a revolution in the ftate, maim¬
ed them in fuch a manner as to render them incapable
of war, and employed them in the mean offices which
thefe warlike women thought beneath them: in Ihort,
that, when their conquefts had confirmed their power,
their ferocity fubfiding, they entered into political en¬
gagements with their neighbours; and the number of
the males they had preferred becoming burthenfome,
they, at the delire of thofe who rendered them preg¬
nant, fent them the boys, and continued Hill to keep
the girls.
As foon as the age of the girls permitted, they took
away the right breaft, that they might draw the bow
with the greater force. The common opinion is, that
they burnt that breaft, by applying to it, at eight
years of age, a hot brazen inftrument, which infenfibly
dried up the fibres and glands: fome think that they
did not make ufe of fo much ceremony, but that when
the part was formed they got rid of it by amputation :
fome, again, with much greater probability, affert, that
they employed no violent meafures; but, by a continual
comprelfion of that part from infancy, prevented its
growth, at leaft fo far as to hinder its ever being in¬
commodious in war.
Plutarch, treating of the Amazons in his life of The-
feus, confiders the accounts which had been preferved
concerning them as partly fabulous and partly true.
He gives fome account of a battle which had been
fought between the Athenians and the Amazons at A-
thens; and he relates fome particulars of this battle
which had been recorded by an ancient writer named
Clidemus. He fays, “ That the left wing of the A-
mazons moved towards the place which is yet called
Amazonium, and the right to a place called Pryx, near
Chryfa; upon which the Athenians, iffuing from be¬
hind the temple of the mules, fell upon them ; and
that this is true, the graves of thofe that were llain, to
be feen in the ftreets that lead to the gate Piraiea, by
the temple of the hero Chalcodue, are a 1'ufficient proof.
And here it was that the Athenians were routed, and
lhamefufly turned their backs to women, as far as to
the temple of the Furies. But frelh fupplies coming
in from Palladium, Ardettus, and Lyceum, charged
their right wung, and beat them back into their very
tents; in which aftion a great number of the Ama¬
zons were flain.” In another place he fays, “ It ap«
pears that the paffage of the Amazons through Thef-
faly was not without oppofition ; for there .are yet to
be feen many of their fepulchres near Scotufsea and Cy-
nocephalse.” And in his life of Pompey, fpeaking of
A M A
Amazons the Amazons, Plutarch fays, “ They Idhabit thofe parts
' af mount Caucafus that look towards the Hyrcanian
fea (not bordering upon the Albanians, for the terri-
tories of the Getaz and the Leges lie betwixt): and
with thefe people do they yearly, for two months only,
accompany and cohabit,: bed and board, near the river
Thermodoon. A fter that they retire to their own ha¬
bitations, and live alone all the reft of the year.”
Quintus Curtius fays, “ The nation of the Amazons
is fituated upon the borders of Hyrcania, inhabiting the
plains of Thei-mifcyra, near the river Thermodoon.
Their queen was named Thaleftris, and fhe had under
her fubjeftion all the country that lies between mount
Caucafus and the river Phafis. This queen came out
of her dominions, in confequence of an ardent defire
Ihe had conceived to fee Alexander; and being advanced
near the place where he was, ftie previoufly fent mef-
fengers to acquaint him, that the queen was come to
have the fatisfaftion of feeing and converfing with him.
Having obtained permiffion to vifit him, ihe advanced
with 300 of her Amazons, leaving the reft of her troops
behind. As foon as fhe came within fight of the
king,- flie leaped from her horfe, holding two javelins
in her right hand. The apparel of the Amazons does
not cover all the body ; for their left fide is naked down
to the ftomach, nor do the flcirts of their garments,
which they tie up in a knot, reach below their knees.
They preferve their left breaft entire, that they may be
able to fuckle their female offspring ; and they cut off
and fear their right, that they may draw their bows,
and caft their darts, with the greater eafe. Thaleftris
looked at the king with an undaunted countenance,
and narrowly examined his perfon ; which did not, ac¬
cording to her ideas, come up to the fame of his great
exploits : For the barbarians have a great veneration for
a majeftic perfon, efteeming thofe only to be capable of
performing great actions, on whom nature has confer¬
red a dignified appearance. The king having allied her
whether fhe had any thing to defire of him, the replied,
without fcruple or hefitation, that fhe was come with
a view to have children by him, fhe being worthy to
bring him heirs to his dominions. Their offspring, if
of the female fex, fhe would retain herfelf; and if of
the male fex, it fhould be delivered tp Alexander. He
then afked her, whether fhe would accompany him in
his wars ? But this fhe declined, alleging, That fhe had
left nobody to take care of her kingdom. She conti¬
nued to folicit Alexander, that he would not fend her
back without conforming to her wifhes; twit it was not
till after a delay of 13 days that he complied. She
then returned to her own kingdom.
Juftin alfo repeatedly mentions this vifit of Thaleftris
to Alexander; and in one place he fays, that fhe made
a march of 25 days, in order to obtain this meeting
with him. The interview between Alexander and
Thaleftris is likewife mentioned by Diodoms Si¬
culus. The learned Goropius, as he is quoted by Dr
Petit, laments, in very pathetic terms, the hard fate
of Thaleftris, who was obliged to travel fo many miles,
and to encounter many hardfhips, in order to procure
this interview with the Macedonian prince ; and, from
the circumftancea, is led to confider the whole account
as incredible. But Dr Petit, with equal-erudition, with
equal eloquence, and with fuperior force of reafoning,
at length determines, that her journey was not founded
Vol. I. Part II.
A M A
upon irrational principles, and that full credit is due to Amazons,
thofe grave and venerable hiftorians by whom this tranf- * v ‘
a&ion has been recorded.
The Amazons are reprefented as being armed with
bows and arrows, with javelins, and alfo with an axe
of a particular conftruftion, which was denominated
the axe of the Amazons. According to the elder
Pliny, this axe was invented by Penthifilea, one of their
queens. On many ancient medals are reprefentations
of the Amazons, armed with thefe axes. They are
alfo faid to have had bucklers in the fhape of a half-moon.
The Amazons are mentioned by many other ancient
authors befides thofe which have been enumerated;
and if any credit be due to the accounts concerning
them, they fubfifted through feveral ages. They are
reprefented as having rendered themfelves extremely
formidable ; as having founded cities, enlarged the"
boundaries of their dominions, and conquered feveral
other nations.
That at any period there fhould have been women,
who, without the afliftance of men, built cities and
governed them, raifed armies and commanded them,
adminiftered public affairs, and extended their domi¬
nion by arms, is undoubtedly fo contrary to all that
we have feen and known of human affairs, as to appear
in a very great degree incredible ; but that women may
have exifted fufficiently robuft and fufficiently coura¬
geous to have engaged in warlike enterprifes, and even
to have been fuccefsful in them, is certainly not im-
poffible, however contrary to the ufual courfe of things.
In fupport of this fide of the queftion, it may be urged,
that women who have been early trained to warlike
exercifes, to hunting, and to an hard and laborious
mode of living, may be rendered more ftrong, and ca¬
pable of more vigorous exertions, than men who have
led indolent, delicate, and luxurious lives, and who
have feldom been expofed- even to the inclemencies of
the weather. The limbs of women, as well as of men,
are ftrengthened and rendered more robuft by frequent
and laborious exercife. A Ration of women, therefore,-
brought up and difeiplined as the ancient Amazons are-
reprefented to have been, would be fuperior to an equal
number of effeminate men; though they, might be
much inferior to an equal number of hardy men train¬
ed up and difeiplined in the fame manner.
That much of what is faid of the Amazons is fabu¬
lous, there can be no reafonable doubt; but it does
not therefore follow, that the whole is without foun¬
dation. The ancient medals and monuments on which
they are reprefented are very numerous, as are alfo the
teftimonies of ancient writers. It feems not rational
to fuppofe that all this originated in fiftion, though it
may be much blended with it. The Abbe Guyon
fpeaks of the hiftory of the Amazons as having been
regarded by many perfons as fabulous, “ rather from
prejudice than from any real.and folid examination
and it muft be acknowledged, that the arguments in
favour of their exiftence, from ancient hiftory, and from
ancient monuments, are extremely powerful. The faft
feems to be, that truth and fiftion have been blended
in the narrations concerning thefe ancient heroines.
Inftances of heroifm in women have occafionally oc¬
curred in modern times, fomewhat refembling that of
the ancient Amazons. The times and the manners of
chivalry in particular, by bringing great enterprifes,
5 3 U bold
[ 521 ]
A M A
Amazons, bold adventures, and extravagant heroifm, into fafhion,
v infpired the women with the fame tafte. The women,
in confequence of the prevailing paflion, rvere now
feen in the middle of camps and of armies. They
quitted the foft and tender inclinations, and the deli¬
cate offices of their own fex, for the toils and the toil-
fome occupation of ours. During the crufades, ani¬
mated by the double enthufiafm of religion and of va¬
lour, they often performed the mod romantic exploits;
obtained indulgences on the field of battle, and died
with arms in their hands, by the fide of their lovers or
of their huffiands.
In Europe, the women attacked and defended for¬
tifications ; princeffes commanded their armies,, and
obtained victories. Such was the celebrated Joan de
Montfort, difputing for her duchy of Bretagne, and
fighting herfelf. Such was that ftill more celebrated
Margaret of Anjou, aftive and intrepid general and
foldier, whofe genius fupported a long time a feeble
hulband; which taught him to conquer; which repla¬
ced him upon the throne; which twice relieved him
from prifon ; and, oppreffed by fortune and by rebels,
which did not bend till after file had decided in perfon
twelve battles.
The warlike fpirit among the women, confiftent
with ages of barbarifm, when every thing is impetuous
becaufe nothing is fixed, and when all excefs is the ex-
cefs of force, continued in Europe upwards of 400
years, flowing itfelf from time to time, and always in
the middle of convulfions or on the eve of great revo¬
lutions. But there were asras and countries in which
that fpirit appeared with particular luftre. Such were
the difjilays it made in the 15th and 16th centuries in
Hungary, and in the iflandsof the Archipelago and the
Mediterranean when they were invaded by the Turks.
Among the ftriking inftances of Amazonian condudl
in modern ladies, may be mentioned that of Jane of
Belleville, widow of Monf. de Cliffon, who was be¬
headed at Paris in the year 1343, on a fufpicion of
carrying on a correfpondence with England and the
Count de Montfort. This lady, filled with grief for
the death of her late hufband, and exafperated at the
ill treatment which ffie confidered him as having recei¬
ved, fent off “ her fon fecretly to London ; and when
her apprehenfions were removed with refpeft to him,
ffie fold her jewels, fitted out three ffiips, and put to
fea, to revenge the death of her huffiand upon all the
French with whom ffie ffiould meet. This new cor-
fair made feveral defcents upon Normandy, where ffie
ftormed caftles ; and the inhabitants of that province
were fpeftators more than once, whilft their 1 villages
were all in a blaze, of one of the fineft women in Eu¬
rope, with a fword in one hand and a torch in the
other, urging the carnage, and eyeing with pleafure
all the horrors of war.”
We read in Mezeray, under the article of the Croi-
fade, preached by St Bernard in the year 1147, “ That
many women did not content themfelves with taking
the crofs, but that they alfo took up arms to defend
it, and compofed fquadrons of females, wffiich render¬
ed credible all that has been faid of the prowefs of the
Amazons.”
In the year 1590, the League party obtained fome
troops from the king of Spain. Upon the news of
their being difembarked, Barri de St Aunez, Henry
XV.’s governor at Leucate, ffit out to communicate a
A M A
fcheme to the Duke de Montmorenci, commander in
that province. He was taken in his way by fome of
the troops of the League, who were alfo upon their
march with the Spaniards towards Leucate. They
were perfuaded, that by thus having the governor in
their hands the gates of that place would be immedi¬
ately opened to them, or at leaft would not hold out
long. But Conftantia de Cecelli, his wife, after ha¬
ving affembled the garrifon, put herfelf fo refolutely at
their head, pike in hand, that ffie infpired the weakeffi
with courage ; and the befiegers were repulfed where-
ever they prefented themfelves. Shame and their great
lofs having rendered them defperate, they fent a mef-
fage to this courageous woman, acquainting her, that
if (lie continued to defend herfelf they would hang her
huffiand. She replied with tears in her eyes, “ I have
riches in abundance: I have offered them, and I do
ftill offer them, for his ranfom ; but I would not igno-
minioufiy purchafe a life which he would reproach me
with, and which he would be affiamed to enjoy. I
will not diffionour him by treafon againft my king and
country.” The befiegers having made a freffi attack
without fuccefs, put her huffiand to death, and raifed
the fiege. Henry IV. afterwards fent to this lady the
brevet of governefs of Leucate, with the reverfion for
her fon.
The famous Maid of Orleans, alfo, is an example
known to every reader.
The Abbe Arnaud, in his Memoirs, fpeaks of a
Countefs of St Balmont, who ufed to take the field
with her huffiand and fight by his fide. She fent fe¬
veral Spaniffi prifoners of her taking to Marffial Feu-
quiers; and what is not a little extraordinary, this A-
mazon at home wras all affability and fweetnefs, and
gave herfelf up to reading and acts of piety.
Dr Johnfon feems to have given fome credit to the
accounts wffiich have been tranfmitted down to us con¬
cerning the ancient Amazons; and he has endeavoured
to ffiow, that we ought not haftily to reject ancient
hiftorical narrations becaufe they contain fails repug¬
nant to modern manners, and exhibit feenes to which
nothing now occurring bears a refemblance. “ Of
what we know not (fays he), we can only judge by
what we know. Every novelty appears more wonder¬
ful as it is more remote from any thing with which ex¬
perience or teftimony have hitherto acquainted us; and
if it paffes farther, beyond the notions that we have
been accuftomed to form, it becomes at laft incredible.
We feldom confider, that human knowledge is very
narrow ; that national manners are formed by chance ;
that uncommon conjunctures of caufes produce rare
effeits ; or that what is impoffible at one time or place
may yet happen in another. It is always eafier to de¬
ny than to enquire. To refufe credit confers for a
moment an appearance of fuperiority which every little
mind is tempted to affume, when it may be gained fo
cheaply as by withdrawing attention from evidence,
and declining the fatigue of comparing probabilities.
Many relations of travellers have been flighted as
fabulous, till more frequent voyages have confirmed
their veracity; and it may reafonably be imagined, that
many ancient hiftorians are unjuftly fufpeCted of falfe-
hood, becaufe our own times afford nothing that re-
fembles what they tell. Few narratives will either to
men or women appear more incredible than the hifto-
ries of the Amazons; of female nations, of whofe con-
ftitution
[' 522 ]
A M B [ 523 3 A M B
Amazons 'ftitution it was the eflential and fundamental law, to
Amba exclu<^e men from aH participation either of public
■ ' . affairs or domeftic bufincfs; where female armies march¬
ed under female captains, female farmers gathered the
harveft, female partners danced together, and female
wits diverted one another. Yet feveral ages of anti¬
quity have tranfmitted accounts of the Amazons of
Caufacus; and of the Amazons of America, who have
given their name to the greatefl river in the world,
Condamine lately found fuch memorials as can be ex-
pefted among erratic and unlettered nations; where
events are recorded only by tradition, and new fwarms
fettling in the country from time to time confufe and
efface all traces of former times.”
No author has taken fo much pains upon this fub-
jeft as Dr Petit. But, in the courfe of his work, he
has given it as his opinion, that there is great difficul¬
ty in governing ■ the women even at prefent, though
they are unarmed and unpra&ifed in the art of war.
After all his elaborate inquiries and difcuffions, there¬
fore, this learned writer might probably think,, that it
is not an evil of the firlt magnitude that the race of
Amazons now ceafes to exift.
Rouffeau fays, “ The empire of the woman is an
empire of foftnefs, of addrefs, of complacency. Her
commands are careffes, her menaces are tears.” But
the empire of the Amazons was certainly an empire of
a very different kind. Upon the whole, we may con¬
clude with Dr Johnfon : “ The chara&er of the an¬
cient Amazons was rather terrible than lovely. The
hand could not be very delicate that was only employed
in drawing the bow and brandifhing the battle-axe.
Their power was maintained by cruelty, their courage
was deformed by ferocity; and their example only ffiows,
that men and women live bell together.”
Amazons (the river of), in America. See Ama¬
zonia.
Amazonian Habit, in antiquity, denotes a drefs
fornred in imitation of the Amazons. Marcia, the fa¬
mous concubine of the emperor Commodus, had the
appellation of Amazonian, becaufe ffie charmed him
moil in a habit of this kind. Hence alfo that prince
himfelf engaged in combat in the amphitheatre in an
Amazonian habit; and of all titles the Amazonius was
one of thofe h‘e moft delighted in.—In honour either
of the gallant or his miilrefs, the month December
was alfo denominated Amazonius—Some alfo apply
Amazonian habit to the hunting-drefs worn by many
ladies among us.
AMBA, an Abyffinian or Ethiopic word, fignify-
ing a rock. The Abyffinians give names to each of
their rocks, as Amba-Dorho, the rock of a hen, 8cc.
Some of thefe rocks are faid to have the name of Aorni;
and are of fuch a flupendous height, that the Alps and
Pyrenees are but low hills in comparifon of them. A-
mongfl the mountains, and even frequently in the plains,
of this country, arife deep and craggy rocks of various
forms, feme refembling towers, others pyramids, &c.
fo perpendicular and fmooth on the fides, that they feem
to be works of art; infomueh, that men, cattle, &c. are
craned up by the help of ladders and ropes : and yet
the tops of thefe rocks are covered with woods, mea¬
dows, fountains, fiffiponds, &c. which very copioufly
fupply the animals feated thereon with all the conve¬
niences of life. The mod remarkable of thefe rocks
is called Amba- Gejhen, It is prodigioufly deep, in the
form of a cadle built of free done, and almod impreg- Ambaeht
nable. Its fummit is about half a Portuguefe league jl
in breadth, and the circumference at the bottom about 1‘
half a day’s journey. The afeent at fird is eafy ; but w—y—,
.grows aftervyards fo deep, that the Abaffine oxen, which
will otherwife clamber like goats, mud be craned up,
and let down with ropes. Here the princes of the blood
were formerly confined, in low cottages amongd dij-ubs
and wild cedars, with an allowance barely fufficient to
keep them alive. There is, according to Kircher, in
this country, a rock fo curioufly hollowed by nature,
that at a didance it refembles a looking-glafs; and op-
pofite to this another, on the top of which nothing
can be fo foftly whifpered but it may be heard a great
way off. Between many of thefe rocks and mountains
are vad abyffes, which appear very dreadful to the
eye.
AMBACHT, in topography, denotes a kind of
jurifdidlion or territory, the poffeffor whereof has the
adminidration of judice both va alto zsiiS. bafib; ox oi
what is called in the Scots law a power of pit and gal¬
lows, i. e. a power of drowning and hanging.— In
fome ancient writers, ambacht is particularly ufed for
the jurifdidlion, government, or chief magillracy of a
city. The word is very ancient, though ufed origi¬
nally in a fenfe fomewhat different. Ennius calls a
mercenary, or flave hired for money, ambaftus ; and
Caefar gives the fame appellation to a kind of depend¬
ents among the Gauls, who, without being Haves, were
attached to the fervice of great lords.
AMBAGES. See Circumlocution.
AMBARVALIA, in antiquity, a ceremony among
the Romans, when, in order to procure from the gods
an happy harved, they condudled the vidlims thrice
round the corn-fields in proceffion, before facrificing
*kie.rs\.~ Amhat valia were either of a private or public
nature : the private were performed by the mader of a
family ; and the public by the prieds who officiated at
the folemnity,calledfrah es ovules. Theprayer preferred
on this occafion, the formula of which we have in Cato
de Re Rujlica, cap. cxlii. was called carmen ambervale.
At thefe feads they facrificed to Ceres a fow, a dieep,
and a bull or heifer, whence they took the name of
fuovetaurilia. The method of celebrating them was,
to lead a vi6lim round the fields, while the peafants
accompanied it, and one of their number, crowned with
oak, hymned forth the praifes of Ceres, in verfes com-
pofed on purpofe. This fedival was celebrated twice
a-year; at the end of January, according to fome, or
in April, according to others; and for the fecond time,.
in the month of July.
AMBASSADOR, or Embassador, a.public mini-
der fent from one. foverei-gn prince, as a reprefentative
of his perfon to another.
Ambaffadors are either ordinary or extraordinary.
Ambaffador in ordinary, is he who condantly refides
in the court of another prince, to maintain a good un-
derdauding', and look to the intered of his mader.
Till about two hundred years ago, ambaffadors in or¬
dinary were not heard of: all, till then, were ambaf¬
fadors extraordinary; that is, fuch as are fent on fome
particular occafion, and who retire as foon as the affair
is difpatched.
By the law of nations, none under the quality of a
fovereign prince can fend or receive an ambaffador. Ait
Athens, ambaffadors mounted the pulpit of the public
3 U 2. ©ratorSj
A M B [ 524 ] A M B
Ambe, orators, and there opened their commiffion, acquaint-
■Amber. jng the people with their errand. At Rome, they were
" introduced to the fenate, and delivered their commiffions
to the fathers.
Ambafladors (hould never attend any public folemnir
ties, as marriages, funerals, &c. unlefs their mailers
have fome intereft therein: nor mull they go into mourn¬
ing on any occalions of their own, becaufe they repre-
fent the perfon of their prince. By the civil law, the
moveable goods of an ambalfador, which are accounted
an acceffion to his perfon, cannot be feized on, neither
as a pledge, nor for payment of a debt, nor by order
or execution of judgment, nor by the king’s or Hate’s
leave where he refides, as fome conceive ; for all actions
ought to be far from an ambaffador, as well that which
toucheth his necelfaries, as his perfon : if, therefore, he
hath contracted any debt, he is to be called upon kind¬
ly ; and if he refufes, then letters of' requell are to go
to his mailer. Nor can any of the ambaffador’s dome-
flic fervants that are regiftered in the fecretaries of
Hate’s office be arrelled in perfon or goods ; if they are,
the procefs lhall be void, and the parties fueing out and
executing it lhall fuffer and be liable to fuch penalties
and corporal punilhipent as the lord chancellor or ei¬
ther of the chief jullices lhall think fit to infliCt. Yet
ambaffadors cannot be defended when they commit any
thing againll that Hate, or the perfon of the prince, with
whom they refide; and if they are guilty of treafon,
felony, &c. or any other crime againll the law of na¬
tions, theylofe the privilege of an ambaffador, and may
be fubjeft to punilhment as private aliens.
AMBE, in furgery, the name of an inllrument for
reducing diflocated bones. In anatomy, a term for the
fuperficial jutting out of a bone.
AMBER (Succinum), in natural hillory, a folid,
hard, femipellucid, bituminous fubftance of a parti¬
cular nature, of ufe in medicine and in feveral of the
arts. It has been called amhra by the Arabians, and
ekttrum by the Greeks.
Amber has been of great repute in the world from
the earlielt times. Many years before Chrilt it was in
elleem as a medicine ; and Plato, Ariftotle, Hero¬
dotus, HEfchylus, and others, have commended its vir¬
tues. In the times of the Romans it became in high
elleem as a gem ; and in the luxurious reign of Nero,
immenfe quantities of it were brought to Rome, and
ufed for ornamenting works of various kinds.
The moll remarkable property of this fubftance is,
that, when rubbed, it draws or attracts other bodies to
it: and this, it is obferved, it does, even to thofe
fubftances which the ancients thought it had an anti¬
pathy to; as oily bodies, drops of water, human fweat,
&c. Add, that by the friCtion it is brought to yield
light pretty copioully in the dark; whence it is rec¬
koned among the native phofphori.
The propertywhich amber pofTelfes ofattrafting light
bodies, was very anciently obferved. Thales of Miletus,
600 years before Chrift, concluded from hence that it
was animated. But the firft perfon who exprefsly men¬
tions this fubftance, is Theophrallus, about the year 300
before Chrift. The attractive property of amber is
Kkewife occafionally taken notice of by Pliny, and
Other later naturalills, particularly by Galfendus, Ke-
nelm Digby, and Sir Thomas Brown ; but it was ge-
nerally apprehended that this quality was peculiar to
amber and jet, and perhaps agate, till Gilbert publilhed Amber,
his treat!fe De Magneto, in the year 1600. From
nteKTpev, the Greek name for amber, is derived the term
Eleftricity,which is now veryextenfively applied not only
to the power of attracting light bodies inherent in am¬
ber, but to other fimilar powers, and their various ef¬
fects, in whatever bodies they refide, or to whatever
bodies they-may be communicated.
Amber a (fumes all figures in the ground ; that of a
pear, an almond, a pea, &c. In amber there have been
laid to be letters found very well formed j and even He¬
brew and Arabic charaCters.—Within fome pieces,
leaves, infeCts, &c.’have likewife been found included ;
which feems to indicate, either that the amber was ori¬
ginally in a fluid Hate, or that having been expofed to
the fun, it was once foftened, and rendered fufceptible
of the leaves, infeCts, &c. which came in its way. The
latter of thefe fuppofitions feems the more agreeable to
the phenomenon, b’ecaufe thofe infeCts, &c. are never
found in the centre of the pieces of amber, but always
near the furface. It is obferved by the inhabitants of
thofe places where, amber is produced, that all animals,
whether terreftrial, aerial, or acquatic, are extremely
fond of it, and that pieces of it are frequently found
in their excrements. The bodies of infeCts, found bu¬
ried in amber, are viewed with- admiration by all the
world ; but of the moft remarkable of thefe, many are
to be fufpeCted as counterfeit, the ’great price at which
beautiful fpecimens of this kind fell, having tempted
ingenious cheats to introduce animal bodies in fuch
artful manners into feemingly whole pieces of amber,
that it is not eafy to deteH the fraud.
Of thofe infeCts which have been originally inclofed
in amber, fome are plainly feen. to have llruggled hard
for their liberty, and even to have left their limbs be¬
hind them in the attempt; it being no unufual thing
to fee, in a mafs of amber that contains a (lout, beetle,
the animal wanting one, or perhaps two of its legs ;
and thofe legs left in dilferent places, nearer that part
of the mafs from which it has travelled. This alfo
may account for the common accident of finding legs,
or wings of flies, without the reft of their bodies, in
pieces of amber; the infeCts having, when entangled in
the yet foft and vifeid matter, efcaped, at the expence
of leaving thofe limbs behind them. Drops of clear
water are fometimes alfo preferved in amber. Thefe
have doubtlefs been received into it while foft, and pre¬
ferved by its hardening round them. Beautiful leaves
of a pinnated HruClure, refembling fome of the ferns,
or maidenhairs, have been found in fome pieces ; but
thefe are rare, and the fpecimens of great value. Mi¬
neral fubftances are alfo found at times lodged in maf-
fes of amber. Some of the pompous collections of the
German princes boaft of fpecimens of native gold and
filver in mafies of, amber; but as there are many fub¬
ftances of the marcafite, and other kinds, that have all
the glittering appearance of gold and filver, it is not
to be too hailily concluded that thefe metals are really
lodged in thefe beds of amber. Iron is found in vari¬
ous (hapes immerfed in amber; and as it is often feen
eroded, and fometimes in the ftate of vitriol, it is not.
impoffible but that copper, and the other metals, may
be alfo fometimes immerfed in it in the fame Hate:
hence the bluilh and greenilh colours, frequently found
in the recent pieces of amber, may be owing, like the
particles
A M B [ 525 ] A M B
the gems, by their denfe texture, always retain their
colours, this lighter and more lax bitumen ufually lo-
fes what it gets of this kind, by keeping fome time.
Small pebbles, grains of fand, arid fragments of other
ftones, are not unfrequently alfo found • immerfed in
amber.
Naturalifts have been greatly divided as to the ori¬
gin of this fubftance, and what clafs of bodies it be¬
longs to; fome referring it to the vegetable, others to
the mineral, and fome even to the animal kingdom.
Pliny defcribes it as a reiinous juice, oozing from
“ aged pines and firs (others fay from poplars, where-
“ of there are whole forefts on the coafts of Sweden),
•“ and difcharged thence into the fea, where, undergo-
“ ing fome alteration, it is thrown, in this form, upon
“ the (hores of Pruffia, which lie very low : he adds,
f( that it was hence the ancients gave it the denomi-
“ nation fuccinum; ivomfuccus, juice.”
Some fuppofe amber a compound fubftanee. Pruf¬
fia, fay they, and the other countries which produce
amber, are moiftened with a bituminous juice, which
mixing with the vitriolic falts abounding in thofe pla¬
ces, the points of thofe falts fix its fluidity, whence it
congeals ; and the refult of that congelation makes
what we call amber ; which is more or lefs pure, tran-
fparent, and firm, as thofe parts of fait and bitumen are
more or lefs pure, and are mixed in this or that pro¬
portion.
Mr Brydone, in his tour to Sicily and Malta, fays,
that the river Gearetta, formerly celebrated by the
poets under the name of Simetus, throws up near its
mouth great quantities of ambe'r. He mentions alfo a
kind of artificial amber, not uncommon there, made,
as he was told, from copal, but very different from the
natural.
According to Plartman, amber is formed of a bitu¬
men, mixed with vitriol and other falts. But though
this were allowed him in regard to the foflile amber,
many difpute whether the fea-amber be fo produced.
It is, however, apparent, that all amber is of the
fame origin, and probably that which is found in the
fea has been waflied thither out of the cliffs ; though
Hartman thinks it very pofiible, that fome of it may
be formed in the earth under the fea, and be waihed
up thence. The fea-amber is ufually finer to the eye
than the foflile ; but the reafon is, that it is divefted of
that coarfe coat with which the other is covered while
in the earth.
Upon the whole, it feems generally agreed upon,
that amber is a true bitumen of foffile origin. — In a
late volume of the Journal de Phyfiqae, however, we
find it afferted by Dr Girtanner to be an animal pro-
du£t, a fort of honey or wax formed by a fpecies of
large ant called by Linnaeus formica tufa. Thefe ants,
our author informs us, inhabit the old pine forefts,
where they fometimes form hills about fix feet in dia¬
meter ; and it is generally in thefe ancient forefts, or
in places where they have been, that fofiile amber is
found. This fubftance is not hard as that which is ta¬
ken up in the fea at Pruflia, and which is well known
to naturalifts. It has the confiftence of honey or of
half melted wax, hut it is of a yellow colour like com¬
mon amber; it gives the fame product by chemical
analyfis, and it hardens like the other when it is fuf-
fered to remain fome time in a folution of common
fait. This accounts for the infedls that are fo often
found inclofed in it. Among thefe infefts ants are al¬
ways the moft: prevailing; which tends farther, Mr
Girtahner thinks, to the confirmation of his hypothe-
fis. Amber then, in his opinion, is nothing but a ve¬
getable oil rendered concrete by the acid of ants, juft
as wax is nothing but an oil hardened by the acid of
bees; a facft inconteftably proved, we are told, fince
Mr Metherie has been able to make artificial wax by
mixing oil of olives with the nitrous acid, and which
wax is not to be diftinguiftred from the natural.
There are feveral indications which difcover where
amber is to be found. The furface of the earth is there
covered with a foft fcaly ftone ; and vitriol in particu¬
lar always abounds there, which is fometimes found
white, fometimes reduced into a matter, like melted
glafs, and'fometimes figured like petrified wood.
Amber of the fineft kind has been found in Eng¬
land. It is frequently thrown on the fhores of York-
fhire, and many other places, and found even in our
clay-pits; the pits dug for tile-clay, between Tyburn
and Kenfington gravel-pits, and that behind St George’s
Hofpital at Hyde-park corner, have afforded fine fpe-
cimens.
Poland, Silefia, and Bohemia, are famous for the
amber dug up there at this time. Germany affords
great quantities of amber, as well dug up from the
bowels of the earth, as toffed about on the ftiores of
the fea and rivers there. Saxony, Mifnia, and Sweden,
and many other places in this tra£t of Europe, abound
with it. Denmark has afforded, at different times, fe¬
veral quantities of foffile amber ; and the ftiores of the
Baltic abound with itv But the countries lyirig on the
Baltic afford it in the greateft abundance of all ; and of
thefe the moft plentiful country is Pruffia, and the next is
Pomerania. Pruffia was, as early as the times of The-
odoric the Goth, famous for amber j for this fubftance
coming into great repute with this prince, fome natives
of Pruffia, who were about his court, offered their fcr-
vice to go to their own country, where that fubftance,
theyfaid,was produced, and bring back great ftores of it.
They accordingly did fo ; and from this time Pruffia
had the honour to be called the Country of Amber, in -
Head of Italy, which had before undefervedly that title.
This article alone brings kis Pruffian Majefty a revenue
of 26,000 dollars annually. The amber of Pruffia is
not only found on the fea-coafts, but in digging; and
though that of Pomerania is generally brought from
the ftiores, yet people who dig, on different occafions,
in the very heart of the country, at times find amber.
Junker defcribes, after Neumann, the Pruffian amber-
mines, which are the richeft known.—Firft, at the fur-
face of the earth, is found a ftratum of fand. Imme¬
diately under this fand is a bed of clay, filled with fmali
flints of about an inch diameter each. Under this clay
lies a ftratum of black earth, or turf, filled with foffile
wood, half decompofed, and bituminous ; this ftratum
is extended upon a bank of minerals, containing little
metal, ^except iron, which are confequently pyrites.
Laftly, under this bed the amber is found, feattered
about in pieces, or fometimes accumulated in heaps.
Amber has a fubacrid refinous tafte, and fragrant
aromatic fmell, efpecially when diffolved. It differs
from the other bituminous fubftances in this, that it
yields by diftillation a volatile acid fait, which none of
the others do; otherwife it affords the fame fort of
principles
A M B [ 526 ] A M B
principles as them, viz. an acid phlegm, an oil which
gradually becomes thicker as the diftillation is conti¬
nued ; and when the operation is finilhed, there re¬
mains a black caput mortuum in the retort. — When
boiled in water, it neither foftens, nor undergoes any
fenfible alteration. Expofed to the fire in an open
veffel, it melts into a black mafs very like a bitumen :
It is partly foluble in fpirit of wine, and likewife in
fome effential oils; but it is with difficulty that the
expreffed ones are brought to aft upon it; the ftrong-
er forts of fixed alkaline lixivia almoft totally dii-
folve it.
This fubftance is principally of two colours, white
and yellow. The white is the moll efteemed for me¬
dicinal purpofes, as being the moft odoriferous, and
containing the greatell quantity of volatile fait; tho’
the yellow is moft valued by thofe who manufafture
beads and other toys with-it, by reafon of its tranfpa-
rency.'
Amber is the bafis of all varniffies, by folution in the
ways defcribed under the article Varnish.'
Amber, when it has once been melted, irrecoverably
lofes its beauty and hardnefs. There have been fome,
however, who pretended they had an art of melting
fome fmall pieces of amber into a mafs, and conftitu-
ting large ones of them : but this feems fuch anoth&r
undertaking as the making of gold; all the trials that
have yet been made by the moft curious experimenters,
.proving, that the heat which is necelfary to melt am¬
ber, is fufficient to deftroy it. Phil. Tranf. N° 248.
Could amber indeed be difiblved without impairing
its tranfparency, or one large mafs be made of it by
uniting feveral fmall ones, it is eafy to fee what would
be the advantages of fuch a procefs. The art of em¬
balming might poffibly be alfo carried to a great height
by this, if we could preferve the human corpfe in a
tranfparent cafe of amber, as the bodies of flies, fpi-
ders, gralhoppers, &c. are to a great perfeftion.
Something of a fubftitute of this kind we have in fine
rofin ; which being diffolved by heat, and the bodies of
fmall animals feveral times dipped in it, they are thus
coated with colophony, that in fome degree refembles
amber; but this mult be kept from dull.
Amber in fubftance has been much recommended
as a nervous and cordial medicine ; and alleged to be
ver-y efficacious in promoting the menftrual difcharge,
aud the exclufion of the foetus and fecundines in la¬
bour: but as in its crude ftate it is quite infoluble by
our juices, it certainly can have very little effeft on the
animal fyftem, and therefore it is now feldom given in
fubftance. The forms in which amber is prepared are,
A tinfture, a fait, and an oil; the preparation and
ufes of which arc defcribed in the proper place under
the article Pharmacy.
sl\ii)F.R-Tree, the Engliffi name of a fpecies of
Anthospermum.
AMBERG, a city of Germany, the capital of the
palatinate of Bavaria, with a good caftle, ramparts, ba-
ftions, and deep ditches. It is feated near the confines
of Franconia, on the river Wils. It drives a great trade
in iron and other metals, found in the neighbouring
mountains. E. Long. 12.4. N. Lat. 20. 46.
AMBERGREASE, Ambergrise, or Grey Am¬
ber, in natural hillory, is a folid, opake, afh-c«loured,
3
fatty, inflammable fubftance, variegated like marble, re¬
markably light, rugged and uneven in its furface, and
has a fragrant odour when heated. It does not effer-
vefce with acids ; it melts freely over the fire, into a
kind of yellow rbfin ; and is hardly foluble in fpirit of
wine.
It is found fwimming upon the fea, or the fea-coaft,
or in the fand near the fea-coaft ; efpecially in the At¬
lantic ocean, on the fea-coatt of Brafil, and that of Ma-
dagafcar ; on the coaft of Africa, of the Eaft Indies,
China, Japan, and the Molucca iflands; but moft of
the ambergrife which is brought to England comes
from the Bahama iflands, from Providence, &c. where
k is found on the coaft. It is alfo fometimes found ia
the abdomen of whales by the whale-fifliermen, always
in lumps of various fhapes and fizes, weighing from
half an ounce to an hundred and more pounds. The
piece which the Dutch Eaft India Company bought
from the king of Tydor, weighed 182 pounds. An
American fiffierman from Antigua found fome years
ago, about 52 leagues fouth-eaft from the Windward
iflands, a piece of ambergrife in a whale, which weigh¬
ed about 130 pounds, and fold for 500 1. Sterling.
There have been many different opinions concerning
the origin of this fubftance.
It has been fuppofed to be a foffile bitumen or naph¬
tha, exuding out of the bowels of the earth in a fluid
form, and diftilling into the fea, where it hardens and
floats on the furface. But having been frequently
found in the belly of whales, it has by others been
confidered as entirely an animal produftion.
Clufius afferted it to be a phlegmatic recrement, or
indurated indigeftible part of the food, collefted and
found in the ftomach of the whale, in the fame man¬
ner as the bezoars are found in the ftomach of other
animals.
In an account communicated by Paul Dudley, Efq;
in the 23d volume of the Philofophical Tranfaftions,
the ambergife found in whales is reprefented as a kind
of animal produft, like muflc, and caftoreum, &c. fe-
creted and collefted in a peculiar bag or bladder, which
is furnifhed with an excretory duft or canal, the fpout
of which runs tapering into and through the length of
the penis ; and that this bag, which lies juft over the
teilicles, is almoft full of a deep orange-coloured liquor,
not quite fo thick as oil, of the fame fmell as the balls
of ambergrife, which float and fwim loofe in it: which
colour and liquor may alfo be found .in the cabal of the
penis; and that therefore ambergrife is never to be
found in any female, but in the male only. But thefe
circumftances are not only deftitute of truth, but alia
contrary to the laws of the animal oeconomy : For, in
the firft place, ambergrife is frequently found in females
as well as males ; although that found in females is
never in fuch large pieces, nor of fo good a quality, as
what is found in males. Secondly, No perfon who has
the leaft knowledge in anatomy or phyiiology, will e-
ver believe that organifed bodies, fuch as the beaks of
the Sepia, which are fo conftantly found in ambergrife
taken out of the whale, can have been abforbed from
the inteftines by the lafteals or lymphatics, and colleft¬
ed with the ambergrife in the precluded bag above-
mentioned.
Ktempfer, who has given us fo many other faithful
accounts in natural hiftory, feems to come nearer the
truth
Amber-
Amber-
grcafe.
A M B
With with regard to the origin of ambergrife, when he
fays, that it is. the dung of the whale ; and that the
Japanefe, for this reafon, call it kufura noya«,i.e. whale’s
dung. This account, however, though founded on ob-
fervation, has never obtained credit, but has been con-
fidered rather as a fabulous ftory, with which the Ja¬
panefe impofed upon him, who had himfelf no diredl
obfervation to prove the fact.
This matter, therefore, remained a fubjedt of great
doubt; and it was generally thought to be more pro¬
bable, that ambergrife, after having been fwallowed,
and fomehow or other changed in the ftomach and
bowels of the whale, was found among its excrements.
But the moft fatisfadtory account of the real origin
of ambergrife, is that given by Dr Swediar in the 73d
volume of the Philofophical Tranfadtions, art. 15,
We are told by all writers on ambergrife, that fonle-
times claws and beaks of birds, feathers of birds, parts
of vegetables, fliells, fifh, and bones of fifh, are found
in the middle of it, or varioufly mixed with it. Of a very
large quantity of pieces, however, which theDodtor exa¬
mined, he found none that contained any fuch thing;
though he allows, that fuch fubftances may fometimes
be found in it: but in all the pieces of any confiderable
fixe, whether found on the fea or in the whale, he con-
ftantly found a confiderable quantity of black fpots,
which, after the moll careful examination, appeared to
be the beaks of the Sepia Ofiopodia; and thefe beaks,
he thinks, might be the fubftances which have hitherto
been always miftaken for claws or beaks of birds, or for
Ihells.
The prefence of thefe beaks in ambergrife proves e-
vidently, that all ambergrife containing them is in its
origin, or muft have been once, of a very foft or liquid
nature, as otherwife thofe beaks could not fo conftant-
ly be intermixed with it throughout its whole fubftance.
That ambergrife is found either upon the fea and
fea-coaft, or in the bowels of whales, is a matter of fadt
univerfally credited. But it has never been examined
into and determined,' whether the ambergrife found
upon the fea and fea-coaft is the fame as that found in
the whale, or whether they are different from one ano¬
ther ? Whether that found on the fea or fea-coaft has
fome properties, or conftituent parts, which that found
in the whale has not ? And laftly, Whether that found
in the whale is fuperior or inferior in its qualities and
value to the former ?
It is likewife a matter of confequence to know, Whe¬
ther ambergrife is found in all kinds of whales, or only
in a particular fpecies of them? Whether it isconftant-
ly and always to be met with in thofe animals ? And,
if fo, in what part of their body it is to be found ?
All thefe queftions we find very fatisfadterily dif-
cuffed by Dr Swediar.
According to the beft information that he could ob¬
tain from feveral of the moft.intelligent perfons, em¬
ployed in the fpermaceti whale-filhery, and in procu¬
ring and felling ambergrife, it . appears, that this fub¬
ftance is fometimes found in the belly of the whale,
but in that particular fpecies only which is called the.
fpertnaceti whale, and which from its defcription and
delineation appears to be the ParsETER Mactocephalus
Linnaei.
The New England fiftiermen, according to their ac¬
count, have long known that ambergrife is to he found
[ 527 1
A M B
in the fpermaceti whale ; and they are fo convinced of Araber-
this fad!, that whenever they hear of a place where greafe. ^
ambergrife is found, they always conclude that the feas v
in that part are frequented by this fpecies of whale.
The perfons who are employed in the fpermaceti
whale-fiftiery, confine their views to the Phyfeter ma-
crocephalus. They look for ambergrife in all the fper¬
maceti whales they catch, but it feldom happens that
they find any. Whenever they hook a fpermaceti
whale, they obferve, that it conftantly not only vomits
up whatever it has in its ftomach, but alfo generally
difcharges its faeces at the fame time ; and if this latter
circumftance takes place, they are generally difappoint-
ed in finding ambergrife in its belly. But whenever
they difcover a fpermaceti whale, male or female, which
feems torpid and fickly, they are always pretty fure to
find ambergrife, as the whale in this ftate feldom voids
its faeces upon being hooked. They likewife generally
meet with it in the dead fpermaceti whales, which they
fometimes find floating on the fea. It is obferved alfo,
that the whale, in which they find ambergrife, often,
has a morbid protuberance ; or, as they exprefs it, a
kind of gathering in the lower part of its belly, in
which, if cut open, ambergrife is found. It is obfer¬
ved, that all thofe whales, in whofe bowels ambergrife
is found, feem not only torpid and fick, but are alfo
conftantly leaner than others; fo that, if we may judge
from the conftant union of thefe two circumftances, it
would feem that a larger colle&ion of ambergrife in the
belly of the whale is a fource of difeafe, and probably
fometimes the caufe of its death. As foon as they.,
hook a whale of this defcription, torpid, fickly, ema¬
ciated, or one that does not dung on .being hooked,
they immediately either cut up the above-mentioned
protuberance, if there be any, or they rip open its-,
bowels from the orifice of the anus, and find the am¬
bergrife, fometimes in.one fometimes in different lumps,
of generally from three to. twelve and more inches in
diameter, and from one pound to twenty or thirty
pounds in weight, at the diftance of two, but molt,
frequently of about fix or feven feet from the anus, and
never higher up in the inteftinal canalj which, accord--
ing to their defcription, is, in all. probability, the inte-
ftinum caecum, hitherto miftaken for a peculiar bag
made by nature for the fecretion and colle&ion of this ,
fingular fubftanpe.. That the part they cut open to -
come at the ambergrife is no other than the inteftinal
canal is certain, becaufe they conftantly begin their in-
cifion at the anus, and.find the cavity everywhere filled
with the fseces of the whale, which from their colour
and fmell it is impoffible for them to miftake. The
ambergrife found in the inteftinal canal is not fo hard
as that which is found on the fea or fea-coaft, but foon
grows hard in the air: when firft taken out it has
nearly the.fame colour, and the fame difagreeable fmell,
though not fo ftrong, as the more liquid dung of the
whale has; but, on expofing it to the air, it by degrees
not Only grows greyilh, and its furface is covered with a
greyifli duft like old chocolate, but it alfo lofes its dif¬
agreeable fmell, and, when kept for a certain length of
time, acquires the peculiar odour which is fo agreeable
to moft people.
The gentlemen the Do&or converfed with confeffed,
that if they knew not from experience that ambergrife
thus found, will in time acquire the above-mentioned,
qua- -
A M B [ 528 ] A M B
qualities, they would by no means be able to diftinguifli
ambergrife from hard indurated feces. This is fo true,
that whenever a whale voids its feces upon being hook¬
ed, they look carefully to fee if they cannot difcover
among the more liquid excrements (of which the whale
difcharges feveral barrels) feme pieces floating on the
fea, of a more compact fubftince than the relt ; thefe
they take up and waih, knowing them to be amber¬
grife.
In confidering whether there b| any material diffe¬
rence between ambergrife found upon the fea or fea-
coafi:, and that found in the bowels or among the dung
of the whale, the Doftor refutes the opinion, that all
ambergrife found in whales is of an inferior quality,
and therefore much lefs in price. Ambergrife, he ob-
ferves, is only valued for its purity, lightnefs, compadf-
nefs, colour, and fmell. There are pieces of amber¬
grife found on different coaffs, which are of a very in¬
ferior quality ; whereas there are often found in whales
pieces of it of the firft value ; nay, feveral pieqes found
in the fame whale, according to the above-mentioned
qualities, are more or lefs valuable. All ambergrife
found in whales has at fir ft when taken out of the in-
teftines very near the fame fmell as the liquid excre¬
ments of that animal have ; it has then alfe nearly the
fame blackifti colour: they find it in the whale feme-
times quite hard, fometimes rather foftifli, but never fo
liquid as the natural feces of that animal. And it is
a matter of fa&, that, after being taken out and kept
in the air, all ambergrife grows not only harder and
whiter, but alfo lofes by degrees its fmell, and affumes
fuch an agreeable one, as that in general has which is
found fwimming upon the'fea ; therefore the goodnefs
of ambergrife feems rather to depend on its age. By
being accumulated after a certain length of time in the
mteftinal canal, it feems even then to become of a whiter
colour, and lefs ponderous, and acquire its agreeable
fmell. The only reafon why ambergrife found floating
on the fea generally poffeffes the above-mentioned qua¬
lities in a fuperior degree, is becaufe it is commonly
older, and has been longer expofed to the air. It is
more frequently found in males than females; the pieces
found in females are in general fmaller, and thofe found
in males feem conftantly to be larger and of a better
quality ; and therefore the high price in proportion to
the fize is not merely imaginary for the rarity-fake, but
in feme refpeft well founded, becaufe fuch large pieces
appear to be of a greater age, and poffefs the above-
mentioned qualities in general in a higher degree of
perfedtion than fmaller pieces.
It is known, that the Sepia oftopodia, or cuttle-fifh,
is the conftant and natural food of the fpermaceti
whale, or Phyfeter macrocephalus. Of this the fifhers
are fo well perfuaded, that whenever they difcover any
recent relics of it fwimming on the fea, they conclude
that a whale of this kind is, or has been, in that part.
Another circumftance which corroborates the fact is,
that the fpermaceti whale on being hooked generally
vomits up feme remains of the Sepia. Hence it is eafy
to account for the many beaks, or pieces of beaks, of
the Sepia found in all ambergrife. The beak of the
Sepia is a black horny fubftance, and therefore paffes
undigefted through the ftomach into the inteftinal ca¬
nal, where it is mixed with the feces ; after which it is
either evacuated with them, or if thefe latter be preter-
N° 14.
naturally retained, forms concretions with them, which Amber-
render the animal fick and torpid, and produce an ob- , greafe‘
ftipation, which ends either in an abfcefs of the abdo- v
men, as has been frequently obferved, or becomes fatal
to the animal; whence in both the cafes, on the burft-
ing of its belly, that hardened fubftance, known under
the name of ambergrife, is found fwimming on the fea,
or thrown upon the coaft.
From the preceding account, and his having con¬
ftantly found the above-mentioned beaks of the Sepia
in all pieces of ambergrife of any confiderable fize, Dr
Swediar concludes with great probability, that all am¬
bergrife is generated in the bowels of the Phyfeter macro¬
cephalus, or fpermaceti whale ; and there mixed with
the beaks of the Sepia oftopodia, which is the principal
food of that whale. He therefore defines ambergrife
to be the ,preternaturally hardened dung or feces of
the Phyfeter macrocephalus, mixed with feme indigef-
tible relics of its food.
The ufe of ambergrife in Europe is now nearly con¬
fined to perfumery, though it has formerly been recom¬
mended in medicine by feveral eminent phyiicians. Hence
the Effentia Ambrse Hoffmanni, Tin Aura Regia Cod.
Parifini, Trochifei de Ambra Ph. Wurtemberg, &c.
If we wifti to fee any medicinal effe&s from this fub¬
ftance, the Do&or obferves, we muft certainly not ex-
peA them from two or three grains, but give rather
as many fcruplesof it for a dofe : though even then, he
thinks, there would not be reafon to expeA much ef-
feA from it, as he had himfelf taken of pure unadul¬
terated ambergrife in powder 30 grains at once, with¬
out obferving the leaft fenfible effeA from it. A failor,
however, who had the curiofity to try the effeA of re¬
cent ambergrife upon himfelf, took half an ounce of
it melted upon the fire, and found it a good purgative;
which proves that it is not quite an inert fubftance.
In Afia and part of Africa ambergrife is not only
ufed as a medicine and as a perfume ; but confiderable
ufe is alfe made of it in cookery, by adding it to feveral
difties as a fpice. A great quantity of it is alfo con¬
ftantly bought by the pilgrims who travel to Mecca ;
probably to offer it there, and make ufe of it in fumi¬
gations, in the fame manner as frankincenfe is ufed in
Catholic countries. The Turks make ufe of it as an
aphrodifiac. Our perfumers add it to fcented pillars,
candles, balls or bottles, ■ gloves, and hair-powder;
and its effence is mixed with pomatums for the face
and hands, either alone or mixed with mufk, &c. tho’
its fmell is to feme perfens extremely offenfive.
Ambergrife may be'known to be genuine by its fra¬
grant fcent when a hot needle or pin is thruft into it,
and its melting like fat of an uniform confiftence ;
whereas the counterfeit will not yield fuch a fmell, nor
prove of fuch a fat texture.—One thing, however, is
very remarkable, that this drug, which is the moft
fweet of all the perfumes, ftiould be capable of being
refembled in fmell by a preparation of one of the moft
odious of all (links. Mr Homberg found, that a vef-
fel in which he had made a long digeftion of the hu¬
man feces, acquired a very ftrong and perfeA fmell of
ambergrife, infomuch that any one would have thought
a great quantity of effence of ambergrife had* been
made in it. The perfume was fo ftrong and offenfive,
that the veffel was forced to be removed out of the
elaboratory.
AMBERT
Ambert
Ambigenal
A M B t 529 ] A M B
AMBERT, a fmall town of France, in Lower Au¬
vergne, the chief place of a fmall territory called Liv-
radois. It is remarkable for its paper manufactory and
camblets. E. Long. 3. 35. N. Lat. 45. 28.
AMBETTUWAY, in botany, a barbarous name
of a tree, the leaves of which, when boiled in wine, are
faxd to create an appetite, and is ufed by the people in
Guinea with that intention.
AMBIANI, orAMBiANENSisciviTAS,now^?;?/VK/,
a city of Picardy. It is called Samarobriva by Csefar
and Cicero ; which, according to Valefius, iignifies the
bridge of the Samara or Somme. Ambiani is a later
name, taken from that of the people, after the ufual
manner of the lower age.
AMBIDEXTER, a perfon who can ufe both hands
with the fame facility, and for the fame purpofes, that
the generality of people do their right hands.—As
to the natural caufe of this faculty, fome, as Hcefer,
attribute it to an extraordinary fupply of blood and
fpirits from the heart and brain, which furnifh both
hands with the neceffary ftrength and agility : others,
as Nicholas Mafia, to an ereCt fituation of the heart,
inclining neither to the right hand nor left ; and o-
thers to the right and left fubclavian arteries being of
the fame height and the fame diftance from the heart,
by which the blood is propelled with equal force to
both hands.—But thefe are only conje&ures, or rather
chimeras. Many think, that, were it not for educa¬
tion and habit, all mankind would be ambidexters; and
in faft, we frequently find nurfes obliged to be at a
good deal of pains before they can bring children to
forego the ufe of their left hands. How far it may be
an advantage to be deprived of half our natural dex¬
terity, may be doubted. It is certain, there are in¬
finite occafions in life, when it would be better to have
the equal ufe of both hands. Surgeons and oculifts
are of neceflity obliged to be ambidexters; bleeding,
&c. in the left-arm or left-ancle, and operations on the
left-eye, cannot be well performed but with the left-
hand.—Various inftances occur in hiftory, where the
left-hand has been exercifed preferably to the right.
But by the laws of the ancient Scythians, people were
enjoined to exercife both hands alike ; and Plato en¬
joins ambidexterity to be obferved and encouraged in
his republic.
Ambidexter, among Englifit lawyers, a juror or
embracer, who accepts money of both parties, for gi¬
ving his verdift; an offence for which he is liable to be
imprifoned, for ever excluded from a jury, and to pay
ten times the fum he accepted of.
AMBIENT, a term ufed for fuch bodies, efpecislly
fluids, as encompafs others on all lides: thus, the air is
frequently called an ambient fluid, becaufe it is diffufed
.round the earth.
AMBIGENiE oves, in the heathen facrifices, an
appellation given to fuch ewes as, having brought forth
twins, were facrificed together with their two lambs,
one on each fide. We find them mentioned among
other facrifices to Juno.
AMBIGENAL hyperbola, a name given by Sir
Ifaac Newton to one of the triple hyperbolas of the
fecond order, having one of its infinite legs falling with¬
in an angle formed by the aflymptotes, and the other
without.
Vol. I. Part II.
AMBIGUITY, a defeft of language, whereby Ambiguity
words are rendered ambiguous. See the next article. . jf
AMBIGUOUS, a term applied to a word or ex- .An‘-"tu5'.
preflion which may be taken in different fenfes.—An
anonymous writer has publirtied a diftionary of ambi¬
guous words : Lexicon Philo/opbicum de Ambiguitafe
Vocabtdorum, Francof. 1597. 4to.—The refponfes of
the ancient oracles were always ambiguous.
AMBIT, in geometry, is the fame with what is
otherwife called the perimeter of a figure. See Peri¬
meter.
Ambit was particularly ufed, in antiquity, to de¬
note a fpace of ground to be left vacant betwixt one
building and another. By the laws of the twelve ta¬
bles, houfes were not to be built contiguous, but an
ambit or fpace of z\ feet was to be left about each
for fear of fire.—The ambitus of a tomb or monu¬
ment denoted a certain number of feet, in length and
breadth, around the fame, within which the fanftity
affigned to it was limited. The whole ground wherein
a tomb was erected was not to be fecreted from the
common ufes; for this reafon, it was frequent to in-
feribe the ambit on it, that it might be known how far
its fanctity extended: thus, in fronts pedes tot, in <a-
grum pedes tot.
AMBITION (amhitio), is generally ufed in a bad
fenfe, for an immoderate or illegal purfuit of power.
In the ftridt meaning, however, of the word, it fig-
nifies the fame with the ambitus of the Romans. See
the next article.
Ambition, in the former and more ufual fenfe, is
one of thofe paffions that is never to be fatisfied. It
fwells gradually with fuccefs, and every acquifition
ferves but as a fpur to further attempts.
p If a man (it has been well obferved), could at once
accomplilh all his defires, he would be a miferable crea¬
ture ; for the chief pleafure of this life is to wiffi and
defire. Upon this account, every prince who afpires
to be defpotic afpires to die of wearinefs. Searching
every kingdom for the man who has the leaft comfort
in life, Where is he to be found ?— In the royal pa¬
lace.—What! his majefty ? Yes ; efpecially if he be
defpotic.”
AMBITUS, in Roman antiquity, the fetting up
for fome magiftracy or office, and formally going round
the city to folicit the intereft and votes of the people.
Ambitus differed from ambition, as the former lies
in the aft, the latter in the mind.
Ambitus was of two kinds ; one lawful, the other
infamous. The firft, called alfo ambitus popularis,
was when a perfon offered his fervice to the republic
frankly, leaving it to every body to judge of his pre-
tenfions as they found reafonable. The means and iq-
ftruments here made ufe of were various. 1. Amici,
or friends, under different relations, including cognati,
affines, necejfarii, familiarcs, vicini, tribules, clientes,
municipes, fodales, colleges. 2. Nomenclatura, or the
calling and faluting every perfon by his name ; to which
purpofe, the candidates were attended with an officer,
under the denomination of interpres, or nomenclator.
3. Blanditia ; or obliging perfons, by ferving them, or
their friends, patrons, or the like, with their vote and
intereft on other occafions. 4. Prenfatio; the fliaking
every perfon by the hand, offering him his fervice,
3 X friendship.
A M B r 530 ] A M B
Amble friendfhip, &c—The fecond kind was that wherein
If . force, cajoling, money, or other extraordinary influence,
mene? " was ma^e l,fe of* This was held infamous, and fevere-
— ly punilhed, as a fource of corruption and other mif-
chiefs.
Ambitus was praftifed not only at Rome and in the
forum, but in the meetings and affemblies of other
towns in Italy, where numbers of citizens were ufually
found, on account of trade and bufinefs.—The prac¬
tice ceafed in the city from the time of the emperors,
by reafon polls were not then to be had by courting
the people, but by favour from the prince.
Perfons who had caufes depending praftifed the fame,
going about among the judges to implore their favour
and mercy. They who pradlifed this were called Am-
litiqfi. Hence we alfo meet with ambitiofa decreta,
and ambitiofa jujfa, ufed for fuch fentences and de¬
crees as were thus procured from the judges, contrary
to reafon and equity, either gratuitoufly or for mo¬
ney.
AMBLE, in horfemanfhip, a peculiar pace by which
a horfe’s two legs of the fame fide move at the fame
time. See Horsemanship.
AMBLESIDE, a town in Weftmoreland, feated
at one end of Winandermeer, W. long. o. 49. N. lat,
54- 30.
AMBLETEUSE, a fea-port town of France, m
Picardy, defended with a battery of cannon. E. long.
1. 30. Ni lat. 49. 40.
AMBLYGON, in geometry, denotes an obtufe*
angled triangle, or a triangle one of. whofe angles con-
Ms of more than 90 degrees.
AMBLYOPY, among phyfieians, fignifies an ob-
fcuration of the fight, fo that objedts at a diltance can.
•not be clearly diftinguifhed.
AMBO, or Ambon, a kind of pulpit or delk, in
the ancient churches, where the prielts and deacons
itood to read or fing part,of the fervice, and preach to
the people called alfo Analogium. The term is de¬
rived from avaeafnavj ««. to mount.”—The ambo was
mounted upon two fides ; whence fome alfo derive the
appellation from the Latin ambo, “ both.”
The ambo was afcended by fteps ; which occafioned
that part of' the office performed there to be called
the Gradual. See Gradual.
Befides the gofpel, which was read at the top of the
ambo,. and the eprllle, which was read a Hep lower,
they likewife publifhed from this place the adls of the
martyrs, the commemoration of departed faints, and
the letters of peace and communion fent by one church
to another: here, too, converts made a public profef-
fion of their faith ; and bifhopsj their defence, when
accufed : treaties alfo were fometimes concluded, and
the coronations of emperors and kings performed, in
the fame place.
The modern reading-deiks and pulpits have been
generally fubft-ituted to the ancient Ambos ; though,
in fome churches, remains, of the ambos are. itill feen.
In that of St John de Lateran at R.ome, there are two
moveable ambos.
AMBOHITSMENE, or Vohitsanghombe, a
province of the ifland of Madagafcar, fo called from
fpme red mountains of the fame name, lying in S. Lat.
W ’. Thefe mountains are very high, refembling the
Tafelberg of the Cape of Good Hope. On one fide of
this ridge the fea extends into the country for fifteen
leagues ; on the other is a flat country abounding in
ponds and marlhes. Here is alfo a lake fifteen leagues
in length, and the fame in breadth, containing many
fmall iflands. The inhabitants of the mountains are
called Zaferahongi; and have plenty of gold, iron, cattle,
filk, &c.
AMBOISE, a town of France, in Touraine, feated
at the confluence of the rivers Loire and Maflee. The
town is mean and ill built ; but has been rendered fa-,
mous in hiltory by the confpiracy of the Proteftants.
in 1560, which opened the fatal wars of religion in
France. The caftle is fituated on a craggy rock, ex-,
tremely difficult of accefs, and the fides. of which are
almoil perpendicular. At its foot flows the Loire,
which is divided into two ftreams by a fmall illand.-
To this fortrefs the duke of Guife, .vvhen he expe&ed
an infurredtion among the Hugonots, removed Fran¬
cis II. as to a place of perfedfc fecurity.. Only two de¬
tached parts of the ancient: caftle now remain, one of
which was conftrudled by Charles VIII. and tire other
by Francis I. The., former of thofe princes was bom
and died at Amboife. The town is fituated E. Long.
1. 30. N. Lat. 47. 25.
AMBOULE, a province of Madagafcar, fomewhat
to the northward of S. Lat. 230. It is a fertile and
agreeable country, watered by the river Manampani,
whofe mouth lies in S. Lat. 23. 30. The country pro¬
duces plants and fruits in plenty. Iron mines are alfo
found here. The black cattle are extremely fat, and
their flelh excellent. In this province Hands a large
town of the fame name ; near which is a fountain of
hot water, within 20 feet of a fmall river whofe fand
is almoft burning. The water of the fountain is faid
to boil an egg hard in two hours; and the inhabitants
affirm it to be a fovereign remedy againft the gout.
The people here are employed in different preparations
of iron and Heel, which they have from their own mines,
and forge feveral inftruments with tolerable /kill. Their
governor is honoured with the title of Rahertau, or
Great Lord. He exercifes fovereign authority and ab-
folute power ; but is frequently, in times of diftrefs,
furprifed by his fubjefts, who affemble in great num¬
bers, feize his perfon, and threaten him with death un*
lefs they are relieved. To extricate himfelf from this
dilemma, he is inftantly obliged to iffue orders for di-
ftributing provifions among them ; but is ufually repaid
with intereft, a quadruple return being made in a plen¬
tiful harveft. The people of Amboule live in great li-
centioufnefs with their fuperiors, and their country is .
generally a retreat for the roguifh and lazy.
AMBOYNA, one of the Molucca iflands, in the
Eaft Indies. It lies in S. Lat. 3.36. and E. Long. 126.
20. and is remarkable for being the centre of the com¬
merce for nutmegs and cloves, which is entirely mo¬
nopolized by the Dutch Eaft-India company. It is
about 24. leagues in circumference. Befides cloves,
it likewife abounds in moft of the tropical fruits and
fiih ; nor is there here any deficiency of good water ;
but fle/h is very fcarce. This fcarcity, however, pro¬
ceeds more from the policy of the Dutch than either
the intemperature of the climate or the barrennefs of
the foil: For, excepting cloves, they have in Amboy-
na,.
A M B t 53i ] A M B
| Atnlioyna. na, as well ?s the Moluccas, induftrioudy difcouraged had been faflened, and caufing them to difgorge the Amboyna
the cultivation of every efculent commodity, with the water; if they did not acknowledge the imputed guilt,
view of with-holding fubfiftence from'thofe who might the procefs of torture was repeated. Others of the
be tempted to invade them. Englilh they confumedby burning them gradually from
Of the natives, the men wear large whi(leers, but the feet upwards, in order to extort the confelfion of
leave little hair upon their chin ; and have only a flight a confpiracy, which was only pretended by the infer-
piece of (tuff wrapped round their middle. The wo- nal policy of thofe favage tormentors. Some had the
men tie their hair in knots : the maids are bought of nails of the fingers and toes torn off; and infbme they
their fathers before they are married ; and if the wife made holes in their breads, filling the cavities with in-
proves barren, the marriage is diffolved. Some of the flammable materials, to which they afterwards put
natives are Mahometans, and fome Chridians: but fire. Thofe who did not expire under the agonies of
they are all faid to be lazy, deceitful, and treacherous, torture were configned to the hands of the execu-'
They make war with fmall fwfift veffels, in (hape like tioner.
dragons with regard to the head and tail. Their houfes The allegation of this pretended confpiracy was
are built of bamboo-canes and fago-trCes. They deep equally void of probability and truth. The Dutch
on mats. Their weapons are bows and arrows, jave- had a garrifon of 300 men in the fort, befides the
lins, feymitars, and targets. burghers in the town, and feveral other forts and gar-
Amboyna was firfl difeovered by the Portuguefe, rifons in the ifland, wdiile the number of the Englifli
who built a fort upon it, which was taken from them did not amount to 20 men ; nor were even thofe pro*
by the Dutch in 1605. They did not, however, be¬
come mailers of the whole ifland at once. The Englifli
had here five factories, which lived under the pro¬
tection of the Dutch callle ; holding themfelves fafe,
irt refpeft of the friendfliip between the two nations.
Greatdifferences had arifen between theDutch andEng-
llfli coloniffs in this part of the world ; till at lad, the
Englifli Eaft-India company applying to king James, a
treaty was concluded in 1619, by which the concerns
both of the Englifli and Dutch were regulated, and
certain meafures agreed upon for preventing future dif-
putes. This was an additional fecurity to the Englifli;
and, by virtue of the treaty, they continued two years
in Amboyna, trading with the Dutch. During this
time, however, feveral difputes happened ; which oc-
cafioning mutual difeontents, the complaints were fent
to Jaccatra, in the ifland of Java Major, to the coun¬
cil of defence of both nations there redding : but they
not agreeing, a (late of the matter was fent over to
Europe, to be decided by the Eaft-India companies of
both nations ; or, in cafe they could not agree, by the
King of England and the States of Holland, accord¬
ing to an article in the treaty of 1619.— But before
thefe difputes could be decided in a legal way, the
Dutch, in order to give the more fpecipus colouring
to the violent feizure which they meditated of the
ifland of Amboyna, made ufe of the dale pretext
of a confpiracy being formed by the Englifli and Ja-
panefe to difpoffefs them of one of their forts in this
place. The plot, it was alleged, had been confeffed
by a Japanefe and Portuguefe in the Englifli fervice,
who were mod inhumanly tortured till they fliould
artfwcr in the affirmative fnch interrogatories as might
favour the fecret defign of thofe cruel inquifitors. Upon
the injurious evidence of this conftrained declaration,
they immediately accufed the Englifti faftors of the
pretended confpiracy. Some of them they imprifon-
ed, and others they loaded with irons and fent on board
their (hips ; feizing at the fame time all the Englifli
merchandize, with their writings and books.
Thefe a£ts of violence were followed by a feene of
horror unexampled in the puniftiment of the mod atro¬
cious offenders. Some of the factors they tortured,
by compelling them to fwallow water till their bodies
were didended to the utmod pitch ; then taking the
miferable viftims down from the boards to which they
vided with arms or ammunition to effedl fuch a defign
as that with which they were charged. There like-
wife was not one Englifti veffel in the harbour, where¬
as the Dutch had eight (hips riding near the town:
neither, when the Dutch broke open the defies and
trunks of the fa&ors, was there found a fingle paper
or letter which could be conftmed into the mod didant
relation to any confpiracy. Add to all this, that fuch
of the unhappy fufferers as could fpeak to be heard,
declared in the mod folemn manner their innocence of
the plot with which they were charged.
The whole of the tranfa&ion affords the mod irre¬
fragable teftimony that it was founded entirely upon
a political fi&ion of the Hollanders, who had them¬
felves formed the defign of monopolizing the trade of
the Spice Elands; for the accomplifliment of which
they perpetrated, about the fame time, a fimilar tra¬
gedy at Pooleron, where they put to the torture 162
of the natives, whom they likewife charged with a
pretended confpiracy. It may judly be reckoned lin¬
gular in the fortune of this commercial republic, that
they have ever fince been permitted to enjoy in peace
thofe invaluable iflands, which were originally obtain¬
ed by fuch atrocious infringements of humanity and
the laws of nations as will dain the Dutch annals, to
the lated ages, with indelible infamy.
The more effe(dually to preferve this trade, theDutch
have had all the clove-trees in the adjacent iflands grub¬
bed up. Sometimes alfo, when the harved is very
large, part of the produce of Amboyna itfelf is burnt.
—To prevent the rearing of cloves in any of the neigh¬
bouring iflands, or the inhabitants from felling them to
drangers, the governor of Amboyna makes the tour of
his government with a fleet of curricurries, confiding
fometimes of 20, and at others of 30, 40, or 50 fail.
This expedition is made with all the pomp imaginable,
in order to gratify the pride and folly of the Indian
chiefs. The true reafon of their taking all this pains
is, becaufe experience has fhown, that no contrails,
however folemn, can prevent the inhabitants of thofe
iflands from felling their fpice to drangers ; and even
now, frauds are fo frequently pra&ifed by the Dutch
themfelves, though the company is inexorable in pu-
nifhing them, that the common people call the cloves
galktn-kruid, that is, the gallows-fpice.
Befides the cloves, coffee is alfo cultivated here by
3X2 the
A M B C 532 ] A M B
l' the Dutch, and a gold mine has been lately found out. by pulling the beams to which they were fattened into Ambracia. |
This was difcovered by the quantities of gold-duft that the city with hooks contrived for the purpofe.
were walked from fome mountains by the torrents. While Fluvius was carrying on the fxege, Nicander
Here alfo grow feveral kinds of valuable wood, of the ^Etolian praetor found means to throw 500 men in-
which they make tables, chairs, efcritoirs, &c. for the
principal perfons in the government; and the reft is
fold all over the Indies at a very extravagant rate.
Amboyna is divided into two parts, viz. a greater
and leffer peninfula. The former, called Hiton, is 12
leagues in length, and two and a half broad. In this
the Dutch have no lefs than five forts, or rather ftrong
redoubts, mounted with cannon. The other is called
to the city, under the command of one Nicodamus,with
whom Nicander agreed to attack the Roman camp in
the night-time; not doubting, that, if the garrifon from
within, and the army from without, fell upon them at the
fame time, they would be obliged to raife the fiege.
Nicodamus narrowly watched the time at which he was
ordered to fally; and, though Nicander did not appear,
marched out at the head of the garrifon, armed with
Leytimor, five leagues in length, and one and a half fire-brands and torches. The Roman centinels, fur-
broad, which is the fouthern part of the ill and; on this prifed at this fight, ran to wake the legionaries, and
Hands the fort of Victoria, which is the refidence of foon fpread a general alarm all over the camp. The le-
the governor, and his council, compofed of 15 gentle-
r merchants. The fortrefs is a fquare, the ranx-
gionaries marched in fmall bodies as they happened to
meet, to repulfe the enemy, whom they engaged in
parts mounted with 60 pieces of brafs cannon, and the three different places. Two parties of the garrifon were
garrifon ufually compofed of 600 men. It is fo ftrong
by nature and art, as to be in a manner impregnable ;
and fo effectually does it command the harbour, that no
veffel could come in or go out without being funk by
the cannon, if the governor chofe. The inhabitants of
Amboyna are computed at 70 or 80,000, of whom
but a fmall number are Dutch ; and this obliges the
latter to be continually upon their guard, and to keep
a competent number of troops in each of their forts,
particularly in that of Middleburgh, which Hands up¬
on the ifthmus that connefts thefe peninfulas. There
are alfo redoubts and garrifons in all the iflands of this
government.
AMBRACIA, one of the moft confiderable cities
of ancient Epirus, fituated on the river Arafthus, at a
fmall diftance from the fea. At firft it was a free city;
but was afterwards reduced by thevExcidse kings of Epi¬
rus, who chofe it for the place of their refidence. In
driven back: but the third, commanded by two JEtolian
generals, made a great flaughter of the Romans ; and,
not finding themfelves feconded by Nicander, retired in
good order into the city.
Though the befieged were thus abandoned, and had
no hopes of affiftance, they continued to defend them¬
felves with incredible vigour and refolution. The Ro¬
mans had no fooner made a breach in the wall, but it
was repaired, and a new one built behind it. The con-
ful, therefore, altered his meafures; and, inftead of ma¬
king breaches with the ram, began to undermine the
wall, in hopes of throwing down great part of it at
once, and entering the city before the befieged could
have time to build a new wall. The miners being co¬
vered, were not obfefved by the garrifon, till the great
quantities of earth brought out of the mine gave the
alarm. The JEtolians immediately began to counter¬
mine ; and having dug a trench of the depth they fup-
procefs of time, the .Etolians made themfelves mafters pofed the mine to be, they carried it along the wall
of it, and held it till the year before Chrift 189, when where they heard the ftrokes of the pick-axes of the
it fell into the hands of the Romans.
At this time Ambracia was a place of great ftrength.
Romans. When the two mines met, a battle enfued,
firft with pick-axes and fpades, and then with fwords
It was defended on one fide by the river Aradfhus, and and fpears: but this attack did not laft long, each par-
on the other by fteep and craggy hills ; and furround- ty making themfelves a kind of rampart with the loofe
ed with an high and thick wall, above three miles in
compafs. The Roman eonful Fluvius began the fiege
by forming two camps, feparated by the river, but with
a communication between them; the Romans w'ere
pcfted in one, and the Epirots their allies in the other.
He then threw up two lines, one of circumvallationj
earth. The jEtolians, in order to drive their enemies
quite out of the mine, invented a machine, which they
brought to the place wdiere the two mines met: this
was an hollow velfel wdth an iron bottom, bored through
in many places, and armed with fpikes at proper di-
ftances to prevent the enemy from approaching it: this
and the other of contravallation ; and built a wooden veffel they filled with feathers, which they fet on fire,
tower, in form of a caftle, over againft the citadel,
which ftood on a hill. The iEtolians, however, be¬
fore the lines were quite finiftied, found means to throw
about 1000 men into the place.
The lines being completed, the city was attacked in
five different places at once. The battering-rams (hook
the walls on all fides; and the Romans, from their move-
able towers, pulled down the battlements with a kind
of fythes which they faftened to long beams. The be¬
fieged made a vigorous defence. They were night and
day on the walls, and indefatigable in preventing the
effefts of the rams and fythes. The ftrokes of the for¬
mer they deadened, by letting down beams, large {tones,
lumps of lead, &c. by means of pullies, upon them when
they were in motion ; the others they rendered ufelefs,
and with bellows driving the fmoke on the befiegers,
obliged them to leave the mine, half-fuffocated. This
interval the iEtolians made ufe of in repairing the foun¬
dations of the wall.
The vigorous refiftance made by the Ambracians,
however, did not raife the courage of the nation in ge¬
neral, who were determined on a peace with Rome at
all events. Fluvius, in the mean time, being defirous
of getting poffefiion of Ambracia before the conclufion
of the peace, employed Amynander, king of the Atha-
manes, to perfuade the inhabitants to furrender. As
Amynander had great intereft in Ambracia, having long
refided there, he eafily perfuaded them to capitulate on
the following terms, viz. That the iEtolian garrifoA
flxould have leave to march out of the city ; that the
inhabitants
A M B [ 533 ] A M B
Ambreada inhabitants fhould pay 500 talents, 200 down, and the
Ambrofe rC^ 3t ^1X eclua^ Payments 5 an(l that they fhould deliver
, to the conl'ul all the prifoners and deferters that were in
the city. The gates were then opened to Fluvius; and
he was prefented with a crown of gold, together with
many fine ftatues and piftures, of which there were
great numbers in the city, it having been the capital of
Pyrrhus, who had enriched it with many valuable mo¬
numents.
From this time the city of Ambracia made no figure
in hiftory. It is fcarce known at prefent where the
city flood; but that called Arba, in upper Albania,
feems beft to agree with what is faid of the ancient fi-
tuation of this city. The river Aradlhus, on which
Ambracia was fituated, is now called, by the natives,
S^agmagmuriji.
AMBREADA, thus they call the falfe or faftitious
amber, which the Europeans ufe in their trade with the
negroes on the coaft of Africa, and particularly on the
river Senegal. There are fome large and. red pieces of
it, a thoufand of which making twenty ropes or firings,
weigh three pounds. There are others fmall, and alfo
red, which weigh but two pounds and a half.
AMBRESBERRY, a market-town in Wiltfhire,
about fix miles north of Salifbury, and fituated in W.
Long. 1. 40. and N. Lat. 51. 20.
AMBRONES, a Gaulifh people who lived near the
foot of the Alps, between Switzerland and Provence.
They invaded the Roman territories in conjundlion with
the Cimbri and Teutones; but were defeated with great
/laughter by Marius, about 101 years before Chrill.
Their women, who had ftaid during the engagement
in a kind of fortification made with their carts, on fee¬
ing their hufbands flying, and the Romans at their heels,
armed themfelves with axes, and, gnafhing with their
teeth, fell with fury on the purfuers and the purfued.
Their firfl rage being fpent, they defired to furrender
1 themfelves, upon the Angle condition,, that their chafli-
ty fhould not be violated ; but this equitable requefl be¬
ing denied, they firfl killed their children, and then
themfelves, not one remaining alive out of the whole
multitude,
. AMBROSE-island, a fmall ifland laid down in
fome of the mofl approved charts, and particularly men¬
tioned in Mr Robertfon’s Elements of Navigation, as
lying 'in S. Lat. 25. 30. W. Long. 82; 20. It was
fearched for, however,, in 1767, by Captain Carteret,
with fuch diligence, that he concludes it to have no ex-
iflence, as he could not difcover land any where near
that place.
AMBROSE (St), bifhop of Milan, one of the moll
eminent fathers of the fourth century, born in Gaul
in the year 333, according to Dr Cave, or in 340, as
Mr Du Pin affirms. His father was at this time pra-
feclus prtetorio in Gaul; and refided at Arles, the capi¬
tal of Gallia Narbonenfis. The birth of Ambrofe is
faid to have been followed with a remarkable prefage
of his future eloquence ; for we are told, that a fwarm
of bees came and fettled upon hia mouth as he lay in
his cradle. He foon made himfelf mailer of the feveral
parts of fecular learning; and pleaded caufes before
Probus with fo much eloquence, that he was appointed
his afleffor, and foon after governor of the provinces
of Liguria and iEmilia. He fettled at Milan ; where,
in the year 374, upon the death of Auxentius bifhop of
that city, there being a great conteft between the Catho- Amhrofe.
lies and Arians concerning the choice of a new bifliop,l—-y—
Ambrofe thought it his duty, as governor, to go to the
church, in order to compofe the tumult. He accord¬
ingly addreffed himfelf to the people in a gentle pathe¬
tic fpeech, exhorting them to proceed to their choice
in a calm and friendly manner: while he was /peaking-
to them, the whole aflembly cried out with one vojee,
“ Let Ambrofe be bi/hop !” Such a hidden and un¬
expected incident furprifed him extremely ; fo that he
retired immediately, and ufed every method to divert
them from their refolution of choofing him : but at lail
he was obliged to comply; and was baptifed (being but
a catechumen before), and ordained bhhop, towards
the latter end of the year 374, or beginning of 375..
About the year 377, the barbarous nations making an
incurfion into the Roman empire, he fled to Illyricum,.
and afterwards to Rome. In the year 384, he was
fent to the tyrant Maximus, who had ufurped the em¬
pire, and prevailed upon him not to pafs over into
Italy. The heathens being encouraged by thefe inte-
lline commotions in the empire, attempted to reftore.
their religion, and employed Aurelius Symmachus,
perfeCt of Rome, a man of great eloquence, to plead
their caufe. This gave rife to the famous conteft be¬
tween St Ambrofe and him, about repairing the altar
of Victory. But Symmachus having loft his caufe, was*
expelled the city, and commanded not to approach with¬
in an hundred miles of it. The petition which he pre¬
fented to the emperor Valentinian the younger, is Hill
extant; we find in it the ftrongeft figures of rhetoric
and the greateft force of eloquence. St Ambrofe wrote
a confutation of this petition; but he has been thought,
guilty of many paralogifms : and yet he protefts, “ that
he endeavoured only after the fofidity of reafoning, lea¬
ving Symmachus all the glory of eloquence and polite-
nefs ; it being (fays he) the peculiar privilege of the pa¬
gan philofophers to amufe the mind with colours as falfe
as their idols; and to fay great things, not being capable
of faying true ones.” Ambrofe met with a good deal
of oppofition from the Arians, againft whom he adled
with great fpirit and intrepidity. Juftina the emprefs
and mother of Valentinian, who was an Arian, refol-
ving to reftore Arianifm at Milan, began with demand¬
ing of St Ambrofe one of the churches, which was
called the Portian church : but he refufed it; and the
people furrounding the palace in a body, /he was ob¬
liged to leave him in poffe/fion of his church, and even
defire him to pacify the people.
Ambrofe was a fecond. time fent to the tyrant Max¬
imus, for Valentinian found no perfon fa proper to ne¬
gotiate with him. He fpoke to him with great cou¬
rage and boldnefs, but could obtain nothing; for Maxi¬
mus foon after marched into Italy, and made himfelf
mafter of the weftern empire : fo that Valentinian was
obliged to retire, with his mother Juftina and his After
Galla, to Theflalonica in Illyricum, in order to defire
Theodofius’s afliftance; who defeated Maximus, and-
reftored Valentinian to the empire.
While Theodofius continued in Italy, after the de¬
feat of Maximus, an infurredtion happened at Theffa-
lonica, in which feveral of the magillrates were ftoned,
and their bodies dragged along the ftreets. Theodo¬
fius being informed of this, raftrly commanded a certain >
number of the inhabitants to be put to death promif-
cuoufly |,
A M B T S34 ] A M B
Ahibrofe. ciloufly; by which means the city was filled with
u,—v the blood of many innocent perfons, and amongft the
reft feveral ftrangers who were but juft come there :
no regard was had to any diftin&ion of perfons, no
form of trial was obferved ; but they were cut down
like corn in the harveft, as Theodoret exprelfes it, to
the number of 7000. At this time an aftembly of bi-
fhops was held at Milan, who all expreffed an abhorrence
of fuch cruelty in the emperor. Ambrdfe wrote a let¬
ter to him, in which he reprefented the enormity of his
Crime, and exhorted him to make fatisfaftion by a fin-
cere fubmiffion and repentance. Some time after,Theo-
dofius coming to Milan, went to receive the facrament
at the great church ; where Ambrofe meeting him at
the door, denied him entrance, and rtprefented his guilt
in the moft forcible and pathetic terms. The emperor
was ftruck with his words, and with great uneafinefs
of mind returned to his palace ; but about a year after,
Ambrofe, being convinced of the fincerity of his repen¬
tance, admitted him into the church.
In 392, Valentinian the emperor being afTafiinated
by the contrivance of Argobaftes, and Eugenius ufurp-
ing the empirej Ambrofe was obliged to legve Milan ;
but he returned the year following, when Eugenius
was defeated. He died at Milan the 4th of April
397 ; being 57 years of age, according to Mr Dii Pin
and fome other writers ; but Dr Cave and Olearius fay
that he was 64 years old at his death. He was buried
in the great church at Milan. He wrote feveral works,
the moft confiderable of which is that Ds Officiis. He
is concife and fententious in his manner of writing, and
full of turns of wit; his terms are well chofen, and his
expreflions noble 5 he diverfifies his fubject by an ad¬
mirable copioufnefs of thought and language ; he is
very ingenious in giving an eafy and natural turn to
every thing which he treats of, and is not without
ftrength and pathos when there is occafion for it. This
is part of the charafter which'Du Pin gives him as a
writer ; but Erafmus obferves that he has many quaint
and affe&ed fentences, and frequently very obfcure ones;
and it is certain that his writings are intermixed with
many ftrange and peculiar opinions. Paulinus wrote
his life, and dedicated it to St Atiguftin : this life is pre¬
fixed to St Ambrofe’s works ; the heft edition of which
is reckoned to be that publifhed by the Benediftine
monks, in two volumes in folio, at Paris, in 1686 and
1690.
Ambrose (Ifaac), an eminent preibyterian minifter,
was educated at Brazen-nofe college Oxford, where he
took the degree of bachelor of arts, and became mini¬
fter of Prefton, and afterwards of Garftang in Lanca-
ihire, where he was in 1662 ejefted for non-conformity.
It was ufual with him to retire every year for a month in¬
to a little hut in a wood; where he fhunned all fociety,
and devoted himfelf to religious contemplation. Dr Ca-
lamy obferves, that he had a very ftrong impulfe on his
mind of the approach of death, and took a formal leave
®f his friends at their houfe a little before his departure;
and the laft night of his life he fent his difcourfe con¬
cerning angels to the prefs. The next day he ftmt him¬
felf up in his parlour, where, to the great furprife and
regret of all who faw him, he was found juft expiring.
He died in 1663-4, in the 72d year of his age. He
wrote feveral other books j as the Prfaia, Media, et VI-
tima, or the Firft, Middle, and Laft Things; War with Ambrofia
devils ; Looking unto Jefus ; &c. r •
Ambrose, or St Ambrose in the Wood, an order of mtn'*
religious, who ufe the Ambrofian office, and wear an
image of that faint engraven on a little plate : in other
refpe<fts, they conform to the rule of the Auguftins/-
See Ambrosian Office, and Augustins.
AMBROSIA, in heathen antiquity, denotes the fo-
lid food of the gods, in contradiftinftion from the drink,
which was called neftar. It had the appellation amhro-
fta (compounded of the particle «> and immor¬
tal, ) as being fuppofed to render thofe immortal who fed
Ambrosia is alfo a fplendid kind of title, given by
fome phyficians to certain alexipharmic compofitions,
of extraordinary virtue. The name was particularly
given to a famous antidote of Philip of Macedon, againft
all poifons, bites, and ftings of venomous creatures, as
well as many internal difeafes.
Ambrosia: A genus of the pentandria order, be¬
longing to the monoecia clafs of plants; and, in the
natural method, ranking under the 49th order, Compoji-
ta-nucamentacece. The characters are :—The Male
flowers are compound 1 The common calyx is a fingle-
leav’d perianthium, the length of the florets: The
compound corolla is uniform, tubular, flat, and hemi-
fpherical; the proper is monopetalous, funnel-fliaped,
and quinquefid : The Jlamina confift of five very fmall
filaments ; the antheras are ereft, parallel, and pointed :
The pijlillum has a filiform ftylus, the length of the fta-
mina ; the ftigma orbicular and membranous: The re-
ceptacUlum is naked.—Female flowers below the male
ones, on the fame plant, doubled: The calyx is a fingle-
leav’d perianthium, entire (with the belly quinquedent-
ated), one-flowered, and perfiftent: There is no corol¬
la : The piftillum has an ovate germen in the bottom
of the calyx ; a filiform ftylus, the length of the calyx ;
and two long briftly ftigmata : The pericarpium is an
ovate unilocular nut: The feed is fingle and roundifh.
Of this genus five fpecies are enumerated ; but having
no properties worthy of notice, we omit any farther ac¬
count of them.
AMBROSIAN office, or rite, in church-hiftory,
a particular formula of worlhip in the church of Milan,
which takes its name from St Ambrofe, who inftituted
that office in the fourth century. Each church originally
had its particular office ; and when the Pope, in after¬
times, took upon him to impofe the Roman office up¬
on all the weftern churches, that of Milan fheltered
itfelf under the name and authority of St Ambrofe;
from which time the Ambrofian ritual has prevailed.
AMBROSIN, in middle-age writers, denotes a
coin ftruck by the lords or dukes of Milan, whereon
Was reprefented St Ambrofe on horfeback, with a whip
in his right hand. The occafion of this coinage is faid
to have been a vifion of that faint, who appeared to
the Milanefe general in 1339, during the time of a
battle.
AMBROSINIA, in botany ; a genus of the po-
lyandria order belonging to the gynandria clafs of
plants; the characters of which are : The calyx is a
fingle-leaved fpatha, divided by a partition into two
cells : There is no corolla: The farnina confift of a
fingle filament in the interior cell; the anthers; are
numerous,
i
Aml-rfiflu-
A M B
numerous, with two round!(h concave nectaries at their
bafe : The pijlillum is in the interior cell; the germen
roundifh; the ftylus cylindrical, and fhorter than the
fpatha; the ftigma obtufe: The pericarpium (a cap-
fule ?) roundifh and unilocular. There is but one fpe-
cies, a native of Turkey.
AMBROSIUS Aurelianus, or Aurelius Am-
[ 535 1
A M B
Ambrofius in repairing the churches, encouraging the Ambry
rdergy, and reftoring the honour of religion. The Am^ury.
Monmouth hiftorian gives this prince a very high cha- . >.
rafter. “ He was a man (fays he) of fuch bravery and
courage, that when he was in Gaul no one durft enter
the lifts with him; for he was fure to unhorfe his anta-
gonift, or to break his fpear into fhivers. He was,,
brosius, a famous general of the ancient Britons, of moreover, generous in beftowing, careful in perform-
Roman extraftion. He was educated at the court of ing religious duties, moderate in all things, and more.
Aldroen of America; who, at the requeft of the Bri- efpecially abhorred a lie. He was ftrong on foot,
tons, fent him over with ten thoufand men, to affift ftronger on horfeback, and perfeftly qualified to com-
them againft the Saxons, whom Vortigern had invited mand an army.’> The fame author tells us.he was poi-
into Britain. Ambrofius had fuch fuccefs againft. the
Saxons, that the Britons chofe him for their king, and
compelled Vortigern to give up to him all the weftern
part of the kingdom divided by the Roman highway
called Watling-Jlreet. Some time after, the Britons
being difeontented with Vortigern, and having with¬
drawn their allegiance from him, he returned to a caftle
in Wales, where being befieged by Ambrofius, and
the caftle taking fire, he perifhed in the flames, and
left his rival foie monarch of Britain ; who now took
upon him the imperial purple, after the manner of the
Roman emperors. Geoffrey of Monmouth tells us, that
Ambrofius built Stonehenge near Salifbury in Wilt-
foned at Winchefter by one Eopa a Saxon, difguifed
as a phyfician, and hired for that purpofe by PafcentiuS'
one of the fons of Vortigern: but the generally received
opinion is, that he was killed in a battle which he loft-
in the year 508, againft Cerdric, one of the Saxon ge¬
nerals.
AMBRY, a place in which are depofited all uten-
fils neceffary for houfe-keeping. In the ancient ab¬
beys and priories, there was an office under this deno¬
mination, wherein were laid up all charities for the poor.
AMBUBAJtE, in Roman antiquity, were immodeft:
women, who came from. Syria to Rome, where they
lived by proftitution, and by playing oa the flute; the-
(hire. Ambrofms, according to this hiftorian, coming word is derived from the Syriac abub, which fignifies a
1 monaftery near Caercaradoc, now Salifbury,. where
three hundred Britifh lords, maffacred by. Hengift, lay
flute; altho’ others make it to come from am and Baice,.
becaufe thefe proftitutes often retired to Bake. Accord-
buried, and refolving to perpetuate the memory of this ing to Cruquius, thefe womenufedlikewife to fell paint
aftion, he ordered his workmen to prepare a large for ornamenting the face,. &c.
quantity of ftones and other materials. But having,,
at the inftigation of Tremounus archbiffiop of Caer-
AMBULANT, or Ambulatory. They give in
France the name of ambulant commiffioners to thofc
leon, confulted the famous Merlin, this magician ad- commiffioners,.or clerks of the king’s farms, who have*
vifed him to fend-over to Ireland for certain great
ftones, called chorea gigantum, the giant’s dance, placed
no fettled office; but vifit all the offices within a cer¬
tain diftrift, to fee that nothing be done in them againft*
in a circle on a hill called Killair, having been brought the king’s right and the intereft of the farm-.
thither by giants from the fartheft borders of Afri¬
ca. A body of forces were accordingly fent into Ire¬
land, under Pendragon, Ambrofius’s brother, to fetch
thefe ftones; but were oppofed in their attempt by Gil-
liomanus king of the country, who derided the folly
of the Britons in undertaking fo ridiculous an expedi¬
tion. Neverthelefs, the Britons having vanquifhed this
prince in battle, brought away the ftones ; and by the
direftion and affiftance of Merlin, who had accompa¬
nied them, thefe wonderful ftones, by order of Am-
Ambulant is alfo ufed to denote thofe brokers at?
Amfterdam,. or exchange agents, who have not been;
fworn before the magiftrates. They tranfaft broker¬
age bufinefs, but their teftimony is not received in the
courts of juftice.
AMBULATORY, a term anciently applied to-
fuch courts, &c. as were not fixed to any certain place?
but held fometimes in one place, and fometimes in ano¬
ther. In oppofition to ftationary courts.—The court?
of parliament was anciently ambulatory ; . fo. alfo wer©
brofius, were placed over the graves of the Britiffi the courts of king’s bench, &c..
lords, and are now what is called Stonehenge. Alex¬
ander Mecham celebrates this fable in his poem De. di-
vinx fapieniix laudibus. Polydore Virgil affigns ano¬
ther origin of Stonehengehe tells us it was erefted by
the Britons as a monument to their general Ambrofius,
on the place where he fell in battle, to perpetuate the
memory of his glorious aftions and fervices done to his
country. Both thefe ftories are rejefted by our beft
antiquaries; who, however, are by no means, agreed as
to the true origin of this famous piece of antiquity.. See
Stonehenge.
After the Britons had defeated the Saxons, and ob¬
liged them to retire northward, Ambrofius is faid to
have convened the princes and great men at York,
where he gave orders for repairing the churches deftroy-
ed by the Saxons, and reftoring the exercife of religion
AMBURBIUM, in Roman antiquity, a proceffioir
made by the Romans round the city and pomcerium,
in which they led a viftim, and afterwards-facrificed
it, in order to avert fome calamity.that.threatened the.
city..
AMBURY, or Anbury, among ferriers, denotes a
tumor, wart, or fwelling, which is faft to the touch? ,
and full of blood..
This diforder of horfes is cured by tying a horfe*
hair very .hard about its. root; and, when if has fallen
off, which commonly happens in about eight daysj
ft re wing fome-powder of verdigris upon the part, to
prevent the return of the complaint.. If the tumor be
fo low that nothing can be tied about it, they cut it
out with a knife, or elfe burn it off with a iharp hot
iron ; and, in finewy parts, where a hot iron is impro-
to its former luftre. This is confirmed by Matthew of per, they eat it away with oil. of vitriol, or white fu-
Weftminfter; who highly applauds the great zeal of blimate.
Many
Amliufcade
II.
Atnedians
A M E
Many of our farriers boaft of a fecret’.vhich infallibly
cures all kinds of protuberances of this kind ; the pre¬
paration of which is this : Take three ounces of green
vitriol and one ounce of white arfenic-t beat them to
a coarfe powder, and put them into a crucible ; place
the crucible in the midft of a charcoal fire, flirring the
fubftance, but carefully avoiding the poifonous fteams;
when the whole grows reddifli, take the crucible out
of the fire, and, when cool, break it and take out the
matter at the bottom ; kieat this to powder in a mortar,
and add to four ounces of this powder five ounces of
albu?n rhojis ; make the whole into an ointment, and
let it be applied cold to warts; rubbing them with it
every day. They will by this means fall off gently
and eafily, without leaving any fwellings. It is belt
to keep the horfe quiet, and without Working, during
the cure. What fores remain on the parts which the
fwellings fall off from, may be cured with the common
application called the countejs’s ointment.
AMBUSCADE, or Ambush, in the military art,
properly denotes a place where foldiers may lie con¬
cealed till they find an opportunity to furprife the e-
nemy.
In the language of Scripture, thefe terms are not
always taken in their proper fignification, for laying
ambuflies for any one, attacking him in fecret, laying
fnares for him. They fometimes fignify no more than
attacking a man who has no diftruil of fuch a thing;
attacking one behind, concealing one’s felf in fome
particular place in order to furprife any one. See the
book of Judes, ch. ix. 25, 32, 34, 35. Abimelech,
who lay lurking with his people in the heights of Si-
chem, fo, however, as to rob and treat thofe who
paffed that way very ill, came and attacked the city
•of Sichem with his troops divided into three bodies:
’Tetendit infidias juxta Sichimam in quatuor locis. Li¬
terally, according to the Hebrew, “ They prepared
ambufcades againft Sichem in four heads or compa¬
nies.” And a little farther, verfe 43. “ Abimelech
being informed that the Sichemites were marched, took
his army and divided it into three bodies, and laid wait
for them in the field.” It feems certain, that in thefe
paffages ambuflies, properly fo called, were not the
things in queftion. In the firft book of Samuel, Saul
complains that David laid ambufcades for him : Injidi-
ator u/que hodie permanens. Now nothing could be
worfe grounded than this accufaticn, if we underftand
the word inftdiari in its proper fignification ; but he
might fay, though unjuftly, that David was his fecret
enemy. And in the Chronicles it is faid, that God
turned the ambuflies laid by the enemies of Ifrael upon
themfelves; that is to fay, their endeavours, their ma¬
lice, their arms, he turned againft themfelves : for the
enemies there mentioned came not in private or by
ftratagem; they marched openly in arms againft If¬
rael.
AMBY, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands, in the
province of Limburg, fituated oppofite to Maellricht,
on the eaft fide of the river Maefe, in E. Long. 5. 45.
N. Lat. 50. 57.
AMEDIANS, in church-hiflory, a congregation
of religious in Italy, fo called from their profeffing
themfelves amantes Deum, “ lovers of God;” or rather
amati Deo, “ beloved of God.” They wore a grey
habit and wooden Ihoes, had no breeches, and girt
N® 14.
A M E
themfelves with a cord. They had 28 convents ; and Amelia,
were united by Pope Pius V. partly with the Ciftercian Amellu*.
order, and partly with that of the Soccolanti, or
wooden-flioe wearers.
AMELIA, an epifcopal city of Italy, in the ftate
of the church, feated on a mountain, in the duchy of
Spoletto. E. Long. 13. 20. N. Lat. 42. 33.
AMELLUS, Starwort: A genus of the polyga-
mia fuperflua order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
49th order, Compofitce-oppofitifoliee. The charafters are:
The common calyx'h imbricated and roundifli: The
compound corolla is radiated ; the hermaphrodite confl¬
icts numerous in the diflt; the female numerous in the
ray: Proper corolla of the hermaphrodites are tubular
and quinquefid; of the females, tongued, loofe, and
two or three toothed : The Jltnnina in the hermaphro¬
dites confifl. of five fliort capillary filaments; thd anthe-
ra cylindric and tubular: The pijlillum has an ovate
germen; a filiform llylus the length of the ftamina;
and two filiform ftigmata: There is no pericarpium,
but the calyx unchanged : The feeds are ovate and fo-
litary; the pappus is hairy; the receptaculum chaffy.-—
Of this there are two
Species. 1. The lynchitis, with one flower on each
footftalk. This is a native of the Cape of Good Hope.
It is a perennial plant, rifing about three feet high,
fending out many branches on each fide, fo as to form
a bufliy plant; the branches are garnifhed with obtufe
fpear-fliaped leaves placed oppofite, and are terminated
by fingle naked flower-ftalks, each fupporting one vio¬
let-coloured flower, having a yellow dilk, which is fuc-
ceeded by oblong feeds. 2. The umbellatus, with
flowers growing in umbels, is a native of Jamaica; and
rifes from two to three feet high, fending out many
branches cloathed with oppofite leaves, which are ter¬
minated by frnall flowers in umbels.
Culture. The firft; is eafily propagated, either by
cuttings planted in the fummer-months, or by feeds
fown on a moderate hot-bed in the fpring, but the
plants require a flight flielter in winter. The fecond is
much more tender, and therefore requires to be pre¬
served in a ftove during the winter feafon.
AMELOT de la Houssai (Nicholas),born at Or¬
leans in 1634, was much efteemed at the court of France,
and appointed fecretary of an embaffy which that court
fent to the commonwealth of Venice, as appears by the
title of his tranflation of Father Paul’s Hiftory of the
Council of Trent; but he afterwards publiflied writings
which gave fuch offence, that he was imprifoned in the
Baftile. The firft works he printed were the Hiftoiy
of the.Government of Venice, and that of the Ufcocks,
a people of Croatia. In 1683 he publiflied his tranfla-
tions into French of Machiavel’s Prince, and Father
Paul’s Hiftory of the Council of Trent, and Political
Difcouifes of his own upon Tacitus. Thefe perform¬
ances were well received by the public. He did not
prefix his own name to the two laft mentioned works,
but concealed himfelf under that of La Mothe Joffeval.
His tranflation of Father Paul was attacked by the
partifans of the pope’s unbounded power and autho¬
rity. In France, however, it met with great fuccefs ;
all the advocates for the liberty of the Gallican church
promoting the fuccefs of it to the utmoft of their power,
though at the fame time there were three memorials
1 prefented
I 53® 1
A M E l 537 1 A M E
ijVmclot, prefented to have it fupprefled. When the Tecond edi-
1 jAmen- tion of this tranflation was publilhed, it was violently
"' "v attacked by the Abbe St Real, in a letter he wrote to
Mr Bayle, dated Oftober 17. 1685. Amelot defend¬
ed himfelf, in a letter to the fame gentleman. In 1684,
he printed at Paris a French tranflation of Baltafar
Gracian’s Oraculo manual, with the title of l'Homme de
Cour. In 1686, he printed La Morale de Tacite de la
flaterie ; in which work he collected feveral particular
fa£ls and maxims, which reprefent in a ftrong light the
artifices of court-flatterers, and the mifchievous effeft
of their poifonous difcotirfes. Frederick Leonard, a
bookfeller at Paris, having propofed, in the year 1692,
to print a collection of all .the treaties of peace between
the kings of France arid all the other princes of Eu¬
rope, fince the reign of Charles VII. to the year 1690,
Amelot publifhed a fmall volume in duodecimo, con¬
taining a preliminary difeourfe upon thefe treatifes;
wherein he endeavours to (how, that moft princes, when
they enter into a treaty, think more how to evade than
how to perform the terms they fubferibe to. He pu-
blifhed alfo an edition of Cardinal d’Oflat’s Letters in
1697, with feveral obfervations of his own ; which, as
he tells us in his. advertifement, may ferve as a fupple-
ment to the hiftory of the reigns of Henry III. and Hen¬
ry IV. kings of France. He wrote feveral other works;
and died at Pains in 1706, being then almoft 73 years
of age.
AMELOT (Denis), a celebrated French writer,
was born at Saintonge in 1606. He maintained a clofe
correfpondence with the fathers of the Oratory, a
congregation of priefts founded by Philip of Neri. He
wrote the life of Charles de Gondren, fecond fuperior
of this congregation, and publifhed it at Paris in 1643.
In this piece he faid fomething of the famous Abbot
of St Cyran, which greatly difpleafed the gentlemen
of Port Royal; who, to be revenged of him, publifh-
ed a libel againft him, intitled Idee generale I’efprit et
de livre de P. Amelote. He was fo much provoked by
this fatire, that he did all in his power to injure them.
They had finilhed a tranflation of the New Teftament,
and were defirous to have it publifhed 5 for which pur-
pofe they endeavoured to procure an approbation from
the doftors of the Sorbonne, and a privilege from the
king. But Amelot, by his influence with the Chan¬
cellor, prevented them from fucceeding. In this he
had alfo a view to his own interefl:; for he was about
to publifli a tcanflation of his own of the New Tefta¬
ment. Amgtot’s tranflation with annotations, in 4 vols
odtavo, was printed in the years 1666, 1667, and 1668.
It is not very exadi, according to F. Simon, who tells
us that it contains fome very grofs blunders. Amelot
wrote alfo an Abridgment of Divinity, a Catechifm
for the Jubilee, and a kind of Chriftian Manual for
every Day. Towards.the end of his life, he entered
into the congregation of the Oratory in 1650 5 and
continued amongft them.till his death, which happened
in 1678.
.AMEN, ftjK, fignifies true, faithful, certain. It is
made - ufe of likewife to affirm any thing, and was a
M Tortsof affirmation ufed often by our Saviour: A^»v,
A^v, uy..,* i. e. Verily, verily, I fay unto you.
Laftly, it is underftood as expreffing a wifh ; as Amen,
£0 be it. Numb. v. 22. or an affirmation, Amen, yes, I
Vol. I. Part IL
believe it, 1 Cor. xiv. 16. The Hebrews and the five
books of Pfalms, according to their way of diftribu-
ting them, with the words amen, amen; which the
Septuagint have tranflated y^ono, yiwiro; and the La¬
tins fiat, fiat. The Greek and Latin churches have
preferved this word in their prayers, as well as alleluiah
and hofanna; beeaufe they obferved more energy in
them than in any terms which they could ufe in their
own languages. At the conclufion of the public pray-
ers* the people anfwered with a loud voice, Amen ;
and St Jerom fays, that at Rome when the people an¬
fwered Amen, the found of their voices was like a clap
of thunder: In fimilitudinem cxlejhs tonitrui Amen re¬
boat. The Jews aflert that the gates of heaven are
opened to him who anfwers Amen with all his might.
AMEND, or Amende,'in the French cuftoms, a
pecuniary punifhment impofed by a judge for any crime,
falfe profecution, or groundlefs appeal.
Amende Honourable, an infamous kind of punifti-
rrient inflicted in France upon traitors, parricides, or
facrilegious perfons, in the following manner: The of¬
fender being delivered into the hands of the hangman,
his fhirt is ftripped off, a rope put about his neck, and
a taper in his hand; then he is led into court, where he
muft beg pardon of God, the king, the court, and his
country. Sometimes the punifhment ends here; but
fometimes it is only a prelude to death, or banifhment
to the galleys.
Amende Honourable, is a term alfo ufed for making
recantation in open court, or in prefence of the perfoa
injured.
AMENDMENT, in a general fenfe, denotes fome
alteration or change made in a thing for the better.
Amendment, in law, the correction of an error com¬
mitted in a procefs, which may be amended after judge¬
ment, unlefs the error lies in giving judgment; for in
that cafe it is not amendable, but the party muft bring
a writ of error. A bill may be amended on the file at
any time before the plea is pleaded; but not afterwards,
without motion and leave of the court.
Amendment of a Bill, in parliament, is fome altera¬
tion made in the firft draught of it.
AMENTUM, in botany, the name of a fpecies of
calyx, confifting of valves, and hanging down in diffe¬
rent directions from the caulis. Common oats afford a
good example of the amentum.
Amentum, in Roman antiquity, a thong tied about
the middleof a javelin or dart, and faftened to the fore¬
finger, in order to recover the weapon as foon as it
was difeharged. The ancients made great ufe of the
amentum, thinking it helped to enforce the blow. It
alfo denotes a latchet that bound their fandals.
AMERADE, a kind of officers among the Sara¬
cens, anfwering to the governors of provinces among
the Europeans.—The name is originally the fame with
that of emir.
AMERCEMENT, or Amerciament, in law, a
pecuniary punifhment impofed on offenders at the mer¬
cy of the court. It differs from a fine in being impo-
pofed arbitrarily in proportion to the fault; whereas
a fine is a certain punifhment fettled exprefsly by fome
ftatute.
AMERICA (from Americas Vefputius, falfely faid
to be the firft difeoverer of the continent); one of the
3 Y four
Amend
II
Amei Id.
A M E
[ 538 1
A M E
tains, covered with fnow and ice, runs through all this America,
dreary region. The wind palling over fuch an extent1 “
of high and frozen land, becomes fo impregnated with
This vaft country extends from the 80th degree of cold, that it acquires a piercing keennefs, which it re-
  — J tains in its progrefs through warmer climates; and is
America, four quarters of the World, probably the largeft of the
v ' whole, and from its late difeovery frequently denomi-
j nated the New World.
Boundaries.
north, to the 56th degree of fouth latitude; and,
where its breadth is known, from the 35th to the 136th
degree welt longitude from London; ftretching be¬
tween 8000 and 9000 miles in length, and in its great-
eft breadth 3690.' It fees both hemifpheres, has two
fummers and a double winter, and enjoys all the varie¬
ty of climates which the earth affords. It is walked by
the two great oceans. To the eaftward it has the At¬
lantic, which divides it from L11 rope and Africa; to the
weft it has the Pacific or Great South Sea, by which
it is feparated from Alia. By thefe feas it may, and
does, carry on a direft commerce with the other three
a parts of the world.
North and America is not of equal breadth throughout its
South con- whole extent; but is divided into two great continents,
tment. it,,. ^ °
not entirely mitigated until it reach the gulph of Mex¬
ico. Over all the continent of North America, a north-
wefterly wind and exceflive cold are fynonymous terms.
Even in the moft fultry weather, the moment that the
wind veers to that quarter, its penetrating influence is-
felt in a tranfition from heat to cold no lefs violent
than fudden. To this powerful caufe we may aferibe
the extraordinary dominion of cold, and its violent in¬
roads into the fouthern provinces in that part of the
globe.
“ Other caufes, no lefs remarkable, diminilh the ac¬
tive power of heat in thofe parts of the American con¬
tinent which lie between the tropics. In all that por¬
tion of the globe, the wind blows in an invariable di-
called North and South America, by an ifthmus 1500 redtion from call to weft. As this wind holds its courfe
miles Ibng, and which at Darien, about Lat. 90 N. is
only 60 miles over. This ifthmus forms, with the nor¬
thern and fouthern continents, a vaft gulph, in which
acrofs the ancient continent, it arrives at the countries
which ftretch along the weftern fhore of Africa, infla¬
med with all the fiery particles which it hath collected
lie a great number of iflands, called the Weft Indies, in from the fultry plains of Afia, and the burning fandsin
the African defarts. The coaft of Africa is accord¬
ingly the region of the eaith which feels the melt fer¬
vent heat, and is expofed to the unmitigated ardour of
contradiftinftion to the eaftern parts of Afia, which
3 called the Eajl Indies.
Remark- Between the New World and the Old, there are fe- ,     a  
knce'r'f'™" vera^ very diking; differences; but the moft remarkable the torrid zone. But this fame wind, which brings fuch
ctlcfi ° general predominance of cold throughout the an acceffion of warmth to the countries lying between
wdiole extent of America. Though we cannot, in any ‘‘ : ~L'C' ^ <■ • r 1 *
country, determine the precife degree of heat merely by
the diftance of the equator, Eecaufe the elevation above
the fea, the nature of the foil, &c. affedf the climate ;
yet, in the ancient continent, the heat is much more
in proportion to the vicinity to the equator than in
any part of America. Here the rigour of the frigid
the river of Senegal and Cafraria, traverfes the Atlantic
ocean before it reaches the American ftiore. It is cool¬
ed in its paffage over this vaft body of water; and is felt
as a refrcihing gale along the coails of Brafil and Gui¬
ana, rendering thofe countries, tho’ amongft the warm-
eft in America, temperate, when compared with thofe
which lie oppofite to them in Africa. As this wind ad-
e extends over half that which fhouM be temperate vances in its courfe acrofs America, it meets with im-
by its pofition. Even in thofe latitudes where the winter menfe plains covered with impenetrable forefts; or oc-
is fcarcely felt on the Old continent, it reigns with great cupied by large rivers, marihes, and ftagnating waters*
verity in America, though during a ftiort period. Nor w'here it can recover no confiderable degree of heat. At
does this cold, prevalent in the New World, confine it-
fell to the temperate zones; but extends its influence to
length it arrives at the Andes, which run from north to
fouth thro’ the whole continent. In palling over their
the torrid zone alfo,confiderably mitigating the excels of elevated and frozen fummits, it is fo thoroughly cool-
its heat.—Along the eaftem coaft, the climate, though
more fimilar to that of the torrid zone in other parts of
the earth, is neverthelefs confiderably milder than in
thofe countries of Afia and Africa which lie in the fame
latitude. From the fouthern tropic to the extremity
of the American continent, the cold is faid to be much
greater than in parallel northern latitudes even of Ame¬
rica itfelf.
For this fo remarkable difference between the climate
ed, that the greater part of the countries beyond them
hardly feel the ardour to which they feem expofed by
their fituation. In the other provinces of America,
from Terra Firma weftward to the Mexican empire,
the heat of the climate is tempered, in fame places, by
the elevation of the land above the fea f in others, by
their extraordinary humidity; and in all, by the enor¬
mous mountains fcattered over this traft. The iflands
of America in the torrid zone are either fmall or moun-
of the New continent and the Old, various caufes have tainous, and are fanned alternately by refrcihing fea
affigned by different authors. The following is and land breezes.
Dr Robert-the opinion of the learned Dr Rohertfon on this fub-
fons^ordiis^* Though the utmoft extent of America to-
iuperior de- )var^3 t^e north be not yet difeovered, we know that
gree of ft advances nearer to the pole than either Europe or
c6ld. Afia. The latter have large feas to the north, which , a ■ .
^Ameri cf 3re °^e” ^ur*nS Part of the year; and, even when co- tween the fouthern extremity of America and the ant-
The caufes of the extraordinary cold towards the
fouthern limits of America, and in the feas beyond it,
cannot he afeertained in a manner equally fatisfying.
It was long fuppofed, that a vaft continent, diftinguifh-
ed by the name of 'Terra Aujlralis Incognita, lay be-
v^3Jered^hice’ the wind that blows over them is lefs arctic pole. The fame principles which account for
intenfely cold than that which blows over land in the the extraordinary degree of cold in the northern regi-
fame latitudes. But, in America, the land ftretches
from the rivet St Lawrence towards the pole, and fpreads
out immenfely to the weft. A chain of enormous mourn
ons of America, were employed in order to explain that
which is felt at Cape Horn and the adjacent countries.
The immenfe extent of the fouthern continent, and the
5 rivers-
v'yvsr/1&^
Plate JOT.
HateMt.
A M E C 539 ] A M E
1 America, rivers winch it poured into the ocean, were mentioned
and admitted by philofophers as caufes fufficient to oc-
cafion the unufual fenfation of cold, and the ftill more
uncommon appearances of frozen feas in that region of
the globe. But the imaginary continent to which fuch
influence was aferibed having been fearched for in vain,
and the fpace which it was fuppofed to occupy having
been found to be an open fea; new conjectures mull be
formed with refpect to the caufes of a temperature of
climate, fo extremely different from that which we ex¬
perience in countries removed at the fame dillance from
the oppofite pole.
\V>id. p. 451. « The molt obvious and probable caufe of this fu-
^ote xxxi. per{or degree Df cold towards the fouthern extremity
of America, feems to be the form of the continent
there. Its breadth gradually decreafes as it ftretches
from St Antonio fouthwards, and from the bay of St
Julian to the ftraits of Magellan its dimenfions are much
contracted. On the eaft and weft fides, it is wafhed
by the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. From its fouth¬
ern point, it is probable that an open fea ftretches to
the antardlic pole. In whichever of thefe directions
the wind blows, it is cooled before it approaches the
Magellanic regions, by pafiing over a vaft body of wa¬
ter ; nor is the land there of fuch extent, that it can
recover any confiderable degree of heat in its progrefs
over it. Thefe circumftances concur in rendering the
temperature of the air in this diftriCt of America, more
fimilar to that of an infular, than to that of a continen¬
tal climate ; and hinder it from acquiring the fame de¬
gree of fummer-heat, with places in Europe and Afia,
in a correfponding northern latitude. The north wind
is the only one that reaches this part of America, after
blowing over a great continent. But, from an atten¬
tive furvey of its pofition, this will be found to have a
tendency rather to diminish than augment the degree
of heat. The fouthern extremity of America is pro¬
perly the termination of the immenfe ridge of the An¬
des, which ftretches nearly in a direCt line from north
to fouth, through the whole extent of the continent.
The moft fultry regions in South America, Guiana,
Brafil, Paraguay, and Tucuman, lie many degrees to
the eaft of the Magellanic regions. The level country
of Peru, which enjoys the tropical heats, is fituated con-
fiderably to the weft of them. The north wind, then,
though it blows-over land, does not bring to the fouth¬
ern extremity of America an increafe of heat collected
in its paffage over torrid regions; but, before it arrives
there, it muft have fwept along the fummit of the An¬
des, and come impregnated with the cold of that frozen
I,' region.”
I Extreme Another particularity in the climate of America is
I jmoifture of its exceflive moifture in general. In fame places, in-
the Ameri- deed, on the weftern coaft, rain is not known ; but, in
j ican climate. ajj part;S} the moiftnefs of the climate is as re¬
markable as the cold.—The forefts wherewith it is every
where covered, no doubt, partly occafion the moifture of
its climate; but the moft prevalent caufe is the vaft
quantity of water in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans,
with which America is environed on all fides. Hence
thofe places where the continent is narroweft are de¬
luged with almoft perpetual rains, accompanied with
i violent thunder and lightning, by which fome of them,
particularly' Porto Bello, are rendered in a manner un¬
inhabitable.
This extreme moifture of the American climate is America,
productive of much larger rivers there than in any other '
part of the world. The Danube, the Nile, the Indus, Larger;.
or the Ganges, are not comparable to the Miffifippi, vers, and
the River St Laurence, or that of the Amazons; nor exceffive
are fuch large lakes to be found any where as thofe
which North America affords.—To the fame caafe we ti0,,.
are alfo partly to aferibe the exceffive luxuriance of all
kinds of vegetables in almoft all parts of this country.
In the fouthern provinces, where the moifture of the
climate is aided by the warmth of the fun, the woods
are almoft impervious, and the furface of the ground is
hid from the eye, under a thick covering of Ihrubs,
herbs, and weeds.—In the northern provinces, the fo¬
refts are not encumbered with the fame luxuriance of
vegetation ; neverthelefs, they afford trees much larger
of their kind than what are to be found any where elfe. ?
From the eoldnefs and the moifture of America, an Mihgmty
extreme malignity of climate has been inferred, and af- un-Cuftjy ^
ferted by M. de Paw in his Recherches Phifafophiques. feribed to
Hence, according to his hypothefis, the fmallnefs and America,
irregularity of the nobler animals, and the fize and en¬
ormous multiplication of reptiles and infe<fts.
But the fuppofed fmallnefs and lefs ferocity of the Hijlory of
American animals, the Abbe Clavigero obferves, in- Mexico,
ftead of the malignity, demonftrates the mildnefs and vo^
bounty of the clime, if we give credit to Buffon, at^’
whofe fountain M. de Paw has drank, and of wdiofe
teftimony he has availed himfelf againft Don Pernetty.
Buffon, who in many places of his Natural Hiftory
produces the fmallnefs of the American animals as a
certain'argument of the malignity of the climate of A-
merica; in treating afterwards of favage animals, in
Tom. II. fpeaks thus : "'As all things, even the moft
free creatures, are fubjeft to natural laws, and animals
as well as men are fubje&ed to the influence of climate
and foil, it appears that the fame caufes which have
civilized and poliftied the human fpecies in our climates,
may have likewife produced fimilar effects upon other
fpecies. The wolf, which is perhaps the fierceft of all
the quadrupeds of the temperate zone, is however in¬
comparably lefs terrible than the tyger, the lion, .and
the panther of the torrid zone ; and the white bear and
hyena of the frigid zone. In America, where the air
and the earth are more mild than thofe of Africa, the
tyger, the lion, and the panther, are not terrible but in
the name. They have degenerated, if fiercenefs, join¬
ed to cruelty, made their nature ; or, to fpeak move
properly, they have only fuffered the influence of the
climate : under a milder Iky their nature alfo has be¬
come more mild. From climes which are immoderate
in their temperature are obtained drugs, perfumes, poi-
fons, and all thofe plants whofe qualities are ftrong.
The temperate earth, on the contary, produces; only
things which are temperate; the mildeft herbs, the moft
wholefome pulfe, the fweeteft fruits, the moft quiet
animals, and the moft humane men, are the natives of
this happy clime. As the earth makes the plants, the
earth and plants make animals ; the earth, the plants,
and the animals make man. The phyfical qualities of
man, and the animals which feed on other animals, de¬
pend, though more remotely, on the fame caufes which
influence their difpofitions and cuftoms. This is the
greateft proof and demonftration, that in temperate
climes every thing becomes temperate, and that in in-
3 Y 3 temperate
infefted
than other
with infects
AMR [ 540 ] A M E
temperate climes every thing is exceflive ; and that fize Ferdinand Cortes found bags full of them in the palace 1
and form, which appear fixed and determinate quali- of Montezuma.” But this argument, exaggerated as
ties, depend notwithftanding, like the relative quali- it is, proves nothing again ft the climate of AmeT
ties, on the influence of climate. The fize of our rica in general, much lefs againft that of Mexico...
quadrupeds cannot be compared with that of an ele- There being fome lands in America, in which, on ac-
phant, the rhinoceros, or fea-horfe. The largeft of count of their heat, humidity, or want of inhabi-
our birds are but fmall if compared with the oftrich, tants, large infefts are found, and exceffively multi-
the condore, and cafoare.” So far M. Buffon, whofe plied, will prove at moft, that in fome places the fur- -
text we have copied, becaufe it is contrary to what face of the earth is infefted, as he fays, with putrefac-
M. de Paw writes againft the climate of America, and tion ; but not that the foil of Mexico,, or that, of all
to Buffon himfelf in many other places. America, is flunking, uncultivated,., vitiated, . and.ahan-
If the large and fierce animals are natives of intern- doned to itfelf. If fuch a deduftion.were juft,‘ M. de
perate climes, and fmall and tranquil animals of tern- Paw might alfo fay, that the foil .of the .old continent-
perate climes, as M. Buffon has here eftablilhed; if is barren, and flunks; as in many countries of it there
mildnefs of climate influences the difpofition and cuf- are prodigious multitudes of monftrous infefts, noxious
toms of animals, M. de Paw does not well deduce the reptiles,, and vile animals, as in the Philippine Ifles, in
malignity of the climate of America from the fmaller many of .thofe of the. Indian archipelago, in feveral
fize and lefs fiercenefs of its animals ; he ought rather countries of the fouth of Afia, in many of Africa, and
to have deduced the gentlenefs and fweetnefs of its cli- even in fome of Europe.- The Philippine Ifles are in¬
mate from this antecedent. If, on the contrary, the fefted with enormous ants-and monftrous butterflies;
fmaller fize and lefs fiercenefs of the American,animals, Japan with fcorpions ; .;South .of Afia and Africa with
with refpeft to thofe of the old continent, are a proof ferpents ; Egypt. with afps ; Guinea and Ethiopia
of their degeneracy, arifing from the malignity of the with armies of ants ; Holland with field-rats; Ukra
clime, as M. de Paw would have it, we ought in like nia. with toads, as M. de Paw himfelf affirms. In I-
manner to argue the malignity of the climate of Eu- taly, the Campagna di Roma (although peopled for
rope from the fmaller fize and lefs fiercenefs of its ani- fo many ages), with vipers; Calabria with tarantulas ; -
mals, compared with thofe of Africa. If a philofopher the ffiores of the Adriatic fea with clouds of .gnats ;
of the country of Guinea ffiould undertake a work in and even in France, the population of which is fo great
imitation of M. de Paw, with this title, Recherchcs and fo ancient, whofe lands are fo well cultivated, and
Philofophiques jur les Europeens, he might avail himfelf whofe climate is fo celebrated by the French, there ap-
of the fame argument which M. de Paw ufes,.to demon- peared, a few years ago, according to M. Buffon, a
ftrate the malignity of the climate of Europe, and the; new fpecies of field-mice, larger than the common
advantages of that of Africa. . The climate of Europe, kind, called by him Surmulsts, which have multiplied
he would fay, is very. unfavourable to the produftion exceedingly, to the great damage of the fields. M.
of quadrupeds, which are found incomparably fmaller, Bazin, in his Compendium of the Hiftory of Infefts,.
and more cowardly; than ours. What are the horfe numbers 77 fpecies of bugs, which are all found in Pa-.
and the ox, the largeft of its animals, compared with ris and its neighbourhood. That large capital, as Mr
our elephants, our rhinocerofes, our fea-horfes, and our Bomare fays, fwarms with thofe difguftful infefts. It
camels ? .What are its lizards, either in fize or intre- is true that there are places in America, wffiere the -
pidity, compared with our crocodiles ? Its wolves, its multitude of infefts, and filthy vermin, make life irk-
bears, the moft dreadful of its wild beafts, when befide dome ; but we do not know that they have arrived to -
our lions-and tygers ? Its eagles, its vultures, and cranes, fuch excefs of multiplication as to depopulate any
if compared with our oftriches, appear only like hens. place, at leaft there cannot be fa many examples pro-
As to the enormous fize and prodigious multiplica- duced of this caufe of depopulation in the new as in
tion of the infefts and other little noxious animals, “ The the old continent, which.are attefted by Theophraftus,
furface of the earth (fays M. de Paw), infefted by Varro, Pliny, and other authors.. The frogs depo-
putrefaftion, was over-run with lizards, ferpents, rep- pulated one place in Gaul, and the locufts another in
tiles, and infefts monftrous for fize, and the aftivity of Africa. One of the Cyclades was depopulated by .
their poifon, which they-drew from the copious juices mice; Amiclas, near to Taracina, by ferpents; ano-.
of this'uncultivated foil, that was corrupted and aban- ther place, near to Ethiopia, by fcorpions and poifon-
doned to itfelf, where the nutritive juice became ffiarp, ous ants; and another by fcolopendras; and not fo dif-
like the milk in the breaft of animals which do not tant from our own times, the Mauritius was going to
exercife the virtue of propagation. Caterpillars, crabs, have been abandoned on account of the extraordinary
butterflies, beetles, fpiders, frogs, and toads, were for multiplication of rats, as we can remember to have read
the moft part of an enormous corpulence, in their fpe- in a French author.
cies, and multiplied beyond what can be imagined. With refpeft to the fize of the-rnfefts, reptiles, and
Panama is infefted- with ferpents,. Carthagena with fuch animals, M. de Paw makes ufe of the teftimony
clouds of enormous bats, Portobello with toads, Suri- of Mr Dumont,, who, in his Memoirs on Louifiana,
nam with itafer/tfCiZr or cucarackas, Guadaloupe, and fays, that the frogs are fo large there that they weigh 37
the other colonies of the iflands,, with beetles, Quito French pounds, and their horrid croaking imitates the
with niguas or chegoes,. and Lima with lice and bugs, bellowing of cows. But M. de Paw himfelf fays (in
The ancient. kings of Mexico, and the emperors of his anfwer to Don Pernetty, cap. 17.), that all thofe
Peru, found no other means of ridding their fubjefts who have written about Louifiana from Henepin, Le
of thofe infefts which fed upon them, than the impo- Clerc, and Cav. Tonti, to Dumont, have contradifted
fttion of aa anatial tribute of a certain quantity of lice, each other, fometirues on one and fometimes on ano¬
ther ;
A M E [ 541 ] A M E
America. tKer fubjeft. In faft, neither in the old or the new things he difcovers his ridiculous credulity. It is true America.
l*—~v continent are there frogs of 37 pounds in weight; but that Cortes found bags of liee in the magazines of the ' 'r‘—'
there are in Afia and Africa ferpents, butterflies, ants,
and other animals of fuch monftrous fize, that they ex¬
ceed all thofe which have been difcovered in the new
world. We know very well, that fome American hif-
palace of king Axajacatl. It is alfo true, that Mon¬
tezuma impofed fuch a tribute, not on all his fubje&s
however, but only on thofe who were beggars; not on
account of the extraordinary multitude of thofe :
torian fays, that a certain gigantic fpecies of ferpents fefts, as M. de Paw affirms, but becaufe Montezuma,
s to be found in the woods, which attraft men with
their breath, and fwallow them up ; but we know alfo
who could not fuffer idlenefs in his fubjefts, refolved
that that miferable fet of people, who could not la-
that feveral hiftorians, both ancient and modern, report bour, fliould at leafl: be occupied in loufing themfelves.
the fame thing of the ferpents of Afia, and even fome-
thing more. Megafthenes, cited by Pliny, faid, that
This was the true reafon of fuch an extravagant tri¬
bute, as Torquemada, Betancourt, and other hiftori-
there were ferpents found in Afia, fo large, that they ans relate ; and nobody ever before thought of that
fwallowed entire flags and bulls. Metrodorus, cited by which M. de Paw affirms, merely becaufe it fuited his
the fame author, affirms, that in Afia there were fer¬
pents which, by their breath, attracted birds, however
high they were, or quick their flight. Among the
moderns, Gemelli, in Vol. V. of his Tour of the World,
when he treats of the animals of the Philippine ifles,
prepofterous fyftem. Thofe difgufting infefts poffibly
abound as much in the hair and cloaths of American
beggars, as of any poor and uncleanly, low people in
the world : but there is not a doubt, that if any fove-
reign of Europe was to exaft fuch a tribute from the
fpeaks thus: “ There are ferpents in thefe iflands of poor in his dominions, not only bags, but great veffels
immoderate fize ; there is one called Ibitin, very long,1 might be filled with them.
which fufpending itfelf by the tail from the trunk of a
tree, waits till flags, bears, and alfo men pafs by, in or¬
der to attraft them with its breath, and devour them
at once entirely:” from whence it is evident, that this
very ancient fable has been common to both continents.
Further, it may be alked, In what country of Ame¬
rica could M. de Paw find ants to equal • thofe of the
Philippine iflands, called Suluin, refpefting which Her¬
nandez affirms, that they are fix fingers broad in length
and one in breadth ? . Who. has ever feen in America
butterflies fo large as thofe of Bourbon, Ternate, the
Philippine ifles, and all the Indian archipelago ? The
largett bat of America (native to hot ffiady countries),
which is. that-called by Buffon. Vampiro, is, according
At the time America was difcovered, it was found General de-
inhabited by a race of men no lefs different' from thofe fcription of
in the other parts of the world, than the- climate andtha natives,
natural produ&ions of this continent are different from
thofe of Europe, Afia, or Africa.— One great pecu¬
liarity in the native Americans is their colour, and the
indentity of it throughout the whole extent of the con¬
tinent. In Europe and Afia, the people who inhabit
the northern countries are-of a fairer complexion than
th'ofe who dwell more to the fouthward. In the tor¬
rid zone, both in Africa and Afia, the natives are en¬
tirely black, or the next thing to it. This, however,
muft be underftood with fome limitation. The people
of Lapland, who inhabit the moft northerly part of
to him, of the fize of a pigeon.-. La Rougette, one of Europe, are by no means-fo fair as-the inhabitants of
the fpecies of Afia, is as. large as a raven ; and the Rou~
fette, another fpecies of Afia, is as big as a large hen.
Its wings, when extended, meafure from tip to tip
three Parifian feet, and according to Gemelli, who
meafured it in the Philippine ifles, fix palms. M. Buf¬
fon acknowledges the excefs in fize of the Afiatic bat
over the American fpecies, but denies it as to number.
Gemelli fays, that thofe of the ifland of Luzon were
fo numerous that they darkened the air, and that the
noife which they made with their teeth, in eating the
fruits of the woods, was heard at the diftance of two
miles. M. de Paw fays, in talking of ferpents, “ it
cannot be affirmed that the new world has fliown any
ferpents larger than thofe which Mr Adanfon faw in
the deferts of Africa.” The greateft ferpent found in
Mexico, after a diligent fearch made by Hernandez,
was 18 feet long: but this is not to be compared with
that of the Moluccas, which Bomare fays is 33 feet
in length ; nor with the Anacandaja of Ceylon, which
the fame author fays is more than 33 feet long: nor
Britain ; nor are the Tartars fo fair as the inhabitants
of Europe, who lie under the fame parallels of latitude-.
Nc verthelefs, a Laplander is fair when compared with
an Abyffinian, and a Tartar if compared with a native
of the Molucca iflands.—In America, this diftin&ion
of colour was not to be found. In the torrid zone there
were no negroes, and in the temperate and frigid zones
there were no white people. All of them were of a kind
of red copper-colour, which Mr Forfter obferved, in the
Pefferays.of Terra del Fuego, to have fomething of a
glofs refembling that metal. It doth not appear, how¬
ever, that this matter hath ever been inquired into with
fufficient accuracy. The inhabitants of the inland parts
of South America, where the continent is wideft, and
confequently the influence of the fun the moft power¬
ful, have never been compared with thofe of Cana¬
da, or more northerly parts,- at leaft by any perfon of
credit. . Yet this ought to have been done, and that
in many inftances too, before it could be afferted fo
pofitively as moft authors do, that there is not the leaft
with others of Afia and Africa, mentioned by the fame difference of complexion among the natives of America.
author. Laftly, the argument drawn from the multi¬
tude and fize of the American infers is fully as weighty
as the argument drawn from the fmallnefs and fcarcity
of quadrupeds, and both detedl the fame ignorance, or
rather the fame voluntary and ftudied forgetfulnefs, of
the things of the old continent.
With refpeft to what M. de Paw has faid of the tri¬
bute of lice in Mexico, in that as well as in many other
Indeed,, fo many fyItems have been formed concerning
them, that it is very difficult to obtain a true know¬
ledge of the moft Ample fafts.—If we may believe the
Abbe Raynal, the Californians are fwarthier than the
Mexicans; and fo pofitive is he in this opinion, that he
gives a reafon for it. “ This difference of colour,” fays
he, “ proves, that the civilized life of fociety fubverts,
or totally changes, the order and laws of nature, fince
A M E [ 542 ] A M E
America.
»o
Don Ulloa’
account.
we find, under the temperate zone, a favage people that
are blacker than the civilized nations of the torrid zone.”
—On the other hand, Dr Robertfon claffes all the in¬
habitants of Span! fa America .together with regard to
colour, whether they are civilized or uncivilized ; and
when he fpeaks of California, takes no notice of any
peculiarity in their colour more than others.—The ge¬
neral appearance of the indigenous Americans in va¬
rious diilrifts is thus defcribed by the chevalier Pinto:
“ They are all of a copper colour, with fome diverfity
of lhade, not in proportion to their diftance from the
Equator, but according to the degree of elevation of
the territory in which they relide. Thofe who live in
a high country are fairer than thcfe in the marfhy low
lands on the coafl. Their face is round ; farther re¬
moved, perhaps, than that of any people, from an oval
ihape. Their fore-head is fmall; the extremity of their
ears far from the face; their lips thick; their nofe flat;
their eyes black, or of a chefnut colour, imall, but ca¬
pable of difcerning objects at a great diftance. Their
hair is always thick and fleck, and without any ten¬
dency to curl. At the fir ft afpedf, a South-American
appears to b^ mild and innocent; but, on a more at¬
tentive view, one difcovers in his countenance fome-
thing wild, diftruftful, and fullen.”
s The following account of the native Americans is
given by Don Antonio Ulloa, in a work intitled Me-
moires pbilofophiques, hijioriquss, et phyjiques, concernant
la dtcouverte ds l’Amsrique, lately publiftred.
The American Indians are naturally of a colour bor¬
dering upon red. Their frequent expofure to the fun
and wind changes it to their ordinary dulky hue. The
temperature of the air appears to have little or no in¬
fluence in this refpeft. There is no perceptible diffe¬
rence in complexion between the inhabitants of the
high and thofe of the low parts of Peru ; yet the cli¬
mates are of an extreme difference. Nay, the Indians
who live as far as 40 degrees and upwards fouth or
north of the equator, are not to be diftinguifhed, in
point of colour, from thofe immediately under it.
There is alfo a general conformation of features and
perfon, which, more or lefs, chara&erizeth them all.
Their chief diftinftions in thefe refpecls are a fmall fore¬
head, partly covered with hair to the eye-brows, little
eyes, the nofe thin, pointed, and bent towards the up¬
per lip; a broad face, large ears, black, thick, and lank
hair; the legs well formed, the feet fmall, the body
thick and mufcular; little or no beard on the face, and
that little never extending beyond a fmall part of the
chin and upper lip. It may eafily be fuppofed that this
general defcription cannot apply, in all its parts, to e-
very individual; but all of them partake fo much of it,
that they may be eafily diftinguifhed even from the mu-
lattoes, who come nearefl to them in point of colour.
The refemblance among all the American tribes is
not lefs remarkable in refpect to their genius, charafter,
manners, and particular cufloms. The moft diflant
tribes are, in thefe refpeQs, as fimilar as though they
formed but one nation.
All the Indian nations have a peculiar pleafure in
painting their bodies of a red colour, with a certain fpe-
cies of earth. The mine of Guancavelica was former¬
ly of no other ufe than to fupply them with this ma¬
terial for dyeing their bodies j and the cinnabar ex¬
tracted from it was applied entirely to this purpofe. America.
The tribes in Louifiana and Canada have the fame ' r—*
paffion ; hence minium is the commodity moft; in de¬
mand there.
It may feem lingular that thefe nations, whofe na¬
tural colour is red, fhould affedt the fame colour as an
artificial ornament. But it may be obferved, that they
do nothing in this refpeft but what correfponds to the
praCtice of Europeans, who alfo ftudy to heighten and
difplay to advantage the natural red and white of their
complexions. The Indians of Peru have now indeed
abandoned the cuftom of painting their bodies : but it
was common among them before they were conquered
by the Spaniards; and it ftill remains the cuftom of
all thofe tribes who have preferred their liberty. The
northern nations of America, befides the red colour
which is predominant, employ alfo black, white, blue,
and green, in painting their bodies. it
The adjuftment of thefe colours is a matter of aS ^ecu’1;ar‘"
great coniideration with the Indians of Louifiana andgard'toor-
the vaft regions extending to the north, aS the orna-namentand
ments of drefs among the moft polifhed nations. The drefs.
bufinefs itfelf they call Maflaber, and they do not fail
to apply all their talents and afliduity to accomplifh it in
the moft ftnifhed manner. No lady of the greateft fafhion
ever confulteq her mirror with more anxiety, than the
Indians do while painting their bodies. The colours are
applied with the utmoft accuracy and addrefs. Upon
the eye-lids, precifely at the root of the eye lafhes, they
draw two lines as fine as the fmalleft thread ; the fame
upon the lips, the openings of the noftrils, the eye¬
brows, and the ears; of which laft they even follow all
the inflexions and finuofities. As to the reft of the
face, they diftribute various figures, in all which the
red predominates, and the other colours are afibrt-
ed fo as to throw it out to the beft advantage. The
neck alfo receives its proper ornaments; a thick coat
of vermilion commonly diftinguifhes the cheeks. Five
or fix hours are requifite for accomplifhing all this
with the nicety which they affeft. As their firft
attempts do not always fucceed to their wifh, they
efface thepi, and begin a-new upon a better plan.
No coquette is more faftidious in her choice of orna¬
ment^ none more vain when the important adjuftment is
finifhed. Their delight and felf-fatisfadfion are then
fo great, that the mirror is-hardly ever laid down. An
Indian Madached to his mind is the vaineft of all the
human fpecies. The other parts of the body are left
in their natural ilate, and, excepting what is called a
cachecul, they go entirely naked.
Such of them as have made themfelves eminent for
bravery, or other qualifications, are diftinguifhed by fi¬
gures painted on their bodies. They introduce the
colours by making pumftures on their fkin, and the ex¬
tent of furface which this ornament covers is propor¬
tioned to the exploits they have performed. Some
paint only their arms, others both their arms and legs;
others again their thighs, while thofe who have attain¬
ed the fummit of warlike renown, have their bodies
painted from the waift upwards. This is the heraldry
of the Indians; the de vices of which are probably more
exactly adjufted to the merits of the perfons who bear
them, than thofe of more civilized countries.
Befides thefe ornaments, the warriors alfo carry
plumes
A M E
plumes of feathers on their heads, their arms, and ancles.
^ Thefe likewife are tokens of valour, and none but fuch
as have been thus diftinguiftied may wear them.
[ 543 1
A M E
the outer to the inner fuperficies. The fame is remark- America,
ed as to the thicknefs of their ikins. u—4
It is natural to infer from hence, that their compa-
The propenfity to indolence is equal among all the rative infenfibility to pain is owing to a coarfer and
tribes of Indians, civilized or favage. The only em¬
ployment of thofe who have preferved their indepen¬
dence is hunting and fifhing. In fome diftri&s the
women exercife a little agriculture, in raifing Indian
itronger organization, than that of other nations. The
eafe with which they endure the feverities of climate
is another proof of this. The inhabitants of the high¬
er parts of Pent live amidft perpetual froft and fnow. Is
corn and pompions, of which they form a fpecies of Although their clothing is very flight, they fupport And to the
aliment, by bruifing them together : they alfo prepare this inclement temperature without the leaft inconve- inclemen-
the ordinary beverage in ufe among them, taking care, nience. Habit, it is to be confelled, may contribute 've°*
at the fame time, of the children, of whom the fathers a good deal to this, but much alfo is to be aferibed to
take no charge.
the compact texture of their fkin, which defends them
The female Indians of all the conquered regions of from the impreflion of cold through their pores.
South America praftife what is called the urcu (a word
which among them fignifies elevation). It confifts ’
The northern Indians refemble them in this refpedt.
The utmoft rigours of the winter feafon do not prevent
throwing forward the hair from the crown of the head them from following the chace almoft naked. It is
upon the brow, and cutting it round from the ears to true, they wear a kind of woollen cloak, or fometimes
above the eye ; fo that the forehead and eye-brows are the flein of a wild beaft, upon their Ihoulders ; but be-
entirely covered. The fame cuftom takes place in the hdes that it covers only a fmall part of their body, it
Northern countries. The female inhabitants of both re- would appear that they ufe it rather for ornament than
gions tie the reft of their hair behind, fo exactly on the warmth. In facl, they wear it indiferiminately, in
fame falhion, that it might be fuppofed the effedf of the feverities of winter and in the fultrieft heats of
mutual imitation. This however being impoffible, from
the vail diftance .that feparates them, is thought to
fummer, when neither Europeans nor Negroes can fuf-
fer any but the flighteft cloathing. They even fre-
countenance the fuppofition of the whole of America quently throw afide this cloak when they go a-hunt-
 — c ing, that it may not embarrafs them in traverfing their
forefts, where they fay the thorns and undergrowth
would take hold of it; while, on the contrary, they
Aide fmoothly over the furface of their naked bodies.
At all times they go with their heads uncovered, with¬
out fuffering the leaft inconvenience, either from the
being originally planted with one race of people.
This cuftom does not take place among the males.
Thofe of the higher parts of Peru wear long and flow¬
ing hair, which they- reckon a great ornament. In the
lower parts of the fame country they cut it Ihort, on
account of the heat of the climate ; a circumftance
hich they imitate the Spaniards. The inhabitants of cold, or from thofe coups de foleil, v/hich in Louifiana
sRemark-
able infen-
■bility to
jPain,
Louifiana pluck out their hair by the root, from the
crown of the head forwards, in order to obtain a large
forehead, otherwife denied them by nature. The reft
of their hair they cut as Ihort as poffible, to prevent
their enemies from feizing them by it in battle, and
alfo to prevent them from ealily getting their fcalp,
Ihoiiid they fall into their hands as prifoners.
The whole race of American Indians is diftinguilhed
by thicknefs of fkin and hardnefs of fibres; circum-
fo often fatal to the inhabitants of other climates.
The Indians of South America diftinguilh them-
felves by modern dreffes, in which they affect various
taftes. Thofe of the high country, and of the valleys
in Peru, drefs partly in the Spanifh faftiion. Inftead
of hats they wear bonnets of coarfe double cloth, the
weight of which neither feems to incommode them
when they go to warmer climates, nor does the acci¬
dental want of them feem to be felt in fituations where
fiances which probably contribute to that infenfibility the moft piercing cold reigns. Their legs and feet are
fr\r 'ixrKir'li A n irs H.YVrLVR narP. IT \VP PVPPnt a fort nf fanrlnls nf t Vi
to bodily pain for which they are remarkable. An in-
fiance of this infenfibility occurred in an Indian who
was under the neccflity of fubmitting tjO be cut for the
flone. This operation, in ordinary cafes, feldom lafts
above four or five minutes. Unfavourable circumftan-
ces in his cafe prolonged it to the uncommon period of
27 minutes. Yet all this time the patient gave no to-
always bare, if
flvins of oxen.
except a fort of fandals made of the
The inhabitants of South America,,
ith thofe of North America, are defcribed>
compared
as generally more feeble in their frame ; lefs vigorous
in the efforts of their mind ; of gentler difpofitions,
more addidted to pleafure, and funk in indolence.-—
This, however, is not univerfally the cafe. Many of
kens of the extreme pain commonly attending this o- their nations are as intrepid and enterprifing as any
peration: he complained only as a perfon does who
feels fome flight uneafinefs. At laft the flone
others on the whole continent. Among the tribes on Terrible
the banks of the Oroonoko, if a warrior afpires to the trials un-
tradled. Two days after, he exprefled a defirc for poft of captain, his probation begins with a long fall, clcrKone ,,r
food, and on the eighth day from the operation he more rigid than any ever obferved by the moft abfle-t!;cir c*utis>
-j r— r.  —' ■' 1 mious hermit. At the clofe of this the chiefs af-
femble; and each gives him three iafhes with a large
whip, applied. fo vigoroufly, that his body is almoft
flayed. If he betray s the leaft fymptom of impatience,
or even of fenfibility, he is difgraced for ever, and re¬
quitted his bed, free from pain, although the wound
was not yet thoroughly clofed. The fame want of fen¬
fibility is obferved in cafes of fractures, wounds, and
other accidents of a fimilar nature. In all thefe cafes
their cure is eafily effecled, and they feem to fuffer kfs
prefent pain than any other race of men. The fkulls jedled as unworthy of the honour.. After fome inter-
that have been taken up in their ancient burying- val, his conftancy is proved by a more excruciating
grounds are of a greater thicknefs than that bone is trial. He is laid in his hammock with his hands hound
and- an innumerable multitude of venomous ants,
whole
commonly found, being from fix to feven lines from faft
A M £ r «4 1 A M a
'America.. w!iofe bite occafions a violent pain and inflammation,
y are Up0n him. The judges of his merit ftand
around the hammock; and whilft thefe cruel infers
fallen upon the moll fenfible parts of his body, a figh,
a groan, or an involuntary motion expreflive of what
he fuffers, would exclude him from the dignity of
which he is ambitious. Even after this evidence, his
fortitude is not deemed to be fufficiently afcertained,
till he has Hood another tell more fevere, if polfible,
than the former. He is again fufpended in his ham¬
mock, and covered with the leaves of the palmetto. A
fire of llinking herbs is kindled underneath, fo as he may
feel its heat, and be involved in fmoke. Though
fcorched and almoll fuffocated, he mull continue to
endure this with the fame patient infenfibility. Many
perilh in this efiay of their firmnefs and courage ; blit
fitch as go through it with applaufe, receive the enfigns
of their new dignity with much folemnity, and are ever
after regarded as leaders of approved refolution, whofe
behaviour, in the moll trying fituations, will do honour
to their country. In North America, the previous
trial of a warrior is neither fo formal nor fo fevere :
Though, even there, before a youth is permitted to
bear arms, his patience and fortitude are proved by
blows, by fire, and by infults, more intolerable to a
haughty fpirit than either.
■ Cuftoms Of the manners and culloms of the North Ameri-
and di£| o- cans more particularly, the following is the moll con-
the°No'rth ^ent aecount that can be collected from the bell in-
Americans formed and moll impartial writers,
more parti- When the Europeans firll arrived in America, they
cularly. found the Indians quite naked, except thofe parts
which even the moll uncultivated people ufually con¬
ceal. Since that time, however, they generally ufe a
coarfe blanket, which they buy of the neighbouring
planters.
Their huts or cabbins are made of flakes of wood
driven into the ground, and covered with branches of
trees or reeds. They lie on the floor either on mats
or the Heins of wild beafts. Their dilhes are of timber;
but their fpoons are made of the Ikulls of wild oxen,
and their knives of flint; A kettle and a large plate
conftitute almoft the whole utenfils of the family.
Their diet confifts chiefly in what they procure by
hunting.; and fagamite, or pottage, is likewife one
of their moll common kinds of food. The moll ho¬
nourable furniture amongft them is the fcalps of their
enemies ; with thofe -they ornament their huts, which
are efteemed in proportion to the number of this fort
of fpoils.
The charadler of the Indians is altogether founded
Upon their circumftances and way of life. A people
who are conftantly employed in procuring the means
of a precarious fubfiftence, who live by hunting the
• wild animals, and who are generally engaged in war
with their neighbours, cannot be fuppofed to enjoy
16 much gaiety of temper, or a high flow of fpirits. The
markable ^n<^'ans therefore are in general grave even to fadnefs ;
penfivends ^7 ^ave nothing of that giddy vivacity peculiar to
and tad- fome nations of Europe, and they defpife it. Their
turnity. behaviour to thofe about them is regular, modeft, and
refpe&ful. Ignorant of the arts of amufement, of
which that of faying trifles agreeably is one of the moll
confiderable, they never fpeak but when they have
fomething important to obferve ; and all their actions,
N° 14,
words, and even looks, are attended with fome mean- America,
ing. This is extremely natural to men who are almoft
continually engaged in purfuits, which to them are of
the higheft importance. Their fubfiftence depends en¬
tirely on what they procure with their hands; and
their lives, their honour, and every thing dear to them,
may be loft by the fmalleft inattention to the defigns
of their enemies. As they have no particular objedl
to attach them to one place rather than another, they
fly wherever they expedl to find the neceflaries of life
in greateft abundance. Cities, which are the effcfts of
agriculture and arts, they have none. The different
tribes or nations are for the fame reafon extremely
fmall, when compared with civilized focieties, in which
induftry, arts, agriculture, and commerce, have united
a vaft number of individuals, whom a complicated lux¬
ury renders ufeful to one another. Thefe fmall tribes
live at an immenfe diftance; they are feparated by a
defert frontier, and hid in the bofom of impenetrable
and almoft boundlefs forefts. 17
There is eilablifhed in each fociety a certain fpecies Form of go*
of government, which over the whole continent of A-verment
merica prevails with exceeding little variation ; becauf
over the whole of this continent the manners and way
of life are nearly fimilar and uniform. Without arts,
riches, or luxury, the great inllruments of fubjedlion
in poliftied foeieties, an American has no method by
which he can render himfelf confiderable among his
companions, but by fuperiority in perfonal qualities of
body or mind. But as Nature has not been very laviih
in her perfonal diftindlions, where all enjoy the fame
education, all are pretty much equal, and will defire
to remain fo. Liberty, therefore, is the prevailing
paffion of the Americans ; and their government, un¬
der the influence of this fentiment, is better fecured
than by the wifeil political regulations. They are very
far, however, from defpiiing all fort of authority ; they
are attentive to the voice of wifdom, which experience
has conferred on the aged, and they enlift under the
banners of the chief in whofe valour and military ad-
drefs they have learned to repofe their confidence. In
every fociety, therefore, there is to be confidered the
power of the chief and of the elders ; and according as
the government inclines more to the one or to the
other, it may be regarded as monarchical, or as a fpe*
cies of ariftocracy. Among thofe tribes which are
moll engaged in war, the power of the chief is natu¬
rally predominant ; becaufe the idea of having a mili¬
tary leader was the firft fource of his fuperiority, and
the continual exigencies of the Hate requiring fuch a
leader, will continue to fupport, and even to enchance
it. His power, however, is rather perfuafive than co¬
ercive ; he is reverenced as a father, rather than feared i
as a monarch. He has no guards, no prifons, no of¬
ficers of juftice, and one a£l of ill-judged violence would
pull him from the throne. The elders, in the other
form of government, which may be confidered as an
ariilocracy, have no more power. In fome tribes, in¬
deed, there are a kind of hereditary nobility, whofe in¬
fluence being conftantly augmented by time, is more
confiderable. (See the article Niagara.) But this
fource of power, which depends chiefly on the imagi¬
nation, by which we annex to the merit of our con¬
temporaries that of their forefathers, is too refined to
be very common among the natives of America. In
4 moll
‘ A generous friendftiip no cold medium knows ;
‘ But with one love, with one refentment, glows.”
. 19
Wampum
belts.
'jfTheir v,
A M E [ 545 ] A M E
moll countries, therefore, age alone is fufficient for ac- company him ; for every thing among thefe people is America,
quiring refpedl, influence, and authority. It is age tranfadled with a great deal of ceremony and many ^ f
which teaches experience, and experience is the only forms. The chief who is to conduft them falls feve- at
fource of knowledge among a barbarous people. A- ral days, during which he converfes with no one, and Ceremonies
mong thofe. perfons bufinefs is conduced with the ut- is particularly careful to obferve his dreams ; which the^.e*°rc fet"
moll limplicity, and which may recal to thofe who are prefumption natural to favages generally renders as fa- °
acquainted with antiquity a picture of the moll early vourable as he could defire. A variety of other fuper-
ages. The heads of families meet together in a houfe llitions and ceremonies are obferved. One of the moll
or cabin appointed for the purpofe. Here the buiinefs hideous is fetting the war-kettle on the fire, as an em-
is difcufied ; and here thofe of the nation, diltinguilh- blem that they are going out to devour their enemies ;
ed for their eloquence or wifdom, have an opportunity which among fome nations mull formerly have been the
of difplaying thofe talents. Their orators, like thofe cafe, fince they Hill continue to exprefs it in clear
of Homer, exprefs themfelves in a bold figurative llyle, terms, and ufe an emblem fignificant of the ancient
ftronger than refined, or rather foftened nations can ufage. Then they difpatch a porcelane, or large Ihell,
well bear, and with gellures equally violent, but often to their allies, inviting them to come along, and drink
extremely natural and expreffive. When the bufinefs the blood of their enemies. For with the .Americans,
is over, and they happen to be well provided with as with the Greeks of old,
food, they appoint a feall upon the occafion, of which
almoll the whole nation partakes. The feall is accom¬
panied with a fong, in which the real or fabulous ex¬
ploits of their forefathers are celebrated. They have They think that thofe in their alliance mull not only
dances too, though, like thofe of the Greeks and Ro- adopt their enmities, but have their refentment wound
mans, chiefly of the military kind; and their mufic up to the fame, pitch with themfelves. And indeed
and dancing accompany every feaft. no people carry their friendihips or their refentment
To affill their memory, they have belts of fmall fo far as they do; and this is what fhould be expected
fhells, or beads, of different colours, each reprefenting from their peculiar circumftances: that principle in
a particular objedt, which is marked by their colour human nature which is the fpring of the facial affec-
and arrangement. At the conclufion of every fubjeft tions, adls with fo much the greater force the more it
bn which they difcourfe, when they treat with a fo- is reflrained. The Americans, who live in fmall focie-
reign Hate, they deliver one of thofe belts ; for if this ties, who fee few objects and few perfons, become won-
ceremony fhould be omitted, all that they have faid derfully attached to thefe objefts and perfons, and can-
pafles for nothing. Thofe belts are carefully depofit- not be deprived of them without feeling themfelves mi-
ed in each town, as the public records of the nation ; ferable. Their ideas are too confined to enable them
and to them they occafionally have recourfe, when any to entertain juft fentiments of humanity, or univerfal
public conteft happens with a neighbouring tribe. Of benevolence. But this very circumftance, while it
late, as the materials of which thofe belts are made, makes them cruel and favage to an incredible degree,
have become fcarce, they often give fome fkin in place towards thofe with whom they are at war, adds a new
of the wampum (the name of the beads), and receive in force to their particular friendfhips, and to the common
return prefentsof a more valuable return from our com- tie which unites the members of the fame tribe, .or of
miffioners ; for they never confider a treaty as of any thofe different tribes which are in alliance with one
weight, unlefs every article in it be ratified by fuch a another. Without attending to this refledtion, fome
gratification. . . fadls we are going to relate would excite our wonder
It often happens, that thofe different tribes or na- without informing our reafon, and we would be bewil-
tions, fcattered as they are at an immenfe diftance from dered in a number of particulars, feemingly oppofite to
one another, meet in their excurfions after prey. If one another, without being fenfible of the general caufe
there fnblifts no animofity between them, which feldom from which they proceed.
is the cafe, they behave in the moft friendly and cour- Having finifhed all the ceremonies previous,to the
teous manner ; but if they happen to be in a ftate of war, and the day appointed for their fetting out on
war, or if there has been no previous intercourfe be- the expedition being arrived, they take leave of their
tween them, all who are not friends are deemed ene- friends, and exchange their clothes, or whatever move-
mies, and they fight with the moft favage fury. ables they have, in token of mutual friendfhip ; after
War, if we except hunting, is the only employment which they proceed from the town, their wives and
’of the men; as-to every other concern, and even the female relations walking before, and attending them
little agriculture they enjoy, it is left to the women, to fome diftance. The warriors march all drefled in
Their moft common motive for entering into war, when their fineft apparel and moft fliowy ornaments, without
it does not arife from an accidental rencounter or in- any order. The chief walks .flowly before them, fing-
terference, is either to revenge themfelves for the death ing the war-fong, while the reft obferve the moft pro¬
of fome loft friends, or to acquire prifoners, who may found filence. When they come up to their women,
affift them in their hunting, and whom they adopt in- they deliver them all their finery, and putting on their
to their fociety. Thefe wars are either undertaken by worft clothes, proceed on their expedition. ^
fome private adventurers, or at the inftance of the whole Every nation has its peculiar enfign or ftandard,EnCgns>
community. In the latter cafe, all the young men which is generally fome beaft, bird, or filh. Thofe
who are difpofed to go out to battle (for no one is among the Five Nations are the bear, otter, wolf, tor-
compelled contrary to his inclination), give a bit of toife, and eagle; and by thefe names the tribes are
wood to the chief, as a token of their defign to ac- ufually diftinguilhed. They have the figures of thofe
Vox.. I. Part II. 5 3 Z animals
Quicknefs
of their
fenics.
Vigilance
cumfjtec-
A M E [ 546 ] A M E
animals pricked and painted on feveral parts of their painted to refemble. Then they allow a part to pafs America,
bodies; and when they march through the woods, unmolefted, when all at once, with a tremendous fhout, v'—■
they commonly, at eyery encampment, cut the repre- rifing up from their ambufh, they pour a ftorm of a6
fentation of. their enfign on trees, efpecially after a mulket-bullets on their foes. The party attacked re- Manner of
fuccefsful campaign : marking at the fame time the turns the fame cry. Every one (belters himfelf with %bting.
number of fcalps or prifoners they have taken. Their a tree, and returns the fire of the adverfe party, as
military drefs is extremely lingular. They cut off or foon as they raife themfelves from the ground to give
pull out all their hair, except a fpot about the breadth a fecond fire. Thus does the battle continue until the
of two Englifh crown-pieces, near the top of their one party is fo much weakened as to be incapable of
heads, and entirely d^ftroy their eye-brows. The lock farther refiftance. But if the force on each fide con-
left upon their heads is divided into feveral parcels, tinues nearly equal, the fierce fpirits of the favages,
each of which is ftiffened and adorned with wampum, inflamed by the lofs of their friends, can no longer be
beads, and feathers of various kinds, the whole being, reftrained. They abandon their diflant war, they rufli
twifted into a form much refembling the modern pom- upon one another with clubs and hatchets in their
poon. Their heads are painted red down to the eye- hands, magnifying their own courage, and infulting
brows, and fprinkled over with white down. The their enemies with the bittereft reproaches. A cruel
griftles of their ears are fplit almoft quite round, and combat enfues, death appears in a thoufand hideous
diftended with wires or fplinters fo as to meet and tie forms, which would congeal the blood of civilized na-
together on the nape of the neck. Thefe are alfo tions to behold, but which roufe the fury of favages.
hung with ornaments, and generally bear the repre- They trample, they infalt over the dead bodies, tear-
feutation of fome bird or beaft. Their nofes are like- ing the fcalp from the head, wallowing in their blood
wife bored and hung with trinkets of beads, and their like wold beafts, and fometimes devouring their flefh.
faces painted with various colours fo as to make an The flr.me rages on till it meets with no refiftance ;
awful appearance. Their breafts are adorned with a then the prifoners are fecured, thofe unhappy men,
gorget or medal, of brafs, copper, or fome other me- whofe fate is a thoufand times more dreadful than theirs
tal; and that dreadful weapon the fcalping-knife hangs who have died in the field. The conquerors fet up a
by a firing from their neck. hideous howling to lament the friends they have-loft.
The great qualities in an Indian war are vigilance They approach in a melancholy and fevere gloom to
and attention, to give.and to avoid a furprife ; and in- their own village ; ameflenger is fent to announce their
deed in thefe they are fuperior to all nations in the arrival, and the women, with frightful flirieks, come
world. Accuftomed to continual wandering in the out to mourn their dead brothers or their hulbands.
forefts, having their perceptions (harpened by keen ne- When they are arrived, the chief relates in a low voice
celfity, and living in every refpeft according to nature, to the elders, a circumftantial account of every parti-
their external fenfes have a degree of acutenefs which cular of the expedition. The orator proclaims aloud
at firft view appears incredible. They can trace out this account to the people ; and as he mentions the
their enemies at an immenfe diftance by the fmoke of names of thofe who have fallen, the (hrieks of the wo-
their fires, which they fmell, and by the tracks of men are redoubled. The men too join in thefe cries,
their feet on the ground, imperceptible to an Euro- according as each is mod connected with the deceafed
pean eye, but which they can count and diftinguifh by blood or friendfhip. The laft ceremony is the pro-
with the utmoft facility. They can even diftinguifti clamation of the victory ; each individual then forgets
the different nations with whom they are acquainted, his private misfortunes, and joins in the triumph of
and can determine the precife time when they paffed, his nation ; all tears are wiped from their eyes, and by
where an European could not, with all his glaffes, di- an unaccountable tranfition, they pafs in a moment
ftinguiih footfteps at all. Thefe circumftances, how- from the bitternefs of forrow to an extravagance of
ever, are of fmall importance, becaufe their enemies joy. But the treatment of fhe prifoners, wbofe fate
are no lefs acquainted with them. When they go out, all this time remains undecided, is what chiefly cha-
therefore, they take care to avoid making ufe of any raftet ifes the favages.
thing by which they might run the danger of a difco- We have already mentioned the ftrength of their af-
very. They light no fire to warm themfelves or to fedrions or refentments. United as they are in fmall
prepare their vi&uals : they lie clofe to the ground all focieties, connedled within themfelves by the firmeft.
day, and travel only in the night; and marching along ties, their friendly affections, which glow with the
In files, he that clofes the rear diligently covers with moft intenfe warmth within the walls of their own vil-
leaves the tracks of . his own feet and of theirs who lage, feldom extend beyond them. They feel nothing
preceded him. When they halt to refrefti themfelves, for the enemies of their nation ; and their refentment
fcouts are fent out to reconnoitre the country and beat is eafily extended from the individual who has injured
up every place where they fufpedt an enemy to lie con- them to all others of the fame tribe. The prifoners,
cealed. In this manner they enter unawares the vil- who have themfelves the fame feelings, know the in-
lages of thdir foes ; and while the flower of the nation tentions of their conquerors, and are prepared for them.
are engaged in hunting, maffacre all the children, wo- The perfon who has taken the captive attends him to Treatment!
men, and helplefs old men, or make prifoners of as the cottage, where, according to the diftribution made oft!ieirprij
many as they can manage, or have ftrength enough to by the elders, he is to be delivered to fupply the lofsloners" "
be ufeful to their nation. But when the enemy is ap- of a citizen. If thofe who receive him have their fa-
prifed of their defign, and coming on in arms againft mily weakened by war or other accidents, they adopt
them, they throw themfelves flat on the ground among the captive into the family, of which he becomes a
the withered herbs and leaves, which their faces are member. But if they have no occafion for him, or
1 their
Ir America.
A M E
their refentment for the lofa of their friends be too
high to endure the fight of any conne&ed with thofe
who were concerned in it, they fentence him to death.
All thofe Who have met with the fame fevere fentence
being colledted, the whole nation is afiembled at the
execution, as for fome great folemnity. A fcaffold
is erefted, and the prifoners are tied to the ftake, where
[ 547 1
A M E
fmokes too, appears unconcerned, and converfes with America,
his torturers about indifferent matters. Indeed, during ' v "‘J
the whole time of-his execution, there feems a conteft Qonflancy
which fhall exceed, they in inflicting the moft horrid of the fuf-
pains, or he in enduring them with a firmnefs and con- feicrs.
ftancy almoft above human : not a groan, not a figh,
not a diftortion of countenance, efcapes him ; he pof-
they commence their death-fong, and prepare for the fefles his mind entirely in the midft of his torments ;
enfuing feene of cruelty with the molt undaunted cou¬
rage- Their enemies, on the other fide, are determi¬
ned to put it to the proof, by the moft refined and ex-
quifite tortures. They begin at the extremity of his
body, and gradually approach the more vital parts.
One plucks out his nails by the roots, one by one ;
another takes a finger into his mouth, and tears oft’ the
flefh with his teeth ; a third thruftsthe finger, mangled
as it is, into the bowl of a pipe made red-hot, which he
fmokes like tobacco; then they pound histoes andfingers
to pieces between two ftones; they cut circles about his
joints,and galhes in the fleftiy parts of his limbs, which
they fear immediately with red-hot irons, cutting, burn¬
ing, and pinching them alternately ; they pull off this
flefh, thus mangled and roafted, bit by bit, devouring it
with greedinefs, and fmearing their faces with the
blood in an enthufiafm of horror and fury. When
they have thus torn off the flefh, they twifl the bare
nerves and tendons about an iron, tearing and.fnapping
them, whilft others are employed in pulling and ex¬
tending their limbs in every way that can increafe the
torment. This continues often five or fix hours ; and
fometimes, fuch is the ftrength of the favages, days
together. Then they frequently unbind him, to give
a breathing to their fury, to think what new torments
they fhall inflict, and to refrefh the ftrength of the
fufferer, .who, wearied out with fuch a variety of un¬
heard-of torments, often falls into fo profound a fleep,
he recounts his own exploits ; he informs them what
cruelties he has infli&ed upon their countrymen, and
threatens them with the revenge that will attend his
death ; and, though his reproaches exafperate them to
a perfeft madnefs of rage and fury, he continues his
infults even of their ignorance of the art of torment¬
ing, pointing out himfelf more exquifite methods, and
more feniible parts of the body to be afflicted. The
women have this part of courage as well as the men ;
and it is as rare for an Indian to behave otherwife as
it would be for any European to fuffer as an Indian.
Such is the wonderful power of an early inftitution,
and a ferocious thirft of glory. “ I am brayp and in¬
trepid (exclaims the favage in the face of his tormen¬
tors) ; I do not fear death, nor any kind of tortures;
thofe who fear them are cowards ; they are lefs than
women; life is nothing to thofe that have courage;
May my enemies be confounded with defpair and rage!
Oh ! that I could devour them, and drink their blood
to the laft drop.” 3C
But neither the intrepidity on one fide, nor the in- Surpnfing
flexibility on the other, are among themfelves matter ‘P
of aftonilhment: for vengeance, and fortitude in the rWar.
midft of torment, afe duties which they confider as ter.
facred; they are the effecls of their earlieft education,
and depend upon principles inftilled into them from their
infancy. On all other occafions they are humane and
compafiionate. Nothing can exceed the warmth of their
that they are obliged to apply the fire to awake him, affedtion towards their friends, who confift of all thofe
and renew his fufferings. He is again faftened to the
ftake, and again they renew their cruelty ; they ftick
bim all over with fmall matches of wood that eafily
takes fire, but burns flowly ; they continually run
fliarp reeds into every part of his body; they drag out
bis teeth with pincers, and thruft out his eyes; and
laftly, after having burned his flefh from the bones with
flow fires ; after having fo mangled the body that it is
all but one wound; after having mutilated his face in
fuch a manner as to carry nothing human in it; after
having peeled the fldn from the head, and poured a
heap of red-hot coals or boiling water on the naked
fkull—they once more unbind the wretch ; who, blind,
and ftaggering with pain and weaknefs, affaulted and
pelted upon every fide with clubs and ftones, now up,
now down, falling into their fires at every ftep, runs
hither and thither, until one of the chiefs, whether
out of compafiion, or weary of cruelty, puts an end
to his life with a club or dagger. The body is then
put into a kettle, and this barbarous employment is
fucceeded by a feaft as barbarous.
The women, forgetting the human as well as the
female nature, and transformed into fomething worfe
than furies, even outdo the men in this feene of hor¬
ror ; while the principal perfons of. the country fit
round the ftake, fmoking and looking on without the
leaft emotion. What is moft extraordinary, the fuf-
who live in the fame village, or are in alliance with it:
among thefe all things are common ; and this, though
it may in part arife from their not pofiefling very di-
ftindl notions of feparate property, is chiefly to be at¬
tributed to the ftrength of their attachment ; becaufe
in every thing elfe, with their lives as well as their for¬
tunes, they are ready to ferve their friends. Their
houfes, their provifion, even their young women, are
not enough to oblige a gueft. Has any one of thefe
fucceeded ill in his hunting ? Has his harveft failed ?
or is his houfe burned ? He feels no other effedf of his
misfortunes, than that it gives him an opportunity to
experience the benevolence and regard of his fellow-citi¬
zens. On the other hand, to the enemies of his country,
or to thofe who have privately offended, the American
is implacable. He conceals his fentiments, he appears
reconciled until by fome treachery or fuvprife he has
an opportunity of executing an horrible revenge. No
length of time is fufficient to allay his refentment; no
diftance of place great enough to protect the objett;
he croffes the fteepeft mountains, he pierces the moft
impracticable forefts, and traverfes the moft hideous
bogs and defarts for feveral hundreds of miles ; bear¬
ing the inclemency of the feafons, the fatigue of the
expedition, the extremes of hunger and thirft, with
patience and cheerfulnefs, in hopes of furprifing his
enemy, on whom he exercifes the moft fhocking bar-
fierer himfelf, in the little intervals of his torments, barities, even to the eating of his flefh- To fuch ex-
3 Z 2 tremes
A M E
C 54S ]
A M E
Treatment
of their
dead
friends.
tremes do the Indians pufh their friendfhip or their
enmity; and fuch indeed, in genera!, is the charafter
of all ftrong and uncultivated minds.
But what we have faid refpe&ing the Indians would
be a faint pifture, did we omit obferving the force of
their friendfhip, which principally appears by the treat¬
ment of their dead. When any one of the fociety is
cut off, he is lamented by the whole : on this occafion
a thoufand ceremonies are pradfifed, denoting the moil
lively forrow. No bufinefs is tranfafted, however preff-
ing, till all the pious ceremonies due to the dead are
performed. The body is wafhed, anointed, and paint¬
ed. Then the women lament the lofs with hideous
fere in the affairs of mortals, and produce all our hap- America,
pinefs or mifery. It is from the evil genii, in parti- v--"'
cular, that our difeafes proceed; and it is to the good
genii we are indebted for a cure. The miniflers of
the genii are the jugglers, who are alfo the only phy-
ficians among the favages. Thefe jugglers are fuppo-
fed to be infpired by the good genii, moft commonly
in their dreams, with the knowledge of future events ;
they are called in to the affiftance of the fick, and are
fuppofed to be informed by the genii whether they
will get over the difeafe, and in what way they mufl
be treated. But thefe fpirits are extremely fimple in
their fyftem of phyfic, and, in almoft every difeafe,
bowlings, intermixed with fongs which celebrate the diredf the juggler to the fame remedy. The patient
great aftions of the deceafed and his anceftors. The
men mourn in a lefs extravagant manner. The whole
village is prefent at tire interment, and the corpfe is
habited in their moll fumptuous ornaments. Clofe to
the body of the defun 61 are placed his bows and ar¬
rows, with whatever he valued moft in his life, and a
quantity of provifion for his fubfiftence on the journey
which he is fuppofed to take. This folemnity, like every
other, is attended with feafting. The funeral being
ended, the relations of the deceafed confine themfelves
to their huts for a confiderable time to indulge their
grief. After an interval of fome weeks they vifit the
grave, repeat their forrow, new clothe the remains of
the body, and.a£t over again all the folemnities of the
funeral.
inclofed in a narrow cabin, in the midft of which is
a Hone red-hot ; on this they throw water, until he is
well foaked with the warm vapour and his own f.veat.
Then they hurry him from this bagnio, and plunge
him fuddenly into the next river. This coarfe method,
which cofts many their lives, often performs very ex¬
traordinary cures. The jugglers haye likewife the ufe
of fome fpecifics of wonderful efficacy; and all the
favages are* dexterous in curing wounds by the applica¬
tion of herbs. But the power of thefe remedies is
always attributed to the magical ceremonies with which
they are adminiftered.
Though the women generally bear the laborious part Conditions
of domeftic oeconomy, their condition is far from be-of theirwo-
ing fo flavifh as it appears. On the contrary, themen,
Among the various tokens of their regard for their greateft refperic is paid by the men to the female fex.
deceafed friends, the moft remarkable is what they call
the feaji of the dead, or the feaft of fouls. The day
The women even hold their councils, and have their
fhare in all deliberations which concern the ftate. Po-
for this ceremony is appointed in the council of their lygamy is practifed by fome nations, but is not gene-
Superfti*
chiefs, who give orders for every thing which may
enable them to celebrate it with pomp and magnifi¬
cence ; and the neighbouring nations are invited to
partake of the entertainment. At this time, all who
have died fince the preceding feaft of the kind are ta¬
ken out of their graves. Even thofe who have been
interred at the greateft diftance from the villages are
diligently fought for, and condu&ed to this rendezvous
of the dead, which exhibits a fcene of horror beyond
the power of defcription. When the feaft is conclu¬
ded, the bodies are dreffed in the fineft fkins which
can be procured, and after being expofed for fome time
in this pomp, are again committed to the earth with
great folemnity, which is fucceeded by funeral games.
Their tafte for war, which forms the chief ingredi-
ral. In moft, they content themfelves with one wife;
but a divorce is admitted in cafe of adultery. No na¬
tion of the Americans is without a regular marriage,
in which the're are many ceremonies; the principal of
which is, the bride’s prefenting the bridegroom with a
plate of their corn. The women, though before in¬
continent, are remarkable for chaftity after marriage. 34
Liberty, in its full extent, being the darling paffion Their ar-
of the Indians, their education is direfted in fuch a ^nt !ove *
manner as to cheriffi this difpofition to the utmoft. ‘ °
Hence children are never upon any account chaftifed
with blows, and they are feldom even reprimanded.
Reafon, they fay, will guide their children when they
come to the ufe of it, and before that time their faults
cannot be very great: but blows might damp their free
lions. ent in their charafter, gives a ftrong bias to their re- and martial fpirit, by the habit of a flavifh motive to
ligion. Arefkoui, or the god of battle, is revered as action. When grown up, they experience nothing
the great god of the Indians. Him they invoke be- like command, dependence, or fubordination; even
fore they go into the field; and according as his dif- ftrong perfuafion is induftrioufly with-held by thofe
pofition is more or lefs favourable to them, they con- who have influence among them.—No man is held in
great efteem, unlefs he has increafed the ftrength of
his country with a captive, or adorned his hut with a
elude they will be more or lefs fuccefsful. Some na¬
tions worfhip the fun and moon ; among others there
are a number of traditions, relative to the creation of fcalp of one of his enemies,
the world and the hiftory of the gods: traditions which Controverfies among the Indians
refemble the Grecian fables, but which are ft ill more 
abfurd and inconfiftent. But religion is not the pre¬
vailing char after of the Indians; and except when
_ e few, and quick¬
ly decided. When any criminal matter is fo flagrant
as to become a national concern, it is brought under
„ , 4 the jurifdidtion of the great council; but in ordinary
they have fome immediate occafion for the affiftance of cafes, the crime-is either revenged1 or compromifed by 35
their gods, they pay them no fort of worfhip. Like the parties concerned. If a murder be committed,-the Crimes a
-u -..1- — 1   -1  n i-__jj.--q._j fam;iy which has loft a relation prepares to retaliate on
that of the offender. They often kill the murderer;ments*
and when this happens, the kindred of the laft perfon
flaia
all rude nations, however, they are ftrongly addi&ed
to fuperftition. They believe in the exiftence of a
number of good, and bad genii or fpirits, who inter-
A M E
[ 549 1
A M E
America. jf]a;n l00k upon themfelves to be as much injured, and
U—"v to have the fame right to vengeance, as the other par¬
ty. In general, however, the offender abfents bimfelf;
the friends fend compliments of condolence to thofe of
the perfon that has been murdered. The head of the
family at length appears with a number of prefents, the
delivery of which he accompanies with a formal fpeech.
The whole ends, as ufual, in mutual feaftings, fongs, and
dances. If the murder is committed by one of the fame
family or cabin, that cabin has the full right of judgment
within itfelf, either to punifh the guilty with death, or
to pardon him, or to oblige him to give fome recom-
the bounds, but the enjoyments, of animal life to their America,
utmoft duration.  v 11 f
38 .
Let us now attend to other pictures which have Other pic-
been given of the aboriginal inhabitants of the Newthe
World. The vices and defefts of the American In- mencans*
dians have by feveral writers been mofl unaccount¬
ably aggravated, and every virtue and good quality
denied them. Their cruelties have been aheady de-
fcribed and accounted for. The following anec¬
dote of an Algonquin woman yve find adduced as
a remarkable proof of their innate thirll of blood.
pence to the wife or children of the flain. Inftances of That nation being at war with the Iroquois, fire hap^
fuch a crime, however, very feldom happen ; for their pened to be carried prifoner, and was carried to one of
attachment to thofe of the fame family is remarkably the villages belonging to them. Here fire was ftrip-
ftrong, and is faid to produce fuch friendlhips as may
with the mod celebrated in fabulous antiquity.
ped naked, and her hands and feet bound with ropes
of their cabins. In this condition fire remained
Such, in general, are the manners and cuftoms of ten days, the favages fleeping round her every night. Anecdotes
the Indian nations ; but every tribe has fomething pe-
!t culiar to itfelf. Among the Hurons and Natchez, the
dignity of the chief is hereditary, and the right of fuc-
cefiion in the female line. When this happens to be
extindt, the moft refpeftable matron of the tribe makes
choice of whom Ihe pleafes to fucceed.
The Cherokees are governed by feveral fachems or
The eleventh night, while they were afieep, file found an 4l*
means to difengage one of her hands, with which fhe im- woman,
mediately freed herfelf from the ropes, and went to the
door. Though Ihe had now an opportunity of efcaping
unperceived, her revengeful temper could not let flip fo
favourable an opportunity of killing one of her enemies.
The attempt was manifeftly at the hazard of her o
chiefs, eledted by the different villages; as are alfo the life; yet, fnatching up a hatchet, fhe killed the favage
Creeks and Chadtaws. The two latter punifh adultery
in a woman by cutting off her hair, which they will
not fuffer to grow till the corn is ripe the next feafon;
but the Illinois, for the fame crime, cut off the wo¬
mens nofes and ears.
that lay next her; and, fpringing out of the cabin, con¬
cealed herfelf in a hollow tree which fhe had obferved
the day before. The groans of the dying perfon foon
alarmed the other favages, and the young ones im¬
mediately fet out in purfuit of her.—^Perceiving from
The Indians on the lakes are formed into a fort of her tree, that they all diredted their courfe one way.
empire ; and the emperor is elected from the eldeft
tribe, which is that of the Ottowawas. He has the
greateft authority of any chief that has appeared on the
continent fince our acquaintance with it. A few years
and that no favage was near her, fhe left her fandtuary,
and, flying by an oppofite diredtion,. ran into a foreft
without being perceived. The fecond day after this
happened, her footfteps were difeovered; and they pur-
ago, the perfon who held this rank formed a defign of fued her with fuch expedition, that the tliird day fhedif-
37
uniting all the Indian nations under his fovereignty;
but he mifearried in the attempt.
covered her enemies at her heels. Upon this fhe threw
herfelf into a pond of water; and, diving among fome
Longevity Jn general the American Indians live to a great age, weeds and bulrufhes, fhe could juft breathe above wa-
of the In- although Jt not; poflible to know from themfelves the
exadt number of their years. It was afked of an Indian,
who appeared to be extremely old, what age he was of ?
I am above twenty, was his reply. Upon putting the
queftion in a different form, by reminding him of cer¬
tain circumftances in former times, my machu, faid
he, fpoke to me when I was young of the Incas ; and
he had feen thefe princes. According to this reply,
there muft have elapfed, from the date of his machu’s
(his grandfather’s) remembrance to that time, a pe-
period of at leaft 232 years. The man who made this
ter without being perceived. Her purfuers, after ma¬
king the moft diligent fearch, were forced to return.
—For 35 days this woman held on her courfe through
woods and defarts, without any other fuftenance than
roots and wild berries. When fhe came to the river
St Lawrence; fhe made with her own- hands a kind of
a wicker raft, on which fhe croffed it. As fhe went by
the French for Trois Rivieres, without well knowing:
where fhe was, fhe perceived a canoe full of favages
and fearing they might be Iroquois, ran again into the
woods, where fhe remained till funfet Continuing
reply appeared to be 120 years of age : for, befides the her courfe foon after, fhe faw Trois Riviers ; and was
whitenefs of his hair and beard, his body was almoft bent
to the ground; without, however, fhowing any other
marks of debility or fuffering. This happened in 1764.
This longevity, attended in general with uninterrupt-
then difeovered by a party whom fhe knew to be Hu¬
rons, a nation in alliance with the Algonquins. She
then fquatted down behind a bufh, calling out to them
that fhe was not in a condition to be feen, becaufe fhe
ed health, is probably the confequence in part of was naked. They immediately threw her a blanket,
their vacancy from all ferious thought and employment, and then conducted her to the fort, where, fhe recounted
joined alfo with the robuft texture and conformation of her ftory.
their bodily organs. If the Indians did not deftroy Perfonal courage has been denied them. In proofReproadU
one another in their almoft perpetual wars, and if their of their pufilanimity, the following incidents are quo- ed with pit¬
ted from Charlevoix by Lord Kames, in his Sketches fdaniinityv
of the Hiftory of Man. “ The fort de Vercheres in
habits of intoxication were not fo univerfal and incu¬
rable, they would be, of all the races of men who in¬
habit the globe, the moft likely to prolong, not only Canada, belonging to the French, was, in the year x-690,-
A M E [ 55<= ] A M E
Araci ica. attacked by feme Iroquois. They approached kkntly,
'—^ “ preparing to fcale the palafade, when fame muiket-fhot
made them retire. Advancing a fecqud time, they were
again repulfed, wondering that they could difeover none
but a woman, who was feen evri-y where. This was
Madame de Vercheres, who appeared as refolute as if
fupported by a numerous garrifon. The hopes of ftorm-
ing a place without men to defend it, occafioned reite¬
rated attacks. After two days fiege, they retired,
fearing to be intercepted in ttieir retreat. Two years
after, a party of the fame nation appeared before the
fort fo unexpectedly, that a girl of fourteen, daughter
of the proprietor, had but time to (hut the gate. With
the young woman there was not a foul but one raw
foldier. She (bowed herfelf with her affiftant, fome-
times in one place and fometimesin another; changing
her drefs frequently, in order to give fome appearance
of a garrifon; and always fired opportunely. The faint¬
hearted Iroquois decamped without fuccefs.”
There is no inftance, it is faid, either of a (ingle In¬
dian facing an individual of any other nation in fair and
open combat, or of their jointly venturing to try the
fate of battle with an equal number of any foes. Even
with the greateft fuperiority of numbers they dare not
meet an open attack. Yet notwithllanding this want
of courage, they are dill formidable ; nay, it has been
known, that a fmall party of them has routed a much
fuperior body of regular troops: but this can only
happen when they have furprifed them in the faftneffes
of their forefts, where the covert of the wood may
conceal them until they take their aim with the utmoit
certainty. After one fuch difeharge they immediately
retreat, without leaving the fmalleft trace of their route.
It may ealily be fuppofed, that an onfet of this kind
mud produce confufion even among the deadied troops,
when they can neither know the number %f their ene-
41 mies, nor perceive the place where they lie in ambudi.
Accufed of Perfidy combined with cruelty has been alfo made a
perfidy. part of their character. Don Ulloa relates, That the In¬
dians of the country called Natches, in Louifiana, laid
a plot of maffacring in one night every individual be¬
longing to the French colony edablidied there. This
plot they ahtually executed, notwithdanding the feem-
ing good underdanding that fubfided between them
and thefe European neighbours. Such was the fecre-
cy which they obferved, that no perfon had the lead
fufpicion of their defign until the blow was druck.
One Frenchman alone efcaped, by favour of the dark-
nefs, to relate the difader of his countrymen. The
compaffion of a female Indian contributed alfo in fome
meafure to his exemption from the general maffacre.
The tribe of Natches had invited the Indians of other
countries, even to a confiderable didance, to join in
the fame confpiracy. The day, or rather the night,
was fixed, on which they were to make an united at¬
tack on the French colonids. It was intimated by
fending a parcel of rods, more or lefs numerous accord¬
ing to the local didance of each tribe, with an injunc¬
tion to abdradt one rod daily ; the day on which the
lad fell to be .taken away being that fixed for the exe¬
cution of their plan. The women were partners of the
bloody fecret. The parcels of rods being thus didri-
buted, that belonging to the tribe of Natches happen¬
ed to remain in the cudody of a female. This woman,
•cither moved by her own feelings of eompaflion, or by
the commiferation exprefled by her female acquaintan- America,
ces in the view of the propofed feene of bloodflied,
abdrafted one day three or four of the rods, and thus
anticipated the term of her tribe’s proceeding to the
execution of the general confpiracy. The confequence
of this was, that the Natches were the only adlors in
this carnage; their didant affociates having ilill feveral
rods remaining at the time when the former made the
attack. An opportunity was thereby given to the co¬
lonids in thofe quarters to take meafures for their de¬
fence, and for preventing a more extenfive execution
of the defign.
It was by confpiracies fimilar to this that the In¬
dians of the province of Macas, in the kingdom of
Quito, dedroyed the opulent city of Logrogno, the
colony of Guambaya, and its capital Sevilla del Oro ;
and that fo completely, that it is no longer known in
what place thefe fettlements exided, or where that a-
bundance of gold was found from which the lad-men-
tibned city took the addition to its name. Like ra¬
vages have been committed upon ITmperiale in Chili,
the colonies of the Midions of Chuncas, thofe of Da¬
rien in Terra Firma, and many other places, which
have afforded feenes of this barbarous ferocity. Thefe
confpiracies ai-e always carried on in the fame manner.
The fecret is inviolably kept, the aftors affcmble at
the precife hour appointed, and every individual is
animated with the fame fanguinary purpofes. The
males that fall into their hands are put to death with
every (hocking circumdance that can be fuggeded by
a cool and determined cruelty. The females are car¬
ried off and preferved as monuments of their victory,
to be employed as their occafions require.
Nor can this odious cruelty and treachery, it is faid,
be judly abferibed to their fubjedlion to a foreign
yoke, feeing the fame character belongs equally to all
the original inhabitants of this vad continent, even
thofe who have preferved their independence moil com¬
pletely. Certain it is, continues he, that thefe people,
with the mod limited capacities for every thing elfe,
difplay an adonifhing degree of penetration and fubtle-
ty with refpedl to every object that involves treach¬
ery, blooddied, and rapine. As to thefe, they feem
to have been all educated at one fchobl; and a fecret,
referring to any fuch plan, no confideration on earth
can extort from them. 4Jr
Their underdandings alfo have been reprefented as.Their un-
not lefs contemptible than their manners are grofs and derftandingj
brutal. Many nations are neither capable of f°rrning 1 '
an, arrangement for futurity, nor did their .folicitude
or forefight extend fo far. They fet no value upon
thofe things of which they were not in fome immedi¬
ate want. In the evening, when a Carib is going
to red, no confideration will tempt him to fell his ham¬
mock ; but in the morning he will part with it for
the (lighted trifle. At the clofe of winter, a North
American, mindful of what he has differed from the
cold, fets himfelf with vigour to prepare materials for
erecting a comfortable hut to proteft him againd the
inclemency of the fucceeding feafon : but as foon as
the weather becomes mild, he abandons his work, and
never thinks of it more till the return of the cold
compels him to refume it.—In (hort, to be free from
labour feems to be the utmod wifli of an American.
They will continue whole days dretched in their ham¬
mocks,
Alleged in¬
dolence and
ttupidiiy,
fTheir va-
3 bity and
A M E [ 551 ] A M E
mocks, or feated on the earth, without changing their race of men, in ability and intelligence, to thofe who ^ Amerfea^
poflure, railing their eyes, or uttering a fingle word, are at fuch pains to court their alliance, and avert their v
They cannot compute the fucceffion of days nov of enmity.
weeks. The dilferent afpefts of the moon alone en- Their natural eloquence has alfo been decried. The Their elo-
gage their attention as a meafure of time. Of the free tribes of favages who enter into conventions with quence dif-
year they have no other conception than what is fug- the Europeans, it is obferved, are aceuftomed to make l)araSe^‘
gefted to them by the alternate heat of fummer and long, pompous, and, according to their own notions,
cold of winter ; nor have they the leaft idea of apply- fublime harangues, but without any method or connec-
ing to this period the obvious computation of the tion. The whole is a collefition of disjointed meta¬
months which it contains. When it is alked of any phors and comparifons. The light, heat, and courfe
old man in Peru, even the moft civilized, what age he of the fun, form the principal topic of their difco'urfe;
is of? the only anfwer he can give is the number of ca- and thefe unintelligible reafonings are always accom-
ciques he has feen. It often happens, too, that they panied with violent and ridiculous geftures. Number-
only recoiled! the moft diftant of thefe princes in whofe lefs repetitions prolong the oration, which, if not in¬
time certain circumftances had happened peculiarly terrupted, would laft whole days; At the fame time,
memorable, while of thofe that lived in a more recent they meditate very accurately before hand, in order to
period they have loft all remembrance. avoid mentioning any thing but what they are defirous
The fame grofs ftupidity is alleged to be obferyable to obtain. This pompous faculty of making fpeeches-
in thofe Indians who have retained their original li- is alfo one of the grounds on which they conceive
herty. They are never known to fix the dates of any themfelves to be fuperior to the nations of Europe
events in their minds, or to trace the fucceffion of cir- They imagine that it is their eloquence that procures
cumftances that have arifcn from fuch events. Their them the favours they aflc. The fubjedted Indians
imagination takes in only the prefent, and in that converfe precifely in the fame ftyle. Prolix and tedi-
only what intimately concerns themfelves. Nor can ous, they never know when to flop ; fo that, except-
difcipline of inftrudtion overcome this natural defied! ing by the difference in language, it would be impof-
of apprehenfion. In fad!, the fuhjedted Indians in Pe- fihle, in this refpedl, to diftinguifh a civilized Peru-
ru, who have a continual intercourfe with the Spaniards, vian from an inhabitant of the moft favage diftridts to*
who are furnifhed with curates perpetually occupied in the northward.
giving them leffons of religion and morality, and 0
wdro mix with all ranks of the civilized fociety eftablifti- But fuch partial and detached views as the above, thefe*
ed among them, are almoft as ftupid and barbarous as were they even free from mifreprefentation, are not the views par-
their countrymen who have had no fuch advantages, juft ground upon which to form an eftimate of their cha-tial an<1 no®
The Peruvians, while they lived under the govern- radter. Their qualities, good and bad (for they certainly
ment of their Incas, preferved the records of certain pofiefs both), their way of life, the ftate of fociety a-fentat;olu.
remarkable events. They had alfo a kind of regular mong them, with all the circumftances of their con-
government, defcribed by the hiftorians of the conqueft dition, ought to be confidered in connedlion, and in
of Peru. This government originafed entirely from regard to their mutual influence. Such a view has
the attention and abilities of their princes, and from been given in the preceding part of this article ; from
the regulations enadled by them for diredling the con- which, it is hoped, their real charadler may be eafily
dud! of their fubjed!s. This ancient degree of civili- deduced.
zation among them gives ground to prefume that their Many of the difagreeable traits exhibited in the
legiflatures fprung from fome race more enlightened anecdotes juft quoted, are indeed extradted from Don
than the other tribes of Indians ; a race of which no Ulloa : an author of credit and reputation ; but a Spa-
individual feems to remain in the prefent times. niard, and evidently biaffed in fome degree by a defire
Vanity and conceit are faid to be blended with their to palliate the enormities of his countrymen in that
ignorance and treachery. Notwithftanding all they quarter of the globe. And, with regard'to the worft
fuffer from Europeans, they Hill, it is faid, confider and leaft equivocal parts of the American charadler,.
themfelves as a race of men far fuperior to their con- cruelty and revenge ; it may be fairly queftioned, whe-
querors. This proud belief, arising from their pervert- ther the inftances of thefe, either in refpedl of their
ed ideas of excellence, is univerfal over the whole known caufe or their atrocity, be at all comparable to thofe
continent of America. They do not think it poffible exhibited in European hiftory, and ftaining the an-
that any people can be fo intelligent as themfelves. nals of Chriftendom:—to thofe, for inftance, of the
When they are detedled in any of their plots, it is theb Spaniards themfelves, at their firft difcerveiy qf Ame-
common obfervation, that the Spaniards, or Viracochas, rica ; to thofe indicated by the engines found on board
want to be as knowing as they are. Thofe of Loui- their mighty Armada; to thofe which, in cold blood,,
fiana and the countries adjacent, are equally vain of were perpetrated by the Dutch at Amboyna; to the
their fuperior anderftanding, confounding that quality dragoonings of the French ; to their religious mafla-
with the cunning which they themfelves conftantly cres ; or even to the tender mercies of the Inquifition ! ^
pradlife. The whole objed! of their tranfadtions is to Still harflier, however, are the defcriptions given by Thephyfs-
over-reaeh thofe with whom they deal. Yet though Buffon de Panu ot the natives of this whole con-cal defcnp-
faithlefs themfelves, they never forgive the breach of tinent, in which the moft mortifying degeneracy of the
promife on the part of others. While the Europeans human race, as well as of all the inferior animals, ispawrefu_
feek their amity by prefents, they give themfelves no afferted to be confpicuous. Againft thofe philofo- ted
concern to fecure a reciprocal friendfliip. Hence, pro- phers, or rather theorifts, the Americans have found/fy?
bably, arifes their idea, that they muft be a fuperior an able advocate in the Abbe Clavigers; an hiftorian, Mexico,
whofev.ILp.32S’'
A M E
America, whofe fituation and long refidence in America afforded
' “ * ' him the heft means of information, and who, though
himfelf a fubject of Spain, appears fuperior to preju¬
dice, and difdains in his defcription the gloffes of po¬
licy.
Concerning the ftature of the Americans, M. de
Paw fays, in general, that although it is not equal to
the ftature of the Caftilians, there is but little differ¬
ence between them. But the Abbe Clavigero evinces,
that the Indians who inhabit thofe countries lying be¬
tween 9 and 40 degrees of north latitude, which are
the limits of the difcoveries of the Spaniards, are more
than five Parifian feet in height, and that thofe who
do not reach that ftature are as few in number amongft
the Indians as they are amongft the Spaniards. It is
befides certain, that many of thofe nations, as the ;i-
f aches, the Hiaquefe, the Pitnefe, and Cochhnies, are
at leaft as tall as the tailed: Europeans; and that, in all
the vaft extent of the New World, no race of people has
C 55* 1
A M E
No argument againft the New World can be drawn America,
from the colour of the Americans: for their colour is 'T—i
lefs diftant from the white of the Europeans than it is
from the black of the Africans, and a great part of the
Afiatics. The hair of the Mexicans and of the great¬
er part of the Indians is, as we have already faid, coarfe
and thick ; on their face they appear to have little, and
in general none on their arms and legs : but it is an error
to fay, as M. de Paw does, that they are entirely deftitute .
of hair in all the other parts of their body. This is
one of the many paffages of the Philofophical Refearch-Errors co»
es, at which the Mexicans, and all the other nations, corning
muft fmile to find an European philofopher fo eager to ^.e^re^nt;
diveft them of the drefs they had from nature. Don r ’
Ulloa, indeed, in the defcription which he gives of the
Indians of Quito, fays, that hair neither grows upon
the men nor upon the women when they arrive at pu¬
berty, as it does on the reft of mankind; but whatever
Angularity may attend the Quitans, or occafion this
been found, except the Efquimaux, fo diminutive in circumftance, there is no doubt that among the Ame-
ftature as the Laplanders, the Samojeds, and Tartars,
in the north of the Old continent. In this refpe£t,
therefore, the inhabitants of the two continents are
upon an equality.
Of the fhape and charadfter of the Mexican Indians,
ihape, &c. Abbe gives a moft advantageous defcription ; which
he aflerts no one who reads it in America will contra-
48
Stature,
ricans in general, the period of puberty is accompanied
with the fame fymptoms as it is among other nations
of the world. In faft, with the North Americans, it is
difgraceful to be hairy on the body. They fay it li¬
kens them to hogs. They therefore pluck the hair as
fall as it appears. But the traders who marry their
omen, and prevail on them to difcontinue this prac-
dicft, unlefs he views them with the eye of a prejudiced tice, fay, that nature is the fame with them as with
mind. It is true, that Ulloa fays, in fpeaking of the
Indians of Quito, he had o'bferved, “ that imperfect
people abounded among them ; that they were either
irregularly diminutive, or monftrous in fome other re-
fpeft; that they became either infenfible, dumb, or
blind ; or wanted fome limb of their body.” Having
the whites. As to the beards of the men, had Buf-
fon or de Paw known the pains and trouble it cofts
them to pluck out by the roots the hair that grows on
their faces, they would have feen that nature had not
been deficient in that refpeft. Every nation has its
cuftoms. “ I have feen an Indian beau, with a look-
therefore made fome inquiry refpe&ing this Angularity ing-glafs in his hand (fays Mr Jefferfon), examining
of the Quitans, the Abbe found, that fuch defedts
were neither caufed by bad humours, nor by the cli¬
mate, but by the miftaken and blind humanity of their
parents, who, in order to free their children from the
hardfhips and toils to which the healthy Indians are
fubjected by the Spaniards, fix fome deformity or weak-
nefs upon them that they may become ufelefs : a cir-
his face for hours together, and plucking out by the
roots every hair he could difcover, with a kind of
tweezer made of a piece of fine brafs wire, that had
been twifted round a ftick, and which he ufed with
great dexterity.” ’ 50 1
The yery afpeft of an Angolan, Mandingan, or Their form :i
Congan, would have fhocked M. de Paw, and madeanc* ■
cumftance of mifery which does not happen in other him recall that cenfure which he pafles on the colour, ^
countries of America, nor in thofe places of the fame
kingdom of Quito, where the Indians are under no
fuch oppreffion. M. de Paw, and, in agreement with
him, Dr Robertfon, fays, that no deformed perfons
are to be found among the favages of America ; be-
caufe, like the ancient Lacedemonians, they put to
death thofe children which are born hunch-backed,
blind, or defective in any limb ; but that in thofe
countries where they are formed into focieties, and the
vigilance of their rulers prevent the murder of fuch in¬
fants, the number of their deformed individuals is
greater than it is in any other country of Europe.
This would make an exceeding good folution of the
difficulty if it were true : but if, poffibly, there has been
in America a tribe of favages who have imitated the
barbarous example of the celebrated Lacedemonians, it
is-certain that thofe authors have no grounds to im¬
pute fuch inhumanity to the reft of the Americans ;
for that it has not been the praftice, at leaft with the
rafted |
ith thofe
the make, and hair of the Americans. What can be0f fome"
imagined more contrary to the idea we have of beauty, other na-
and the perfection of the human frame, than a man t*0113*
whofe body emits a rank fmell, whofe (kin is as black
as ink, whofe head and face are covered with black
wool inftead of hair, whofe eyes are yellow and bloody,
whofe lips' are thick and blackifti, and whofe nofe is
flat ? Such are the inhabitants of a very large portion
of Africa, and of many iflands of Afia. What men
can be more imperfeCt than thofe who meafure no more
than four feet in ftature, whofe faces are long and flat,
the nofe comprened, the irides yellowifh black, the eye¬
lids turned back towards the temples, the cheeks ex¬
traordinarily elevated, their mouths monftroufly large,
their lips thick and prominent, and the lower part of
their vifages extremely narrow ? Such, according to
Count de Buffon, are, the Laplanders, the Zemblans,
the Borandines, the Samojeds, and Tartars in the Eaft.
Wbat objefts more deformed than men whofe faces i
far greater part of thofe nations, is to be demonftrated too long and wrinkled even in their youth, their nofes
from the atteftations of the authors the belt acquainted
with their cuftoms.
N° iq.
thick and comprefled, their eyes fmall and funk, their
cheeks very much raifed, the upper jaw low, their teeth
long
A M E E 553 1 A M E
long and difunited, eye-brows fo thick that they (hade
■ their eyes; the eye-lids thick, fome briftles on their
faces inftead of beard, large thighs and fmall legs?
Such is the picture Count de Buffon gives of the Tar¬
tars ; that is, of thofe people who, as he fays, inhabit
a traft of land in Afia 1200 leagues long and upwards,
and more than 750 broad. Amongft thefe the Cal-
mucks are the moft remarkable for their deformity;
which is fo great, that, according to Tavernier, they
are the moft brutal men of all the univerfe. Their fa¬
ces are fo broad that there is a fpace of five or fix inch¬
es between their eyes, according as Count de Buffon
himfelf affirms. In Calicut, in Ceylon, and other
countries of India, there is, fay Pyrard and other wri¬
ters on thofe regions, a race of men who have one or
both of their legs as thick as the body of a man ; and
that this deformity" among them is almoft hereditary.
The Hottentots, befides other grofs imperfeftions, have
that monftrous irregularity attending them, of a cal¬
lous appendage extending from the os pubis down¬
wards, according to the teftimony of the hiilorians of
the Cape of Good Hope. Struys, Gemelli, and other
travellers affirm, that in the kingdom of Lambry, in
the iflands of Formofa, and of Mindoro, men'have
been found with tails. Bomare fays, that a thing of
this kind in men is nothing elfe than an elongation of
the os coccygis ; but what is a tail in quadrupeds but
the elongation of that bone, though divided into di-
ftinft articulations ? However it may be, it is certain,
that that elongation renders thofe Afiatics fully as ir¬
regular as if it was a real tail.
If we were, in like manner, to go through the na¬
tions of Afia and Africa, we ihould hardly find any
extenfive country where the colour of men is not dark¬
er, where there are not ftronger irregularities obferved,
and groffer defedts to be found in them, than M. de
Paw finds fault with in the Americans. The colour
of the latter is a good deal clearer than that of almoft
all the Africans and the inhabitants of fouthern Afia.
Even their alleged fcantinefs of beard is common to
the inhabitants of the Philippine Illands, and of all the
Indian Archipelago, to the famous Chinefe, Japanefe,
Tartars, and many other nations of the Old continent.
The imperfections of the Americans, however great
they may be reprefented to be, are certainly not com¬
parable with the defedts of that immenfe people, whofe
charafter we have iketched, and others whom we omit.
M. de Paw reprefents the Americans to be a feeble
and difeafed fet of nations; and, in order to demon-
ftrate the weaknefs and diforder of their phyfical con-
’ ftitutidn, adduces feveral proofs equally ridiculous and
ill founded, and which it will not be expeCted we ftiould
enumerate. He alleges, among other particulars, that
they were overcome in wreftling by all the Europeans,
and that they funk under a moderate burden ; that by
a computation made, 200,000 Americans were found
to have periftied in one year from carrying of baggage.
With refpect to the firft point, the Abbe Clavigero ob-
ferves, it would be neceffary that the experiment of
wreftlingwas made between manyindividualsof each con¬
tinent, and that the victory Ihould be attefted by the A-
mericans as well as the Europeans. It is not, however,
meant to infill, that the Americans are ftronger than the
Europeans. They may be lefs ftrong, without the hu¬
man fpecies having degenerated in them. The Swifs are
Vol.I. Part II.
ftronger than the Italians 5 and Hill we do not believe America,
the Italians are degenerated, nor do we tax the climate —v"-*
of Italy. The inftance of zoo,000 Americans having
died in one year, under the weight of baggage, were it
true, would not convince us fo much of the weaknefs
of the Americans, as of the inhumanity of the Euro¬
peans. In the fame manner that thofe 200,000 Ame¬
ricans perilhed, 200,000 Pruffians would alfo have pe-
rilhed, had they been obliged to make a journey
of between 300 and 400 miles, with 100 pounds of
burden upon their backs; if they had collars of iron
about their necks, and were obliged to carry that load
over rocks and mountains; if thofe who became ex-
haufted with fatigue, or wounded their feet fo as to
impede their progrefs, had their heads cut off that they
might not retard the pace of the reft ; and if they were
not allowed* but a fmall morfel of bread to enable them
to fupport fo fevere a toil. Les Cafas, from whom M.
de Paw got the account of the 200,000 Americans
who died under the fatigue of carrying baggage, re¬
lates alfo all the above mentioned circumftances. If
that author therefore is to be credited in the laft, he is
alfo to be credited in the firft. But a philofopher who
vaunts the phyfical and moral qualities of Europeans
over thofe. of the Americans, would have done better,
we think, to have fuppreffed faCls fo opprobrious to
the Europeans themfelves. ^
Nothing in faCl demonftrates fo clearly the robuft- Their la-
nefs of the Americans as thofe various and lafting fa- hour and
tigues in which they are continually engaged. M. de hiduftry.
Paw fays, that when the New World was difco'vered,
nothing was to be feen but thick woods; that at
prefent there are fome lands cultivated, not by the A-
mericans, however, but by the Africans and Euro¬
peans ; and that the foil in cultivation is to the foil
which is uncultivated as 2000 to 2,000,000. Thefe
three affertions the Abbe demonftrates to be precifely
as many errors. Since the conqueft, the Americans
alone have been the people who have fupported all the
fatigues of agriculture in all the vaft countries of the
continent of South America, and in the greater part
of thofe of South America fubjedt to the crown of
Spain. No European is ever to be feen employed in
the labours of the field. The Moors who, in compa-
rifon of the Americans, are very few in number in the
kingdom of New Spain, are charged with the culture
of the fugar-cane and tobacco, and the making of fu-
gar ; but the foil deftined for the cultivation of thofe
plants is not with refpedt to all the cultivated land of
that country in the proportion of one to two thoufand.
The Americans are the people who labour on the foil.
They are the tillers, the fowers, the weeders, and the
reapers of the wheat, of the maize, of the rice, of the
beans, and other kinds of grain and pulfe, of the cacao,
of the vanilla, of the cotton, of the indigo, and all other
plants ufeful to the fuftenance, the clothing, and com¬
merce of thofe provinces ; and without them fo little
can be done, that in the year 1762, the harveft of
wheat was abandoned in many places on account of a
ficknefs which prevailed and prevented the Indians
from reaping it. But this is not all; the Americans
are they who cut and tranfport all the neceffary timber
from' the woods ; who cut, tranfport, and work the
ftones; who make lime, plafter, and tiles ; who con-
ftrutl all the buildings of that kigdom, except a few
4 A places
A M E [ 554 ] A M E
America, places where none of them inhabit 5 who open and re-
pair all the roads, who make the canals and fluices, and
clean the cities. They work in many mines of gold, of
filver, of copper, . &c. they are the Ihepherds, herdfmen,
weavers, potters, bafket-makers, bakers, couriers, day-
labourers, &c.; in a word, they are the perfons who
bear all the burden of public labours. Thefe, fays our
juftly indignant author, are the employments of the
weak, daftardly, and ufelefs Americans; while the vi¬
gorous M. de Paw, and other indefatigable Europeans,
53 are occupied in writing inveflives againft them.
Thefe a fuf- Thefe labours, in which the Indians are continually
employed, certainly attell their healthinefs and ftrength;
healthinefs f°r ^ they are able to undergo fuch fatigues, they can-
S5itrength: not be difeafed, nor have an exhaufted ftream of blood
in their veins, as M. de Paw infinuates. In order to
make it believed that their conftitutions are vitiated,
he copies whatever he finds written by hiftorians of A-
merica, whether true or falfe, refpefting the difeafes
which reign in fome particular countries of that great
continent. It is not to be denied, that in fome coun¬
tries in the wide compafs of America, men are expofed
more than elfewhere to the diftempers which are oc-
cafioned by the intemperature of the air, or the perni¬
cious quality of the aliments ; but it is certain, accor¬
ding to the aflertion of many refpeftable authors ac¬
quainted with the New World, that the American coun¬
tries are, for the moft; part, healthy ; and if the Ame¬
ricans were difpofed to retaliate on M. de Paw, and
other European authors who write as he does, they
would have abundant fubjett of materials to throw dif-
credit on the clime of the Old continent, and the con-
ftitution of its inhabitants in the endemic diftempers
which prevail there.
Laftly, The fuppofed feeblenefs and unfound bodily
habit of the Americans do not correfpond with the
length of their lives. Among thofe Americans whofe
great fatigues and excellive toils do not anticipate their
death, there are not a few who reach the age of 80,
90, and 100 or more years, as formerly mentioned ;
and what is more, without there being obferved in them
that decay which time commonly produces in the hair,
in the teeth, in the ikin, and in the mufcles of the hu¬
man body. This phenomenon, fo much admired by
the Spaniards who refide in Mexico, cannot be aferibed
to any other caufe than the vigour of their conftitu¬
tions, the temperance of their diet, and the falubrity
of their clime. Hiftorians, and other perfons who
have fojourned there for many years, report the fame
thing of other countries of the New World.
Their men- A8 to the mental qualities of the Americans, M. de
talquali- Paw has not been able to difeover any other chara&ers
ties. than a memory fo feeble, that to-day they do not re¬
member what they did yefterday ; a capacity fo blunt,
that they are incapable of thinking, or putting their
ideas in order ; a difpofition fo cold, that they feel no
excitement of love ; a daftardly fpirit, and a genius that
is torpid and indolent. Many other Europeans, in¬
deed, and what is ftill more wonderful, many of thofe
children or defeendants of Europeans who are born in
America, think as M. de Paw does; fome from igno¬
rance, fome from want of reflexion, and others from
hereditary prejudice and prepoffefiion. Bot all this
and more would not be fufficient to invalidate the tefti-
mouies of other Europeans whofe authority have a
great deal more weight, both becaufe they were men America. ;
of great judgment, learning, and knowledge, of thefe \
countries, and becaufe they gave their teftimony in fa¬
vour of ftrangers againft their own countrymen. In
particular, Acofta, whofe natural and moral hiftory even
de Paw commends as an excellent work, employs the-
whole fixth book in demonftrating the good fenfe of
the Americans by an explanation of their ancient go¬
vernment, their laws, their hiftories in paintings and
knots, calendars, &c. M. de Paw thinks the Ameri- ■
cans are beftial ; Acofta, on the other hand, reputes . • 11
thofe perfons weak and prefumptuous who think them
fo. M. de Paw fays, that the moft acute Americans
were inferior in induftry and fagacity to the rudeft na¬
tions of the Old continent; Acofta extols the civil go¬
vernment of the Mexicans above many republics of
Europe. M. de Paw finds, in the moral and political I
condu& of the Americans, nothing but barbarity, ex¬
travagance, and brutality; and Acofta finds there, laws
that are admirable and worthy of being preferved for
ever- . 1
M. de Paw denies them courage, and alleges the M.dePawl
conqueft of Mexico as a proof of their cowardice, i roofs of j
“ Cortes (he fays), conquered the empire of Mexico Anieilj:an 1
with 450 vagabonds and 15 horfes, badly armed ; hiscowar cei
miferahle artillery confifted of fix falconets', which would
not at the prefent day be capable of exciting the fears
of a fortrefs defended by invalids. During Ids abfence
the capital was held in awe by the half of his troops. .
What men ! what events! — It is confirmed by the de-
pofitions of all hiftorians, that the Spaniards entered the _•
firft time into Mexico without making one fingle dif-
charge of their artillery. If the title of hero is appli- -
cable to him who has the difgraee to occafion the death :
of a great number of rational animals, Ferdinand Cor¬
tes might pretend to it; otherwife I do not fee what
true, glory he has acquired by the: overthrow of a tot¬
tering monarchy, which might have been deftroyed in
the fame manner by any other affaffin of our continent.” . , |
Thefe paffages indicate either M. de Pawks ignorance Refuted, i!
of the hiftory of the conqueft of Mexico, or a wilful
fuppreffion of what would openly contradict his fyftem;
fince all who have read that hiftory know well, that the
conqueft of Mexico was not made with 450 men, but
with more than 200,000. Cortes himfelf, to whom it
was of more importance than to M. de Paw to make
his bravery confpicuous, and his conqueft appear glo¬
rious, confefles the exceffive number of the allies who _ j
were under his command at the fiege of the capital, . I
and combated with more fury againft the Mexicans than
the Spaniards themfelves. According to the account
which Cortes gave to the emperor Charles V. the fiege
of Mexico began with 87 horfes, 848 Spanifti infantry, ‘
armed with guns, crofs-bows, fwords, and lances, and
upwards of 75,000 allies, of Tlafcala, Huexotzinco, ,
Cholula, and Chaleo, equipped with various forts of
arms; with three large pieces of cannon of iron, 15
fmall of copper, and 13, brigantines. . In the courfe of )
the fiege were affembled the numerous nations of the
Otomies, the Cohuixcas, and Matlazincas, and the
. troops of the populous cities of the lakes ; fo that the
army of the befiegers not only exceeded 200,000, but
amounted to 4,000,000, according to the letter from
Cortes; and befides thefe, 3000 boats and canoes came
to their alhllance. Did it betray cowardice to have fu-
ftained,. J
America. Gained, for full 75 days, the fiege of an open city, en-
v gaging daily with an army fo large, and in part pro¬
vided with aims fo fuperior, and at the fame time ha¬
ving to withftand the ravages of famine ? Can they me¬
rit the charge of cowardice, who, after having loft fe-
ven of the eight parts of their city, and about 50,000
citizens, part cut off by the fword, part by famine and
ficknefs, continued to defend themfelves until they
were furioufly affaulted in the laft hold which was left
.7 them? See the article Mexico.
temark- According to M. de Paw, “ the Americans at firft
ble in- <1 Were not believed to be men, but rather fatyrs, or
a" “ ^arSe apes, which might be murdered without re-
d. de Paw. “ morfe or reproach. At laft, in order to add infult
“ to the oppreffion of thofe times, a pope made an ori-
“ ginall bull, in which he declared, that being defirous
“ of founding bifhoprics in the richeft countries of A-
“ merica, it pleafed him and the Holy Spirit, to ac-
“ knowledge the Americans to be true men : in fo
“ far, that without this decilion of an Italian, the i'n-
(t habitants of the New World would have appeared,
“ even at this day, to the eyes of the faithful, a race
“ of equivocal men. There is no example of fuch a
“ decifion lince this globe has been inhabited by men
“ and apes.” Upon this paffage the Abbe animad¬
verts, as being a Angular inftance of calumny and mif-
reprefentationand gives the following hiftory of the
jg decifion alluded to.
pccafion of “ Some of the firft Europeans who eftablifhed them-
ihe famous felves ;n America, not lefs powerful than avaricious,
frul of Paul (]efjrous 0f enriching themfelves to the detriment of the
A M E
r 555 i
A M E
ing, to free thofe unhappy converts from the tyranny America,
of fuch mifers, had recourfe to the Catholic kings, and v “ '
at laft obtained from their juftice and clemency, thofe
laws as favourable to the Americans as honourable to
the court of Spain, that compofe the Indian code,
which were chiefly due to the indefatigable zeal of the
bifliop de las Cafas. On another fide, Garces, bifhop
of Tlafcala, knowing that thofe Spaniards bore, not-
withftanding their perverfity, a great refpeft to the de-
cifions of the vicar of Jefus Chrift, made application in
the year 1586 to pope Paul HI. by that famous let-
, ter, of which we have made mention ; reprefenting to
him the evils which the Indians fuffered from the wick¬
ed Chriftians, and praying him to interpofe his autho¬
rity in their behalf. The pope, moved by fuch heavy
remonftrances, difpatched the next year the original
bull, ~ a faithful copy of which we have here fubjoin-
ed (a), which was not made, as is manifeft, to declare
the Americans true men ; for fuch a piece of weaknefs
was very diftant from that or any other pope: but
folely to fupport the natural rights of the Americans
againft the attempts of their oppreffors, and to condemn
the injuftice and inhumanity of thofe, who, under the
pretence of fuppofing thofe people idolatrous, or inca¬
pable of being inftrufted, took from them their pro¬
perty and their liberty, and treated them as flaves and
beafts.
If at firft the Americans were efteemed fatyrs, no- Reprefen*.
body can better prove it than Chriftopher Columbus tat‘on
their difcoverer. Let us hear, therefore, how that ce- 0 um ns°
lebrated admiral fpeaks, in his account to the Catholic
Americans, kept them continually employed, and made kings Ferdinand and Ifabella, of the firft fatyrs he faw
ufe of them as flaves; and in order to avoid the re¬
proaches which were made them by the bifiiops and
miffionaries who inculcated humanity, and the giving
liberty to thofe people to get themfelves indrudted. in
religion, that they might do their duties towards the
church and their families, alleged, that the Indians were
by nature flaves and incapable of being inftrufted ; and
many other falfehoods of which the Chronicler Herrera
makes mention againft them. Thofe zealous eccle-
fiaftics being unable, either by their authority or preach-
in the ifland of Haiti, or Hifpaniola. “ I fwear,” he
lays, “ to your majefties, that there is not a better
people in the world than thefe, more affectionate, af¬
fable, or mild. They love their neighbours as themfelves;
their language is the fweeteft, the fofteft, and the moll
cheerful; for they always fpeak fmiling; and although
they go naked, let your majefties believe me, their cu-
ftoms are very becoming; and their king, who is fer-
ved with great majefty, has fuch engaging manners, that
it gives great pleafure to fee him*, and alfo to confider
4 A 2 the
(a) Paulus papa III. univerfis Chrifti Fidelibus prefentes Litteras infpefturis Salutem & Apoftolicam Bene-
diftionem—“ Veritas ipfa, quae nec falli, nec fallere poteft, cum Prsedicatores Fidei ad officium praedicationis
deftinaret, dixiffe dignofcitur : Euntes docete omnes gentes: omnes, dixit, abfque omni deleftu, cum omnes Fide!
difciplina capaces exiftant. Quod videns & invidens ipfius humani generis aemulus, qui bonis operibus, ut pe-
reant, femper adverfatur, modum excogitavit haftenus inauditum, quo impediret, ne Verbum Dei Gentibus, ut
falvae fierent, praedicaretur: ut quofdam fuos fatellites commovit, qui fuam cupiditatem adimplere cupientes.
Occidentales & Meridionales Indos, & alias Gentes, quae temporibus iftis ad noftram notitiam pervenerunt, fub
pnetextu quod Fidei Catholicae expertes exiftant, uti bruta animalia, ad noftra obfequia redigendos effe, paflim
afferere praefumant, & eos in fervitutem redigunt tantis afflidlionibus illos urgentes, quantis vix bruta animalia
illis fervientia urgeant. Nos igitur, qui ejufdem Domini noftri vices, licet indigni, gerimus in terris, & Oves
gregis fui nobis Commiffas, quae extra ejus Ovile funt, ad ipfum Ovile toto nixu exquirimus, attendentes Indos
ipfos, utpote veros homines, non folum Chriftianae Fidei capaces exiftere, fed, ut nobis innotuit, ad Fidem ip-
fam promptiflime currere, ac volentes fuper his congruis remediis providere, praeditlos Indos & omnes alias gen¬
tes ad notitiam Chriftianorum in pofterum deventuras, licet extra fidem Chrifti exiftant, fualibertate & dominio
hujufmodi uti, & potiri, & gaudere libere, & licete poffe, nec in fervitutem redigi debere, ac quicquid fecus fieri
contigerit irritum & inane, ipfofque Indos, & alias Gentes Verbi Dei praedicatione, & exemplo bonae vitae ad
di&am Fidem Chrifti invitandos fore. Auftoritate Apoftolica per praefentes literas deceruimus, & declaramus,
non obftantibus premiffis, caeterifque contrariis quibufcunque.” Datum Romae anno I537- IV. Non. lun. Pon-
tificatus noftri anno III. Quaefta, e non altra e quella famofa bolla, per la quale s’ e fatto un fi grande fchia-
mazzo.
A M E
[ 556 1
A M E
America, the great retentive faculty of that people, and their de-
fire of knowledge, which incites them "to alk the caufes
g0 and the effefts of things.”
Ccmdufions “ We have had intimate commerce with the Ame-
concerning ricans (continues the Abbe) 5 have lived for fomeyears
ties ofPthe* *n 3 fen“nai7 ^eftined for their inftru&ion ; *faw the _
Americans. ere<^on and progrefs of the royal college of Guada- of their attention and fagacity : for it appears from
loupe founded in Mexico, by a Mexican Jefuit, for the Abbe Clavigero’s hiltory, that they not only counted
education of Indian children ; had afterwards fome In- 365 days to the year, but alfo knew of the excefs of
dians amongft our pupils; had particular knowledge of about fix hours in the folar over the civil year, and re-
the affirmation of all the hiftorians of Mexico, that the America.]!
army under Cortes, confifting of 6,400 men, were all '
lodged in the palace ; and there remained ft ill fuffi-
cient room for Montezuma and his attendants.
The advances which the Mexicans had made in the Tokens of £
ftudy of aftronomy is perhaps the moft furprifing proof ^c‘ence<
many American reftors, many nobles, and numerous
artifts; attentively obferved their character, their ge¬
nius, their difpofition, and manner of thinking ; and
have examined befides with the utmoft diligence their
medied the difference by means of intercalary days.
See Astronomy, n°^.
Of American morality, the following exhortation of
a Mexican to his fon may ferve as a fpecimen. “ My Sf ei
ancient hiftory, their religion, their government, their fon, who art come into the light from the womb of thy hcirmo.
laws, and their cuftoms. After fuch long experience mother like a chicken from the cere, and like it artrality*
and ftudy of them, from which we imagine ourfelves
mother like a chicken from the egg, and like it artr<
preparing to fly through the world, we know not
enabled to decide without danger of erring, we declare how long Heaven will grant to us the enjoyment of
to M. de Paw, and to all Europe, that the mental quali¬
ties of the Americans are not in the leaft inferior to thofe
of the Europeans ; that they are capable of all, even
the moft abftradt fciences ; and that if equal care was
taken of their education, if they were brought up from
childhood in feminaries under good mafters, were pro-
tccled and ftimulated by rewards, we fhould fee rife a-
mong the Americans, philofophers, mathematicians,
and divines, who would rival the firft in Europe.”
But although we fhould fuppofe, that, in the torrid
clirftates'of the New World, as well as in thofe of the
Their inge- Old, efpecially under the additional depreffion of fla-
nuity, &c. very, there was an inferiority of the mental powers, the
aflerted. Chilefe and the North-Americans have difcovered high¬
er rudiments of human excellence and ingenuity than
that precious gem which we poflefs in thee ; hut how¬
ever fhort the period, endeavour to live exactly, pray¬
ing God continually to affift thee. He created thee :
thou art his property. He is thy father, and loves thee
ftill more than I do ; repofe in him thy thoughts, and
day and night diredl thy fighs to him. Reverence and
falute thy elders, and hold no one in contempt. To the
poor and diftreffed be not dumb, but rather ufe words
of comfort. Honour all perfons, particularly thy pa¬
rents, to whom thou oweft obedience, refpeft, and fer~
vice. Guard againft imitating the example of thofe
wicked fons, who, like brutes that are deprived of rea-
fon, neither reverence their parents, liften to their in-
ftrudfion, nor fubmit to their correction ; becaufe who¬
ever follows their fteps will have an unhappy end, will
have ever been known among tribes in a fimilar ftate of die in a defperate or fudden manner, or will be killed
fociety in any part of the world.
M. de Paw affirms, that the Americans were unac-
qainted with the ufe of money, and quotes the follow¬
ing well-known pafiage from Montefquieu : “ Imagine
to yourfelf that, by fome accident, you are placed ‘
and devoured by wild beafts.
“ Mock not,my fon,the aged or the imperfeCt. Scorn
not him whom-you fee fall into fome folly or tranfgref-
fion, nor make him reproaches; but reftrain thyfclf,
and beware left thou fall into the fame error which of-
an unknown country ; if you find money there,* do not fends thee in another. Go not where thou art not
doubt that you are arrived among a polifhed people.” called, nor interfere in that which does not concern
But if by money we are to underftand a piece of metal thee. Endeavour to manifeft thy good-breeding in all
with the ftamp of the prince or the public, the want of thy words and aftions. In converfation, do not lay
1 nation is no token of barbarity. The Athe¬
nians employed oxen for money, as the Romans did
fheep. The Romans had'no coined money till the time
thy hands upon another, nor fpeak too much, nor in¬
terrupt or difturb another’s difcourfe. When any one
difcourfes with thee, hear him attentively,, and hold thy-
{"elf in tlixr
of Servius Tullius, nor the Perfians until the reign of felf in an eafy attitude, neither playing with thy feet,.
Darius Hyftafpes. But if by money is underftood a nor putting thy mantle to thy mouth, nor fpitting too
fign reprefenting the value of merchandife, the Mexi¬
cans, and other nations of Anahuac, employed money
in their commerce. The cacao, of which they made
eonftant ufe in the market to purchafe whatever they
wanted, was employed for this purpofe, as fait is in A-
byffinia.
It has been affirmed, that ftone bridges were unknown
in America when it was firft difcovered ; and that the
natives did not know how to form arches. But thefe
often, nor looking about you here and there, nor riling
up frequently if thou art fitting ; for fuch actions are
indications of levity and low-breeding.”—He proceeds,
to mention feveral particular vices which are to be a-
voided, and concludes—“ Steal not, nor give thyfelf to
gaming; otherwife thou wilt be a difgrace to thy pa¬
rents, whom thou oughteft rather to honour for the e-
ducation they have given thee. If thou wilt be vir¬
tuous, thy example will put the wicked to fhame- No
aftertions, are erroneous. The remains of the ancient mare, my fon ; enough hath been faid in difcharge of
palaces of Tezcuco, and ftill more their vapour baths,
fhow the ancient ufe of arches and vaults among the
Mexicans. But the ignorance of this art would have
been no proof of barbarity. Neither the Egyptians
nor Babylonians underftood the conftruftion of arches.
M. de Paw affirms, that the palace of Montezuma
was nothing elfe than a hut. But it is certain* from
the duties of a father. With thefe counfels I wifli to
fortify thy mind. Refufe them not, nor act in contra-
diction to them ; for on them thy life, , and all thy hap-
pinefe, depend.”
As ranging on the fame fide with the Abbe Clavi-
gero, the ingenious Mr Jefferfom deferves particular
' 6.?
The hypo-
thefis thar
inoifture is
|iinfr!end!y
to animal
growth,
conlKiereci.
A M E [ J57 ] A M E
attention. This gentleman, in his .Notes on the State ed thus
of Virginia^ &c. has taken occafion to combat the
opinions of Buffon; and feems to have lully refuted
them both by argument and fafts. The French phi-
lofopher afferts, “ That living nature is lefs active, lefs
energetic, in the New world than in the Old.” He
affirms, i. That the animals common to both con¬
tinents are fmaller in America. 2. That thofe pecu¬
liar to the New are on an inferior fcale. 3. That thofe
which have been domefticated in both have degenera¬
ted in America; and, 4. That it exhibits fewer fpe-
cies of living creatures. The caufe of this he afcribes
to the diminution of heat in America, and to the pre¬
valence of humidity from the extenfion of its lakes
and waters over a prodigious furface. In other words,
he affirms that heat is friendly, and .motflure adverfe,
to the produ&ion and developement of the larger qua¬
drupeds.
The hypothefis that moiftiire is unfriendly to animal
growth, Mr Jefferfon fhows to be contradifted by ob- wurs
fervation and experience. It is by the affiftance of :Sitar‘TYUrS,', ■ ■ , , , ,
heat and moifture that vegetables are elaborated from ’ Pa ma- e
are adtual weights of particular fubjeifts, America,
deemed among the larged of their fpecies. Thofe — ^J
marked thus f, are furnifhed by judicious perfons, well
acquainted with the fpecies, and faying, from conjeo
ture only, what the larged individual they had feen
would probably have weighed. The other weights
are taken from Medrs Buffon and D’Aubenton, and
are of fuch fubjetts as came cafually to their hands for
diffe&ion.
“ Comparative View of the Quadrupeds of Europe and
of America.
Table I. Aboriginals of loth.
Mammoth
Buffalo. Bifon
White bear. Ours blanc
Caribou. Renne
Bear. Ours
heat and moidure that vegetables are elaborated from
the elements. Accordingly we find that the more hu¬
mid climates produce plants in greater profufion than
the dry. Vegetables are immediately or remotely the
food of every animal; and, from the uniform opera¬
tion of nature’s laws we difcern, that, in proportion
to the quantity of food, animals are not only multi-
Fallow deer. Daim
Wolf. Loup'
Roe. Chevreuil
Glutton. Glouton. Carcajou
Wild cat. Chat fauvage
to tne quantity or 100a, ammais are not omy muiti- T T .
plied in their numbers, but improved in their fize. Of
Badger. Blaireau
Red fox. Renard
66
The con-
*raiy main-
itained by
Mr Jeffer¬
fon,
this lad opinion is the Count de Buffon himfelf in
another part of his work : “ En general, il paroit que
les pays un peu froids conviennent mieux a nos bosufs
que les pays chauds, et qu’ils font d’autant plus gros
et plus grands que le climat ed plus humide et plus
abondans en paturages. Les bceufs de Danemarck,
de la Podolie, de 1’Ukraine, et de la Tartaric qu’habi-
tent les Calmouques, font les plus grands de tous.”
Here then a race of animals, and one of the larged
too, has been increafed in its dimenfions by cold and
moidure, in direft oppofition to the hypothefis, which
fuppofes that thefe two cireumdanees diminrilh animal
bulk, and that it is their contraries, heat and drynefs,
which enlarge it. But to try the quedion on more
general ground, let us take two portions of the earth,
Europe and America for indance, fufficiently extenfive
to give operation to general caufes ; let us confider the
circumdances peculiar to each, and obferve their effeft
on animal nature. • America, running through the tor¬
rid as well as temperate zone, has more heat, eolle&ive-
ly taken, than Europe. But Europe, according to
our hypothefis, is- the dried. They are equally adapt-
Grey fox. Ifatis
Otter. Loutre
Monax. Marmotte
Vifon. Fouine
Hedgehog. Heriffon
Martin. Marte
Water rat. Rat d’eau
Wefel. Belette
Flying fquirrel. Polatouche
Shrew moufe. Mufaraigne
Table II. Aboriginals of one only.
Europe.
lb.
288.8
167.8
69.8
56.7
25.
18.5
13.6
*3-5
8.9
6.5
2.8
t3°
fir
t4-
EUROPE.
lb.
Sanglier. Wild boar 280.
Mouflon. Wild dteep 56.
Bouquetin. Wildgoat
ed then to animal produftions; each being endowed Lievre. Hare
with one of thofe caufes which befriend animal growth, Lapin. Rabbit
and with one which oppofes it. Let us then take a Putois. Polecat
comparative view of the quadrupeds of Europe and Genette
America, prefenting them to the eye in three different Defman. Mulkrat
tables; in one of which fhall be enumerated thofe Ecureuil. Squirrel
found in both countries ; in a fecond, thofe found in Hermine. Ermin
one only in a third, thofe which have been domedi- Rat. Rat
cated in both. To facilitate the comparifon, let thofe Loirs
of each table be arranged in gradation-according to Lerot. Dormoufe
their fixes, from the greated to the fmalled, fo far as Taupe. Mole
their fizes can be conje&ured.. The weights of the Hamder
large animals ffiall be expreffed in the Engliffi avoirdu- Zifel
poife pound and its decimalsthofe of the fmaller Leming
in. the ounce and its decimals. Thofe which are mark* Souris. Moufe
8.2
AMERICA.
lb..
Tapir 534,.
Elk, round homed 1450.
Puma
7.6 Jaguar 218.
j^Cabiai 109.
j^Tamanoir 109.
3.1 Tamandua 65.4
>z. Cougar of N; Amen 75.
Cougar of S. Amen 59.4
Ocelot
y.yPecari
3-1 Jaguaret
1.8 Alco
1.2 Lama
.9rPaco
jPaca
iServal
.6.Sloth. Unau
46.3
43.6-
32-7
A M E
Table II. continued.
C 558 ]
AMERICA.
lb.
21.8
16.5
16.3
I3*
9.8
3-3
Saricovienne
Kincajou
Tatou Kabaflbu
Urfon. Urchin
Raccoon. Raton
Coati
Coendou
Sloth. Ai
Sapajou Ouarini
Sapajou Coaita
Tatou Encubert
Tatou Apar
Tatou Cachica
Little Coendou
Opoffum. Sarigue
Tapeti
Margay
Crabier
Agouti
Sapajou Sa'i
Tatou Cirquin^on
Tatou Tatouate
Mouffette Squaih
Mouffette Chinche
Mouffette Conepate.
Scunk
Mouffette. Zorilla
Whabus. Hare. Rab¬
bit
Aperea _
Akouchi
Ondatra. Mulkrat
Pilori
Great grey fquirrel f 2.7
Fox fquirrel of Vir¬
ginia f2.625
Surikate 2.
Mink fa.
Sapajou. Sajou 1.8
Indian pig. Cochon
dTnde • 1.6
Sapajou. Saimiri 1.5
Phalan ^er
Coquallin '
Leffer grey fquirrel fi.5
‘ ‘ ti-5
gre5 .
Black fquirrel
Red fquirrel
Sagoin Saki
Sagoin Pinche
Sagoin Tamarin
Sagoin Ouiftiti
Sagoin Marikine
Sagoin Mico
Cayopollin
Fourmillier
Marmofe
Sarigue of Cayenne
Tucan
Red mole
Ground fquirrel
A M E
Table III. Domefticated in both.
Europe. America.
Cow
Horfe
Afs
Hog
Sheep
Goat
Dog
Cat
lb.
763*
67.6
7*
lb.
*2500
*1366
1200
*125
67
“ The refult of this view is, that of 26 quadrupeds of
common to both countries, feven are faid to be larger
in America, feven of equal fize, and 12 not fufficient-
ly examined. So that the firft table impeaches the
firft member of the affertion, that of the animals com¬
mon to both countries the American are fmalleft, “ Et
cela fans aucune exception.” It (hows it not juft, in
all the latitude in which its author has advanced it,
and probably not to fuch a degree as to found a di-
ftinftion between the two countries. gg
“ Proceeding to the fecond table, which arranges the F.xplana-
animals found in one of the two countries only, M. de don and
Buffon obferves, that the taphir, the elephant of A- •
merica, is but of the fize of a fmall cow. To pre table.
ferve our comparifon, Mr Jefferfon ftates the wild
boar, the elephant of Europe, as little more than half
that fize. He has made an elk with round or cylin¬
drical horns, an animal of America, and peculiar to
it; becaufe he has feen many of them himfelf, and
more of their horns; and becaufe, from the beft infor¬
mation, it is certain that in Virginia this kind of elk
has abounded much, and ftill exifts in fmaller numbers.
He makes the American hare or rabbit peculiar, be¬
lieving it to be different from both the European ani¬
mals of thofe denominations, and calling it therefore
by its Algonquin ■ name Whabus, to keep it diftinft
from thefe. Kalm is of the fame opinion. The fquir-
rels are denominated from a knowledge derived from
daily fight of them, becaufe with that the European
appellations and defcriptions feem irrecorfcileable. Thefe
are the only inftances in which Mr Jefferfon departs
from the authority of M. de Buffon in the conftruc-
tion of this table ; whom he takes for his ground-work,
becaufe he thinks him the beft informed of any natu-
ralift who has ever written. The refult is, that there
are 18 quadrupeds peculiar to Europe ; more than four
times as many, to wit 74, peculiar to America ; that
the firft of thefe 74, the tapir, the largeft of the anw
mals peculiar to America, weighs more than the whole
column of Europeans; and confequently this fecond
table difproves the fecond member of the affertion,
that the animals peculiar to the New World are on a
fmaller fcale, fo far as that affertion relied on Euro¬
pean animals for fupport : and it is in full oppolition
to the theory which makes the animal volume to de¬
pend on the circumftances of heat and moifture. ^
“ The third table comprehends thofe quadrupeds only ofthethird
which are domeftic in both countries. That fome of table,
thefe, in fome parts of America, have become lefs
than their original ftock, is doubtlefs true ; and the
reafon is very obvious. In a thinly-peopled country,
4 the
A M E [ 559 1 A M E
America, the fpontaneous produdions of the forefts and wafte
fields are fufficient to fupport indifferently the domeftic
animals of the farmer, with a very little aid from him
in the feverefl: and fcarceft feafon. He therefore finds
it more convenient to receive them from the hand of
nature in that indifferent ftate, than to keep up their
fize by a cave and nourifhment which would coll him
much labour. If, on this low fare, thefe animals
dwindle, it is no more than they do in thofe parts of
Europe where the poverty of the foil, or poverty of the
owner, reduces them to the fame fcanty fubfiftence. It
is the uniform effed of one and the fame caufe, whe¬
ther ading on- this or that fide of the globe. It would
be erring therefore againfl that rule of philofophy,
which teaches us to afcribe like effeds to like caufes,
fhould we impute this diminution of fize in America to
any imbecillity or want of uniformity in the operations
of nature. It may be affirmed with truth, that in thofe
countries, and with thofe individuals of America, where
neceffity or curiofity has produced equal attention as in
Europe to the nourifhment of animals, the horfes,
cattle, fheep, and hogs of the one continent are as large
as thofe of the other. There are particular inftances,
well attefled, where individuals of America have im¬
ported good breeders from England, and have impro¬
ved their fize by care in the courfe of fome years.
And the weights-adually known and Hated in the
third table, will fuffice to fhow, that we may conclude,
on probable grounds, that, with equal food and care,
the climate of America will preferve the races of do¬
meftic animals as large as the European /lock from
which they are derived ; and confequently that the
third member of Monf. de Buffon’s affertion, that the
domeftic animals are fubjedl to degeneration from the
climate of America^ is as probably wrong as the firft
and fecond were certainly fo.
That the laft part of it is erroneous, which affirms,
that the fpecies of American quadrupeds are compara¬
tively few, is evident from the tables taken altogether;
to which may be added the proof adduced by the Abbe
Clavigero. According to Buffon’s lateft calculation, in
his Epoches de la Nature, there are 300 fpecies of quadru¬
peds; and America, though it does nofi make more
than a third part of the globe, contains, according to
Clavigero, almoft one half of the different fpecies of
yo- its animals.
file human Of the human inhabitants of America, to whom the
^habitants lame hypothefis of degeneracy is extended, M. Buffdn
Epded in £‘ves t^ie following defcription: “ Though the Ameri-
k fame can lavage be nearly of the fame ftature with men in
lypothefis polifhed focieties ; yet this is not a fufficient exception
1 degene- to the general contraction of animated Nature through-
IN'' out the whole continent. In the favage, the organs of
generation are fmall and feeble. He has no hair, no
beard, no ardour for the female. Though nimbler than
the European, becaufe more accuftomed to running,
his ftrength is not fo great. His fenfations are lefs a-
cute ; and yet he is more timid and cowardly. He has
no vivacity, no activity of mind. The aftivity of his
body is not fo much an exercife or fpontaneous mo¬
tion, as a neceffary adlion produced by want. Deft oy
his appetite for victuals and drink, and you will at once
annihilate the adtive principle of all his movements:
He remains in ftupid repofe, on his limbs or couch, for
whole,days. It is eafy to difcover the caufe of tire
fcattered life of favages, and of their eftrangement America.
from fociety. They have been refufed the moil pre- '/—J
cious fpark of Nature’s fire : They have no ardour for
women, and, of courfe, no love to mankind. Unac¬
quainted with the moft lively and moft tender of all
attachments, their other fenfations of this nature are
cold and languid. Their love to parents and children
is extremely weak. The bonds of the moft intimate
of all focieties, that of the fame family, are feeble ; .
an4 one family has no attachment to another. Hence
no union, no republic, no facial ftate, can take place
among them. The phyfical caufe of love gives rife to
the morality of their manners. Their heart is frozen, ,
their fociety cold, and their empire cruel. They regard
their females as fervants deftined to labour, or as beafts
of burden, whom they load unmercifully with the pro¬
duce of their hunting, and oblige, without pity or gra¬
titude, to perform labours which often exceed their
ftrength. They have few children, and pay little at¬
tention to them. Every thing muft be referred to the
firft caufe: They are indifferent, becaufe they are weak; .
and this indifference to the fex is the original ftain ,
which difgraces Nature, prevents- her from expanding,
and, by deftroying the germs of life, cuts the root of
fociety. Hence man makes no exception to what has -
been advanced.: Nature, by denying him the faculty
of love, has abufed and contrafted him more than any
other animal.” 72 :
A humiliating picture, indeed ! but than which, Mr 9 ,fer1'raTr
Jcfferfon affures us, never was one more unlike tbe o- AriA ‘‘f
riginal. M. Buffon grants, that their ftature is the ^
fame as that of the men of Europe, and he might have
admitted, that the Iroquois were larger, and the Le»
nopi or Delawares taller, than people in Europe ge¬
nerally are : But he fays their organs of generation
are fmaller and weaker than thofe of Europeans: which
is not a fail. And as to their want of beard, this
error has been already noticed (n° /[g.fupra).
“ They have no ardour for their female.”—It is Seeming
true, they do not indulge thofe exceffes, nor difcovercoIdnefs °f
that fondnefs, which are cuftomary in Europe ; but th*3 canAo^he
is not owing to a defedl in nature, but to manners. fexacc0uiit-
Their foul is wholly bent upon war. This is what pro-ed for.
cures them glory among the men, and makes them the
admiration of the women. To this they are educated
from their earlieil youth. When they purfue game
with ardour, when they bear the fatigues of the chace, .
when they fuftain and fuffer patiently hunger and cold;
it is not fo much for the fake of the game they pur¬
fue, as to convince their parents and the council of the
nation, that they are fit to be enrolled in the number of
the warriors. The fongs of the women, the dance of
the warriors, the fage counfel of the chiefs, the tales
of the old, the triumphal entry of the warriors return¬
ing with fuccefs from battle, and the refpedl paid to
thofe who diftinguifh themfelves in battle, and in fub-
duing their enemies ; in fhort, every thing they fee or
hear, tends to infpire them with an ardent defire for
military fame. If a young man were to difcover a
fondnefs for women before he has been to war, he
would become the contempt of the men, and the fcorn
and ridicule of the women : or were he to indulge
himfelf with a captive taken in war, and much more
were he to offer violence in order to gratify his lull,
he would incur indelible difgrace. The feeming frigi-
A M E C 560 ] A M E
America, dity of the men, therefore, is the effect of manners,
v“"—^ 1 and not a defedt of nature. They are neither more
defective in ardour, nor more impotent with the fe¬
male, than are the whites reduced to the fame diet and
73 exercife.
Why they “ They raife few children.”—They indeed raife
^ve few fewer children than we do ; the caufes of which are to
thudren. ^ {■oun(j> not jn a difference of nature, but of circum-
ftance. The women very frequently attending the
men in their parties of war and of hunting, childbear¬
ing becomes extremely inconvenient to them. It is
faid, therefore, that they have learned the pradtice of
procuring abortion by the ufe of fome vegetable ; and
that it even extends to prevent conception for a con-
fidetable time after. During thefe parties they are
expofed to numerous hazards, to exceflive exertions, to
the greateft extremities of hunger. Even at their
homes, the nation depends for food, through a certain
part of every year, on the gleanings of the forelt; that
is, they experience a famine once in every year. With
all animals, if the female be badly fed, or not fed at
all, her young perilh ; and if both male and female be
reduced to like want, generation becomes lefs adlive,
lefs produ&ive. To the obltacles, then, of want and
hazard, which nature has oppofed to the multiplication
of wild animals, for the purpofe of reftraining their
numbers within certain bounds, thofe of labour and of
voluntary abortion are added with the Indian. No
wonder, then, if they multiply lefs than we do. Where
food is regularly fupplied, a iingle farm will (how more
of cattle than a whole country of forefts can of buffa¬
loes. The fame Indian women, when married to
white traders, who feed them and their children plen¬
tifully and regularly, who exempt them from exeeffive
drudgery, who keep them ftationary and unexpofed to
accident, produce and raife as many children as the
white women. Inftances are known, under thefe cir-
cumftances, of their rearing a dozen children.
74 Neither do they feem to be “ deficient in natural
t'l®.ir affection.” On the contrary, their fenfibility is keen,
ll 11 even the warriors weeping moil bitterly on the lofs of
their children ; though in general they endeavour to
appear fuperior to human events.
Their friendfhips are ftrong, and faithful to the ut-
termoft extremity. A remarkable inftance of this ap¬
peared in the cafe of the late Col. Byrd, who was fent
' to the Cherokee nation to tranfaft fome bufmefs with
them. It happened that fome of our diforderly peo¬
ple had juft killed one or two of that nation. It was
therefore propofed in the council of the Cherokees,
that Col. Byrd fhould be put to death in revenge for
the lofs of their countrymen. Among them was a
chief called Silbuee, who, on fome former occafion, had
contracted an acquaintance and friendthip with Col.
Byrd. He came to him every night in his tent, and
told him not to be afraid, they fhould not kill him.
After many days deliberation, however, the determi¬
nation was, contrary to Silouee’s expectation, that
Byrd fhould be put to death, and fome warriors were
difpatched as executioners'. Silouee attended them;
and when they entered the tent, he threw himfelf be¬
tween them and Byrd, and faid to the warriors, “ This
man is my friend: before )jpu get at him, you muft
kill me.” On which they returned j and the council
N° 14. 1
refpected the principle fo much as to recede from their America. ;
determination. 1 * 1 |J
That “ they are timorous and cowardly” is a cha¬
racter with which there is little reafon to charge them,
when we recoiled the manner in which the Iroquois
met Monf. , who marched into their country ;
in which the old men, who fcorned to fly, or to furvive
the capture of their town, braved death like the old 75 |
Romans in the time of the Gauls, and in which they Of their |
foon after revenged themfelves by lacking and deftroy- |
ing Montreal. In fhort, the Indian is brave, when
an enterprife depends on bravery ; education with himfu/ira.) 1
making the point of honour confift in the deftrudion
of an enemy by ftratagem, and in the prefervation of
his own perfon free from jnjury : or perhaps this is na¬
ture, while it is education which teaches us to honour
force more than fineffe. He will defend himfelf againft
an hoft of enemies, always choofing to be killed rather j
than to furrender, though it be to the w'hites, who he
knows wall treat him well. In other fituations, alfo,
he meets death with more deliberation; and endures
tortures with a firmnefs unknown almoft to religious
enthufiafm among us.
Much lefs are-they to be charaderifed as a people of
no vivacity, and who are excited to adion or motion
only by the calls of hunger and thirft. Their dances,
in which they fo much delight, and which to a Euro¬
pean would be the moft fevere exercife, fully contradid
this ; not to mention their fatiguing marches, and the
toil they voluntarily and cheerfully undergo in their
military expeditions. It is true, that when at home
they do not employ themfelves in labour or the culture
of the foil: but this, again, is the effed of cuftoms and
manners which have afligned that to the province of
the women. But it is faid, “ they are averfe to fociety
and a focial life.” Can any thing be more inapplicable
than this to a people who always live in towns or in
clans i Or can they be faid to have no tepublique, who
condud all their affairs in national councils; who pride
themfelves in their national charader; who confider an
infult or injury done to an individual by a ftranger as
done to the whole, and refent it accordingly?
To form a juft eftimate of their genius and men¬
tal powers, Mr Jefferfon obferves, more fads are
wanting, and great allowance is to be made for thofe
circumftances of their lituation which call for a dif-
play of particular talents only. This done, we fhall
probably find that the Americans are formed, in
mind as well as in body, on the fame model with the
homo fapiens Europaus. The principles of their fociety
forbidding all compulfion, they are to be led to duty
and to enterprife by perfonal influence and perfuafion.
Hence eloquence in council, bravery and addrefs in
war, become the foundations of all confequence with
them. To thefe acquirements all their faculties are
direded. Of their bravery and addrefs in war we have
multiplied proofs, becaufe .we have been the fubjeds
on which they were exercifed. Of their eminence in
oratory we have fewer examples, becaufe it is difplayed
chiefly in their own councils. Some, however, we
have of very fuperior luftre. We may challenge the
w hole orations of Demofthenes and Cicero, and of any
more eminent orator, if Europe has furnilhed more
eminent, to produce a Angle paffage fuperior to the
fpeech
iStory of
Logan.
A M E i 561 ] A M E
fpeechofLogan, aMingo chief, foLord Dunmore when fteetn flavifh and bafe ; and the learning on which we America.
governor of this ftate. The ftory is as follows; of which, value ourfelves, they regard as frivolous and ufelefs.  v *
and of the fpeech, the authenticity is unqueftionable. Having frequent occafions to hold public councils.
In the fpring of the year 1774, a robbery and murder they have acquired great order and decency in condudt-
were committed on an inhabitant of the frontiers of ing them. The old men lit in the foremoft ranks, the
Virginia by two Indians of the Shawanee tribe. The warriors in the next, and the women* and children in
neighbouring whites, according to their cuftom, under- the hindmoft. The bufinefs of the women is to take
took to punifh this outrage in a fummary way. Colo- exatt notice of what paffes-; imprint it in their memo-
nel Crefap, a man infamous for the many murders he ries, for they have no,writing, and communicate it to
had. committed on thofe much-injured people, colledt- their children. They are the records of the council,
ed a party, and proceeded down the Kanhaway in and they preferve tradition of the ftipulations in trea-
queil of vengeaftce. Unfortunately a canoe of women ties a hundred years back ; which, when we compare
and children, with one man only, was feen coming with our writings, we- always find exadt. He that
from the oppofite fhore, unarmed, and unfufpedting would fpeak rifes. The reft obferve a profound filence.
any hbftile attack from the whites. Crefap and his When he has finifhed, and fits down, they leave him
party concealed themfelves on the bank of the river; five or fix minutes to recoiled!, that if he has omitted
and the moment the canoe reached the fliore, fingled any thing he intended to fay, or has any thing to add,
out their objedts, and at one fire killed every perfon in he may rife again and deliver it. To interrupt ano-
it. This happened to be the family of Logan, who ther, even in common converfation, is reckoned highly
had long been diftinguifhed as a friend of the whites, indecent. 79
This unworthy return provoked his vengeance. He ac- The politenefs of thefe favages in converfation is, P' h’tencfs
cordingly fignalized himfelf in the war which enfued. indeed, carried to excefs ; fince it does not
In the autumn of the fame year a decifive battle was them to contradl or deny the truth of what is aiferted ” caa In_
fought at the mouth of the Great Kanhaway, between in their prefence. By this means they indeed avoid^ians.
the colledted forces of the Shawanees, Mingoes, and difputes; but then it becomes difficult to know their
Delawares, and a detachment of the Virginia militia, minds, or what impreffibn you make upon them. The
The Indians were defeated, and fued for peace. Logan, miffionaries who have attempted to convert them to
however, difdained to be feen among the fuppliants ; Chriftianity, all complain of this as one of the great
but, left the fincerity of a treaty (hould be diftrufted difficulties of their miffion. The Indians hear with pa-
from which fo diftinguiftied a chief abfented himfelf, tience the truths of the gofpel explained to them, and
he fent by a meffenger the following fpeech, to be de- give their ufual tokens of aflent and approbation ; but
livered to Lord Dunmore :—“ I appeal to any white this by no means implies conviftion; it is mere ciyility.
man to fay if ever he entered Logan’s cabin hungry, When any of them come into our towns, our people
ploquence and he gave him not meat; if ever he came cold and are apt to croud round them, gaze upon them, and iri-
naked, and he clothed him not. During the courfe commode them where they defire to be private ; this
of the laft long and bloody war, Logan remained idle they efteem great rudenefs, and the effeft of the want
in his cabin, an advocate for peace. Such was my of inftruftion in the rules of ciyility and,good manners,
lov for the whites, that my countrymen pointed as “We have,” fay they, “as much curiofity as you;
they pafled, and faid, l.ogan is the friend of white men. and when you come into our towns, we wifh for op-
I had even thought to have lived with you, but for portunities of looking at you ; but for this purpofe we
the injuries of one, man. Colonel Crefap, the laft hide purfelves behind bufhes where you are to pafs, and
fpring, in cold blood, and unprovoked, murdered all never intrude ourfelves into your company.” g0
the relations of Logan, not fparing even my women Their manner of entering one another’s villages has Their ho-
,and children. There runs not a drop of my blood in likewife its rules. It is reckoned uncivil in travelling fpitality.
the veins of any living creature. This called on me ftrangers to enter a village abruptly, without giving
for revenge. I have fought it; I have killed many ; notice of their approach. Therefore, as fbon as they
I have fully glutted my vengeance. For my country, arrive within hearing, they ftop and hbllow,-remaining
I rejoice at the beams of peace ; but do not harbour a there till invited to enter. Two old men ufually come
thought that mine is the joy of fear. Logan never out to them and lead them in. There is in every vil-
felt fear. He will not turn on his heel to fave his life, lage a vacant dwelling, called theJlrangers houje. Here
~ /ho is there to mourn for Logan ? Not one.” they are placed, while the old men go round from hut
To the preceding anecdotes in favour of the Ameri- to hut, acquainting the inhabitants that ftrangefs are
qan charafter, may be added , the following by Dr Ben- arrived, who are probably hungry and weary ; and
jamin Franjdin. - The Indian men, when young, are every one fends them what he can {pare of vidtuals, and
hunters and warriors: when oldj counfellors; for all fldns to repofe on. When the ftrangefs are re frefhed,
their government is by the counfel or advice of the pipes and tobacco are brought; and then, but not be-
fages. Hence they generally ftudy oratory ; the beft fore, converfation begins, with inquiries who they are,
fpeaket having the moil influence. The Indian wo- whither bound, what news, ^Scc. and it ufually ends with
men till the ground, drefs-the food, nurfe and bring offers of fervice : if the ftrangers have occafion for
up the children, and preferve and hand down to pofte- guideSj or any neceffaries for-continuing their journey ;
rity the memory of public tranfadlions. Thefe employ- and nothing is exafted for the entertainment,
ments of men and women are accounted natural and ho- The fame hofpitality, efteemed among them as a
nourable. Having few artificial wants, they have abun- principal virtue, is pradlifed by private perfons T" of
dance of leifure for improvement by converfation. Our which Conrad Weifer, our interpreter, gave Dr Frank-
laborious manner of life, compared with theirs, they e- lin the following inftance : He had been naturalized
Vol, I. Part II. 4 B among
I 78
lOthera)
Motes.
A M E [ 562 ] A M E
America, among the Six Nations, and fpoke well the Mohock
’ v language. In going through the Indian country to
carry a meflage from our governor to the council at
Onondaga, he called at the habitation of Canafletego,
an old acquaintance, who embraced him, fpread furs
for him to fit on, placed before him fome boiled beans
and venifon, and mixed fome rum and water for his
drink. When he was well refrefhed, and had lit his
pipe, Canaffetego began to converfe with him : a fired
how he had fared the many years fince they had feen
each other, whence he then came, what had occafion-
ed the journey, &c. Conrad anfwered all his queilions ;
and when the difcourfe began to flag, the Indian, to
continue it, faid, “ Conrad, you have lived long among
the white people, and know fomething of their cu-
ftoms ; I have been fometimes at Albany, and have ob-
ferved, that once in feven days they fhut up their fhops,
and affemble all in the great houfe; tell me what it is
for ?—What do they do there?” “ They meet there,”
fays Conrad, “ to hear and learn good things” “ I do
not doubt,” fays the Indian, “ that they tell you fo; they
have told me the fame : but I doubt the truth of what
they fay, and I will tell you my reafons. I went lately
to Albany to fell my fkins, and buy blankets, knives,
powder, rum, &c. You know I generally ufed to deal
with Hans Hanfon ; but I was a little inclined this
time to try fome other merchants. However, I called
firft upon Hans, and afked him what he would give for
beaver. He faid he could not give more than 4s. a
pound ; but (fays he) I cannot talk on bufinefs now ;
this is the day when we meet together to learn good
things, and I am going to the meeting.^ So I thought
to myfelf, fince I cannot do any bufinefs to-day, I may
as well go to the meeting too ; and I went with him.
—There flood up a man in black, and began to talk
to the people very angrily. I did not underfland what
he faid ; but perceiving that he looked much at me
and at Hanfon, I imagined he was angry at feeing me
there : fo I went out, fat down near the houfe, ftruck
fire, and lit my pipe, waiting till the meeting fhould
break up. I thought too, that the man had mention¬
ed fomething of beaver, and I fufpefted that it might be
the fubjeft of their meeting. So when they came out,
I accofted my merchant.—Well, Hans, (fays I,) I
hope you have agreed to give more than 4s. a pound?”
“ No, (fays he), I cannot give fo much, I cannot give
more than 3s. 6d.” “ I then fpoke to feveral other
dealers, but they all fung the fame fong, three and fix-
pence, three and fixpence. This made it clear to me
that my fufpicion was right; and that whatever they
pretended of meeting to learn good things, the real pur-
pofe was, to confult how to cheat Indians in the price
of beaver. Confider but a little, Conrad, and you muft
be of my opinion. If they met fo often to learn good
things, they certainly would have learned fome before
this time. But they are ftill ignorant. You know our
pradlice. If a white man, in travelling through our
country, enters one of our cabins, we all treat him as
I treat you ; we dry him if he is wet, we warm him
if he is cold, and give him meat and drink, that he
may allay his thirft and hunger; and we fpread foft
furs for him to reft and fleep on : we demand nothing
in return. But if I go into a white man’s houfe at
Albany, and alk for viftuals and drink, they fay. Where
is your money ? And if I have none, they fay, Get out,
you Indian dog. You fee they have not yet learned
thofe little good things that we need no meeting to be America.
inftrudted in ; becaufe our mothers taught them to us 
when we were children ; and therefore it is impoffible
there meetings fhould be, as they fay, for any fuch pur-
pofe, or have any fuch effeft ; they are only to contrive
the cheating of Indians in the price of beaver.”
The next queftion that occurs is, Whether the pecu¬
liarities of the Americans, or the disparity between them
and the inhabitants of Europe, afford fufficient grounds
for determining them, as fome have done, to be a race
of men radically different from all others ?
In this queftion, to avoid being tedious, we /hall
confine ourfelves to what has been advanced by Lord
Karnes; who is of opinion, that there are many dif¬
ferent fpecies of men, as well as of other animals ; and
gives an hypothefis, whereby he pretends his opinion
may be maintained in a confiftency with Revelation. 81
“ If (fays he) the only rule afforded by nature for claf-Lord
fing animals can be depended on, there are differentKames’1
races of men as well as of dogs: a maftiff differs notfordiff^enl
more from a fpaniel, than a white man from a negro,fpecies.
or a Laplander from a Dane. And, if we have any
faith in Providence, it ought to be fo. Plants were
created of different kinds, to fit them for different cli¬
mates ; and fo were brute animals. Certain it is, that
all men are not fitted equally for every climate. There
is fcarce a climate but what is natural to fome men,
where they •profper and flourifn; and there is not a
climate but where fome men degenerate. Doth not
then analogy lead us to conclude, that, as there are
different climates on the face of this globe, fo there are
different races of men fitted for thefe different climates ?
“ M. Buffon, from the rule, That animals which can
procreate together, and whofe progeny can alfo pro¬
create, are of one fpecies; concludes, that all men are of
one race or fpecies; and endeavours to fupport that fa¬
vourite opinion, by afcribing to the climate, to food, or
to other accidental caufes, all the varieties that are
found among men. But is he ferioufly of opinion, that
any operation of climate, or of other accidental caufe,
can account for the copper colour and fmooth chin u-
niverfal among the Americans; the prominence of the
pudenda univerfal among the Hottentot women, or the
black nipple no lefs univerfal among the female Samoie-
des ?—It is in vain to afcribe to the climate, the low
ftature of the Efquimaux, the fmallnefs of their feet, or
the overgrown fize of their heads. It is equally in vaia
to afcribe to climate the low ttature of the Laplanders,
or their ugly vifage. The black colour of negroes,
thick lips, flat nofe, crifped woolly hair, and rank fmell,
diftinguifti them from every other race of men. The
Abyffinians, on the contrary, are tall and well made,
their complexion a brown olive, features well-propor¬
tioned, eyes large and of a fparkling black, thin lips,
a nofe rather high than flat. There is no fuch differ¬
ence of climate between Abyffinia and Negro-land as
to produce thefe ftriking differences.
“ Nor (hall our author’s ingenious hypothefis con¬
cerning the extremities of heat and cold, purchafe him
impunity with refpeft to the fallow complexion of the
Samoiedes, Laplanders, and Greenlanders. The Fin¬
landers, and northern Norwegians, live in a climate
not lefs cold than that of the people mentioned ; and
yet are fair beyond other Europeans. 1 fay more,
there are many inftances of races of people preferring
their
A M E [ 563 ]
• their original colour, in climates very different from ‘ build a
their own ; but not a Angle inftance of the contrary, as
far as I can learn. There have been four complete ge¬
nerations of negroes in-Penfylvania, without any viiible
change of colour; they continue jet black, as original¬
ly. Thofe who aferibe all to the fun, ought to confi-
der how little probable it is, that the colour it impref-
fes on the parents fhould be communicated to their
infant children, who never faw the fun: I fhould be as
8*
' His hypo-
jl thefis con-
tcerning the
!< origin of
j! the diffe¬
rent fpecii
A M E
city on a plain in the land of Shinar, with a America,
‘ tower, whofe top might reach unto heaven ; that the u-"'v
‘ Lord, beholding the people to be one, and to have
‘ all one language, and that nothing would be re*
‘ drained from them which they imagined to do, con-
‘ founded their language that they might not under-
‘ ftand one another, and fcattered them abroad upon
* the face of all the earth.’ Here light breaks forth
in the midft of darknefs. By confounding the language
foon induced to believe with a German naturalift, whofe of men, and fcattering them abroad upon the face of
name has efcaped me, that the negro colour is owing to all the earth, they were rendered favages. And to har-
an ancient cuftom in Africa, of dyeing the fldn black, den them for their new habitations, it was neceffary
Let a European, for years, expofe himfelf to the fun in that they fhould be divided into different kinds, fitted
a hot climate, till he be quite brown; his children will for different climates. Without an immediate change
neverthelefs have the fame complexion with thofe in of conftitution, the builders of Babel could not pofilbly
Europe. From the aftion of the fun, is it poffible have fubfilled in the burning region of Guinea, nor in
to explain, why a negro, like a European, is born with the frozen region of Lapland; houfes not being prepa-
a ruddy fkin, which turns jet black the eighth or ninth red, nor any other convenience to proteft them againff
day?” a deftru&ive climate.”
Our author next proceeds to draw fome arguments We may firft remark, on his Lordfhip’s hypo thefis, Inconqlste.
for the exiftence of different races of men, from the that it is evidently incomplete: for, allowing the human
various tempers and difpofitions of different nations; race to have been divided into different fpecies at the
which he reckons to befyecijic differences, as well as confufion of languages, and that each fpecies was ad-
thofe of colour, ftature, &c. and having fummed up his apted to a particular climate; by what means were
evidence, he concludes thus: “ Upon fumming up the they to get to the climates proper for them, or how
whole particulars mentioned above, would one hefitate were they to know that fuch climates exiffed? How was
a moment to adopt tlie following opinion, were there an American, for inflance, when languifhing in an im-
no counterbalancing evidence, viz. ‘ That God crea- proper climate at Babel, to get to the land of the A-
< ted many pairs of the human race, differing from mazons, or the banks of the Oroonoko, in his own
* each other, both externally and internally; that he country? or how was he to know that thefe places were
‘ fitted thofe pairs for different climates, and placed more proper*for him than others?—’If, indeed, we take
‘ each pair in its proper climate; that the peculiari- the feripture phrafe, “ The Lord fcattered them abroad
‘ ties of the original pairs were preferved entire in upon the face of all the earth,” in a certain fenfe, we
t their defeendants; who, having no afiiftance but their may account for it. If we fuppofe that the different
-* natural talents, were left to gather knowledge from fpecies were immediately carried off by a whirlwind, or
4 experience; and, in particular, were left (each tribe) other fupernatural means, to their proper countries, the
‘ to form a language for itfelf; that figns were fufii- difficulty will vanifti: but if this is his Lordffiip’s in-
‘ cient for the original pairs, without any language terpretation, it is certainly a very fingular one. g4
4 but what nature fuggefts; and that a language was Before entering upon a confideration of the parti-General
4 formed gradually, as a tribe increafed in numbers, cular arguments ufed by our author for proving the di-I,rinciPics
4 and in different occupations, to make fpeech necef- veriity of fpecies in the human race, it will be proper |°
4 fary?” But this opinion, however plaufible, we are to lay down the following general principles, which reafoning
not permitted to adopt; being taught a different leflbn may ferve as axioms. (l.) When we aflert a multi-on this fub*
by Revelation, viz. That God created but a fingle plicity of fpecies in the human race; we bring in a fu-je<a*
pair of the human fpecies. Though we cannot doubt pernatural caufe to folve a natural phenomenon : for
the authority of Moles, yet his account of the crea- thefe fpecies are fuppofed to be the immediate work of
tion of man is not a little puzzling, as itfeems to con- the Deity. (2.) No perfon has a right to call any
tradibl every one of the facts mentioned above. Ac- thing the immediate effeft of omnipotence, unlefs by
cording to that account, different races of men were exprefs revelation from the Deity, or from a certain-
not formed, nor were men formed originally for differ- ty that no natural caufe is fufficient to produce the ef-
ent climates. All men muff have fpoken the fame lan- feet. The reafon is plain. The Deity is invilible, and
guage, viz. That of our firft parents. And what of fo are many natural caufes: when we fee an effedt there- .
all feems the moft contradictory to that account, is the fore, of which the caufe does not manifeft itfelf, we
favage ftate: Adam, as Mofes informs us, was endued cannot know whether the immediate caufe is the,Deity,
by his Maker with an eminent degree of knowledge ; or an in viiible natural power. An example of this we
and he certainly was an excellent preceptor to his chil- have in the phenomena of thunder and earthquakes,
dren and their progeny, among whom he lived many which were often aferibed immediately to the Deity,
generations. Whence then the degeneracy of all men but are now difeovered to be the effe&s of electricity,
unto the favage ftate? To account for that difmal ca- (3.) No perfon can affert natural caufes to be infuffi-
taftrophe, mankind muft have fuffered fome terrible con- cient to produce fuch , d fuch effects, unlefs he per-
vulfion. That terrible convulfion is revealed to us in the fectly knows all thefe c: .fes, and the limits of their
hiilory of the tower of Babel, contained in the 11 th power in all poffible cafes ; and this no man has ever
chapter of Genefis, which is, 4 That, for many cen- known, or can know.
4 turies after the deluge, the whole earth was of one By keeping in view thefe principles, which we hope
« language, and of one fpeech; that they united to are felf-evident, we will eafily fee Lord Karnes’s ar-
4 B 2 guments
A M E [ 564 ] A M E
America, guments to confift entirely in a petltio principu. — In doubtedly accidental caufes of a contrary nature may America s
v'”—' fubftance they are all reduced to this fingle Centence : make thofe of another country a foot taller than other " 1
“ Natural philofophers have been hitherto uhfuccefsful men. . 89
in their endeavours to account for the differences obfer* Though the fun has undoubtedly a fhare in the pro- Different j
ved among mankind, therefore thefe differences cannot du&ion of the fwarthy colour of thofe nations which are caufes con-
g, be accounted for from natural caufes.” moft expo fed to his influence; yet the manner of living
Inconfift- His Lordfhip, however, tells us in the paffages al- to which people are accuftomed, their vi£tuals, their alteration
ency in ready Quoted, that “ a mafliff differs not more from a employment, &c- muff contribute very much to a dif-in colour.
Kame’s fpaniel> than a Laplander from a Dane that “ it is ference of complexion. There are fome kinds of co-
arguments. va*n to afcr^e to climate the low ftature of the Lap- louring roots, which, if mixed with the food of certain
landers, or their-ugly vifage.”—Yet, in a note on the animals, will tinge even their bones of a yellow colour,
word Laplanders, he. fubjoins, that, “ by late accounts — It cannot be thought any great degree of credulity to
it appears, , that the Laplanders are only degenerated infer from this, that if thefe roots were mixed with the
Tartars; and that they and the Hungarians originally food of a white man, they might, without a miracle,
fprung from the fame breed of men, and from the fame tinge his fkin of a yellow colour. If a man and woman
country.”— The Hungarians are generally handfome were both to ufe food of this kind for a length of time,
and well-made, like Danes, or like other people. The till they became as it were radically dyed, it is impof-
Laplanders,'he tells us, differ as much from them as a fible, without the intervention of divine power, or of
maftiff from a fpaniel. Natural caufes, therefore, ac- fome extraordinary natural cauie, but their children muft
cording to Lord Kames himfelf, may caufe two indi- -be of the fame colour; and was the fame kind of food
viduals of the fame fpecies of mankind differ from each to be continued for feveral generations, it is more than
gg other as much as a maftiff does from a fpaniel.
Remark While we are treating this fubjeft of colour,' it may
able diffe- not be amifs to obferve, that a very remarkable diffe¬
rence fen-renc^ of colour may accidentally happen to individuals
accidental °f ^e fame fpecies. In the ifthmus of Darien, a fingu-
probable that this colour might refill the continued uie
of any kind of food whatever. See further the article
Complexion. ^
Of this indeed we have no examples, but we have Ha' it capa
an example of changes much more wonderful.—It is bee of alter-;
caufes. lar race of men have been difeovered.—They are of allowed on all hands, that it is more eafy to work a
low ftature, of a feeble make, and incapable of endu¬
ring fatigue. Their colour is a dead milk white ; not
refembling that of fair people among Europeans, but
diiuwcu uii an nanus, uiat it is inure caiy tu wui*. “ ^1 ” ^
change upon the body of a man, or any other animal,
than upon his mind. A man that is naturally cho¬
leric may indeed learn to prevent the bad effedts of his
without any blulh or fanguine complexion. Their Ikin paffion by reafon, but the paflion it fell will remain as
is covered with a fine hairy down of a chalky white ;
the hair of their heads, their eye-brows, and eye-lafties,
immutable as his colour.— But to reafon in a manner
fimilar to Lord Kames; though a man ftiould be na-
e of the fame hue. Their eyes are of a Angular form, turally choleric, or fubjedl to any other pafiion, why
and fo weak, that they Can hardly bear the light of the
fun; but they fee clearly by moon-light, and are moft
ftiould his children be fo?—This way - of reafoning*
however plaufible, is by no means conclufive, as will
adtive and gay in the night. Among the negroes of appear from the following paffage in Mr Forfter's
Africa, as well as the natives of the Indian iilands, a Voyage.
fmall number of thefe people are produced They are
called 4lbinos by the Portuguefe, and Kackcrlakes by
the Dutch.
June 9th. “ The officers who could not yet reliftt V0yxg?
their fait provifions after the refrelhments of New Zea- ™ tie
land, had ordered their black dog, mentioned p. 135,
4.~ 1 *11—1 a    c  a: i c 
  This race of men is not indeed permanent; hut it is to be killed : this day, therefore, we dined for the firiip °
character!- fufficient to (how, that mere colour is by no means the time on a leg of it roafted; which tafted fo exadtly like
flic of a dif chara&eriftic of a certain fpecies of mankind. The dif-
^nt fi,e‘ ference of colour in thefe individuals is undoubtedly
mutton, that it was ablolutely undiftinguilhable. In
our cold countries, where animal food is fo much ufed,
owing to a natural caufe. To Conftitute, then, a race and where to be carniverous perhaps lies in the nature
of men of this colour, it would only be neceffary that of men, or is indifpenfibly neceffary to the prefervation
this caufe, which at prefent is merely accidental, ftiould °f their health and llrength, it is ftrange that there
become permanent, and we cannot know but it may be fliould exift a Jewiffi averfion to dogs-flelh, when hogs.
To in fome parts of the world. the moft uncleanly of all animals, are eaten without
If a difference in colour is no charafleriftic of a dif- fcruple. Nature ieems expreisly to have intended them
ferent fpecies of mankind, much lefs can a difference in
ftature be thought fo. - In thefouthern parts of Ameri¬
ca, there are faid to be a race of men exceeding the
* See Petu- commo11 ^ize in height and ftrength*. This account,
gmia. however, is doubted of by fome ; but be that as it
will, it is certain that the Efquimaux are as much un¬
der the common fize, as the Patagonians are faid to be
above it. Neverthelefs we are not to imagine, that ei¬
ther of thefe are fpecific differences ; feeing the Lap¬
landers and Hungarians are both of the fame fpecies;
for this ufe, by-making their offspring fo very nume¬
rous, and their increafe fo quick and frequent. It may
be objt&ed, that the exalted degree of inftincl which
we obferve in our dogs, infpires us with great unwil-
lingnefs to kill and eat them. But it is owing to the
time we fpend on the education of dogs, that they ac¬
quire thofe eminent qualities which attach them fo much
to us. The natural qualities of our dogs may receive a
wonderful improvement; but education muft give its
affiftance, without which the human mind itielf, .though
and yet the former are generally almoft a foot ftiorter capable of an immenfe expanfion, remains in;a very con-
than. the latter; and.if a difference of climate, or other tracted ftate. In New Zealand, and (according to
accidental caufes,.can make the people of one country former accounts of voyages) in the tropical ifles of the
a. foot ftiorter than the common fize of mankind, un- South Sea,. the dogs are the moft ftupid, dull animals
4 imaginable,
A M E
. imaginable, and do not feem to have the lead advan¬
tage in point of fagacity over our (heep, which are com¬
monly made the emblems of fillinefs. In the former
country they are fed upon fifh, in the latter! on vege¬
tables, and both thefe diets may have ferved to alter
their difpolition. Education may perhaps likewife graft
new inftindts : the New Zealand dogs are fed on the re¬
mains of their mailer’s meals; they eat the bones of o-
ther dogs ; and the puppies become true cannibals from
their birth. We had a young New Zealancl puppy on
board, which had certainly had no opportunity of ta¬
iling any thing but the mother’s milk before we pur-
[ 1
A M E
may be changed, in the mod remarkable manner, by America,
natural caufes, without any miraculous interpoiition of v ■■''
the Deity.
The next quedion, then, which prefents itfelf, is,
From what part of the Old World America has mod
probably been peopled ? l0I
Difcoveries long ago made inform us, that an inter- of the peo-
courfe between the Old continent and America might pling of A-
be carried on with facility from the north-wed extre-merica*
mities of Europe and the north-ead boundaries of Alia.
In the ninth century the Norwegians difcovered Green-
chafed it: however, -it eagerly devoured a portion of land, and planted a colony there. The communication
the flelh and bones of the dog on which we dined to¬
day ; while feveral others of the European breed taken
on board at the Cape, turned from it without touch¬
ing it.
with that country was renewed in the lad century by
Moravian miffionaries, in order to propagate their doc-
trifles in that bleak and uncultivated region. By them
we are informed that the north-wed coad of Greenland
f. p.343. “ On the 4th of Augud, a young bitch, of the terrier is feparated from Americaby a verynarrowdrait; thatat
breed, taken on board at the Cape of Good Hope, and the bottom of the bay it is highly probable that they are-
covered by a fpaniel, brought ten young ones, one of United ; that the Efquimaux of America perfectly re--
which was dead. The New Zealand dog mentioned a-, ftmble the Greenlanders in their afpetl, drefs, and mode - io»
bove, which devoured the bones of the: roaded dog, now. of living; and that a Moravian miffionary, well acquaint- A commu-
fell upon the dead puppy, and eat of it with a ravenous ed with the language of Greenland, having vifited the
appetite. This is a proof how far education may go in
producing and propagating new iiiftincts in animals.
European dogs are never fed on the meat of their own
fpecies, but rather feem to abhor it.- 1 The New Zea--
land dogs, in all likelihood, are trained: up fromrtheif
earliell age to eat the remains of their, mailer’s meals :
they are therefore ufed to feed upon fiffi; their own fpe-’
pies ; and perhaps human flelh ; and: what was only
owing to habit at firft, may have become inllindf by
length of time. This was remarkable in our cannibal
4o..; tor became on board foyoung,' that he could not
have been weaned lony enough to have acquired a ha-
nication be-
country of the .Efquimaux, found, to his allonilhment, Old and &
that they fpoke the fame language with the Greenland- New Corn¬
ers, and were in every refpect the fame-people. The onents by
fame fpecies of animals, too, are found in the conti- two way3-
guous regions. . The beat, the wolf, the fox, the hare,
the deer, the roebuck,.the elk, frequent the forefts of
North America, as well as thofe in the north of Eu¬
rope.
Other difcoveries have proved, that if the two con¬
tinents of Afia and America be feparated at all, it is
only by-a narrow , llrait. From this part of the Old
continent, alfo, inhabitants may have palfed into the-
bit of-devouring his own .fpecies, and much lefs of eat-; New; and the refemblance between the Indians of Ame-
Sd 11 firmed
an,obf(r-
{■iation on
he Franb
ing human flelh ; however, one of. our feamen having
cut his finger, held it out to the dog; who fell to greed->
ily, licked it, and then began to bite it.”
From this account it appears,- that even the inllindls
of animals are not unchangeable by natural caufes; and
if thefe caufes are powerful enough to change the dif-
pofitionsof fucceeding generations, much more may we
fuppofe them capable of making any poffible alteration
in the external appearance.
We are not here neceffitated to confine ourfelves to
■ obfervations made on brute animals. The Franks are
example of the production of one general character.
rica atid the eallern inhabitants of Afia, would .induce-
us to conjetture that they have a common origin. This.
is the opinion adopted by Dr Robertfon in his Hiilory
of America *, where we .find it accompanied with the.* Hfary ,f
following narrative. America,
“ While thofe immenfe regions which llretched eaft-Voi *•
ward from , the river Oby to the Tea of Kamtfchatka p'
were unknown, or imperfectly explored, the north-eafl
extremities of our hemifphere were fuppofed to be fo
far diltant from any part of the. New World, that it
was not eafy to conceive how any communication Ihould
have been carried on between them. But the Ruffians,
formed by fome natural caufe from a mixture of many having lubjected the wellern part of Siberia to their
different nations.-—They were a motley multitude, con-
filling of various German nations dwelling beyond the
Rhine: who, uniting in defence, of their common li¬
berty, took thence the name of Franks ; the word
frank fignifying in their language, as it Hill does in
ours, free. Among them the following nations were
mentioned, viz. the Adluarii, Chamavi, Brudleri, Salii,
Frifii, Chaufi, Amfwarii, and Catti. We cannot fup-
empire, gradually extended their knowledge of that vail x
country, by advancing towards the call into unknown
provinces. Thefe were difcovered by hunters in their
excurfions after game, or by foldiers employed in levy¬
ing the taxes; and the court of Moscow eftimated the
importance of thofe countries only by the fmall addition
which they made to its revenue. At length, Peter the
Great afcended the Ruffian throne : His enlightened.
pofe one character to belong to fo many different na- comprehenfive mind, intent upon every circumltance
tions ; yet it is certain that the Franks were nationally
characterized as treacherous ; and .fo1 deeply feems this
quality to have been rooted in their nature,: that their
defendants have not got quite free of it in 1500 years.
It is in vain, then, to talk of different races of men,
either from their colour, fize, or prevailing difpo.fi-
tions, feeing, we have, undeniable proofs that all thefe
that cOuld aggrandize, his empire, or render his reign
illuftrious, difcerned confequences of thofe difcoveries,
which had efcaped the obfervation of his ignorant pre-
deceffors. He perceived, that, in proportion as the re¬
gions of Afia extended towards the call, they mull ap¬
proach nearer to America ; that the communication be¬
tween the two continents, which had long been fearch-
ed
A M E [ 566 ] A M E
America, ed for in vain, would probably be found in this quar- to be part of the American continent; and, according America. j|
J ter; and that, by opening this intercourfe, fome part of to their obfervations, it feems to be fituated within a '
the wealth and commerce of the wdtern world might few degrees of the north-well coall of California. Each
be made to flow into his dominions by a new channel, fet fome of his people afliore : but in one place the in-
Such an object fuited a genius that delighted in grand habitants fled as the Ruffians approached; in another,
fchemes. Peter drew up inftruilions with his own hand they carried off thofe who landed, and.deftroyed their
for profecuting this defign, and gave orders for carry- boats. The violence of the weather, and the diftrefs of
ing it into execution.
“ His fucceflbrs adopted his ideas, and purfued his
plan. The officers whom the Ruffian court employed
in this fervice, had to ftruggle with fo many difficulties,
their crews, obliged both to quit this inhofpitable coaft.
In their return they touched at feveral iflands, which
ftretch in a chain from call to weft between the country
which they had difcovered and the coaft of Alia. They
that their progrefs was extremely flow. Encouraged had fome intercourfe with the natives, who feemed to
by fome faint traditions among the people of Siberia them to referable the North Americans. Tney pre¬
concerning a fuccefsful voyage -in the year 1648 round
the north-eaft promontory of Alia, they attempted to
fented to the Ruffians the calumet, or pipe of peace,
which is a fymbol of friendlhip. univerfal among the peo-
follow the fame courfe. Veffels were fitted out, with pie of North America, and an ufage of arbitrary inlli-
this view, at different times, from the rivers Lena and tution peculiar to them.”
LUIS VICWj at tillltl iwtiL CILUVO* Aivyj.41 HAV.    vcinv/i! uvy CAAWii. „ ^
Kolyma; but in a frozen ocean, which nature feems The more recent and accurate difcoveries of the il-Reaf-ms fora
not to have deftined for navigation, they were expofed luftrious navigator Cooke, and his fucceffor Clerke, fuppofmg
to many difafters, without being able to accomplilh
their purpofe. No veffel fitted out by the Ruffian court
ever doubled this formidable cape; we are indebted for
what is known of thofe extreme regions of Afia, to the
difcoveries made in excurfions by land. In all thofe
have brought the matter ftill nearer to certainty. The the two c<
fea, from the fouth of Bering’s Straits to the crefeent,^1”®”^^ |
of ifles between Afia and America, is very lhallow. It 0nce joined,!
deepens from thefe ftraits (as the Britiffi feas do
from thofe of Dover) till foundings are loft in the Pa-
provinces, an opinion prevails, that countries of great cific Ocean ; but that does not take place but to the
extent and fertility lie at no conliderable diftance from
their own coafts. Thefe the Ruffians imagined to be
fouth of the ifles. Between them and the ftraits is
an increafe from 12 to 54 fathom, except only off St
part of America ; and feveral circumftances concurred Thaddeus Nofs, where there is a channel of greater
not only in confirming them in this belief, but in per- depth. From the volcanic difpofition, it has been
funding them that fome portion of that continent could judged probable, not only that there was a feparation
not be very remote. Trees of various kinds, unknown of the continents at the ftraits of Bering, but that
1 thofe naked regions of Afia, are driven upon the the whole fpace from the ifles to that fmall opening
coaft by an eafterly wind- By the fame wind floating had once been occupied by land ; and that the fury of
ice is brought thither in a few days; flights of birds the watery element, actuated by that of fire, had,
„rrive annually from the fame quarter; and a tradition molt remote times, fubverted and overwhelmed the
obtains among the inhabitants, of an intercourfe for- tradt, and left the Hands monumental fragments.
icrly carried on with fome countries fituated to the
Without adopting all the fancies of Buffon,- there Probable 1
can be no doubt, as the Abbe Clavigero obferves, that Jj
pur planet has been fubjedl to great viciffitudes fince quent fej,al
ring the pofition of the countries in Afia which they the deluge- Ancient and modern hiftories confirm the ranon. I
had difcovered, with fuch parts in the north-weft of A- truth- which Ovid has fung in the name of Pythagoras:
“ After weighing all thefe particulars, and compa-
. , • r .1 * A  L* L
• merica as were already known; the Ruffian court form¬
ed a plan, which would have hardly occurred to any
nation lefs accuftomed to engage in arduous underta¬
kings and to contend with great difficulties. Orders At prefent they plough thofe lands over which flops
Video ego quod fuerat quondam folidijjhna tellus,
Ejja fretum; vidi facias ex xquore terras.
were iffued to build two veffels at Ochotz, in the formerly failed, and now they fail over lands which
fea of Kamtfchatka, to fail on a voyage of difcovery.
Though that dreary uncultivated region furniffied no¬
thing that could be of ufe in conftru&ing them but
fome larch-trees; though not only the iron, the cor-
were formerly cultivated ; earthquakes have fwallowed
fome lands, and fubterraneous fires have thrown up
others ; the rivers have formed new foil with their
mud ; the fea retreating from the fliores has lengthen-
dage, the fails, and all the numerous articles requifite ed the land in fome places, and advancing in others has
for their equipment, but the proviiions for victualling Jiminifhed it; it has feparated fome territories which
them, were to be carried through the immenfe deferts were formerly united, and formed new ftraits and
na.viorat'irm. and rnaHs ernlnhs. Wp havp pvamnlps nf all thefe revolutions ill
of Siberia, along rivers of difficult navigation, and roads gulphs. We have examples of all thefe revolutions in
almoft impaflable, the mandate of the fovereign, and the paft century. Sicily was united to the continent
the perfeverance of the people, at lail furmounted every of Naples, as Eubea, now-the Black Sea, to Boeotia.
obftacle. Two veffels were finiffied; and, under the Diodorus, Strabo, and other ancient authors, fay the
command of the captains Behring and Tfchirikow, fail- fame thing of Spain and Africa, and affirm, that by a
ed from Kamtfchatka in queft of the New World, in a violent eruption of the ocean upon the land between
quarter where it had never been approached. They the mountains Abyla and Calpe, that communication
fliaped their courfe towards the eaft; and though a ilorm was broken, and the Mediterranean Sea was formed-
foon feparated the vefiels, which never rejoined, and Among the people of Ceylon there is a tradition that
many difafters befel them, the expectations from the
voyage were not altogether fruftrated. Each of the
commanders difcovered land, which to them appeared
5
a fimilar irruption of the fea feparated their Hand from
the peninfula of India. The fame thing is believed by
thofe of Malabar with refpeft to the illes of Maldivia,
and
iiarated
jly by a
ifinefs of
P palTage
tween
A M E [ 567 ] A M E
• and with the Malayans with refpeft to Sumatra. It continent, now inhabited almoft from end to end, is a America.
“ is certain, fays the Count de BufFon, that in Ceylon matter that baffles human reafon. The learned may * ' ‘
the earth has loft 30 or 40 leagues, which the fea has make bold and ingenious conjeftures, but plain good
taken from it; on the contrary, Tongres, a place of fenfe connot always accede to them.
the Low Countries, has gained 30 leagues of land from As mankind increafed in numbers, they naturally conje6tures
the fea. The northern part of Egypt owes its exilt- protruded one another forward. Wars might be an-concerning
enee to inundations of the Nile. The earth which other caufe of migrations. There appears no reafon the firft ml-
this river has brought from the inland countries of A- why the Afiatic north might not be an officina virorum,
frica, and depofited in ‘its inundations, has formed a as well as the European. The overteeming country, Continent,
foil of more than 25 cubits of depth. In like manner, to the eaft of the Riphaean mountains, muft find it ne-
adds the above author, the province of the Yellow ceffary to difcharge its inhabitants : the fir ft great wave
River in China, and that of Louifiana, have only been of people was forced forward by the next to it, more
formed of the mud of rivers. Pliny, Seneca, Diodorus, tumid and more powerful than itfelf: fucceffive and
and Strabo, report innumerable examples of fimilar new impulfes continually arriving, fhort reft was given
revolutions, which we omit, that our differtation may to that which fpread over a more eaftern trad:; difturb-
not become too prolix ; as alfo many modern revolu- ed again and again, it covered frelh regions; at length,
tions, which are related in the theory of the earth of reaching the fartheft limits of the Old World, found a
the Count de Buffbn and other authors. In South A- new one, with ample fpace to occupy unmolefted for
merica, all thofe who have obferved with philofophic ages; till Columbus curfed them by a difcovery, which
eyes the peninfula of Yucatan, do not doubt that that brought again new fins and new deaths to both worlds. I0g
country has once been the bed of the Tea ; and, on the “ The inhabitants of the New World (Mr Pennant Mr Pen-
contrary, in the channel of Bahama many indications obferves), do not confift of the offspring of a Angle na- nant’s opi-
fhow the ifland of Cuba to have been once united to tion : different people, at feveral periods, arrived therei;n^on*
the continent of Florida. In the ftrait which feparates ‘"and it is impoffible to fay, that any one is now to be
America from Afia many iflands are found, which found on the original fpot of its colonization. It is
probably were the mountains belonging to that trail of impoilible, with the lights which we have fo recently
land which we fuppofe to have been fwallowed up by received, to admit that America could receive its in¬
earthquakes; which is made more probable by the habitants (at leaf! the bulk of them) from any other
multitude of volcanoes which we know of in the penin- place than eaftern Afia. A few proofs may be added,
i’ula of Kamtfchatka. It is imagined, however, that, the taken from cuftoms or dreffes common to the inhabi-
finking of that land, and the feparation of the two tants of both worlds: fome have been long extinil in
continents, has been occafioned by thofe great and ex- the old, others remain in both in full force.
traordinary earthquakes mentioned in the hiftories of “ The cuftom of fcalping was a barbarifm in ufc The bulk of
the Americans, which formed an sera almoft as memorable with the Scythians, who carried about them at all times its inhabi-
as that of the deluge. The hiftories of the Toltecas fix this favage mark of triumph : they cut a circle round tants Pro"
fuch earthquakes in the year I Tecpatl; but as we the neck, and ftripped off the fltin, as they would that
know not to what century that belonged, we can form of an ox. A little image, found among the Kalmucs, fro^the
no conje&ure of the time that great calamity happen- of a Tartarian deity, mounted on a horfe, and fitting eaftem part
ed. If a great earthquake fhould overwhelm the ifth- on a human Ikin, with fealps pendent from the breaft, °f Afia-
mus of Suez, and there fhould he at the fame time as fully illuftrates the cuftom of the Scythian progenitors,
great a fcarcity of hiftorians as there were in the firft as deferibed by the Greek hiftorian. This ufage, as
ages after the deluge, it would be doubted, in 300 or the Europeans know by horrid experience, is continu-
400 years after, whether Afia had ever been united by ed to this day in America. The ferocity of the Scy-
that part to Africa ; and many would firmly deny it. thians to their prifoners extended to the remoteft part
Whether that great event, the feparation of the of Afia. The Kamtfchatkans, even at the time of
continents, took place before or after the population their difcovery by the Ruffians, put their prifoners to
of America, is as impoffible as it is of little moment for death by the moft lingering and excruciating inven-
us to know; but we are indebted to abovementioned tions ; a pradlice in full force to this very day among
navigators for fettling the long difpute about the point the aboriginal Americans. A race of the Scythians
from which it was eftefted. Their obfervations prove, were ftyled Slntkropophagi, from their feeding on hu- Ito
that in one place the diftance between continent and man flefh. The people of Nootka Sound Hill make, a Proofs fro®
continent is only 39 miles, not (as the author of the repaft on their fellow-creatures: but what is more3 hmibu ty
Recherches Philofopbiques fur les Americains would have wonderful, the favage allies of the Britifh army have ^cuft°ms»
it) 800 leagues. This narrow ftrait has alfo in the been known to throw the mangled limbs of the French
middle two ifiands, which would greatly facilitate the prifonevs into the horrible cauldron, and devour them
migration of the Afiatics into the New World, fuppo- with the fame relifn as thofe of a quadruped,
fing that it took place in canoes after the convulfion “ The Scythians were faid, for a certain time, an-
which rent the two continents afunder. Befides, it nually to transform themfelves into wolves, and again
may be added, that thefe ftraits are, even in the fummer, to refume the human ftiape. The new difoovered A-
often filled with ice; in winter, often frozen. In ei- mericans about Nootka Sound, at this time difguife
ther cafe mankind might find an eafy paffage; in the themfelves in dreffes made of the fkins of wolves and
laft, the way was extremely ready for quadrupeds to ether wild beafts, and wear even the heads fitted ta
crefs and ftock the continent of America. But where, their own. Thefe habits they ufe in tke chace, to
from the vaft expanfe of the north-eaftern world, to fix circumvent the animals of the field. But would not
on the firft tribes who contributed to people the New ignorance or fuperftition aferibe to a fupernatural me-
tamorpholfe
in
Cuftoni!
and 'reffes
common t<
the eaftern
Afiati'-'-and
the Ameri-
A M E [ 568 ] A M E
tamorphofis thefe temporary expedients to deceive the of thelargeft fize. As they advance northward they Americi
brute creation ? mi decreafe in height, till they dwindle into the dwarfifh '
“ In their marches, the Kamtfchatkans never wept tribes which occupy fome of the coafts pf the Icy Sea,
abreaft, but followed one another in the fame tract, and the maritime parts of Hudfon’s Bay, of Greenland,
The fame cuftom is exactly obferved by the Ame- and Terra de Labrador. The famous Japanefe map
ricans. .places fome iflands feeiiiingly within tne Straits.of Ber-
“ The Tungufi, the moft numerous nation refident ing, ;on which is bellowed the title of Ta Zue, or the
in Sibiria, prick their faces with fmall pundlures, with Kingdom of the Dwarfs. Does not this in fome man-
a needle, in various fhapes; then rub into them char- ner authenticate the chart, and give us reafon to fup-
coal, fo that the marks become indelible. This cudom pofe that America was not unknown to the Japanefe ;
is Hill obferved in. feveral parts of America. The In- and that they had (as is mentioned by Kasmpfer and
dians on the back of Hudfon’s;bay, to this day, per- Charlevoix) made voyages of difeovery, and, accord-
form the operation ;exadtly in the fame manner, and ing .to the lail, a&ually wintered on the continent?
pundture the Mn: into various figures ; as the natives That they might.have met with the Efquimanx is very
of New Zealand do at prefent, and as the ancient Bri- probabje ; whom, in comparifou of themfdves, they
tons did with the herb glaftum, or woad ; and the might juftly diftinguilh by*the name of dwarfs. The
Virginians, on the firll difeovery of that country by the reafon of their low ftature is very obvious: thefe
Englilh. dwell in a moll fevere climate, amidll penury of food ;
“ The Tungufi ufe canoes made of birch-bark, di- the former in one much more favourable, abundant in
Bended over ribs of wood, and' nicely fewed together, provifions ; circumBances that tend to prevent the de-
The Canadian, and many other American nations, ufe generacy of the human frame. At the illand of Oona-
no other fort of boats. The paddles of the Tungufi lafeha, a dialed! of the Efquimaux is in ufe, which was
are broad at each end ; thofe of the people near Cook’s continued along the whole coaB from thence north-
river. and of Oonalafcha, are of the fame form. ward.” .
“ In burying of the dead, many of the American The continent which flocked America with the hu-THe brut<
nations place the corpfe at full length, after preparing man race poured in the brute creation through the creatlon.J
it according to their cuftoms ; others place it in a fit- fame paffage. Very few quadrupeds continued in the
ting poflure, and lay by it the moB valuable, cloathingj peninfula of Kamtfchatka ; Mr Pennant enumerates rout
wampum, and other matters. The Tartars did the only 25 which are inhabitants of land : all the refl
fame: and,both people agree in covering the whole perfifled in their migration, and fixed their refidence
with earth, fo as to form a tumulus, barrow, or car- in the New World. Seventeen of the Kamtfchatkan
nedd. quadrupeds are found in America : others are common
“ Some of the American nations hang their dead only to Siberia or Tartary, having, for unknown
in trees. Certain of the Tungufi. obferve a fimilar cu- caufes, entirely evacuated Kamtfchatka, and divided
Bom. themfelves between America and the parts of Afia
“ We can draw fome analogy from drefs : conveni- above cited. Multitudes again have deferted the Old
ency in that article m.uft have been confulted on both World, ever, to an'individual, and fixed their feats at
continents, and originally the materials mufl.have been diflances mofl remote from the fpot from which they
the fame, the Ikins of birds and beafls. It is fingular, took their departure ; from mount Ararat, the refting-
that the conic bonnet of the Chinefe fhould be found place of the ark, in a central part of the Old World,
among the people of Nootka. I cannot give into the and excellently adapted for the difperfion of the ani-
notion,.that the Chinefe contributed to the population mal creation to all its parts. “ We need not be Bartled
of the New World; but we can readily admit, that a (fays Mr Pennant) at the vafl journeys many of the
fliipwreck might furnifh thofe Americans with a pat- quadrupeds took to arrive at their prefent feats . Might
tern for that part of the drefs. not numbers of fpecies have found a convenient abode
“ In refpedt to the features and form of the human in the vaB Alps of Afia, infiead of wandering to the
body, almoB every tribe found along the weflern coaB Cordilleras of Chili? or .might not others have been
has fome fimilitude to the Tartar nations, and Bill contented with the boundlefs plains of Tartary, in-
retain the little eyes, fmall nofes, high cheeks, and Bead of travelling thoufands of miles to the extenfive
broad faces. They vary in fize, from,the lufly Qa.l- Bats of Pampas?—To endcavour-to elucidate common
mucs to the little Nogaians. The internal Ameri- diffiqulties is certainly a trouble worthy of the philo-
cans, fuch as the Five Indian nations, who are tall of fopher and.of the divine ; not t;o attempt it would be
body, robuB in make, and of oblong faces, are deri- a criminal indolence, .a negledl to
ved from a variety among the Tartars.themfelves. The • r o j „
fine race of Tfchutlki fefm to be the flock from which VindlCatC the ^ °f G°d t0 man-
thofe Americans are derived. The Tfchutild, again. But there are multitudes of points beyond the human
from that fine race of Tartars the Kabardinfld, or. in- ability to explain, and yet are truths undeniable : the
habitants of Kabarda. , fa&s are indifputable, notwithflanding'the caufes are
“ But about Prince William’s Sound begins a race concealed. In fuch cafes, faith mufl be .called , in to
chiefly diflinguiftied by their drefs, their canoes, and pur relief. It would certainly be the height of folly
their inflruments of the cKace, from, the tribes to the to deny to that Being who broke open the great foun-
fouth of them. Here commences the Efquimaux peo- tains of the deep to effedl the deluge—and after¬
pie, or the race known by that name in the high lati- wards, to compel the difperfion of mankind to peo-
tudes of the eaflern fide of the continent. They may pie the globe, diredled the confufion of languages—
be divided into two varieties. At this place they are powers inferior in their nature to thefe. After thefe
N° 15. - wondrous
A M E [ 569 ] A M E
America, wondrous proofs of Omnipotency, it will be abfnrd to America, to evince a common origin. Of the qua- America.
^—v- -'- deny the poflibility-of infuling inftinft into the brute drupeds, the bear, ftag, wolf, fox, and weefel, are v
creation. Dais eji anima brutorum ; “ God himfelf is the only animals which we can pronounce with cer*
the foul of brutes His pleafure muft. have determined tainty to be found on each continent. The ftag, fox,
their will, and directed feveral fpecies, and even whole and weefel, have made alfo no farther progrefs in Africa
genera, by impulfe irrefiftible, to move by flow pro- than the north ; but on the fame continent the wolf
greffion to their deftined regions. But for that, the is fpread over every part, yet is unknown in .South
llama and the pacos might ftill have inhabited the heights America, as are the fox and weefel. In Africa and
of Armenia and fame more neighbouring Alps, in- South America the bear is very local, being met with
ftead of labouring to gain the diftant Peruvian Andes; only in the north of the firft, and on the Andes in the
the whole genus of armadillos, flow of foot, would laft. Some caufe unknown arrefted its progrefs in
never have quitted the torrid zone of the Old World Africa, and impelled the migration of a few into the
for that of the New ; and the whole tribe of monkeys Chilian Alps, and induced them to leave unoccupied
would have gamboled together in the forefts of India, the vaft tra£t from North America to the lofty Cor-
inftead of dividing their refidence between the Ihades dilleras. ,14
of Indoftan and the deep ,forefts of the Brafils. Lions Allufions have often been made to fome remains on Remains of
and tigers might have infefted the hot parts of the the continent of America, of a more poliftxed and cul-^^^y115
New World, as the firft do the defarts of Africa, and tivated people, when compared with the tribes whichAmerica’
the laft the provinces of Afia; or the pantherine ani- pofleffed it on its firft difeovery by Europeans. Mr
mals of South America might have remained addition- Barton, in his Obfervations on fame parts of Natural
al fcourges with the favage beafts of thofe ancient con- Hiftory, Part I. has colie tried the fcattered hints of
tinents. The Old World wrould have been overftocked Kalm, Carver, and fome others, and has added a plan
with animals; the New remained an unani-mated wafte! of a regular w.ork, which has been difeovered on the
or both have contained an equal portion of every beaft banks of the Mulkingum, near its juntriion with the
of the earth. Let it not be objected, that animals Ohio. Thefe remains are principally ftone-walls, large
bred in a fouthern climate, after the defeent of their mounds of earth, and a combination of thefe mounds
parents from the ark, would be unable to bear the froft with the walls, fufpected to have been fortifications. In
and fnow of the rigorous north, before they reached fome places the ditches and the fortrefs are faid to have
South America, the place of their final deftination. been plainly feen ; in others, furrows, as if the land had
It muft be confidered, that the migration muft have been ploughed.
been the work of ages ; that in the courfe of their The mounds of earth are of two kinds : they are
progrefs each generation grew hardened to the climate artificial tumuli, defigned as repofitories for the dead;
it had reached ; and that after their arrival in America, or they are of a greater fize, for the parpefe of defend-
they would again be gradually accuftomed to warmer and ing the adjacent country ; and with this view they are
warmer, climates, in their removal from north to fouth, as artificially conftrucried, or advantage is taken of the na-
they had in the reverfe, or from fouth to north. Part of tural eminences, to raife them into a fortification,
the tigers ftill inhabit the eternal fnows of Ararat, and The remains near the banks of the Mu-lkingum, nre
multitudes of the very fame fpecies live, but with ex- fituated about one mile above the juncriion of that river
alted rage, beneath the line, in the burning foil of with the Ohio, and 160 miles below Fort Pitt. They
Borneo or Sumatra; but neither lions or tigers ever confift of a number of walls and other elevations, of
migrated into the New World. A few of the firft are ditches, &c. altogether occupying a fpace of ground
found in India and Perfia, but they are found in num- about 300 perches in length, and from about 150 to
bers only in Africa. The tiger extends as far north 25 or 20 in breadth. The town, as it has been called,
as weftern Tartary, in lat. 40. 50, but never has I'each- is a large level, encompaffed by walls, nearly in the
ed Africa.” form of a fquare, the fides of which are from 96 to 85
In fine, the conjectures of the learned refpecriing perches in length. Thefe walls are, in general, about
the vicinity of the Old and New, are now, by the 10 feet in height above the level on which they ftand,
difeoveries of our great navigators, loft in conviction ; and about 20 feet in diameter at the bafe, but at the
and, in the place of imaginary hypothefes, the real top they are much narrower : they are at prefent
place of migration is uncontrovertibly pointed out. overgrown with vegetables of different kinds, and.
Some (from a paffage in Plato) have extended over the among others, with trees of feveral feet diameter.
Atlantic, from the ftraits of Gibraltar to the coaft The chafms, or openings in the walls, were probably
of North and South America, an xfland equal in fize intended for gate-ways : they are three in number at
to the continents of Afia and Africa; over which had each fide, befides the fmaller openings in the angles,
pafled, as over a bridge, from the latter, men and ani- Within the walls there are three elevations, each about
mals; wool-headed negroes, and lions and tigers, none fix feet in height, with regular afeents to them : thefe
of which ever exifted in the New World. A mighty elevations conliderably refemble fome of the eminences
fea arofe, and in one day and night engulphed this already mentioned, which have been difeovered near
ftupendous trari, and with it every being -which had the river Miflifippi. This author’s opinion is, That the
not completed its migration into America. The whole Tolticas, or fome other Mexican nation, were the peo-
rregro race, and almoft every quadruped, now inhabi- pie to whom the mounts and fortifications, which he
tants of Africa, periftied in this critical day. Five lias .defcribed, owe their exiftence; and that thofe
only are to be found at prefent in .America; and of people were probably the defeendants of the Danes,
thefe only one, the bear, in South America : Not a The former part of this conjeCture is thought pro-
fingle cuftom, common to the natives of Africa and bable, from the fimilarity of the Mexican mounts
Vou L Part II. 4 C and
A M E [ J7° ] A M E
America, and fortifications deferibed by the Abbe Clavigero,
and other authors, to thofe deferibed by our author ;
and from the tradition of the Mexicans, that they
come from the north-weft : for, if we can rely on the
teftimony of late travellers, fortifications limilar to
thofe mentioned by Mr Barton have been difeovered
as far to the north as Lake Pepin ; and we find them,
as we approach to the fouth, even as low as the coafls
of Florida. The fecond part of our author’s conjec¬
ture appears not fo well fupported.
The and- It is believed by many, that the ancients had fome
ents fuppo- imperfeft notion of a new world; and feveral ancient
fed to have authors are quoted in confirmation of this. In a book
erfeeft a^crii3e<^ to the philofopher Ariftotle, we are told that
notion of a the Carthaginians difeovered an ifland far beyond the
new world, pillars of Hercules, large, fertile, and finely watered
with navigable rivers, but uninhabited. This ifland
was diftant a few days failing from the continent; its
beauty induced the difeoverers to fettle there ; but the
policy of Carthage diflodged the colony, and laid ftritt
prohibition on all the fubjects of the ftate not to at¬
tempt any future eftablifliment. This account is alfo
confirmed by an hiftorian of no mean credit, who re¬
lates, that the Tyrians would have fettled a colony on
the new-difeovered ifland, but were oppofed by the
Carthaginians for ftate reafons. The following paflage
has alfo been quoted from Seneca’s Medea, in confirma¬
tion of this notion.
 lenient annis
Sacula feris, quibus oceanus
Vincula rerum laxet, & ingens
Patent tellus, Typhifque novas
Delegat orbes; nec Jit terris
Ultima Thule. 
Act. iii. ver. 375.
Other authors are alfo quoted in fupport of this be¬
lief. But however this may be, nobody ever believed
the exiftence of this continent fo firmly as to go in queft
of it; at leaft, there are no accounts well fupported
that America received any part of its firft inhabitants
Pretentions Irom Europe prior to the 15th century. TheWelfli
of the fondly imagine that our country' contributed, in 1170,
Welfti to to people the New World, by the adventure of Madoc,
the difeo- jCon Qf Owen Gwynedd, who, on the death of his fa-
merica in* t^er» there, and colonized part of the country,
the isth All that is advanced in proof is, a quotation from one
century. of our poets, which proves no more than that he had
diftinguiftied himfelf by fea and land. It is pretended
that he made two voyages : that failing weft, he left
Ireland fo far to the north, that he came to a land un¬
known, where he faw many ftrange things; that he re¬
turned home, and, making a report of the fruitfulnefs
of the new-difeovered country, prevailed on numbers of
the Welfti of each fex to accompany him on a fecond
voyage, from which he never returned. The favourers
of this opinion affert, that feveral Welfli words, fuch as
gwrando, “ to hearken or liften the ifle of Croefo,
or “ welcome Cape Breton, from the name of our
own ifland ; g’wynnd'wr, or “ the white water and
penguin, or “ the bird with a white head are to be
found in the American language. But likenefs of
found in a few words will not be deemed fufficient to
eftablifh the faft ; efpecially if the meaning has been
evidently perverted ; for example, the whole pinguin
tribe have unfortunately not only black heads, but are Ameneal
not inhabitants of the northern hemifphere ; the name /—•<
was alfo beftowed on them by the Dutch, a pinguedine,
from their exceffive fatnefs : but the inventor of this,
thinking to do honour to our country, inconfiderately
caught'at a word of European origin, and unheard of in
the New World. It may be added, that the Welfh were
never a naval people ; that the age in which Madoc li¬
ved was peculiarly ignorant in navigation; and the moft
which they could have attempted muft have been a
mere coafting voyage. ,ry ;j
The Norwegians put in for a fhare of the glory, on Thofe of f
grounds rather better than the Welfh. By their fettle-^ N"rv?j
ments in Iceland and in Greenland, they had arrived with-f^"^^4!
in fo fmall a diftance of the New World, that there is " I
at leaft a pofiibility of its having been touched at by a
people fo verfed in maritime affairs, and fo adventu¬
rous, as the ancient Nortmans were. The proofs are
much more numerous than thofe produced by the Bri-
tifh hiftorians; for the difeovery is mentioned in feve¬
ral of the Icelandic manuicripts. The period was a-
bout the year 1002, when it was vifited by one Biorn ;
and the difeovery purfued to greater effe& by Leif, the
fon of Eric, the difeoverer of Greenland. It does not
appear that they reached farther than Labrador ; on
which coaft they met with Efquimaux, on whom they
beftowed the name of Sknelingues, or dwarfifh people,
from their fmall ftature. They were armed with bows
and arrows, and had leathern canoes, fuch as they have
at prefent. All this is probable ; nor fhould the tale
of the German, called Turkil, one of the crew, invali¬
date the account. He was one day miffing; but foon
returned, leaping and finging with all the extravagant
marks of joy a bon vivant could fhow, on difeovering
the inebriating fruit of his country, the grape : Tor-
fgeus even fays, that he returned in a ftate of intoxica¬
tion. To convince his commander, he brought feveral
bunches, who from that circumftance named the coun¬
try Vinland. It is not to be denied that North Ame¬
rica pioduces the true vine; but it is found in far lower
latitudes than our adventurers could reach in the time
employed in their voyage, which was comprehended in
a very fmall fpace. There appears no reafon to doubt
of the difeovery ; but as the land was never colonized,
nor any advantages made of it, it may be fairly con-
jeftured, that they reached no farther than the barren
country of Labrador. In flaort, it is from a much later
period that we muft date the real difeovery of Ame-
rica. _ ||
Towards the clofe of the 15th century, Venice andTfce pro-||
Genoa being rivals in commerce, in which the former jefts of {]
had greatly the fuperiority, Chriftopher Columbus, a ChriftopM
native of Genoa, whofe knowledge of the true figure of Co^uni^ufl
the earth, however attained, was much fuperior to the |
general notions of the age in which he lived, conceived
a projeft of failing to the Eaft Indies by dire<fting his
courfe weftward. This defign was founded upon a
mittake of the geographers of thofe days, who placed
the eaftern parts of Afia immenfely too far to the eaft-
ward ; fo that had they been in the right, the fhorteft
way would have been to fail direftly weftward. He
applied firft to his own countrymen ; but being reject¬
ed by them, he applied to Franee, where he was laugh¬
ed at and ridiculed. He next applied to Henry VII.
of England j but meeting with a difappointment there.
A M E [ 571] A M E
America, lie made an application to Portugal, where he met with
— v~— the fame mortifying reception. Spain was his next re-
fource 5 where, after eight years attendance, he obtain¬
ed, in 1492, a fleet of three Ihips. The largeft, a (hip
of no confiderable burden, was commanded by Colum¬
bus as admiral, who gave it the name of Santa Maria,
out of refpect for the bleffed Virgin, whom he honour¬
ed with Angular devotion. Of the fecond, called- the
Pinta, Martin. Pinzon was captain, and his brother
Francis pilot. The third, named the Nigna, was un¬
der the command of Vincent Yanez Pinzon. Thefe
two were light veffels, hardly fuperior in burden or
force to large boats. This fquadron, if it merits that
name, was victualled for 12 months, and had on board
90 men, moftly failors, together with a few adventurers
who folkwed the fortune of Columbus, and fome gen¬
tlemen of Ifabella’s court, whom fhe appointed to ac¬
company him. Though the expence of the under¬
taking was one of the circumftances which chiefly a-
larmed the court of Spain, and retarded fo long the
negociation with Columbus, the fum employed in fit¬
ting out this fquadron did not exceed 40001. But as
Columbus was deeply imprefled with fentiments of re¬
ligion, he would not fet out upon an expedition fo ar¬
duous, and of winch one great obje& was to extend
the knowledge of the Chriftian faith, without implo¬
ring publicly the guidance and protection of Heaven.
With this view, he, together with all the perfons under
his command, marched in folemn proceflion to the mona-
ftery of Rabida. After confefling their fins, and ob¬
taining abfolution, they received the holy facrament
from the hands of the guardian, who joined his prayers
to theirs for the fuccefs of an enterprife w'hich he had
Ir^ fo zealoufly patronized.
Hi* voyage. Next morning, being Friday the third day of Au-
guft in the year 1492, Columbus fet fail, a little be¬
fore fun-rife, in prefence of a vaft crowd of fpe&ators,
who fent up their fupplications to Heaven for the pro-
fperous iflue of the voyage, which they wiflied, rather
than expe&ed. Columbus fleered dire&ly for the Ca¬
nary iflands, and arrived there without any occurrence .
that would have deferved notice on any other occafion:
but in a voyage of fuch expe£lation and importance,
every circumftance was the objeft of attention. The
rudder of the Pinta broke loofe the day after flie left
the harbour, and that accident alarmed the crew, no
lefs fuperftitious than unflcilful, as a certain omen of
the unfortunate deftiny of the expedition. Even in
the fhort run to the Canaries, the fliips were found to
be fo crazy and ill appointed, as to be very improper
for a navigation which was expefled to be both long
and dangerous. Columbus refitted them, however, to
the beft of his power; and having fupplied himfelf with
frefli provifions, he took his departure from Gomera,
one of the moll wefterly of the Canary iflands, on the
fixth day of September.
Here the voyage of difcovery may properly be faid
to begin ; for Columbus, holding his courfe due weft,
left immediately the ufual track of navigation, and
ftretched into unfrequented and unknown leas. The
firft day, as it was very calm, he made but little way ;
but on the fecond, he loft fight of the Canaries; and
many of the failors, deje&ed already and difmayed,
when they contemplated the boldnefs of the underta¬
king, began to beat their breafts, and to flied tears, as
if they were never more to behold land. Columbus Ameries.
comforted them with affurances of fuccefs, and the "—'v ' r'
profpeft of vaft wealth, in thofe opulent regions whi¬
ther he was conducing them. He regulated every
thing by his foie authority ; he fupermtended the exe¬
cution of every order; and allowing himfelf only a few
hours for fleep, he was at all other times upon deck.
As his courfe lay through feas which had not former¬
ly been vifited, the founding-line, or inftruments for
obfervation, were continually in his hands. After the
example of the Portuguefe difcoverers, he attended to
the motion of udes and currents, watched the flight of
birds, the appearance of fifties, of fea-weeds, and of e-
very thing that floated on the waves, and entered every
occurrence, with a minute exaftnefs, in the journal
which he kept. As the length of the voyage could
not fail of alarming failors habituated only to fhort ex-
curfions, Columbus endeavoured to conceal from them
the real progrefs which they made. With this view,
though they run 18 leagues on the fecond day after
they left Gomera, he gave out that they had advanced
only 15, and he uniformly employed the fame artifice
of reckoning ftiort during the whole voyage. By the
14th of September, the fleet was above 200 leagues to
the weft of the Canary ifles, at a greater diftance from
land than any Spaniard had been before that time. 120
There they were ftruck with an appearance no lefs a- Aftonifii-
ftoniftiing than new. They obferved that the magnetic j?16”1 °“a*
needle, in their compafles, did not point exa&ly to the '^rving
polar ftar, but varied towards the weft ; and as they the varia-
proceeded, this variation increafed. This appearance, tion of the
which is now familiar, though it ftill remains one of comP?'^*
the myfteries of nature, into the caufe of which the fa-
gacity of man hath not been able to penetrate, filled the
companions of Columbus with terror. They were now in
a boundlefs unknown ocean, far from the ufual courfe of
navigation ; nature itfelf feemed to be altered, and the
only guide which they had left was about to fail them.
Columbus, with no lefs quicknefs than ingenuity, in¬
vented a reafon for this appearance, which, though it
did not fatisfy himfelf, feemed fo plaufible to them,
that it difpelled their fears, or filenced their mur¬
murs.
He ftill continued to fleer due weft, nearly in the
fame latitude with die Canary iflands. In this courfe
he came within the fphere of the trade-wind, which
blows invariably from call to weft, between the tropics
and a few degrees beyond them. Fie advanced before
this fteady gale with fuch uniform rapidity, that it was
feldom neceflary to ftn’ft a fail. When about 400 leagues
to the weft of the Canaries, he found the fea fo cover¬
ed with weeds, that it refembled a meadow of vaft ex¬
tent ; and in fome places they were fo thick, as to re¬
tard the motion of the veflels. This ftrange appear¬
ance occafioned new alarm and difquiet. The failors
imagined that they were now arrived at the utmoft
boundary of the navigable ocean ; that thefe floating
weeds would obftruct their farther progrefs, and con¬
cealed dangerous rocks, or fame large tract of land,
which had funk, they knew not how, in that place.
Columbus endeavoured to perfuade them, that what had
alarmed, ought rather to have encouraged them, and
was to be confidered as a fign of approaching land. At
the fame time, a brifle gale arofe, and carried them for¬
ward. Several birds were feen hovering about the ihip.
4 C 2 and
A M E [ 572 ] A M E
America, arid drre&ed their flight towards the weft. The'de-
fponding crew refumed fome degree of fpirit, and be¬
gan to entertain frefti hopes.
Upon the firft of Odfober they were, according to
the admiral’s reckoning, 770 leagues to the weft of the
Canaries; but left his men ftiould be intimidated by
the prodigious length of the navigation, he gave out
that they had proceeded only 584 leagues; and, for¬
tunately for Columbus, neither his own pilot, northofe
of the other (hips, had fkill fufficient to correft this
error, and difcover the deceit. They had now been
above three weeks at fea ; they had proceeded far be¬
yond what former navigators had attempted or deemed
poflible ; all their prognoftics of difcovery, drawn from
the flight of birds and other circumftances, had proved
fallacious ; the appearances of land, with which their
own credulity or the artifice of their commander had
from time to time flattered and amufed them, had been
altogether illufive, and their profpeft of fuccefs feemed
now to be as diftant as ever. Thefe refleftions occur¬
red often to men, who had no other objeft or occupa¬
tion, than to reafon and difcourfe concerning the in¬
tention and circumftances of their expedition. They
made imprefiion at firft upon the ignorant and timid,
and extending by degrees to fuch as were better in¬
formed or more refolute, the contagion fpreadat length
from ftiip to {hip. From fecret whifpers or miirmur-
ings, they proceeded to open'cabals and public com¬
plaints. They taxed their fovereign with inconfiderate
credulity, in paying fnch regard to the vain promifes
and ralh conjectures of an indigent foreigner, as to ha¬
zard the lives of fo many of her own fubjefts, in pro-
fecuting a chimerical fcheme. They affirmed that they
had fully performed their duty, by venturing fo far in
an unknown and hopelefs courfe, and could incur no
blame, for refufing to follow, any longer, a defperate
adventurer to certain deftrution. They contended,
that it was neceflary to think of returning to Spain,
while their crazy veffels were ftill in a condition to keep
the fea, but exprefled their fears that the attempt would
prove vain, as the wind, which had hitherto been fo
favourable to their courfe, muft render it impoffible to
fail in the oppofite direction. All agreed that Colum¬
bus fhould be compelled by force to adopt a meafure
on which their common fafety depended; Some of the
more audacious propofed, as the moft expeditious and
certain method for getting rid at once of his remon-
ftrances, to throw him into the fea ; being perfuaded
that, upon their return to Spain, the death of an un-
fuccefsful projector would excite little concern, and be
inquired into with no curiofity.
Perilous fi- Columbus was fully fenfible of his perilous fituation.
tuaMo" of He had obferved, with great uneafinefs, the fatal ope-
Columbus. ration of ignorance and of fear in producing difaffec-
tion among his crew; and faw that it was now ready
to burft out into open mutiny. He retained, however,
perfect prefence of mind. He affedled to feem igno¬
rant of their machinations. Notwithftanding the agi¬
tation and folicitude of his own mind, he appeared
with a cheerful countenance ; like a man fatisfied with
the progrefs vehich he had made, and confident of fuc¬
cefs. Sometimes he employed all the arts of infinua-
tion to foothe his men. Sometimes he endeavoured to
work Upon their ambition or avarice, by magnificent
defcriptions of the fame and wealth which they were
about to acquire. On other occafions, he aflumed a America? i
tone of authority, and threatened them with vengeance  v——'
from their fovereign, if, by their daftardly behaviour,
they fhould defeat this noble effort to promote the
glory of God, and to exalt the Spanifh name above
that of every other nation. Even with feditious failors,
the words of a man whom they had been accuftomed
to reverence were weighty and perfuafive ; and not
only reftrained them from thofe violent excefles which
they meditated, but prevailed with them to accompany
their admiral for fome time longer.
As they proceeded, the indications of approaching
land feemed to be more certain, and excited hope in
proportion. The birds began to appear in flocks, ma¬
king towards the fouth-weft. Columbus, in imitation
of the Portuguefe navigators, who had been guided in
feveral of their difcoveries by the motion of birds, al¬
tered his courfe from due weft towards that quarter <
whither they pointed their flight. But after holding His crews I
on for feveral days in this new dire&ion without any ready to I
better fuccefs than formerly, having feen no object mutiny, s
during 30 days but the fea and the fliy, the hopes of
his companions fubfided falter than they had rifen ;
their fears revived with additional force; impatience,
rage, and defpair, appeared in every countenance. All
fenfe 6f fubordination was loft. The ofificers, who had
hitherto concurred with Columbus in opinion, and fup-
ported his authority, now took part with the private
men : they afifembled tumultuoufly on the deck, ex-
poftulated with their commander, mingled threats with
their expoftulatiUns, and required him inftantly to tack
about and to return to Europe. Columbus perceived
that it would be of no avail to have recourfe to any of
his former arts, which having been tried fo often had
loft their effett; and that it was impoffible to rekindle
any zeal' for the fuccefs of, the expedition among men
in whofe breads fear had extinguifhed every generous
fentiment. He faw that it was no lefs vain to think
of employing either gentle or fevere meafures, to quell
a mutiny fo general and fo violent. It was neceflhry,
on all thefe accounts, to foothe pafiions which he could
no longer command, and to give way to a torrent too
impetuous to be checked. He promifed folemnly to
his men that he would comply with their requeft, pro¬
vided they would accompany him, and obey his com¬
mands for three days longer; and if, during that time,
land were not difcovered, he would then abandon the
enterprife, and direft his courfe towards Spain.
Enraged as the failoys were, and impatient to turn
their faces again towards their native country, this
propofition did not appear to them unreafonable. Nor
did Columbus hazard much in confining himfelf to a-
term fo ftiort. The prefages of difcovering land were
now fo numerous and promifing, that he deemed them
infallible. For fome days the founding line reached
the bottom, and the foil which it brought up indicated
land to be at no great diftance. The flocks of birds
increafed; and were compofed not only of fea fowl,
but of fuch land birds as could not be fuppofed to fly
far from the fhore. The crew of the Pinta obferved a
cane floating which feemed to be newly cut, and like-
wife a piece of timber artificially carved. The failors
aboard the Nigna took up the branch of a tree with
red berries perfe&ly frefti. The clouds around the
fetting fun afl’umed a new appearance; the air was
more
A M E [ 573 ] A M E
;i|iAnierica. more mild and warm; and, during night, the wind
.. —v became unequal and variable. From all thefe fymp-
toms, Columbus was fo confident of being near land,
that on the evening of the t ith of Oftober, after pub¬
lic prayers for fuccefs, he ordered the fails to be fur¬
led, and the Ihips to lie by, keeping ftri<ft watch, left
they fhould be driven aftiore in the night. During
this interval of fufpcnce and expeftation, no man (hut
his eyes, all kept upon deck, gazing intently towards
that quarter where they expefted to difcover the land
which had been fo long the objedt of their wilhes.
’f4? About two hours before midnight, Columbus ftand-
f m jefcry- ing on the forecaftle, obferved a light at a diftance,
ngcoaft. and privately pointed it out to Pedro Guttierez, a
page of the queens wardrobe.. Guttierez perceived it;
and calling to Salcedo comptroller of the fleet, all three
faw it in motion, as if it were carried from place to
place. A little after midnight, the joyful found of
Landl land', was heard from the Pinta, which kept
always a-head of the other (hips. But having been fo
often deceived by fallacious appearances, every man
was now become flow of belief; and waited, in all the
anguifh of uncertainty and impatience, for the return
of day. As foon as morning dawned, all doubts and
fears were difpelled. From every fhip an ifland was
feen about two leagues to the north, whofe flat and
verdant fields, well ftored with wood, and watered with
many rivulets, prefented the afpeft of a delightful
country. The crew of the Pinta inftantly began the
Li Deum, as a hymn of thankfgiving to God; and
were joined by thofe of the other fliips, with tears of
joy and tranfports of congratulation. This office of
gratitude , to Heaven was followed by an aft of juftice
to their commander. They threw themfelves at the feet
of Columbus, with feelings of felf-condemnation ming¬
led with reverence. They implored him to pardon
their ignorance, incredulity, and infolence, which had
created him fo much unneceffary difquiet, and had
fo often obftru&ed the profecution of his well-concert¬
ed plan ; and palling, in the warmth of their admira¬
tion, from one extreme to another, they now pronoun¬
ced the man whom they had fo lately reviled and
threatened, to be a perfon infpired by Heaven with fa-
gacity and fortitude more than human, in order to ac-
compliffi a defign lb far beyond the ideas and concep¬
tion of all former ages.
As foon as the fun arofe, all their boats were man¬
ned and armed. They rowed towards the ifland with
their colours difplayed, with warlike mufic, and other
114 martial pomp. As they approached the coaft, they
i^ne'of faw it covered with a multitude of people, whom the
Iffie*Iflands novelty of the fpe&acle had drawn together, whofe
iof the New attitudes and geftures exprelfed wonder and aftoniffi-
i World. mcnt at the ftrange objefts which prefented themfelves
to their view. Columbus was the firft European who
fet foot in the New World which he had difeovered.
He landed in a rich drefs, and with a naked fword in
his hand;. His men followed ; and, kneeling down,,
they all kiffed the ground which they had fo long de-
fired to fee. They next erebted a crucifix and, pro-
L; fixating themfelves before it, returned thanks to God
for conducing their voyage to fuch an happy iffue.
The above was one of the Bahama iflands ; to which
he gave the name of San Salvador, and took pofieffion
of it in the. name, of their Catholic majefties. In this
firft voyage he difeovered feveral other of the Lucayo iAm^: iC,i',
or Bahama iflands, with thofe of Cuba and Hifpaniola.
The natives confidered the Spaniards as divinities, and
the difeharge of the artillery as their thunder : they fell
proftrate at the found. The women, however, offered
their favours, and courted the embraces of their new
guefts as men. Their hulbands were not jealous of them;
and in the arms of thofe wantons the companions of
Columbus are faid to have caught that malady which
direfts its poifon to the fprings of life. In a fecond
voyage many new iflands were difeovered. In a third,
he attained the great object of his ambition, by difeo- 125
vering the continent of America, near the mouth of The conti-
the river Oroonoko, on the firft day of Auguft H98*
His fuccefs produced a crowd of adventurers from all cover<;a.
nations; but the year before this, the northern conti¬
nent had been difeovered by Sebaftian Cabot in the ler-
vice of Henry VII. of England.
Notwithftanding the many fettlements of the Euro¬
peans in this continent, great part of America remains
ft ill unknown. The northern continent contains thC'DivHIon ofi
Britiffi colonies of Hudfon’s Bay, Canada, Nova Scotia, America.
New England, New York, New Jerfey, Penfylvania,-
Maryland, Virginia, North and South Carolina, Geor¬
gia, Eaft and Weft Florida. It contains alfo the Spa-
niffi territories of Louifiana, New Mexica, California,
and Mexico. Befides thefe, there are immenfe regions,
to the weft and north, the boundaries of which have ne¬
ver yet been difeovered, - In fuch as are in any degree
known, dwell the Efquimaux, the Algonquins, the Hu-
rons, the Iroquois, the Cherokees, the Chikafaws, and
many other tribes of Indians. In the fouthern conti¬
nent lie the Spanilh provinces of Terra Firma, Guiana,.
Peru, Paraguy, and Chili; together with that of Bra-
fil, belonging to the Portuguefe ; and the country of
Surinam, belonging to the Dutch. Vaft trafts, however,,
in the inland parts, are unknown, being comprehended
under the general name of Amazonia. A large diltribl
alfo, laid to be the refidence of a gigantic race of men,,
lies on the eaft fide of the continent, between the ftraits
of Magellan and the province of Paraguay. See Pa¬
tagonia. iay.
This vaft country produces moft of the metals, mi-*its produo
nerals, plants, fruits, trees, and wood, to be met with tions;
in the other parts of the world, and many of them in
greater quantities and high perfeftion. The gold and
filver of America.have fupplied Europe with fuch im¬
menfe quantities of thofe valuable metals, that they are
become vaftly more common; fo that the gold and
filver of Europe now bears little proportion to the
high price fet upon them before the difeovery of Ame¬
rica.
It alfo produces diamonds,, pearls, emeralds,-.ame-
thyfts, and other valuable ftoires, which,, by being
brought into Europe, have contributed likevvife to
lower their value. To thefe, which are chiefly the
produ&ion of Spanifli America, may be added a great:
number of other commodities,, which, though of lefs
price, are of much greater ufe; and many of them-
make the ornament and. wealth of the Britilh empire
in this part of the world.. Of thefe are the plentiful:
fupplies of cochineal, indigo* anatto, logwood, brazil,,
fuftic, pimento, lignum vitae, rice, ginger; cocoa, or.
the chocolate nut, fugar, cotton, tobacco, banillas,,
red-wood, the. balfams of Tolu, Peru, and Chili, that/
valuable
A M E C 574 ] A M E
America, valuable article In medicine the Jefuit’s bark, mechoa-
1' ~v can, faflafras, farfaparilla, caffia, tamarinds, hides, furs,
ambergrife, and a great variety of Woods, roots, and
plants; to which, before the difcovery of America,
we were either entire ftrangers, or forced to buy at an
extravagant rate from Afia and Africa, through the
hands of the Venetians and Genoefe, who then engroff-
ed the trade of the eaftern world.
On this continent there grows alfo a variety of ex¬
cellent fruits; as pine-apples, pomegranates, citrons,
lemons, oranges, malicatons, cherries, pears, apples,
figs, grapes, great numbers of culinary, medicinal, and
other herbs, roots, and plants, with many exotic pro-
duftions which are nouriflred in as great perfe&ion as
ia8 in their native foil.
The differ- Although the Indians Hill live in the quiet poffeffion of
foiVofA- many larg'e tra&s, America, fo far as known, is chief-
merica. ty claimed, and divided into colonies, by three Euro¬
pean nations, the Spaniards, Englifh, and Portuguefe.
The Spaniards, as they firft difcovered it, have the
largeft and richeft portion, extending from New Mexi¬
co and Louifiana in North America, to the Straits of
Magellan in the South Sea, excepting the large pro¬
vince of Brafil, which belongs to Portugal; for though
the French and Dutch have fome forts upon Surinam
and Guiana, they fcarcely deferve to be confidered as
proprietors of any part of the fouthern continent.
Next to Spain, the moft confiderable proprietor of
America was Great Britain, who derived her claim to
North America from the firft difcovery of that conti¬
nent by Sebaftian Cabot in the name of Henry VII.
anno 1497, about fix years after the difcovery of South
America by Columbus in the name of the king of
Spain. This country was in general called Newfound¬
land; a name which is now appropriated folely to an
ifland upon its coaft. It was a long time before we
made an attempt to fettle in this country. Sir Walter
Raleigh, an uncommon genius and a brave commander,
firft fliowed the way, by planting a colony in the
fouthern part, which he called Virginia, in honour of
his miftrefs Queen Elizabeth.
The French indeed, from this period until the con-
cluficn of the war before laft, laid a claim to, and ac¬
tually poftefled, Canada and Louifiana; comprehending
all that extenfive inland country reaching from Hud-
fon’s Bay on the north, to Mexico and the gulph of
the fame name on the fouth But in that war, to
which their perfidy and ambition gave rife, they were
not only driven from Canada and its dependencies, but
obliged to relinquifh all that part of Louifiana lying on
the eaft fide of the Miflifippi, as related under the Hi-
J29 Mory °f Britain. And thus our colonies were prefer-
Vaft extent ved, fecured, and extended fo far, as to render it dif-
of the Bri- f5cult to afeertain the precife bounds of our empire in
before North America. To the northward we might have
the late re- extended our claims quite to the pole itfelf, nor did
volution, any nation feem inclined to difpute the property of this
northernmoft country with us. From that extremity
we had a territory extending fouthward to Cape Flo¬
rida in the Gulph of Mexico, N. Lat 25 , and con-
fequently near 4000 miles long in a direft line. And
to the weftward, our boundaries reached to nations un¬
known even to the Indians of Canada.
Of the revolution that has fince taken place, by
which a great part of tliofe territories have been torn
from the Britiih empire, the hiftory follows in the next Amenna,
article. v-*—v—
Amwica {United States of). Of the rife and efta- Rif/of the
bliihment of this republic, which has given a new face American |
to the weftern world, a fuccindt and impartial narrative republic, a
fiiallin this article be attempted; in which, however, we
cannot hope entirely" to avoid errors, as they are perhaps
unavoidable The accounts from which the hiftorian
mull derive his infofmation are not yet cleared from
the miftakesof prejudice and the fabrications of party;
when they differ, their comparative authenticity is
with difficulty afeertained ; and they want above all
that foftening which they can receive from time alone.
The beginning of every political eftablifhment is
contemptible. Some few banditti taking refuge among
the marfhes on the banks of the Tiber, laid the founda¬
tion of the Roman empire. The turbulence of fome
North Americans, and the blunders of fome Britifh
ftatefmen, gave birth to this new republic, which at a
future period, it has been fancied, may perhaps furpafs
even the fplendor of Rome.
The ftate of the Britifh colonies at the conclufion of State and j
the war in 1763, was fuch as attracted the attention 0fcllar“Aer- :
all the politicians in Europe. Their flourifhing condi-
tion at that period was remarkable and ftriking: their av en(j
trade had profpered in the midft of all the difficulties of the war ; :
and diftreffes of a war in which they were fo near- ‘763- :j
ly and fo immediately concerned. Their population
continued on the increafe, notwithftanding the ravages
and depredations that had been fo fiercely carried on
by the French, and the native Indians in their alliance.
They abounded with fpirited and active individuals of
all denominations. They were flufhed with the un¬
common profperity that had attended them in their
commercial affairs and military tranfaeftions. Hence
they were ready for all kind of undertakings, and faw
no limits to their hopes and expectations.
As they entertained the higheft opinion of their va¬
lue and importance, and of the immenfe benefit that
Britain derived from its connection with them, their
notions were adequately high in their own favour.
They deemed themfelves, not without reafon, intitled
to every kindnefs and indulgence which the mother-
country could beftow.
Although their pretenfions did not amount to a
perfeCt equality of advantages and privileges in matters
of commerce, yet in thofe of government they thought
themfelves fully competent to the tafk of conducting
their domeftic concerns with little or no interference
from abroad. Though willing to admit the fvpremacy
of Great Britain, they viewed it with a fufpicious eye,
and with a marked defire and intent fpeedily to give it
limitations.
Their improvements in all the neceffary and ufeful arts
did honour to their induftry and ingenuity. Though they
did not live in the luxury of Europe, they had all the fo-
lid and fubftantial enjoyments of life, and were not unac¬
quainted with many of its elegancies and refinements.
A circumftance much to their praife is, that notwith¬
ftanding their peculiar addiction to thofe occupations of
which lucre is the foie objeCt, they were duly attentive
to cultivate the field of learning; and they have ever
fince their firft foundation been particularly careful to
provide for the education of the riling progeny.
Their
A M E [ 575 ] A M E
imei fcs. Their vail augmentation of internal trade and exter-
nal commerce, was not merely owing to their polition
and facility of communication with other parts ; it
arofe alfo from their natural turn and temper, full of
fchemes and projects ; ever aiming at new difcoveries,
and continually employed in the fearch of means of
improving their condition.
Their condition carried them into every quarter from
whence profit could be derived. There was fcarcely
any port of the American hemifphere to which they
had not extended their navigation. They were con¬
tinually exploring newfources of trade, and were found
in every fpot where bufinefs could be tranfa&ed.
To this extenfive and inceffant application to com¬
merce, they added an equal vigilance in the adminiftra-
tion of their affairs at home. Whatever could conduce
the amelioration of the foil they pofTeffed, to the pro-
grefs of agriculture, or to the improvement of their
domeftic circumftances, was attended to with fo much
labour and care, that it may be ftri&ly faid, that Nature
had given them nothing of which they did not make
the moft.
In the midil of this folicitude and toil in matters of
bufinefs,. the affairs of government were conduced
with a fteadinefs, prudence, and lenity, feldom expe¬
rienced, and never exceeded, in the bell regulated
countries of Europe.
Such was the fituation of the Britifh colonies in ge¬
neral throughout North America, and of the New
England provinces in particular, when the pacification
above mentioned opened one of the moft remarkable
fcenes that ever commanded the attention of the world,
ntri'jues of The French, who have for many ages been the pro¬
be French, feft and natural enemies of Britain, had long viewed,
with equal envy and apprehenfion, the flourifhing ftate
of thofe colonies fhe had founded in North America.
No doubt at prefent fublifts, that they began immedi¬
ately after the peace of Paris to carry into execution
the fcheme they had formed’for the feparation of the
Britifh colonies from the mother-country.
Confcious thaf, whilft a good underftanding lafted
between them, the fuperiority muft henceforth remain
for ever on-the fide of Britain, it was only by their
difunion that France could hope to regain the ftation
and confequence fhe had formerly pofTeffed in Europe.
The firft fteps fhe took were to employ her fccret
emiffaries in fpreading diflatisfadtion among the Britifh
colonifts; and the e if efts produced by her machinations
were precifely fuch as they had intended and expefted.
The difpofition of the inhabitants of North America
began gradually to alter from that warmth of attach¬
ment to the mother-country which had fo peculiarly
charafterifed them. They began to view her rather in
the light of a fovereign than of a parent; and to ex¬
amine, with a fcrupulous nicety, the nature of thofe
ties that rendered them parts of her empire.
, J'ajtef faid In March 1764, a bill was palled, by which heavy
m goods duties were laid on goods imported by the colonifts
imported from fuch Weft India iflands as did not belong to Great
toto the co- grjtain ; at the fame time that thefe duties were to be
»theS ob- Pa^ *nto exchequer in fpecie : and in the fame fef-
loxiousatStsfion, another bill was framed to reftrain the currency
Vamed; of paper-money in the colonies themfelves. Thefe afts
coming fo dofe upon each other, threw the whole con-
tiaent into the utmoft ferment. Vehement remonftran-
ces were made to the miniftry, and every argument America,
made ufe of that reafon or ingenuity could fuggeft, but '
to no purpofe. Their reafoning, however, convinced Which ex-
a great number of people at home; and thus the Ame- afperate
rican caufe came to be confidered as the caufe of li-tIle Ameri-
berty. can®•
The Americans, finding all argumentation vain, at
laft united in an agreement to import no more of the
manufadiures of Great Britain, but to encourage to
the utmoft of their poWer every thing of that kind a-
mong themfelves. Thus the Britifh manufafturers alfo
became a party againft miniftry, and did not fail to
exprefs their refentment in the ftrongeft terms j but
the miniftry were not to be fo eafily daunted, and
therefore proceeded to the laft ftep of their intended
plan, which was to lay on ftamp duties throughout the The ftamp-
continent. Previous to this, indeed, feveral regula- act framed,
tions were paffed in favour of the commerce of the co¬
lonies ; but they had now imbibed fuch unfavourable
fentiments of the Britifh miniftry, that they paid very
little regard to any thing pretended to be done in their
favour; or if thefe afts made any favourable impreffion,
it was quickly obliterated by the news of the flamp-
aft. The reafon given for this aft fo exceedingly ob¬
noxious was, that a fum might be raifed fufficient for
the defence of the colonies againft a foreign enemy;
but this pretence was fo far from giving any fatisfaftion
to the Americans, that it excited their indignation to
the utmoft degree. They not only afierted that they
were abundantly able to defend themfelves againft any
foreign enemy, but denied that the Britifh parliament
had any right to tax them at all.
It would be fuperfluous to enter into any arguments
ufed by the contending parties on this important occa-
fion. It was evident that the matter was not to be
decided by argument but by force of arms; and the
Britifh miniftry, too confident of the authority and
power of this country, determined to carry on matters
with an high hand, to terrify the colonifts into an im¬
plicit fubjeftion, or, if that would not do, to ‘compel ^
them to it by force. The ftamp-adt, after a violent Received
oppofition in parliament, was palled, and its reception with uni-
in America was fuch as might have been expefted.'Trfalin’
The news, and the aft itfelf, firft arrived at Bofton,
where the bells were muffled and rung a funeral peal.
The aft was firft hawked about the ftreets with a
Death’s head affixed to it, and ftyled the “ Folly of
England, and the Ruin of America and afterwards
publicly burnt by the enraged populace : The ftamps
themfelves were feized and deftroyed, unlefs brought
by men of war, or kept in fortified places; thofe who
were to receive the ftamp duties were compelled to re-
fign their offices ; and fuch of the Americans as fided
with government on this occafion, had their houfes-
plundered and burnt.
Though thefe outrages were committed by the low-
eft of the multitude, they were firft connived at by
thofe of fuperior rank, and the principles on which
they were founded afterwards openly patronized by
them ; and the doftrine became general and openly a-
vowed, that Britain had no right whatever to tax the
colonies without their own confent.
It was now found abfolutely neceflary either to yield
to the Americans, by repealing the obnoxious ftatutes,
or to enforce them by arms. The ferment had diffufed
i kfel£
A M E
Repealed.
-1.38 ,
©pinion of
Dr Frank¬
lin on this
fnbjedt.
itfelf univerfally throughout the colonies. Virginia
firft, and after that all the reft of the provinces, declared
againft the right of Britain to lay on taxes in Ame¬
rica ; and that every attempt to veft others with this
power befides the king, or the governor of the pro¬
vince and his general aflembly, was illegal, unconftitu-
.tional, and unjuft. Non-importation agreements were
every where entered into ; and it was even refolved to
prevent the fale of any more Britifh goods after the
prefent year. American manufaftures, though dearer,
as well as inferior in quality to the Britilh, were uni-
■verfally preferred. An affociation was entered into a-
gainft eating of lamb, in order to promote the growth
of wool; and the ladies with cheerfulnefs agreed to re¬
nounce the u£e of every fpecies of ornament manufac¬
tured in Britain. Such a general and alarming confe¬
deracy determined the miniftry to repeal fome of the
moft obnoxious ftatutes; and to this they were the more
inclined by a petition from the firft American congrefs,
held at New York in the beginning of Odtober 1765.
The ftamp-acl was therefore repealed, to the univer-
fal joy of the Americans, and indeed to the general fa-
tisfaftion of the Englifti, whofe manufadftures had be¬
gun to fuffer very feverely in confequence of the Ame¬
rican afibciation againft them. The difputes on the
fubjeft without doors, however, were by no means fi-
lenced, but each party continued to argue the cafe as
violently as ever. The celebrated Dr Benjamin Frank¬
lin was, on this occafion, examined before the Houfe
of Commons; and his opinion was in fubftance as fol¬
lows :
“ That the tax in queftion was impra&icable and
The very attempt had fo far alienated the
[ 576 1
A M E
ricans, however, would ftill continue to aft with their Amenei
ufual fidelity; and, were any war to break out in which
they had no concern, would (how themfelves as ready
as ever to afiift the parent ftate to the utmoft of their
power, and would never fail to manifeft their readi-
nefs in contributing to the emergencies of government,
when called to do fo in a regular and conftitutional
manner.”
The miniftry were confeious, that in repealing this
obnoxious aft, they yielded to the Americans; and
therefore, to fupport, as they thought, the dignity of
Great Britain, it was judged proper to publifh a decla-Dec!ar.a-
ratory bill, fetting forth the authority of the mothertory bll(!
    1 j 1     gives ot-
159
country over her colonics, and her power to bind them fence
by laws and ftatutes in all cafes, ’whatever. This much merica.
diminilhed the joy with which the repeal of the ftamp-
aft was received in America. It was confidered as a
proper reafon to enforce any claims equally prejudicial
with the ftamp-aft, which might hereafter be fet up ;
a fpirit of jealoufy pervaded tfte whole continent, and
a ftrong party was formed, watchful on every occafion
to guard againft the fuppofed encroachments of the
Britilh power. ' ¥40
It was not long before an occafion offered, in which Affemblyj
the Americans manifefted a fpirit of abfolute indepen- New Y01
dency ; and that, inftead of being bound by the
tiih legiflature in all cafes, they would not be control- lament?
led by it in the moft trivial affairs. The Rockingham
miniftry had paffed an aft, providing the troops fta-
tioned in different parts of the colonies with fuch ac¬
commodations as were neceffary for them. The affem-
bly of New York, however, took upon them to alter
the mode of execution preferibed by the aft of parlia-
affeftion of the colonies, that they behaved in a lefs ment, and to fubftitute one of their own. This gave
friendly manner towards the natives of England than very great offence to the new miniftry, and rendered
before; confidering the whole nation as confpiring a-
gainft their liberty, and the parliament as willing rather
to opprefs than to fupport and affift them. America,
in faft, did not ftand in any need of Britifh manufac¬
tures, having already begun to conftruft fuch as might
be deemed abfolutely neceffary, and that with fuch £uc-
cefs, as left no doubt of their arriving in a fhort time
at perfeftion. The elegancies of drefs had already been
renounced for manufaftures of the American kind,
though much inferior ; and the bulk of the people, con-
fifting of farmers, were fuch as could in no way be af-
fefted by the want of Britifh commodities, as having
every neceffary within themfelves. Materials of all
kinds were to be had in plenty : the wool was fine ;
flax grew in great abundance, and iron was every where
to be met with.”
The Doftor alfo infifted, That “ the Americans had
them, though compofed of thofe who had been aftive
againft the ftamp-bill, lefs favourable to the colonies
than in all probability they would have otherwife been.
An unlucky circumftance at the fame time occurred,
which threw every thing once more into confafion. li)r
One of the new miniftry, Mr Charles Townfhend, ha-Mr Tow
ving declared that he could find a way of taxing the ftend’spl
Americans without giving them offence, was called upon10 tax A-
to propofe his plan. This was by impofing a duty upon ’
tea, paper, painters colours, and glafs imported into A-
merica. The undutiful behaviour of the New York af-
fembly, and that of Bofton, which had proceeded in a 1
fimilar manner, caufed this bill to meet with lefs oppofi-
tion than otherwife it might have done. As a punifh-
ment to the refraftory affemblies, the legiflative power
was taken from that of New-York, until it fhould ful¬
ly comply with the terms of the aft. That of Bofton
at laft fubmitted with reluftance. The bill for the new S
quickly paffed, and fent to America in
been greatly mifreprefented; that they had been tra¬
duced as void of gratitude and affeftion to the parent taxes
ftate; than which nothing could be more contrary to 1768. I4j
truth. In the war of 1755 they had, at their own ex- A ferment much greater than that occafioned by the Is receivt
pence, raifed an army of 25,000 men; and in that of ftamp-aft now took place throughout the continent, there wt
1739, they aflifted the Britifh expeditions againft South The populace renewed their outrages, and thofe of fu- jn‘ ( 1
America with feveral thoufand men, and had made perior ftation entered into regular combinations againft than evel,;
many brave exertions againft the French in North A- it. Circular letters were fent /rom Maffachufet’s co-;; tlani I
merica. It was faid that the war of 1755 had been lony to all the reft, fetting forth the injuftice and im-»&•
undertaken in defence of the colonies; but the truth propriety of the behaviour of the Britifh legiflature.
was, that it originated from a conteft about the limits Meetings were held in all the principal towns, in which
between Canada and Nova Scotia, and in defence of it was propofed to leffen the confumption of foreign
the Englifh rights to trade on the Ohio. The Ame- manufaftures, by giving proper encouragement to their
N0IJ- 5 own.
A M E t 577 1 ' A M E
Continual difputeg enfued betwixt the gover- The governor now took the laft ftep in his power to America.
^ nors and general afTemblies of theirprovinces, which were put a Hop to the violent proceedings of his aflembly, '
J uarrihe-muc^ heightened by a letter from Lord Shelburn to by diffolving it entirely; but this was of little moment,
Iveen the governor Bamand of Maflachufet’s bay, containing Their behaviour had been highly approved by the other biydiflbl-
' iple of complaints of the people he governed. The aifembly, colonies, who had written letters to them expreffive of ved.
exafpcrated to the higheft degree, charged their gover- their approbation. After the diffolution of the affem-
nor with having mifreprefented them to the court of bly, frequent meetings of the people were held in Bof-
Britain, required him to produce copies of the letters ton, which ended in a remonftrance to the governor.
afUchu-
litVBsy
(id their
svernor.
he had fent; and, on his refufal, Wrote letters to the
Engliih miniftry, accufing him of mifreprefentation and
partiality, complaining at the fame time moft grievoufly
of the proceedings of parliament, as utterly fubverfive
of the liberties of America, and the rights of Britilh
fubjedts.
ly ayerfe. The governor replied, that it was no long¬
er in his power to call an aflembly; having, in his lail
inftru&ions from England, been required to wait the
been ordered to proceed with vigour, and by no means
J44 to fhow any difpofition to yield to the people as for-
requires merly. In particular, they were required to refcind ^
he affem- that refolution by which they had written the circular king’s orders, the matter being then under confidera-
iV to re‘ letter above mentioned; and, in cafe of a refufal, it tion at home. Being thus refufed, the people took
was told them that they would be diffolved. As this upon themfelves the formation of an affembly, which
letter had been framed by the refolutions of a1 fhrmer
Houfe, they defired, after a week’s confultation, that
a recefs might be granted to confult with their confth
tuents ; but this being refufed, they chme to a determina-
RHiich they tion, 92 againft 17, to adhere to the refolution which
to the fame purpofe as fome of the former; but con¬
cluding with an extraordinary requeil, that he would
take upon him to order the king’s fhips out of the
harbour. _ I49
While the difpofition of the Boftonians was thus The diftmv
going on from bad to worfe, news arrived that the hances ftill
The governor, at a lofs how to defend himfelf, pro- agent for the colony had not been allowed to deliver *ncrca^c‘
rogued the afiembly; and, in his fpeech on the occa- their petition to the king ; it having been objefted,
fion, gave a loofe to his refentment, accufing the mem- that the affembly without the governor was not fuffi-
bers of ambitious defigns, incompatible with thofe of cient authority. This did not contribute to allay the
dutiful and loyal fubjehts. To counteradl the circular ferment; and it was further augmented by the news Scmetroopa
letter of the province of Maffacbufet’s Bay, Lord - that a number of troops had been ordered to repair to orc!ere<hto
Hillfborough, fecretary for the American department, Boftori, to keep the inhabitants in awe. - Bofton.
fent another to the governors of the different colonies, A dreadful alarm now took place. The people call-
reprobating the other, as full of mifreprefentation, and ed on the governor to convene a general affembly, in
tending to excite a rebellion againft the authority of order to remove their fears of the military; who they
the parent ftate.
faid were to be affembled to overthrow their liberties,
Matters now haftened to a crifis. The governor had and force obedience to laws to which they were entire-
they called a convention. The proceedings and refo- The j eople
lutions of this were conformable to their former be- ^orm an a(*
haviour; but now they went a ftep farther, and, un* [gd a c<m-
der pretence of an approaching rupture with France", veniion;
ordered the inhabitants to put themfelves in a pofture
produced the circular letter. At the fame time a let* of defence againft any hidden attack of an enemy ; and
ter was fent to Lord Hilhhorough, and a meffage to circular letters were directed to all the towns in the
the governor, in juftification of their proceedings. In
both, they expreffed themfelves with fuch freedom as
was by no means calculated to accord with the fenti*
ments of thofe in power. They infifted that they had
a right to communicate their fentiments to their fellow-'
province, acquainting them with the refolutions that
had been taken in the capital, and exhorting them to
proceed in the fame manner. The town of Hatfield
alone refufed its concurrence ; but this ferved only to
expofe them to the cenfure and contempt of the reft,
fubje&s upon matters of fuch importance; complained The convention, however, thought proper to affure
of the requifition to refcind the circular letter as un- the governor of their pacific intentions, and renewed
ccnftitutional and unjuft; and particularly infifted, that their requeft that an affembly might be called; but
they were reprefented as harbouring feditious defigns, being refufed any audience, and threatened with be-
when they were doing nothing but what was lawful ing treated as rebels, they at laft thought proper to ryj
and right. At the fame time, they condemned the diffolve of themfelves, arid fent over to Britain a cir- Which dlfc
late afts of parliament as highly opprefliv'e, and fub- cumftantial account of their proceedings, with the folTes> and
verfive of liberty. The whole was concluded by a lift reafon of their having affembled in the manner already to vindicate
mentioned. its own con-
The expe&ed troops arrived on the very day on dudt.
which the convention broke up, and had fome houfes
in the town fitted up for their reception. Their a
T46
iccufe
heirgover- of accufations againft their governor, reprefenting him
Son'ffre" aS Un^t t0 coni^nue in h’s ftation, and petitioning the
* remo- king for his removal from it.
J. Thefe proceedings were followed by a violent tumult
147 at Bofton. A veffel bdortgiug to a capital trader had rival had a confiderable influence on the people, and for
« Bofton keen frized in confequence of his having neglefted fome fome time feemed to put a flop to the difturbances ; but
of the new regulations.; and being taken under the pro- the feeds of difcord had now taken fuch deep root, that
teftion of a man of war at that time lying in the har¬
bour, the populace attacked the houfes of the com-
miffioners of excife, broke their windows, deftroyed
the colle&or’s boats, and obliged the cuftomhoufe-offi-
cers to take refuge in Caftle William, fituated at the
entrance of the harbour.
Vol. I. Part ll.
it was impoffible to quench the flame. The late out¬
rageous behaviour in Bofton had given the greateft of- 1,-3
fence in England ; and, notwithftanding all the efforts Both houfes
of oppofition, an addrefs from both houfes of parlia-Parlia*
rnent was prefented to the king; in which the auda-the
clous behaviour of the colony of Maffachufet’s Bay k;nga«ainft,
4 D -was America.
A M E [ 578 ] A M E
*14
Some peo¬
ple killed
by the fol-
diers in a
tnoh at
ties except¬
ing that on
156
Which is as
violently
oppofed as
all the reft.
U7
Afiembiy
of Mafla-
chufet’rs
Bay formal¬
ly denies
the Britilh
right of
taxation.
*58
Gov. Hut-
chifon’s Ict-
vvas fet forth in the moft ample manner, and the moft
vigorous meafures recommended for reducing them to
obedience. The Americans, however, continued fted-
faft in the ideas they had adopted. Though the troops
had for fome time quieted the difturbances, yet the
calm continued no longer than they appeared refpefta-
ble on account of their number ; but as foon as this
was diminilhed by the departure of a large detach¬
ment, the remainder were treated with contempt, and
it was even refolved to expel them altogether. The
country people took up arms for this purpofe, and
were to have affifted their friends in Bofton ; but be¬
fore the plot could be put in execution, an event hap¬
pened which put an end to eveiy idea of reconciliation
betwixt the contending parties.
On the 5th of March 1770, a feuffle happened be¬
tween fome foldiers and a party of the town’s people.
The inhabitants poured in from all quarters to the af-
filtance of their fellow-citizens; a violent tumult en-
fued, during which the military fired among the mob,
killing and wounding feveral of them. The whole
province now rofe in arms, and the foldiers were obli¬
ged to retire to Caftle William to prevent their being
cut in pieces. In other refpe&s the determinations of
the Americans continued, if poffible, more firm than
ever, until at laft government, determined to aft with
vigour, and at the fame time to behave with as much
condefcenfion as poflible, repealed all the duties late¬
ly laid on, that of tea' alone excepted. This was left
on purpofe to maintain the dignity of the crown of
Britain ; and it was thought that it could not be pro-
duftive of any difeontent in America, as being an af¬
fair of very little moment, the produce of which was
not expefted to exceed L. 16,000. The oppofition,
however, were ftrenuous in their endeavours to get this
tax likewife abrogated ; infifting, that the Americans
would confider it only as an inlet to others; and that
the repeal of all the reft, without this, would anfwer
no good purpofe. The event fhowed that their opi-
; nion was well founded. The Americans oppofed the
tea-tax with the fame violence as they had done all the
reft : and at laft, on the news that falaries had been
fettled on the juftices of the ftiperior court of Bofton,
the governor was addrefied on the fubjeft ; the mea-
fure was condemned in the ftrongeft terms ; and a
committee felefted out of the feveral diftrifts of the
colony appointed to inquire into it.
The new affembly proceeded in the moft formal man¬
ner to difavow the fupremacy of the Britifh legiflature ;
accufed the parliament of Britain of having violated
the natural rights of the Americans in a number of
inftances. Copies of the tranfaftions of this aflembly
were tranfmitted to every town in Maflachufet, exhort¬
ing the inhabitants to roufe themfelves, and exert every
nerve in oppofition to the iron hand of oppreffion,
which was daily tearing the choicefl fruits from the
fair tree of liberty. The difturbances were alfo great¬
ly heightened by an accidental difeovery that Mr
Hutchifon, governor of Maffachufet’s Bay, had writ¬
ten feveral confidential letters to people in power in
England, complaining of the behaviour of the pro¬
vince, recommending vigorous meafures againft them,
and, among other things, afferting, that “ there muft
be an abridgment of what is called Britifti liberty.”
Letters of this kind had fome how or other fallen in¬
to the hands of the agent for the colony at London. America^
They were immediately tranfmitted to Bofton, where V"
the affembly was fitting, by whom they were laid be¬
fore the governor, who was thus reduced to a very
mortifying fituation. Lofing every idea of refpeft
or friendfhip for him as their governor, they inftantly -159 fw
difpatched a petition to the king, requefting him toThcpeii-J
remove the governor and deputy-governor from their
places; but to this they not only received no favour- fe(j_
able anfwer, but the petition itfelf was declared ground-
lefs and fcandalous. 160 !
Matters were now ripe for the utmoft extremitiesTea J
on the part of the Americans; and they were brought at 1
on in the following manner. Though the colonifts ’ |
had entered into a non-importation agreement againft
tea as well as all other commodities from Britain, it
had neverthelefs found its way into America, though
in fmaller quantities than before. This was fenfibly
felt by the Eaft-India Company, who had now agreed'
to pay a large fum annually to government; in re-
compence for which compliance, and to make up their
Ioffes in other refpefts, they were empowered to export
their tea from any duty payable in Britain; and in
confequence of this permiffion, feveral ftiips freighted
with the commodity were fent to North America, and
proper agents appointed for difpofing of it. The A-
mericans now perceiving that the tax was thus likely
to be enforced whether they would or not, determined
to take every poffible method to prevent the tea from j
being landed, as well knowing that it would be im-
poffible to hinder the fale fhould the commodity once
be brought on fhore. For this purpofe the people af-
fembled in great numbers, forcing thofe to whom the
tea was configned to refign their offices, and to promife
folemnly never to refume them ; and committees were
appointed to examine the accounts of merchants, and
make public tefts, declaring fuch as would not take
them enemies to their country. Nor was this beha¬
viour confined to the colony of Maffachufet’s Bay;
the reft of the provinces entered into the conteft with
the fame warmth, and manifefted the fame refolution
to oppofe the mother country.
In the midfi of this confufion three ftiips laden with
tea arrived at Bofton ; but fo much were the captains-
alarmed at the difpofition which feemed to prevail a-
mong the people, that they offered, providing they
could obtain the proper difeharges from the tea-con-
fignees, euftomhoufe, and governor, to return to Bri¬
tain without landing their cargoes. The parties con¬
cerned, however, though they durff not order the tea
to be landed, refufed to grant the difeharges required.
The ftiips, therefore, would have been obliged to re¬
main in the harbour; but the people, apprehenfive
that if they remained there the tea would be landed
in fmall quantities and difpofed ©f in fpite of every
endeavour to prevent it, refolved to deftroy it at once-
This refolution was executed with equal fpeed and fe-
crecy. The very evening after the above-mentioned
difeharges had been refufed,- a number of people dref-
fed like Mohawk Indians boarded the ftiips, and threw
into the fea their whole cargoes, confifting of 342
chefts of tea ; after which they retired without making
any further difturbance, or doing any more damage.
Nb tea was deftroyed in other places, though the fame
fpirit was every where manifefted. At Philadelphia
the
A M E [ 579 3 A M E
America, the pilots were enjoined not to condu£t the veflels up judges accepting falaries from the crown, and put the America.
^ the river; and at New York, though the governor queftion, Whether they would accept them as ufual * f
nd refu- cau^e(l fom£ tea to be landed under the protection of from the general alfembly ? Four anfwered in the af-
id admit- a man of war, he was obliged to deliver it up to the firmative; but Peter Oliver the chief-juftice refufed.
imce in o- cuftody of the people, to prevent its being fold. A petition againft him, and an accufation, were
: jier place?. The deftruftion of the tea at Bofton, which hap- brought before the governor ; but the latter refufed
pened in November 1773, was the immediate prelude the accufation, and declined to interfere in the matter ;
to the difafters attending civil difcord. Government but as they Hill infilled for what they called juftice
finding themfelves every where infulted and defpifed, againll Mr Oliver, the governor thought proper to put
refolved to enforce their authority by allpoflible means; an end to the matter by dilfolving the affembly. 167
and as Bofton had been the principal fcene of the riots In this fituation of affairs a new alarm was occa- Refentment
and outrages, it was determined to punilh that city in fioned by the news of the port-bill. This had been i’cca/'lonccl
an exemplary manner. Parliament was acquainted by totally unexpected, and was received with the moft bill.16
a meffage from his majefty with the undutiful behavi- extravagant exprefiions of difpleafure among the po-
our of the city of Bofton, as well as of all the colo- pulace ; and while thefe continued, the new governor,,
nies, recommending at the fame time the moft vigo- General Gage, arrived from England. He had been
rous and fpirited exertions to reduce them to obedi- chofen to this office on. account of his being well ac-
ence. The parliament in its addrefs promifed a ready quainted in America, and generally agreeable to the
compliance ; and indeed the Americans, by their out- people ; but human wifdom could not now point out
16a rageous behaviour, had now loft many of their partifans. a method by which the flame could be allayed. The
?uni(li- It was propofed to lay a fine on the town of Bofton equal firft aCt of his office as governor was to remove the af-
nent of Bo-to the price of the tea which had been deftroyed, and fembly to Salem, a town* 17 miles diftant, in confe-
-"d oif1" t0 ^1Ut UP ‘ts Port hy armed veffels until the refraClory quence of the late aft. When this was intimated to
re on. fpjrJt of the inhabitants fhould be fubdued; which it the affembly, they replied by requefting him to ap-
was thought muft quickly yield, as a total ftop would point a day of public humiliation for deprecating the pr0ceed-
l 1 \nt. be put to their trade. The bill was ftrongly op- wrath of heaven, but met with a refufal. When met ings of the
md peti- pofed on the fame grounds that the other had been ; at Salem, they paffed a refolution, declaring the necef-Seneral af*
!:ons a- and it was predided, that inftead of having any ten- fity of a general congrefs compofed of delegates from
gainft it. dency to reconcile or fubdue the Americans, it would all the provinces, in order to take the affairs of the
infallibly exafperate them beyond any poffibility of re- colonies at large into confideration ; and five gentle-
Conciliation. The petitions againft it, prefented by men, remarkable for their oppofition to the Britilh
the colony’s agent, pointed out the fame confequence meafures, were chofen to reprefent that of Maffachu-
in the ftrongeft terms, and in the moft pofitive man- fet’s Bay. They then proceeded with all expedition
ner declared that the Americans never would fubmit to draw up a declaration, containing a detail of the
to it; but fuch was the infatuation attending every grievances they laboured under, and the neceffity of
rank and degree of men, that it never was imagined exerting themfelves againft lawlefs power; they fet
the Americans would dare to refill the parent Hate forth the difregard Ihown to their petitions, and the
| 164 openly, but would in the end fubmit implicitly to her attempts of Great Britain to deftroy their ancient con-
1 And for the commands. In this confidence a third bill was pro- ftitution ; and concluded with exhorting the inhabitants
; Impartial pofed for the impartial adnvinillration of juftice on fuch of the colony to obftrudl, by every method in their
| ‘'jon "f^13" Pcr^ons as might be employed in the fuppreffion of power, fuch evil defigns, recommending at the fame
i ftke.° JU* nots an<^ tumults in the province of Maffachufet’s Bay. time a total renunciation of every thing imported from
By this aft it whs provided, that Ihould any perfons Great Britain till a redrefs of grievances could be pro-
afting in that capacity be indifted for murder, and cured.
not able to obtain a fair trial in the province, they Intelligence of this declaration was carried to the
might be fent by the governor to England, or to fome governor on the very day that it was completed ; on 169
other colony, if neceffary, to be tried for the fuppofed which he diffolved the affembly. This was followed Generufity
| crime. by an addrefs from the inhabitants of Salem in favour 1 ig^fsatem
1 Quebecbill. Thefe three bills having paffed fo eafily, the mini- of thofe of Bofton, and concluding with thefe remark- to ^
ftry propofed a fourth, relative to the government of able words: “ By (hutting up the port of Bofton, Bofton.
Canada ; which, it was faid, had not yet been fettled fome imagine that the courfe of trade might be turn¬
on any proper plan. By this bill the extent of that ed hither, and to our benefit; but nature, in the for-
profince was greatly enlarged ; its affairs were put un- mation of our harbour, forbids our becoming rivals in
der the direftion of a council in which Roman Catho- commerce with that convenient mart; and were it
lies were to be admitted ; the Roman Catholic clergy otherwife, we muft be dead to every idea of juftice,
were fecured in their poffeffions and the ufual perqui- loft to all feelings of humanity, could we indulge one
files from thofe of their own profeffion. The coun- thought to feize on wealth, and raife our fortunes on
cil above mentioned were to be appointed by the the ruin of our fuffering neighbours.”
crown ; to be removable at its pleafure; and to be It had been fondly hoped by the minifterial party
invefted with every legiflative power excepting that of at home, that the advantages which other towns of
1 166 taxation. the colony might derive from the annihilation of the
sITiefe ads No fooner were thefe lawsjnade known in America, .trade of Bofton, would make them readily acquiefce in
fheAmeri- t‘ian they cemented the union of the colonies almoft tlie meafure of (hutting up that port, and rather re-
i :ans. beyond any poffibility of diffolving it. The affembly joice in it than otherwife ; but the words of the addrefs
of Maffachufet’s Bay had paffed a vote againft the above mentioned feemed to preclude all hope of this
4 D 3 kind ;
A M E
.America, kind ; and fubfequent tranfaftions foon manifefted it
1 to be totally vain. No fooner did intelligence arrive
1yQ of the remaining-bills palled in the feffion of 1774,
The caufe than the caufe of Bofton became the caufe of all the
of Bofton colonies. The port-bill had already occafioned violent
ail th^reflT commot*ons throughout them all. It had been repro¬
of the colo- hated in provincial meetings, and refinance even to the
I 5SO ]
A M E
lall had, been, recommended againlt fuch oppreffion.
In Virginia,, the firft of June, the day on which the
port of Bofton was to be Unit up, was held as a day
of humiliation, and a public interceffion in favour of
America was enjoined. The ftyle of the prayer en¬
joined at this time was, that “ God would give the
people one heart and one mind, firmly to oppofe every
invafion of the American rights.” The Virginians,
however, did not content themfelves with adts of re¬
ligion. They recommended in the ftrongeft manner
a general congrefs of all the colonies, as fully perfua-
ded that an attempt to tax any colony in an arbitrary
manner was in reality an attack upon them all, and
muft ultimately end in the ruin of them all.
The provinces of New York and Penfylvania, how¬
ever, were lefs fanguine than the reft, being fo ciofe-
ly connedled in the, way of trade with Great Britain*
that the giving it up entirely appeared a matter of the
moft ferious magnitude,, and not to be thought of but
after every other method had failed. The intelligence
ed upon for the place of'its meeting. The delegates Ameri<
of whom it was to be compofed were chofen by the 7
reprefentatives of each province, and were in number
from two to feven for each colony, though no province 1-4
had more than one vote. The firft congrefs which Coa-rrefl
met at Philadelphia, in the beginning of September
1774, confifted of 51 delegated. The novelty and pj,.'.1'
importance of the meeting excited an univerfal atten¬
tion ; and their tranfadtions were fuch as could not
but tend to render them refpedtable. 175
The firft act of cpngrefs was an approbation of "the Account off
condudt of Maffacbufet’s Bay, and an exhortation to lfc
continue in the fame fpirit with whiph. they had begun.
Supplies for the fuffering inhabitants (whom indeed
the operation of the port-bill had reduced to great
diftreis). were ftrongly recommended ; and it was de¬
clared, that in cafe of attempts to enforce the obnoxi¬
ous adfs. by arms, all America ftiould join to affift the
town of Bofton ; and ftiould the inhabitants be obliged*,
during the courfe of hoftilities, to remove further up
the country, the Ioffes they might fuftain fhould be
repaired at the public expence.
They next addreffed General Gage by letter; in
which, having ftated the grievances of the people of
Maffachufet’s colony, they informed him of the fixed
and unalterable determination of all the other provin¬
ces to fupport their brethren and to oppofe the Britifti
The Ame- 0f the remaining bills refpe&ing Bofton, however, adta. of parliament; that they themfelves were appoint-
!u their^op-ed th°fe who had feemed to be the moft wavering.
‘fpread a frefh alarm throughout the continent, and fix¬
ed to watch over the liberties of America ; and intreat-
ed him to defift from military operations, left fuch ho¬
The propofal of giving up all commercial intercourfe ftilities might be brought on as would fruilrate all hopes-
with Britain was again propofed ; contributions for the
inhabitants of Bofton were raifed in every quarter;
and they every day received addreffes commending them
for the heroic courage with which they fuftained their
calamity. ,
The Boftonians on their part were not wanting in
their endeavours to promote the general caufe. An
174 agreement was framed, which, in imitation of former
Solemn times, they called a Solemn League and Covenant,
league and By this the fubferibers moft: religioufly bound them-
formed at fc^ves to break oft’ all communication with Britain af-
Bofton. ter the expiration of the month of Auguft enfuing,
until the obnoxious adls were repealed ; at the. fame
time they, engaged neither to purchafe nor ufe any
goods imported after that time, and to renounce all
connexion with thofe who did, or who refilled to fub-
feribe to this covenant; threatening to. publilh the
names of the refra&ory, which at this time was a pu-
of reconciliation with the parent ftate.
The next ftep was to publlfti a declaration of their
rights. Thefe they fummed up in the rights belong¬
ing to Engliftrmen ; and particularly infilled, that as
their diftance rendered it impoffible for them to be rPi
prefented in the Britifh parliament, their provincial
afiemblies, \Vith the governor appointed by the king,
conftituted the only legiflative power within each pro¬
vince. They would, however, confent to fuch adls of
parliament as were evidently calculated merely for the
regulation of commerce, and fecuring to the parent
ftate the benefits* of the American trade ; but would
never allow that they could impofe any tax,on the co¬
lonies, for the purpofe of railing a revenue, without
their confent. They proceeded to reprobate the in¬
tention of each ef the new afts of parliament; and
infilled on all the rights they had. enumerated as being ;
unalienable, and what none could deprive them of.
nifhment by no means to be defpifed. Agreements of The Canada aft they particularly pointed out as being
a fimilar kind were almaft-inftantaneoufly entered into
The gover- throughout all America. General Gage indeed at-
nor at- tempted to counteradt the covenant by a proclamation,
m wherein it was declared an illegaland traiterous combina-
mieract ^on> threatening with the pains of law fuch as fub-
extremely inimical to the colonies, by whofe afliftance
it had been conquered ; and they termed it «* An a<%
for eftablifhirig the Roman Catholic religion in Cana¬
da, aboliihin^ the equitable fyftem of Englilh laws,
and eftabiifhing a tyranny there.” They further de-
jt,by. pro- feribed or countenanced it. But matters were too far clared in favour of a non-importation and nen-edh-
(sJamation. gone for his proclamations to have any effedl. The
Americans retorted the charge of illegality on his own
proclamation, and. infilled that the law allowed fub-
jefts to meet in order to confider of their grievances,
and affociate for relief from dppreffion.
Preparations were now made for holding the gene¬
ral congrefs fo often propofed. Philadelphia, as be¬
ing the .moft centrical and confiderablc town, was piteh-
fumption of Britifti goods until the acts were repealed
by which duties were impofed upon tea, coffee, wine,
fugar, and molaffes, imported into America, as well
as the Bofton p.ort-adl, and the three others puffed in
the preceding feffipnr of parliament. ^ The new regu¬
lations againft the importation and confumption of
Britifh commodities were then drawn up with great
folemnity: and they concluded with returning the warm-
A M E [ 581 ] A M E
.1 (America, eft thanks to tbofe members of parliament who had lituation, was exclaimed againft by the Americans in America.
with lb much zeal, though without any fuccefs, op- the moft vehement manner 3 but the General, inftead ’ v-*—-'
pofed the obnoxious adfs of parliament. of giving ear to their remonftrances, deprived them of ^
Their next proceedings were to frame a petition to all power of acting againit himfelf, by feizing the pro- And feizes
the king, an addrefs to the Britifh nation, and another vincial powder, ammunition, and military ftores at themilitary
to the colonies ; all of which were fo much in the ufual Cambridge andCharleftown. This excited fuch indig- ft°res be¬
lt rain of American language for fome time paft, that nation, that it was with the utmoil difficulty the people
it is needlefs to enter into any particular account of could be reftrained from marching to Bolton and at-vince.
them. It is fufficient to fay that they were all drawn tacking the troops. Even in the town itfelf, the com-
176
to derive advantages from them took no opportunity,
as has been already inftanced in the cafe of Salem-.
Jenerofity The inhabitants of Marblehead alfo Ihowed a noble
•f the inha-example of magnanimity in the prefent cafe. Though
*Tble0^ fduated in the neighbourhood of Bolton, and molt red violators of the rights of their country; all ranks
d to Bo- hkely to derive benefit from their diftreffes,, they did and degrees were exhorted to learn the ufe of arms ;
ton. not attempt to take any advantage, but generoudy of- and the receivers of the public revenue were ordered
fered the ufe of their harbour to the Boftonians, as not to deliver it into the treafury, but retain it in their
well as their wharfs-, and warehonfes, free of all ex- own hands till the conftitution fliould be rellored, or a
pence. In the mean time the Britifh forces at Bolton
were continually increafing in number, which greatly
augmented i the general jealoufy and difalFeiition ; the
country were ready.to rife at a moment’s warning ;
ittachmc
tfthe coi
tVy peoyle
up in a mafterly manner, and ought to have imprefled
the people of this country with a more favourable idea
of the Americans than they could at that time be in¬
duced to entertain.
All this time the difpofition of the people had cor-
refponded with the warmeft wilhes of congrefs. The
firlt of J une had been kept as a fall, not only through¬
out Virginia where it was firfl. propofed, but through
the whole continent. Contributions for the diltrelfes
of Bolton had been raifed throughout America, and
people of all ranks feemed to be particularly touched
with them. Even thofe who feemed to be moft likely
pany of cadets that ufed to attend him dilbanded them-
fdves, and returned the ftandard he had as ufual pre-
fented them with on his acceffion to the government.
This was occalioned by his having deprived the cele¬
brated John Hancock, afterwards prefident of the con¬
grefs, of his commiffion as colonel of the cadets. A
limilar inftance happened of a provincial colonel having
accepted a feat in the new council; upon which 24
officers of his regiment refigned their commiffions in
one day. _ _ _ # lg6
In the mean time a meeting was held of the princi- Oppofition-
pal inhabitants'of the towns adjacent to Bolton. The to the Rri-
purport of this was publicly to renounce all obedience
to the late acts of parliament, and to form an engage- ;ncreak3,
ment to indemnify fuch as fhouid be profecutedon that
account; the members of the new council were decla-
provincial cOngrefs difpefe of it otherwife.
A remonftranee againft the fortifications on Bolton
Neck was next prepared 3 in which, however, they ftill
pretended their unwillingnefs to proceed to any holtile
and the experiment was made by giving a falfe alarm tneafures5 afierting only as ufual their firm determina-
that the communication between the town and country tion not to fubmit to the afts of parliament they had lgr
the Bo- was. to be cut off, in order to reduce the former by already fo much complained of. The governor, to A general
ilonians. famine to a compliance with the adls of parliament, reftore tranquillity, if pollible, called a general aflem- a!Pem!>T
On this intelligence the country people affembled in bl'y; but fo many of the council had refigned their
great numbers, and could not be fatished tul they had feats, that he was induced to countermand its fitting pj-odaina- .
lent meffengers into the city to inquire into the truth by proclamation. This meafure, however, was deem- tion.
of the report. Thefe meffengers were enjoined to in- ed illegal the affembly met at Salem-5 and after wait-
form the town’s people, that if they Ihould be fo pu- ing a day for the governor, voted themfelves into a
fiilanimous as to make a furrender of their liberties, provincial congrefs, of which Mr Hancock was chofen
the province would not think itfelf bound by fuch ex- prefident. A committee was inftantly appointed, who
amples ; and that Britain, by breaking their original waited on the governor with a remonftrance concerning ,,
charter, had annulled the contradl fubfifting between the fortificatidns on Bofton Neck 5 but nothing of con-
tbem, and left them to afl; as they thought proper. fequence took place, both parties mutually criminating
The people in every other refpeft manifefted their each other. The winter was now coming on, and the ’
inflexible determination to adhere to the plan they had governor, to avoid quartering the foldiers upon the in- Tg1
fo long followed. The new counfellorS andjudg.es habitants, propofed to ere ft baracks for them ; but the Gen. Gage
■were obliged to refign their offices, in order to preferve felect men of Bofton compelled the workmen to defift. meets witfi.
their lives and properties from the fury of the multi- Carpenters were feoffor to New Vork, but they were re-
tude. In fome places they fhut up the avenues to the fufed 5 and it was with the utmoft difficulty that he accommo-
court-houfes; and when required to make way for the Could procure winter-lodgings for his troops. Nor was dating his
judges, replied, that they knew of none but fuch as the difficulty lefs in procuring clothes; as the mer- troops,
were appointed by the ancient ufage and cuftom of the chants of New York told him, that “ they would ne-
province. Every where they manifefted the moft ar¬
dent defire of learning the art of war ; and every indi-
• vidual who could bear arms, was moft affiduous in pro-
o curing them, and learning their exercife.
iOen. Gage Matters at laft proceeded to fuch an height, that
fortifier Bo- General Gage thought proper to fortify the neck of fifing fpring was to be the feafon of commencing ho-
iiun Neck, lan<i which joins the town of Bofton to the continent, ftilities, and the moft indefatigable diligence was ufed
This, though undoubtedly a prudent meafure in his by the colonies to be well provided againft fuch a for¬
midable
ver fupply any article for the benefit of men fent as
enemies to their country.”
This difpofition, known to be almoft univerfal The Ame-
throughout the continent, was in the higheft degreericansmalie
fatisfactory to congrefs. Every one faw that the en-
r. • „ r .i,„ r„„r—  • „ tiunsior
A M E C 582 ] A M E
America, midable enemy. A lift of all the fencible men in each a perfeverance In the meafures which the miniftry had America.
■* colony was made out, and efpecially of thofe who had adopted was fufficient to unite them to the reft,
ferved in the former war 5 of whom they had the fat is- As the difturbances had originated in the province
fa&ion to find that two-thirds were ftill alive and fit of Mafiachufet’s Bay, and there continued all along
to bear arms. Magazines of arms were collected, and with the greateft violence, fo this was the province
money was provided for the payment of troops. The where the firft hoftilities were formally commenced,
governors in vain attempted to put a ftop to thefe pro- In the beginning of February the provincial congrefs
ceedings by proclamations 5 the fatal period was now met at Cambridge; and as no friends to Britain could^f^achu"i|
arrived ; and the more the fervants of government at- now find admittance to that affembly, the only confi- recom- J
tempted to reprefs the fpirit of the Americans, the deration was how to make proper preparations for war. mend pre-
y p4 more violent it appeared. Expertnefs in military difcipline was recommended inparations
Diftrefs of In the mean time the inhabitants ofBoftonwere re- the ftrongeft manner, and feveral military inftitutionsfor wan
the inhabl-t0 great diftrefs. The Britifti troops, now di- enafted ; among which that of the minute-men was
of Bo- dinguiihed by the name of the enemy, were ahfolutely one of the moft remarkable. Thefe were chofen from
in pofieffion of it; the inhabitants were kept as prifon- the moft aftive and expert among the militia; and their
ers, and might be made accountable for the conduft of bufinefs was to keep themfelves in conftant readinefs
the whole colonies; and various meafures were con- at the call of their officers; from which perpetual vigi-
trived to relieve the latter from fuch a difagreeable lance they derived their title.—It was now eafily feen
fituation. Sometimes it was thought expedient to that a flight occafion would bring on hoftilities, which
remove the inhabitants altogether; but this was im- could not but be attended with the moft violent and
practicable without the governor’s confent. It was certain deftruCtion to the vanquifhed party; for both
then propofed to fet fire to the town at once, after were fo much exafperated by a long courfe of reproach-
valuing the houfes and indemnifying the proprietors ; es and literary warfare, that they feemed to be filled
but this being found equally impracticable, it was re- with the utmoft inveteracy againft each other,
folved to wait fome other opportunity, as the garrifon On the 26th of February General Gage having been
were not very numerous, and, not being fupplied with informed that a number of field-pieces had been brought
neceflaries by the inhabitants, might foon be obliged to Salem, difpatched a party to feize them. Their
-to leave the place. The friends of Britifti government road was obftrufted by a river, over which was a draw-
indeed attempted to do fomething in oppofition to the bridge. This the people had pulled up, and refufed
general voice of the people ; but after a few ineffectual to let down : upon which the foldiers feized a boat
meetings and refolutions, they were utterly filenced, and to ferry them over ; but the people cut out her bottom,
obliged to yield to the fuperior number of their adver- Hoftilities would immediately have commenced, had it
faries. not been for the interpofition of a clergyman, who re-
Matters had now proceeded fo far that every idea of prefented to the military on the one hand, the folly of
reconciliation or friendftiip with Britain was loft. The oppofing fuch numbers; and to the people on the other,
Americans therefore, without ceremony, began to feize that as the day was far fpent the military could not ex-
- on the military ftores and ammunition belonging to go- ecute their defign, fo that they might without any fear
"Military vernment. This firft commenced at New-port in leave them the quiet poffeffion of the draw-bridge. This
ftores feized Rhode Ifland, where the inhabitants carried off 40 was complied with ; and the foldiers, after having re-
fcy the A- pieces of cannon appointed for the protection of the mained for fome time at the bridge, returned without
-fiiencans. pjace . an(j on being aflced .the reafon of this proceed- executing their orders.
ing, they replied, that the people had feized them left The next attempt, however, was attended with more Skirmilh at
they ftiould be made ufe of againft themfelves. After ferious confequences. General Gage, having been in-Lexington.:
this the affembly met, and refolvcd that ammunition formed that a large quantity of ammunition and mili-
and warlike ftores ftiould be purchafed with the public- tary ftores had been eolleCted at Concord, about 20
money. miles from Bofton, and where the provincial ccngrefs
New-Hampftiire followed the example of Rhode- was fitting, fent a detachment, under the command of
Ifland, and feized a fmall fort for the fake of the pow- Colonel Smith and Major Pitcairn, to deftroy the ftores,
der and military ftores it contained. In Penfylvania, and, as was reported, to feize Meffrs Hancock and
however, a convention was held, which expreffed an Adams, the leading men of the congrefs. They fet
earneft defire of reconciliation with the mother-coun- out before day-break, on the 19th of April, marching
try; though, at the fame time., in the ftrongeft manner with the utmoft filence, and fecuring every one they
-declaring, that they were refolved to take up arms in met on the road, that they might lot be difeovered.
defence of their yuft rights, and defend to the laft their But notwithftanding all.their care, the continual ring-
oppofition to the late a As of parliament.; and the mg of bolls and firing of guns as they went along, foon
people were exhorted to apply themfelves with the gave them notice that the country was alai-med. About
greateft affiduity to the profeeution of fuch manufac- five in the morning they had reached Lexington,
tures as were neceffary for their defence and fubfiftence, >15 miles fromSBofton, where the militia of the place
fuch as fait, falt-petre, gunpowder, fteej, &c. This were exercifing. An officer called out to them to dif-
was the univerfal voice of the colonies, New-York only perfe ; but fome (hots, it is faid, being at that moment
excepted. The affembly of that province, as yet ig- fired from a houfe in the neighbourhood, the military
norant of the fate of their laft remonftrance, refufed to made a difeharge, which killed and wounded feveral
. concur with the other colonies in their determination of the militia. The detachment then proceeded to
to throw off the Britiflr yoke : their attachment, how- Concord, where, having deftroyed the ftores, they were
£ver,.waa very faint, and by the event it appeared that encountered by the Americans ; and ,a feuffle enfued,
3
A M E [ 583 ] A M E
kmerir
great
mbles be-
e Bofton.
ttle at
nker’s
U.
in which feveral fell on both fides. The purpofe of
their expedition being thus accompliihed, it was necef-
fary for the king’s troops to retreat, which they did
through^ continual fire kept upon them from Concord
to Lexington. Here their ammunition was totally ex¬
pended ; and they would have been unavoidably cut off,
had not a confiderable reinforcement commanded by
Lord Percy luckily met them. The Americans, how¬
ever, continued their attack with great fury ; and the
Britifh would ftill have been in the utmoft danger,
had it not been for two field-pieces which Lord Percy
had brought with him. By thefe the impetuofity of
the Americans was checked, and the Britilh made
good their retreat to Bofton with the lofs of 250 killed
and wounded : that of the Americans was about 60.
By this engagement the fpirits of the Americans
were fo raifed, that they meditated nothing lefs than
the total expulfion of the Britifh troops from Bolton.
An army of 20,000 men was aflembled, who formed
a line of encampment from Roxbury to Myftic, through
a fpace of about 30 miles ; and here they were foon after
joined by a large body of Connecticut troops, under
General Putnam, an old officer of great bravery and
experience. By this formidable force was the town of
Bolton now kept blocked up. General Gage, how¬
ever, had fo llrongly fortified it, that the enemy,
powerful as they were, durft not make an attack;
while on the other hand, his force was by far too in-
fignificant to meet fuch an enemy in the field. But
towards the end of May, a confiderable reinforcement
having arrived, with Generals Howe, Burgoyne, and
Clinton, he was foon enabled to attempt fomething of
confequence; and this the boafts of the provincials,
that they were befieging thofe who had been fent to fub-
due them, feemed to render neceffary. Some Ikir-
mifhes in the mean time happened in the iflands lying
off Bofton harbour, in which the Americans had the
advantage, and burnt an armed fchooner, which her
people had been obliged to abandon after Ihe was
left aground by the tide. Nothing decifive, however,
took place till the 17th of June. In the neighbour¬
hood of Charleftown, a place on the northern thore of
the peninfula on which Bofton Hands, is an high ground
called Bunker's Hill, which overlooks and commands
the whole town of Bofton. In the night of the 16th
the provincials took poffeffion of this place ; and work¬
ed with fuch indefatigable diligence, that, to the afto-
niftiment of their enemies, they had before day-light
almoft completed a redoubt, with a ftrong entrench¬
ment reaching half a mile eaftward, as far as the river
Myftic. After this they were obliged to fuftain a
heavy and inceffant fire from the fhips and floating bat¬
teries with which Charleftown Neck was furrounded,
as well as the cannon that could reach the place from
Bofton; in fpite of which, however, they continued
their work and finilhed it before mid-day. A confi¬
derable body of foot was then landed at the foot of
Bunker’s Bill, under the command of Generals Howe
and Pigot; the former being appointed to attack the
lines, and the latter the redoubt. The Americans,
however, having the advantage of the ground, as well
as of their intrenchments, poured down (pch inceffant
volleys as threatened the whole body with deftrudtion ;
and General Howe was for a little time left almoft
alone, all his officers being killed or wounded. The
provincials in the mean time had taken poffeffion of Amerra.
Charleftovn, fo that General Pigot was obliged to '■""“"v
contend with them in that place as well as in the re¬
doubt. The confequence was, that he was over¬
matched ; his troops were thrown into diforder ; and lie
would in all probability have been defeated, had not
General Clinton advanced to his relief: upon which the
attack was renewed with fuch fury, that the provincials
were driven beyond the neck that leads to Charleftown.
In the heat of the engagement the Britiflr troops were
obliged to fet fire to the town of Charieftown, which
quickly obliged the provincials to yield after they were
deprived of that ftielter. The lofs on the Britifh fide
amounted to about 1000, among whom were 19 offi¬
cers killed and 70 wounded; that of the Americans
did not exceed 500.
The Britifh troops claimed tlie victory in this en
gageffient with juftice, though it muft be allowed that
it was dearly bought; and the Americans boafted that
the real advantages were on their fide, as they had fo
much weakened the enemy that they durft not after¬
wards venture out of their entrenchments. From the
many advantages, however, which the Americans pof-
feffed, it is evident that the gieateft difplay of valour
was on the fide of their enemies. The former were
ftrongly entrenched, and moft of their fortifications
cannon proof; their foldiers were all chofen, and ex-
cellent markfmen, to whom mulkets ready loaded were
handed as faft as they were difeharged; a/id when one
party was wearied, another came to their affiftance, as
was perceived by the fpe&ators on the tops of the
houfes at Bofton. Confidering, however, that this
was the firft time the provincials-had been in aftual
fervice, it jnuft be owned that they behaved with
great fpirit, and by no means merited the appellation,
of cowards, with which they were fo often branded in-
Britain- 190
In other places the fame determined fpirit of ref: ft-Ame-
ance appeared on the part of the Americans. Lord
North’s conciliatory fcheme was utterly rejefted by the-an(j niorc
affemblies of Penfylvania. and New Jerfey, and after-e’etermined.
wards in every other colony. The commencement off11 dwir °p—
hoftilities at Lexington determined the colony of New-rot'luoQ‘
York, which had hitherto continued to waver, to unite-
with the reft ; and as the fituation of New-York ren¬
ders it unable to refill an attack from the fea, it was,
refolved,. before the arrival of a Britifh fleet,, to fecure
the military ftores, fend off the women and children,,
and to fet fire to the city if it was ftill found incapable
of defence. The exportation of provifions was every,
where prohibited, particularly to the Britifh fiftiery on
the banks of Newfoundland, or to fuch colonies of A-
merica as fnould adhere to the Britifh intereft. Con-
grefs refolved on the eftablifhment of an army, and of
a large paper-currene-y in order to fupport it. In the
inland northern colonies, Colonels Eafton and Ethan-
Allen, without receiving any orders from Congrefs, or
communicating their defig*: to any body, with a party >9*
of only 250 men, furprifed the forts of Crown Point,Crow.,
Ticonderago, and the reft that form a communication
betwixt the colonies and Canada. Gn this occafiong0 take,, ijy.
200 pieces of cannon fell into their hands, befides mor-the Ameri>
tars and a large quantity of military ftores, together C1-ns'
with two armed vtffels, and materials for the conftruc-
tion of others.
After
A M E [ 584 J A M E
After the battle of Bunker’s Hill, the provincials our exiftence intended a part of the human race to hold Amen
erefted fortifications on the. heights which commanded an abfolute property in and unbounded power over v
Charleftown, and ftrengthened the reft in fuch a man- others, marked out by His infinite goodnefs and wif-
ner that there was no. hope of driving them from dom as the objedts of a legal domination, never right*
thence ; at the fame time that their activity and bold- fully refiftible, however fevere and opprefiive ; tire in-
nefs aftonifhed the Britifii officers, who had been ac- habitants of thefe colonies might at leaft require from
cuftomed to entertain too mean an opinion of their the parliament of Great Britain fome evidence that this
dreadful authority over them had been granted to that
body: but a reverence for our Great Creator, princi¬
ples of humanity, and the dictates of common fenfe,
muft convince all thofe who refledt upon the fubjedt, that
government was inftituted to promote the welfare of
mankind, and ought to be adminiftered for the attain-
19a courage.
Troops in The troops, thus ffiut up in -Bofton, were foon re-
. Bofton di- duced to diftrefs. Their neceffities obliged them to
. itreffed. attempt the carrying off the American cattle on the
iflands before Bofton, vrhich produced frequent Ikir-
milhes; but the provincials, better acquainted with the
navigation of thefe fliores, landed on the iflands, de- ment .of that end.
‘ftroyed or carried off whatever was of any ufe, burned
<the light-houfe at the entrance of the harbour, and
-took prifoners the workmen fent to repair it, as well
. as a party of marinSs who guarded them. Thus the
•garrifon were reduced to the neceffity of fending out
armed veffels to make prizes indifcriminately of all that
came in their way, and of landing in different places
j93 to plunder for fubfiftence as well as they could.
Articles of The congrefs in the mean time continued to aft with
union be- ap t]ie vJgour which its conftituents had expefted. to clofe with their laft appeal from reafon to arms.
colonies6 Articles of confederation and perpetual union were Yet, however blinded that affembly may be, by their
drawn up and folemnly agreed upon ; by which they intemperate rage for unlimited domination, fo to flight
bound themfelves and their pofterity for ever.. Thefe juftice in the opinion of mankind,' we efteem ourfelves
were in fubftance as follows: bound by obligations to the reft of the world to make
1. Each colony was to be independent within itfelf, known the juftice of our cauCe.”
and to retain an abfolute fovereignty in all domeftic
The legiflature of Great Britain, however, Hi-
mulated by an inordinate paffion for power, not only
unjuftifiable, but which they know to be peculiarly re¬
probated by the very conftitution of that kingdom {
and defpairing of fuccefs in any mode of conteft where
regard ffiould be had to law, truth, or right; have at
length, deferting thofe, attempted to effeft their cruel
and impolitic purpofe of enflaving thefe colonies by
violence, and have thereby rendered it neceffary for us
affairs.
2. Delegates to be annually elefted to meet in con¬
grefs, at fuch time and place as ffiould be enafted in
the preceding congrefs.
3. This affembly ffiould have the power of deter¬
mining war or peace, making alliances ; and in ffiort
all that power which fovereigns of Hates ufually claim
-as their own.
4. The expences of war to be paid out of the com¬
mon treafury, and raifed by a poll-tax on males be¬
tween 16 and 60 ; the proportions
by the laws of the colony.
5. An executive council to “be appointed to aft in
•place of the congrefs during its recefs.
6. No colony to make war with the Indians with¬
out confent of congrefs.
After taking notice of the manner in which their an-
ceftors left Britain, the happinefs attending the mutual
friendly commerce betwixt that country and her colonies,
and1 the remarkable fuccefs of the late war, they pro¬
ceed as follows: “ The new miniftry finding the brave
foes of Britain, though frequently defeated, yet ftill
contending, took up the unfortunate idea of granting
them a hafty peace, and of then fubduing her faithful
friends.
“ Thefe devoted colonies were judged to be in fuch
a ftate as to prefent viftories without bloodffied, and
be determined all the eafy emoluments of ftatutable plunder. The
uninterrupted tenor of. their peaceable and refpeftful
behaviour from the beginning of their colonization ;
their dutiful, zealous, and ufeful ferviceS during the
war, though fo recently and amply acknowledged in
the moll honourable manner by his Majefty, by the
7. The boundaries of all the Indian lands to be fe- late king, and by parliament, could not fave them
cured and afcertained to them ; and no purchafes of from the intended innovations. Parliament was influ-
lands were to be made by individuals, or even by a co¬
lony, without confent of congrefs.
8. Agents appointed by congrefs ffiould refide a-
mong the Indians, to prevent frauds in trading with
them, and to relieve, at the public expence, their wants
and diftreffes.
9. This confederation to laft until there ffiould be
a reconciliation with Britain ; or, if that event ffiould
not take place, it was to be perpetual.
After the aftion of Bunker’s Hill, however, when
enced to adopt the pernicious projeft ; and affiiming a
new power over them, has in the courfe of eleven years
given fuch decifive fpecimens of the fpirit and confe-
quences attending this power, as to leave no doubt of
the effefts of acquiefcence under it.
“ They have undertaken to give and grant our mo¬
ney without our confent, though we have ever exer-
cifed an excluiive right to difpofe of our own proper¬
ty. Statutes have been paffed for extending the jurif-
diftion of the courts of admiralty and vice-admiralty
r^4 the power of Great Britain appeared lefs formidable in beyond their ancient limits ; for depriving us of the
Declaration the eyes of America than before, congrefs proceeded accuftomed and ineftimable rights of trial by jury, in
on taking formally to juftify their proceedings in a declaration cafes affefting both life and property ; for fufpending
up arms, drawn up in terms more expreffive, and well calcu- the legiflaturtNof one of our colonies ; for interdifting
lated to excite attention. all commerce to the capital of another ; and for alter-
“ Were it poffible (faid they) for men who exer- ing fundamentally the form of government eftabliffied
cife their reafon, 40 believe that the divine Author of by charter, and fijcured by afts of its own legiflature ;
H° 15. 4 ;»*d
A M E [ 585 ] A M E
.-merica. and folemnly confirmed by the crown ; for exempting
1—* the murderers of colonifts from legal trial, and in ef-
fedf from punifhment; for erefting in a neighbouring
province, acquired by the joint arms of Great Britain
and America, a defpotifm dangerous to our very exift-
ence ; and for quartering foldiers upon the colonifts in
time of a profound peace. It has alfo been refolved
| in parliament, that colonifts charged with committing
certain offences, lhall be tranfported to England to be
tried.
. “ But why fhould we enumerate our injuries in de¬
tail ?—By one ftatute it was declared, that parliament
can of right make laws to bind us in all cafes what¬
ever. What is to defend us againft fo enormous, fo
unlimited a power ? Not a fingle perfon who affumes
it is chofen by us, or is fubjeft to our control or in¬
fluence ; but on the contrary, th^y are all of them ex-
j empt from the operation of fuch laws ; and an Ameri-
| can revenue, if not diverted from the oftenfible purpo-
fes from which it is raifed, would a&ually lighten their
own burdens in proportion as it increafes ours.
“ We faw the mifery to which fuch defpotifm would
[ reduce us. We for ten years inceffantly and ineffec¬
tually befieged the throne as fupplicants ; wc reafoned,
we remonftrated with parliament in the moft mild and
decent language ; but adminiftration, fenfible that we
fhould regard thefe meafures as freemen ought to do,
fent over fleets and armies to enforce them.
“ We have purfued every temperate, every refpeft-
ful meafure ; we have even proceeded to break off all
commercial intercourfe with our fellow-fubje&s as our
laft peaceable admonition, that our attachment to no
nation on earth would fupplant our attachment to li-
; berty : this we flattered purfelves was the ultimate ftep
: of the controverfy; but fubfequent events have fhown
t how vain was this hope of finding moderation in our
enemies!
“ The Lords and Commons, in their addrefs in the
month of February, .faid, that a rebellion at that time
k . actually exifted in the province of Maffachufet’s Bay;
and that thofe concerned in it had been countenanced
and encouraged by unlawful combinations and engage¬
ments entered into by his Majefty’s fubje&s in federal
of the colonies; and therefore they befought his Ma-
jefty that he would take the moft effeftual meafures to
enforce due obedience to the laws and authority of the
: fupreme legiflature. Soon after the commercial inter¬
courfe of whole colonies with foreign countries was cut
! • off by an aft of parliament; by another, feveral of them
were entirely prohibited from the fifheries in the feas
near their coafts, on which they always depended for
their fubfiftence ; and large reinforcements of fhips and
troops were immediately fent over to General Gage.
“ Fruitlefs were all the intreaties, arguments, and
eloquence of an illuftrious band of the moft diftinguifh-
ed peers and commoners, who nobly and ftrenuoufly
aflerted the juftice of our paufe, to flay, or even to mi¬
tigate, the heedlefs fury with which thefe accumulated
outrages were hurried on. Equally fruitlefs was the
interference of the city of London, of Briftol, and ma-
|p ny other refpeftable towns in our favour.”
After having reproached parliament, General Gage,
and the Britilh government in general, they proceed
thus: “We are reduced to the alternative of choofing
an unconditional fubmiffion to tyranny qr refiftance by
Vox. I. Part II.
force. The latter is our choice. We have- counted America,
the coft of this conteft, and find nothing fo dreadful ——v—*
as voluntary flavery. Honour, juftice, and humanity,
forbid us tamely to furrender that freedom which we
received from our gallant aneeftors, and which our in¬
nocent pofterity have a right to receive from us. Our
caufe is juft ; our union is perfeft; our internal refour-
ces are great; and, if neceffary, foreign afiiftance is
undoubtedly attainable. We fight not for glory or
conqueft; we exhibit to mankind the remarkable Spec¬
tacle of a people attacked by unprovoked enemies.
They boaft of their privileges and civilization, and yet
proffer no milder conditions than fervitude or death.
In our own native land, in defence of the freedom that
is our birthright, for the proteftion of our property
acquired by the honeft induftry of our forefathers and
our own, againft violence aftually offered, we have ta¬
ken up arms ; we ftiall lay them down when hoftilities
fhall ceafe on the part of our aggreffors, and all danger
of their being renewed fhall be removed,—and not be¬
fore.”
Thefe are fome of the moft ftriking paffages in the
declaration of congrefs on taking up arms againft
Great Britain, and dated July 6th 1775. Without
inquiring whether the principles on which it is founded
are right or wrong, the determined fpirit which it
Ihows, ought to have convinced us, that the conqueft;
of America was an event fcarce ever to be expefted.
In every other refpeft an equal fpirit was Ihown ; and
the rulers of the Britilh nation had the mortification to
fee thofe whom they ftyled rebels and traitors, fucceed
in negociations in which they themfelves were utterly ^
foiled. In the palling of the Quebec-bill, miniftry had Quebec bill
flattered themfelves that the Canadians would be fodifa,(rcc-
much attached to them on account of reftoring
French laws, that they would very readily join in any was;nten(j.
attempt againft the colonifts who had reprobated that ed to pleafe,
bill in fuch ftrong terms: but in this, as in eveiy thing
elfe indeed, they found themfelves miftaken. The Ca¬
nadians having been fubjeft to Britain for a period of
15 years, and being thus rendered fenfible of the fupe-
rior advantages of Britiih government, received the bill
itfelf with evident marks of difapprobation; nay, re¬
probated it as tyrannical and oppreffive. A fcheme
had been formed for General Carleton, governor of the
province, to raife an army of Canadians wherewith to
aft againft the Americans; and fo fanguine were the
hopes of adminiftration in this refpeft, that they had
fent 20,000 Hand of arms, and a great quantity of mi¬
litary ftores, to Quebec for the purpofe. But the
people, though they did not join the Americans, yet
were found immoveable in their purpofe to Hand neu¬
ter. Application was made to the bilhop; but he de¬
clined to interpofe his influence, as contrary to the
rules of the Popilh clergy : fo that the utmoft efforts
of government in this province were found to anfwer
little or no purpofe. ig(,
The Britilh adminiftraticn next tried to engage the Minii'try
Indians in their- caufe. But though agents were atr.ettlPt m
difperfed among them with large prefents to the Jhe'indianT.
chiefs, they univerfally replied, that they did not un-
derftand the nature of the quarrel, nor could they di-
ftinguilh whether thofe who dwelt in America or on
the other fide of the ocean were in fault: but they
were furpri-fed to fee Englilhmen alk their afliftance
4 E againft
A M E
A M E
[ 586 ]
America, again# one another; and advifed them to be reconciled, ing the breach. From the prefent fituation of our af- America*,
and not think of fhedding the blood of their brethren, fairs, we judge it expedient to kindle up a fmall fire at /—“■
—To the reprefentations of congrefs they paid more Albany, where we may hear each other’s voice, and
refpeft. Thefe fet forth, that the Englilh on the other difclofe our minds fully to one another.”
fide of the ocean had taken up arms to enflave not only The other remarkable tranfa&ions of this congrefs
their countrymen in America, but the Indians alfo;
and if the latter ftiould enable them to overcome the
colonifts, they themfelves would foon be reduced to a
ftate of flavery alfo. By arguments of this kind thefe
were the ultimate refulal of the conciliatory propoial
made by Lord North, of which fuch fanguine expec¬
tations had been formed by the Englifh miniftry; and Gen^alhl
appointing a generaliffimo to command their armies, iugtonap-
favages were engaged to remain neuter ; and thus the which were now very numerous. The perfon chofen pointed
colonifls were freed from a moft dangerous enemy. On
this occafion the congrefs thought proper to hold a fo-
lemn conference with the different tribes of Indians.
The fpeech made by them on the occafion is curious,
• e   
but too long to be fully inferted. The following is
fpecimen of the European mode of addreffing thefe
people.
“ Brothers, Sachems, and Warriors!
“ We, the delegates from the Twelve United Pro¬
vinces, now fitting in general congrefs at Philadelphia,
grefs to the fend their talk to you our brothers.
Indians. “ Brothers and Friends, now attend !
“ When our fathers croffed the great water, and
came over to this land, the king of England gave them
a talk, affuring them that they and their children
for this purpofe was George Walhington : a man fo fommand<
univerfally beloved, that he was raifed to fuch an high1
ftation by the unanimous voice of congrefs; and his
fubfequent conduit ftiowed him every way worthy of
it. Horace Gates and Charles Lee, two Englilh offi¬
cers of confiderable reputation, were alfo chofen ; the
former an adjutant-general, the fecond a major-general.
Artemus Ward, Philip Schuyler, and Ifrael Putnam,
were likewife nominated major-generals. Seth Pomeroy,
Richard Montgomery, David Woofter, William Heath,
Jofeph Spencer, John Thomas, John Sullivan, and
Nathaniel Green, were chofen brigadier-generals at the
fame time.
Congrefs had now alfo the fatisfaition to receive de- Georgia ac
puties from the colony of Georgia, expreffing a defire to cedes to th>
Ihould be his children ; and that if they would leave join the confederacy. The reafons they gave for re- confedera-
their native country, and make fettlements, and live
here, and buy and fell, and trade with their brethren
beyond the water, they ffiould Hill keep hold of the
fame covenant-chain, and enjoy peace ; and it was co¬
venanted, that the fields, houfes, goods, and poffef-
fions, which our fathers ffiould acquire, fhould remain
to them as their own, and be their childrens for ever,
and at their foie difpofal.
“ Brothers and Friends, open a kind ear !
“ We will now tell you of the quarrel betwixt the
counfellors of King George and the inhabitants and
colonies of America.
“ Many of his counfellors have perfuaded him to
break the covenant-chain, and not to fend us any more
good talks. They have prevailed upon him to enter
into a covenant again# us; and have torn afunder, and
caff behind their backs, the good old covenant which
their anceftors and ours entered into, and took ftrong
hold of. They now tell us they will put their hands
into our pocket without afking, as though it were
their own ; and at their pleafure they will take from
us our charters, or written civil conftitution, which we
love as our lives ; alfo our plantations, our houfes, and
goods, whenever they pleafe, without a iking our leave.
They tell us, that our veffels may go to that or this
ifland in the fea, but to this or that particular ifland
we ffiall not trade any more; and in cafe of our non-
compliance with thefe new orders, they ffiut up our
harbours.
“ Brothers, we live on the fame ground with you ;
the fame ifland is our common birth-place. We delire
to fit down under the fame tree of peace with you:
let us water its roots, and cherilh the growth, till the
nouncing their allegiance to Britain was, that the con- cy-
duel of parliament towards the other colonies had been
oppreffive ; that though the obnoxious aits had not
been extended to them, they could view this only as
an omiffion, becaufe of the feeming little confequence
of their colony; and therefore looked upon it rather
to be a flight than a favour. At the fame time they
framed^a petition to the King, fimilar to that fent by
the other colonies, and which met with a limilar re¬
ception.
The fuccefs which had hitherto attended the Ameri¬
cans in all their meafures, now’ emboldened them to
think not only of defending themfelves, but likew’ife of
ailing offenfively againft Great Britain. The conqueft The Ame*
of Canada appeared an objeil within their reach, and r‘cans at¬
one that would be attended with many advantages; tem^etACj
and as an invafion of that province was already facili- canada.
tated by the taking of Crown Point and Ticonderoga,
it was refolved if poffible to penetrate that way into
Canada, and reduce Quebec during the w’inter, before
the fleets and armies which they were well affured
would fail thither from Britain Ihould arrive. By or¬
der of congrefs, therefore, 3000 men were put under
the command of Generals Montgomery and Schuyler,
wnth orders to proceed to Lake Champlain, from
whence they were to be conveyed in flat-bottomed
boats to the mouth of the river Sorel, a branch of the
great river St Lawrence, and on which is fituated a
fort of the fame name with the river. On the other
hand, they were oppofed by General Carleton governor
of Canada, a man of great aftivity and experience in
war; who, with a very few troops, had hitherto been
able to keep in awe the difaffefted people of Canada.
large leaves and flourilhing branches fliall extend to the notwithftanding all the reprefentations of the colonifts.
fetting fun, and reach the Aries. If any thing dif-
agreeable ftiould ever fall out between us, the Twelve
United Colonies, and you, the Six Nations, to wound
our peace, let us immediately feek meafures for heal-
He had now augmented his army by a confiderable
number of Indians, and promifed even in his prefent
fituation to make a very formidable refiftance.
As foon as General Montgomery arrived at Crown
Point,
A M E [ 587 ] A M E
r.-i America. Point, lie received information that feveral armed vef-
—v   fels were ftationed at St John’s, a ftrong fort on the
Sorel, with a view to prevent his croffing the lake; on
which he took poffelfion of an ifland which commands
the mouth of the Sorel, and by which he could prevent
them from entering the lake. In conjunction with
General Schuyler, he next proceeded to St John’s:
but finding that place too ftrong, he landed on a part
©f the country confiderably diftant, and full of woods
and fwamps. From thence, however, they were driven
by a party of Indians whom General Carletnn had em¬
ployed.
The provincial army was now obliged to retreat
to the ifland of which they had at firft taken pof-
feffion ; where General Schuyler being taken ill, Mont¬
gomery was left to command alone. His firft ftep
was to gain over the Indians whom Gen. Carleton had
employed, and this he in a great meafure accomplifhed;
after which, on receiving the full number of troops
lot appointed for his expedition, he determined to lay
‘hamblee fiege to St John’s. In this he was facilitated by the
»ken. reduction of Chamblee, a fmall fort in the neighbour¬
hood, where he found a large fupply of powder. An
attempt was made by General Carleton to relieve the
place ; for which purpofe he with great pains collected
about 1000 Canadians, while Colonel Maclean propo-
fed to raife a regiment of the Highlanders who had
1 S02 emigrated from their own country to America.
Sen. Carle- But while Gen. Carleton was on his march with thefe
bn defeat- new levies, he was attacked by a fuperior force of provin-
cials, and utterly defeated ; which being made known
to another body of Canadians who had joined Colonel
Maclean, they abandoned him without linking a blow,
and he was obliged to retreat to Quebec.
The defeat of General Carleton was a fufficient re-
compence to the Americans for that of Colonel Ethan
Allen, which had happened fome time before. The
fuccefs which had attended this gentleman againft
Crown Point and Ticonderago had emboldened him
to make a fimilar attempt on Montreal; but being
attacked by the militia of the place, fupported by a
detachment of regulars, he was entirely defeated and
taken prifoner.
As the defeat of General Carleton and the defertion
of Maclean’s forces left no room for the garrifon of St
John’s to hope for any relief, they now confented to
, 20, furrender themfelves prifoners of war ; but were in
3t John’s other refpe&s treated with great humanity. They
fort taken, were in number 500 regulars and 200 Canadians, a-
rniong whom were many of the French nobility, who
had been very aftive in promoting the caufe of Britain
among their countrymen.
General Montgomery next took meafures to prevent
the Britilh /hipping from palling down the river from
Montreal to Quebec. This he accomplilhed fo ef¬
fectually, that the whole were taken. The town it-
felf was obliged to furrender at difcretion ; and it was
: , 304 with the utmoft difficulty that General Carleton efcaped
And like- in an °Pen boat by the favour of a dark night.
1 wife Mont- No further obftacle now remained in the way of the
iteal. Americans to the capital, except what arofe from the
nature of the country ; and thefe indeed were very con-
fiderable. Nothing, however, could damp the ardour
of the provincials. Notwithftanding it was now the
middle of November, and the depth of winter was America,
at hand, Colonel Arnold formed a defign of penetra- '“"TV
ting through woods, moraffes, and the moft frightful c(,i_Arnold
folitudes from New England to Canada by a nearer penetrates
way than that which Montgomery had chofen ; andint0 Cana*
this he accomplilhed in fpite of every difficulty, to the
aftonilhment of all who faw or heard of the attempt.
This defperate march, however, cannot be looked up¬
on as conducive to any good purpofe. A third part of
his men under another colonel had abandoned him by
the way, under pretence of want of provifions; the
total want ©f artillery rendered his prefence infignifi-
cant before a place ftrongly fortified ; and the fmallnefs
of his army rendered it even doubtful whether he could
have taken the town by furprife. The Canadians in¬
deed were amazed at the exploit, and their inclination
to revolt from Britain was fomewhat augmented ; but
none of them as yet took up arms in behalf of America.
The conllernation into which the town of Quebec was
throwm proved detrimental rather than otherwife to the
expedition; as it doubled the vigilance and aftivity of
the inhabitants to prevent any furprife; and the ap¬
pearance of common danger united all parties, who,
before the arrival of Arnold, were contending moft vio¬
lently with one another. He was therefore obliged to
content himfelf with blocking up the avenues to the
town, in order to diftrefs the garrifon for want of pro¬
vifions ; and even this he was unable to do elfedlually,
by reafon of the fmall number of his men.
The matter was not much mended by the arrival of
General Montgomery. The force he had with him,
even when united to that of Arnold, was too infignifi-
cant to attempt the reduction of a place fo ftrongly
fortified, efpecially with the affiftance only of a few
mortars and field-pieces. After the fiege had conti¬
nued through the month of December, General Mont¬
gomery, confcious that he could accomplilh his end no
other way than by* furprife, refolved to make an at- .A06,.
tempt on the laft day of the year 1775. The method °
he took at this time was perhaps the belt that humaa Quebec,
wifdom could devife. He advanced by break of day,
in the midll of an heavy fall of fnow, which covered
his men from the fight of the enemy. Two real at¬
tacks were made by himfelf and Colonel Arnold, at
the fame time that two feigned attacks were made on
two other places, thus to diftradt the garrifon, and
make them divide their forces. One of the real attacks
was made by the people of New York, and the other
by thofe of New England under Arnold. Their hopCs
of furprifing the place, however, were defeated by the
fignal for the attack being through fome miftake given
too foon. General Montgomery himfelf had the moll
dangerous place, being obliged to pafs between the ri¬
ver and fome high rocks on which the Upper Town
Hands ; fo that he was forced to make what hafte he
could to clofe with the enemy. His fate, however,
was now decided. Having forced the firft barrier, a 207
violent difeharge of mulketry and grape-lhot from the Gen.Mont-*
fecond killed him, his principal officers, and the moft
of the party he commanded; on which thofe who re- the Ameri-
mained immediately retreated. Colonel Arnold in the cans de¬
mean time*made a defperate attack on the Lowerfcate(h
Town, and carried one of the barriers after an obfti-
nate refiftance for an hour; but in the action he himfelf
4 E 2 received
A M E [588] A M E
■ received a wound, which obliged him to withdraw, of the gun-powder, and the inhabitants promifed to take America.:
The attack, however, was continued by the officers care of the magazine and public revenue. ' '
whom he had left, and another barrier forced : but the By this infurre£tion the governor was fo much inti- femjg
garrifon, now perceiving that nothing was to be fear- midated, that- he fent his family on board a man of his family
ed except from that quarter, collefted their whole war. He himfelf, however, iffued a proclamation, in aboard a
force againft it; and, after a defperate engagement of which he declared the behaviour of the perfon who pro- mailcf wai
three hours, overpowered the provincials, and obliged moted the tumult treafonable, accufed the people of
diffafeftion, &c. On their part they were by no .means
them to furrender.
In this aftion, it muft be confeffed that the valour deficient in recriminating ; and fome letters of his to
of the provincial troops could not be exceeded. They
had fought under as great difadvantages as thofe
which attended the Britifn at Bunker’s Hill, and had
behaved equally well. Such a terrible difafter left no
hope remaining of the accompliffiment of their purpofe,
as General Arnold could now fcarce number 800 ef-
fedlive men under his command. He did not, how¬
ever, abandon the province, 1
Britain being about the fame time difcovered, confe-
quences enfued extremely fimilar to thofe which had
been occafioned by thofe of Mr Hutchinfon at Bo-
fton.
In this ftate of confufion the governor thought it Fortifies hij
necefiary to fortify his palace with artillery, and pro- pA
a party of marines to guard it. Lord North’s
diftance than three miles from Quebec; and here he
ftill found means to annoy the garrifon very confider-
ably by intercepting their provifions. The Canadians,
notwithftanding the bad fuccefs of the American arms.
n remove to a greater conciliatory propofal arriving alfo about the fame time,
ao8
Arnold
created a
Brigadier-
General.
he ufed his utmoft; endeavours to caufe the people com¬
ply with it. The arguments he ufed were fuch as mull
do him honour; and had not matters already gone to
fuch a pitch of diftraftion, it is highly probable that His argu-!
ftill continued friendly ; and thus he was enabled to fome attention would have been paid to them. “ The ments for
fuftain the hardfhips of a winter encampment in that view (he faid) in which the colonies ought to behold L'a
this conciliatory propofal, was no more than an earneft ry pi^
admonition from Great Britain to relieve her wants :
that the utmoft condefcendence had been ufed in the
moft fevere climate. The congrefs, far from paffing
anycenfure on him for his misfortune, created him a
brigadier-general.
While hollilities were thus carried on with vigour in mode of application ; no determinate fum having been
209
Hifpufes of
Lord Dun-
more with
bisprovince
of Virginia.
the north, the flame of contention was gradually ex¬
tending itfelf in the fouth. Lord Dunmore, the go¬
vernor of Virginia, was involved in difputes fimilar to
thofe which had taken place in other colonies. Thefe
had proceeded fo far that the aflembly was diflTolved;
which in this province was attended with a confequence
unknown to the reft. ' As Virginia contained a great
number of flaves, it was neceflary that a militia fhould
be kept conftantly on foot to keep them in awe. Du¬
ring the diflblution of the aflembly the militia-laws ex-
fixed, as it was thought moft worthy of Britifli gene-
rofity to take what they thought could be convenient¬
ly fpared, and likewife to leave the mode of railing it
to themfelves,” &c. But the clamour and diflatisfac-
tion were now fo univerfal, that nothing elfe could bs
attended to. The governor had called an aflembly for
the purpofe of laying this conciliatory propofal before
them ; but it had been little attended to. The aflem¬
bly began their feffion by inquiries into the ftate of the
magazine. It had been broken into by fome of the
pired ; and the people, after complaining of the danger townfmen; for which reafon fpring-guns had been pla-
they were in from the negroes, formed a convention,
which enatted that each county Ihould raife a quota
ced there by the governor, which difcharged them¬
felves upon the offenders at their entrance : thefe < ’
for the defence of the province. Dunmore, on this, cumftances, with others of a fimilar kind, raifed fuch a
removed the powder from Williamfburg; which created
fuch difcontents, that an immediate quarrel would pro¬
bably have enfued, had not the merchants of the town
undertaken to obtain fatisfaftion for the injury fuppo-
fed to be done to the community. This tranquillity,
however, was foon interrupted ; the people, alarmed
by a report that an armed party were on their way
from the man- of war where the powder had been de-
violent uproar, that as foon as .the preliminary bufinefs The goveii
of the feffion was over, the governor retired on board a
man of war, informing the affembly that he durft no
longer truft himfelf on ftiore. This produced a long
courfe of deputation, which ended in a pofitive refufal
of the governor to truft himfelf again in Williamfburg,
even to give his affent to the bills, which could not be
paffed without it, and though the affembly offered to
pofited, alfembled in arms, and determined to oppofe bind themfelves for his perfonal fafety. In his turn
by force any farther removals. In fome of the confe- he requefted them to meet him on board the man of
rences which paffed at this time, the governor let fall war, where he then was ; but this propofal was rejeft-
ifome unguarded expreffions, fuch as threatening them ed, and all further correfpondence containing the leaft.
with fetting up the royal ftandard, proclaiming liber- appearance of friendfhip was difcontinued.
ty to the negroes, deftroying the town of Williamf¬
burg, &c. which were afterwards made public, and ex-
aggerated in fuch a manner as greatly to increafe the
public ferment.
Lord Dunmore, thus deprived of his government, Attempts
attempted to reduce by force thofe whom he could no to reduce
longer govern. Some of the moft ftrenuous adhe-t!le colony
rents to the Britiih caufe, whom their zeal had render-by force
The people now held frequent affemblies. Some of ed obnoxious at home,, now repaired to him. He was
them took up arms with a defign to force the governor alfo joined by numbers of black flaves. With thefe,
to reftore the powder, and to take the public money and the affiftance of the Britifli fliipping, he was for
into their own poffeffion : but on their Way to'Wil-
hamfburg for this purpofe, they were met by the re-
fome time enabled to carry on a kind of predatory war
fufficient to hurt and exafperate, but not to fubduc.
ceiver-generaJ, who became fecurity for. the payment After fome inconfiderable attempts on land, proclaim-
iPg:
I America, ing liberty to the Haves, and fetting up the royal ftan-
dard, he took up his refidence at Norfolk, a maritime
A M E
r 5S9 ]
A M E
Her vaft poffeflions of that tra& of land (fince known by America,
the name of the Thirteen United States') were now redu- v—J
town of fome confequence, where the people were bet- ced to the Angle town of Bofton ; in which her forces
Ikted.
ter affefted to Britain than in moft other places. A
confiderable force, however, was collefted againil him;
5 and the natural impetuofity of his temper prompting
j en_ him to act againft them with more courage than cau-
rely de- tjon>, he was entirely defeated, and obliged to retire to
his Hupping, which was now crowded by the number
of thofe who had incurred the refentment of the pro-
216 vincials.
IrConol- in the mean time a fcheme of the utmoft magnitude
l*p antoran(j {mportance was/ormed by one Mr Conally, a Pen-
[Jrginia. fylvanian of an intrepid and afpiring difpofition, and
attached to the caufe of Britain. The firil ftep of this
plan w'as to enter into a league with the Ohio Indians.
This he communicated to Lord Dunmore, and it re¬
ceived his approbation: Upon which Conolly fet
out, and actually fucceeded in his defign. On his
return he w'as difpatched to General Gage, from
whom he received a colonel’s commiffion, and fet out
in order to accomplifli the remainder of his fcheme.
The plan in general was, that he fhould return to the
Ohio, ‘where, by the affiftance of the Britifh and In-
dians in thefe parts, he was to penetrate through the
l Se is difeo back-fettlements into Virginia, and join Lord Dunmore
bred andat Alexandria. But by an accident very naturally to
liken pri- be expected, he was difeovered, taken prifoner, and
thrown into a dungeon.
After the retreat of Lord Dunmore from Norfolk,
that place was taken poffeffion of bfy the provincials,
who treated the loyalifts that had remained there with
great cruelty; at the fame time that they greatly di-
ftreffed thofe on board Lord Dunmore’s fleet, by refu-
^rueky of ^inS to Supply them with any neceffaries. Nor was
ihe Ameri this all; the vicinity of the Hupping was fo great as to
afford the riflemen an opportunity of aiming at the peo¬
ple on board, and exercifing the cruel occupation of
killing them, in which they did not fail every day to
employ themfelves. Thefe proceedings at lali drew a
remonffrance from his Lordfliip; in which he infilled
that the fleet fhould be furnilhed with neceffaries, and
that the foldiers (hould defill from the cruel diverfion
above-mentioned; but both thefe requells being denied,
IThe town a refolution was taken to fet fire to the town. After
uf Norfolk giving the inhabitants proper warning, a party landed,
idlroyed. under cover of a man of war, and fet fire to that part
which lay nearell the Ihore ; but the flames were ob-
ferved at the fame time to break forth-in every other
quarter, and the whole town was reduced to allies. This
univerfal deftru£tion, by which a lofs of more than
L. 300,000 was incurred, is faid to have been occafi-
oned by order of the congrefs itfelf, that the loyalilts
might find no refuge there for the future,
i ’'The^over- In the fouthern colonies of Carolina the governors
. jiflofg 0f were expelled and obliged to take refuge on board of
ii<South and men of war, as Lord Dunmore had been ; Mr Martin,
' jSNorth Ca- governor of North Carolina, on a charge of attempting
n:' PV' to raife the baqk-fettlers, eonfilling chiefly of Scots
Highlanders, againll the colony. Having fecured them-
(Tolina e:
belled.
were befieged by an enemy with whom they were ap¬
parently not able to cope, and by whom they mull of ur
courfe expe£l in a very fhort time to be expelled. The MifcraMe ’
fituation of the inhabitants of Bofton, indeed, was pe- [^“Ynhabi^
culiarly unhappy. After having failed in their at- taat.'s 0p ’
tempts to leave the town, general Gage had confented Bolton,
to allow them to retire with their effects ; but after¬
wards, for what reafon does not well appear, he refufed
to fulfil his promife. When he refigned his place to
general Howe in October 1775, the latter,, apprehen-
five that they might give intelligence of the fituation
of the Britiflr troops, ftridtly prohibited any perfon
from leaving tfie place under, pain of military execution.
Thus matters continued till the month of March 1776,
when the town was evacuated, ztli
On the 2d of that month, General Waftiington o- Bofton fe-
pened a battery on the weft fide of the town, from verely can-
whence it was bombarded with a heavy fire of cannon
at the fame time ; and three days after, it was attacked c;a[3-
by another battery from the eaftern fhore.. This terri¬
ble attack continued for 14 days without intermiffion ;.
when General Howe, finding the place no longer ter
nible, determined if poffible to drive the enemy from
their works. Preparations were therefore made for a
moft vigorous attack, on an hill called Dorcheder Neck,
which the Americans had fortified in fuch a manner
as would in all probability have rendered the enters
prize next to defperate. No difficulties, however, were
fufficient to daunt the fpirit of the general; and
every thing was in readinefs, when a fudden ftorm prer
vented this intended exertion of Britifti valour. Next
day, upon a more clofe infpe£lion of the works they
were to attack, it was thought advifable to defill from,
the enterprize altogether. The fortifications were very
ftrong, and extremely well provided with artillery; and
befides other implements of dellrudtion, upwards of
100 hoglheads of ftones were provided to roll down
upon the enemy as they came up ; which, as the afeent
was extremely lleep, mull have done prodigious execu-
tkm- . . . 233,
Nothing therefore now remained but to think of a The piace
retreat;, and even, this was. attended with the utmollevacuated,
difficulty and danger. The Americans, however, know¬
ing that it was in the power of the Britilh general to
reduce the town to allies, which could not have been
repaired in many years, did not think proper to give
the leaft moleftation ; and for the fpace of a fortnight
. the troops were employed in the evacuation, of .the
place, from whence they carried along with them 2000
of the inhabitants, who durft not Hay on account of
their attachment to the Britilh canfe. From Bofton
they failed to Halifax; but all their vigilance could
were expelled and obliged to take refuge on board of not prevent a number of valuable ftiips from falling into
the hands of the enemy. A confiderable quantity of
cannon and ammunition had alfo been left at Bunker’s,
Hill and Bofton Neck ; and in the town, an immenffi
variety of goods, principally woollen and linen, of which
felvesagainft any attempts from thefe enemies,, however, the provincials ftood very much in need.. The eftates
they proceeded to regulate their internal concerns in the
fame manner as the reft of the colonies; and by the end
of the year 1775, Britain beheld the whole of America
united againll her in the moll determined oppofition.
of thofe who fled to Halifax were confifcated; as
alfo thofe who were attached to government, and had
remained in the town. As an attack was expedted as
foo.n as the Britilh forces Hiould arrive, every method
was
A M E t 590 ] A M E
America. wa3 employed to render the fortifications, already very entirely captured by veffels fent up the
ftrong, impregnable. For this purpofe fome foreign
Its fortifi- engineers were employed, who had before arrived at
Bofton ; and fo eager were people -of all ranks to ac-
cations ^
flrengthen- complifh this bufinefs, that every able-bodied
e ' the place, without diftinftion of rank, fet apart two
days in the week, to complete it the fooner.
Congrefs The Americans, exafperated to the utmofi by the
declare the proceedings of parliament, now formally renounced all
States o conne&ion with Britain, and declared the'mfelves inde¬
pendent. This celebrated declaration was publifhed on
the 4th of July 1776. Previous to this a circular let¬
ter had been fent through each colohy, Hating the rea-
fons for it; and fuch was the animofity now every
where prevailing againft Great Britain, that it met
America
indepen¬
dent.
with univerfal approbation, except in the province of to their refpe&ive homes.
for that America, ^
purpofe. On this occafion the provincials fled with l——v—J
fuch precipitation that they could not be overtaken;
fo that none fell into the hands of the Britifh except- 129 j
ing the fickr and wounded. General Carleton now gave |
a fignal inftance of his humanity : Being well apprifed [ifl,genera}j
that many of the provincials had not been able to ac¬
company the reft in their retreat, and that they were
concealed in woods, &c. in a very deplorable fituation,
he generoufly iffued a proclamation, ordering proper
perfons to feek them out, and give them relief at the
public expence; at the fame time left, through fear
of being made prifoners, they Ihould refufe thefe offers
of humanity, he promifed that, as foon as their fitua¬
tion enabled them, they ftiould be at liberty to depart
Maryland alone. It was not long, however, before the
people of that colony, finding themfelves left in a very
dangerous minority, thought proper to accede to the
meafures of the reft. The manifefto itfelf was much
in the ufual ftyle, ftating a long lift of grievances, for
which redrefs had been often applied in vain ; and for
thefe reafons they determined on a final feparation ; to
hold the people of Britain as the reft of mankind, “ e-
•nemies in war, in peace friends.”
After thus publicly throwing off all allegiance and
hope of reconciliation, the colonifts foon found that an
exertion of all their ftrength was required in order to
fupport their pretenfions. Their arms, indeed, had
not, during this feafon, been attended with fuccefs in
Canada. Reinforcements had been promifed to Colonel
Arnold, who ftill continued the blockade of Quebec ;
aag but they did hot arrive in time to fecond his opera-
Thc fiege tions. Being fenfible, however, that he muft either
of Quebec defift from the enterprize, or finifti it fuccefsfully, he
nued°nt** recommenced in form; attempting to burn the flop¬
ping, and even to ftorm the town itfelf. They were
SjO
The Britifli general, now freed from any danger of He ; urfues
an attack, was foon enabled , to aft offenfively againft
the provincials, by the arrival of the forces deftined for
that purpofe from Britain. By thefe he was put at
the head of 12,000 regular troops, among whom were
thofe of Brunfwick. With this force he inftantly fet
out to the Three Rivers, where he expefted that Ar¬
nold would have made a ftand; but he had fled to So
rel, a place 150 miles diftant from Quebec, where he
was at laft met by the.reinforcements ordered by con¬
grefs. Here, thougtr the preceding events were by no
means calculated to infpire much military ardour, a
very daring enterprife was undertaken ; and this was,
to furprife the Britiih troops polled here under Gene¬
ral Frafer and Nelbit; of whom the former command¬
ed thofe on land, the latter fuch as were on board of
tranfports and were but a little way diftant. The en¬
terprife was undoubtedly very hazardous, both on ac¬
count of the ftrength of the parties againft whom they
were to aft, and as the main body of the Britiih for-
were advanced within 50 miles of the place ; befides
unfuccefsful, however, by reafon of the fmallnefs of that a number of armed veffels and tranfports v/ith
their number, though they fucceeded fo far as to burn
a number of houfes in the fuburbs; and the garrifon
were obliged to pull down the remainder, in order to
prevent the fire from fpreading.
As the provincials, though unable to reduce the
town, kept the garrifon in continual alarms, and in a
very difagreeable fituation', fome of the nobility col-
227 lefted themfelves into a body under the command of
Canadians one ]yfr Beaujeu, in order to relieve their capital: but
231
th^provin- t^e)r were met on the^r march by the provincials, and
■fiials;
fo entirely defeated, that they were never afterwards
able to attempt any thing. The Americans, however,
had but little reafon to plume themfelves on this fuc¬
cefs. Their want of artillery at laft convinced them,
that it was imprafticable in their fituation to reduce a
place fo ftrongly fortified: the fmall-pox at the fame
time made its appearance in their camp, and carried
off great numbers; intimidating the reft to fuch
a degree, that they deferted in crowds. To add
to their misfortunes, the Britifh reinforcements unex-
peftedly appeared, and the fhips made their way
through the ice with fuch celerity, that the one part
of their army was feparated from the other; and Ge-
Who are in neral Carleton fallying out as foon as the reinforcement
their turn was landed, obliged them to fly with the utmoft preci-
General by P'tation, leaving behind them all their cannon and mi-
Carleton, ^tary ftores; at the fame time that their fhipping was
troops lay between them and the Three Rivers. Two General
thoufand chofen men, however, under General Thom- Thomfoni
fon, engaged in this enterprife. Their fuccefs was taken
no means anfwerable to their fpirit and valour. Though p, if0ner'
they paffed the (hipping without being obferved, Ge- General
neral Frafer had notice of their landing; and thus be-Frafer.
ing prepared to receive them, they were foon thrown
into diforder, at the fame time that General Nefbit,
having landed his forces, prepared to attack them in
the rear. On this occafion fome field-pieces did pro¬
digious execution, and a retreat was found to be un¬
avoidable. General Nefbit, however, had got between
them and their boats; fo that they were obliged to
take a circuit through a deep fwamp, while they were
hotly purfued by both parties at the fame time, who
marched for fome miles on each fide of the fwamp, till
at laft the miferable provincials were flickered from
further danger by a wood at the end of the fwamp.
Their general, however, was taken, with 200 of his
228
By this difafter the provincials loft all hopes of ac- The pro-
complifhing any thing in Canada. They demolifhed vincials
their works, and carried off their artillery with the ut‘..g
moft expedition. They were purfued, however, by g0ync. ^
General Burgoyne; againft whom it was expefted that
they would have collefted all their foixe, and made a
refolute ftand. But they were now too much difpirit-
ed
nl America.
Jut efcaj'e
o Crown
’oint.
favour of
Britain.
A M E t 59i ] A M E
ed by misfortune, to make any further exertions of va- place, they expe&ed to have been joined by Governor America.
lour. On the 18th of June the Britifli general arrived Martin and General Clinton, who had lately arrived v r—*
at Fort St John’s, which he found abandoned and with a confiderable detachment. But Moore with
burnt. Chamblee had (hared the fame fate, as well as his army purfued them fo clofe, that they were obliged
all the veffels that were not capable of being dragged to attempt the paflage of the Creek itfelf, though a
up againft the current of the river. It was thought that; Confiderable body of the enemy, under the command
they would have made fome refiftance at Nut Ifiand, of Colonel Cofwell, with fortifications well planted
the entrance to Lake Champlain; b,ut this alfo they with cannon, was polled on the other fide. Onat-Theroy-
had abandoned, and retreated-acrofs the lake to Crown tempting the Creek, however, it was found not to be entire*
Point, whither they could not be immediately follow- fordable. They were obliged therefore to crofs over ^
ed. Thus was the province of Canada entirely eva- a wooden bridge, which the provincials had not time
cuated by the Americans; whofe lofs in their retreat to deltroy entirely. They had, however, by pulling
from Quebec was not calculated at lefs than 1000 men, up part of the planks, and greafing the remainder in
of whom 400 fell at once into the hands of the enemy order to render them fiippery, made the palfage fo dif¬
at a place called the Cedars, about 50 miles above Mon- ficult, that the royalifts could not attempt it. In this
treal. General Sullivan, however, who conduced this fituation they were, on the 27th of February, attacked
retreat after the affair of General Thomfon, was ac- by Moore with his fuperior army, and totally defeated
knowledged to have had great merit in what he did, with the lofs of their general and moll of their leaders,
and received the thanks of congrefs accordingly'. as well as the bell and braveft of their men. ,
This bad fuccefs in the north, however, was fome- Thus was the power of the provincials ellablifhed in Lord Dun-
what compenfated by what happened in the fouthern North Carolina. Nor were they lefs fuccefsful in the more final-
colonies.—We have formerly taken notice that Mr province of Virginia; where Lord Dunmore, having ty driven
Martin, governor of North Carolina, had been obliged long continued an ufelefs predatory war, was at lall ol.lt.of vil>
to leave his province and take refuge on board a man driven from every creek and road in the province. The21"13’
of w'ar. Notwithftanding this, he did not defpair of people he had on board were diftrelfed to the highelt
reducing it again to obedience. For this purpofe he degree by confinement in fmall velfels. The heat of
applied to the Regulators, a daring fet of banditti, who the feafon, and the numbers crowded together, pro-
lived in a kind of independent Hate ; and though con- duced a pellilential fever, which made great havock,
lidered by government as rebels, yet had never been efpecially among the blacks. At laft, finding them-
molelled, on account of their numbers and known Dull felves in the utmoll hazard of perilhing by famine as
in the ufe of fire-arms. To the chiefs of thefe people well as difeafe, they fet fire to the lealt valuable of
commifiions were fent, in order to raife fome regi- their veflels, referving only about 50 for themfelves,
ments ; and Colonel Macdonald, a brave and enterpri- in which they bid a final adieu to Virginia, fome fail-
fing officer, was appointed to command them. In the ing to Florida, fome to Bermuda, and the rell to the '
month of February he eredled the king’s llandard, if- Well Indies.
fued proclamations, &c. and colledled fome forces, ex- In South Carolina the provincials had a more for-Britifh ar-
peCting to be foon joined by a body of regular troops, midable enemy to deal with. A fquadron, whofe oh- mament
who were known to be (hipped from Britain to adl a- ject was the reduction of Charlellown, had been fitted *"cnt aKain£:
gainll the fouthern colonies. The Americans, fenfible out in December 1775 ; but by reafon of unfavourable
of their danger, difpatched immediately what forces weather did not reach Cape Fear in North Carolina
they had to adl againll the royalills, at the fame time till the month of May 1776 : and here it met with
that they diligently exci ted themfelves to fupport thefe further obllacles till the end of the month. Thus the
with fuitable reinforcements. Their prefent force Americans, always noted for their alertnefs in railing
was commanded by a General Moore, whofe numbers fortifications, had time to llrengthen thofe of Charles-
were inferior to Macdonald ; for which reafon the lat- town in fuch a manner as rendered it extremely diffi-
ter fummoned him to join the king’s llandard under cult to be attacked. The Britilh fquadron confilled
pain of being treated as a rebel. But Moore, being of two 50 gun (hips, four of 30 guns, two of 20, an
well provided with cannon, and confcious that nothing armed fchooner and bomb-ketch ; all under the com-
could be attempted againll him, returned the compli- mand of Sir Peter Parker. The land forces were
ment, by acquainting Colonel Macdonald, that if he commanded by Lord Cornwallis, with Generals Clin-
and his party would lay down their arms, and fubfcribe ton and Vaughan. As they had yet no intelligence of
an oath of fidelity to congrefs, they Ihould be treated the evacuation of Bolton, General Howe difpatched a
as friends ; but if they perfilted in an undertaking for velfel to Cape Fear with fome inftruftions; but it wa&
which it was evident they had not fufficient ftrength, too late; and in the beginning of June the fquadrom
they could not but expeft the feverell treatment. In anchored off Charlellown bar. Here they met with
a few days General Moore found himfelf at the head fome difficulty in croffing, being obliged to take out
of 8000 men, by reafon of the continual fupplies which the guns from the two large Ihips, which were, not-
daily arrived from all parts. The royal party amount- withftauding, feveral times in danger-of flicking fall.
ed only to 2000, and they were dellitute of artillery, The next obltacle was a llrongforton Sullivan’s illand,
which prevented them from attacking the enemy while fix miles call from Charlellown ; which, though not
they had the advantage of numbers. They were now completely finilhed, was very Itrong. However, the
therefore obliged to have recourfe to a defperate exer- Britilh generals refolved without hefitation to attack
tion of perfonal valour; by dint of which they effected it; but though an attack was eafy from the fea, it was
a retreat for 80 miles to Moore’s Creek, within 16 very difficult to obtain a co-operation of the land
miles of Wilmington. Could they have gained this forces. This was attempted by landing them oa
5 Long;
A M E [ S92 ] A M E
America. Long Ifland, adjacent to Sullivan’s ifland on the eaft, On the American fide the lofs was judged to have been America
'■ * from which it is feparated by a very narrow creek, faid very confiderable, as moft of their guns were difmount- v—-
not to be above two feet deep at low water. Oppofite ed, and reinforcements had poured into the fort during
to this ford the provincials had polled a ftrong body of the whole time of the aftion.
troops, with cannon and tritrendhments ; while Gene- This year alfo, the Americans, having fo frequently America!
ral Lee was polled on the main land, with a bridge of made trial of their valour by land, became defirous ofform a
boats betwixt that and Sullivanjs illand, fo that he trying it by fea alfo, and of forming a navy that might nav^‘
could at pleafure fend reinforcements to the troops in in fome meafure be able to protedl their trade, and do
, the fort on Sullivan’s illand. effential hurt to the enemy. In the beginning of
On the part of the Britilh, fo many delays occurred, March Commodore Hopkins was difpatched with five
that it was the 28th of June before matters were in
readinefs for an attack ; and by this time the provin¬
cials had abundantly provided for their reception. On
the morning of that day the bomb-ketch began to
throw Ihells into Fort Sullivan, and about mid-day the
two 50 gun lhips and 30'gun frigates came up and
frigates to the Bahama iflands, where he made himfelf
mailer of the ordnance and military {lores; but the
gunpowder, which had been the principal objett, was
removed. On his return he captured feveral vefiels ;
but was foiled in his attempt on the Glafgow frigate,
which found means to efcape notwithllanding the ef-
began a fevere fire. Three other frigates were ordered forts of his whole fquadron.
to take their ftation between Charlellown and the fort,
in order to enfilade the batteries, and cut off the com¬
munication with the main land ; but through the ig¬
norance of the pilots they all ftuck fall ; and though
two of them were difentangled, they were found to be
totally unfit for fervice: the third was burnt, that Ihe
might not fall into the hands of the enemy.
Tlie^fleet attac^ was therefore confined to the five armed
make a fu- Ihips and bomb-ketch, between whom and the fort a
riousattack. dreadful fire ehfued. The Briltol fuffered exceffively.
The fprings on her cable being {hot away, {he was for
fome time entirely expofed to the enemy’s fire. As
the enemy poured in great quantities of red-hot balls,
£ flie was twice in flames. The captain (Mr Morris)
after receiving five wounds, was obliged to go below
deck in order to have his arm amputated. After un¬
dergoing this operation he returned to his place, where
he received another wound, but Hill refufed to quit
his ftation : at lall he received a red-hot ball in his
Braver;- of
Captain
Morris.
The time, however, was now come when the forti¬
tude, and patience of the Americans were to undergo a
fevere trial. Hitherto they had been on the whole fuc-
Cefsful in their operations: but now they were doomed
to experience misfortune, mifery, and difgrace; the
enemy over-running their country, and their own ar¬
mies not able to face them in the field. The province
of New York, as being the -moll central colony, and
moll acceffible by fea, was pitched upon for the objedt *4Z
of the main attack. The force fent againll it confilted Armamen
of 6 Ihips of the line, 30 frigates, befides other armed
veffels, and a vaft number of tranfports. The fleet
was commanded by Lord Howe, and the land forces
by his brother General Howe, who was now at Hali¬
fax. The latter, however, a confiderable time before
his brother arrived, had fet fail from Halifax, and
lay before New York, but without attempting to
commence hollilities until he fliould be joined by his
brother. The Americans had, according to cultom,
belly, which inftantly put an end to his life. Of all fortified New York and the adjacent iflands in an
the officers and feamen who flood on the quarter-deck
of this vefiel, not one efcaped without a wound ex¬
cepting Sir Peter Parker alone ; whofe intrepidity ,and
prefence of mind on this- occafion was very remarkable.
The engagement lafted till darknefs put an end to it.
tifh repul- Little damage was done by the Britifh, as the works
of the enemy lay fo low that many of the Ihot flew
over ; and the fortifications, being compofed of palm-
trees mixed with earth, were extremely well calculated
to refill the impreffion of cannon. During the height
Tlie Bri-
extraordinary manner. However, General Howe was ^
fuffered to land his troops on Staten Ifland, where he General
was foon joined by a number of the inhabitants. A- Howehnc
bout the middle of July, Lord Howe arrived with the ?^^ate“
grand' armament; and being on* of the commiffioners
appointed to receive the fubmiffion of the colonifts, he
publifhed a circular letter to this purpofe to the feveral
governors who had lately been expelled from their pro¬
vinces, defiring them to make the extent of his com-
miffion, and the powers he was invefted with by par-
of the attack, the provincial batteries remained for liament, as public as poffible. Here, however, con-
fome time filent, fo that it was concluded that they
had been abandoned ; but this was found .to proceed
grefs faved him trouble, by ordering his letter and
declaration to be publifhed in all the newfpapers,
ily from want of powder ; for as foon as a fupply of that every one, as they faid, might fee the infidiouf-
this neceffary article was obtained, tire firing was re- nefs of the Britifh miniflry, and that they had nothing
fumed as brifk as before. During the whole of’ this to truft to befides the exertion of their own valour.
defperate engagement it was found impofiible for the
land-forces to give the leaft affiftance to the fleet. The
enemy’s wOrks were found to be much ftronger'than
they had been imagined, and the depth of water ef-
fefinally prevented them from making any attempt.
In this unfuccefsful attack the killed and wounded on
the part of the Britifli amounted to about 200. The
Lord Howe next fent a letter to General- Wafhing- General
ton ; but as it was directed “ To George Wafhington,
Efq;” the General refufed to accept of it, as not be-a jetter*
ing directed in the ftyle fuitable to his ftation. To from Lore)
obviate this objection, Adjutant-general Paterfon was Howe,
fent with another letter, directed “ To George Walh-
ington, &c. &c. &c.” But though a very polite re-
Brillol and Experiment were fo muqh damaged, that ception was given to the bearer, General Wafliington
s thought they could not have been got over the
bar ; however, this was at laft accomplifhed by a very
great exert'on of naval ft ill, to the furprne of the pro¬
vincials, .who had expe&ed to make them both prizes.
N° 15.
utterly refufed the letter; nor could any explanation
of the Adjutant induce him to accept of it. The only
interefting part of the converfation was that relating to
the powers of the commiffioners, of which Lord Howe
3 - was
A M E [593
AmeHe». was one. The adjutant told him, that thefe powers
were very extenfive ; that the commiflioners were de¬
termined to exert themfelves to the utmoft, in order to
bring about a reconciliation; and that he hoped the
general would confider this vifit as a ftep towards it.
General Wafhington replied, that it did not appear
that thefe powers confifted in any thing elfe than grant¬
ing pardons; and as America had committed no offence,
(he alked no forgivenefs, and was only defending her
jj 145 unqueftionable rights.
poftilities The decifion of every thing being now by confent
tommence. 0p parties left to the fword, no time was loft,
but hoftilities commenced as foon as the Britifh troops
could be colle6ted. This, however, was not done be¬
fore the month of Auguft,^ when they landed without
any oppofition on Long Ifland, oppofite to the ihore
of Staten Ifland. General Putnam, with a large body
■ j;tUjf;on 0f of troops, lay encamped and ftrongly fortified on a
Jie Britifli peninfula on the oppofite fliore, with a range of hills
between the armies, the principal pafs of which
]
A M E
nothing to do but take poffefllon of the camp and artil- America,
lery which they had abandoned. *
This viftory, though complete, was very far from Lor(i j|owe
being fo decifive as the conquerors imagined. Lordfe- 'samef-
Howe, fuppofing that it would be fufficient to intimi-fare to con-
date the congrefs into fome terms, fent general Sulli- Kre^si
van, who had been taken prifoner in the late aftion, to
congrefs, with a meffage, importing, that though he
could not confidently treat with them as a legal affem-
bly, yet he would be very glad to confer with any of
the members in their private capacity ; fetting forth at
the fame time the nature and extent of his powers as
commiflioner. But the congrefs were not as yet fuffi-
ciently humbled to derogate in the leaft from the dig¬
nity of charafter they had affumed. They replied, that
the congrefs of the free and independent ftates of Ame¬
rica could not confidently fend any of its members in
another capacity than that which they had publicly af- w^tej on
fumed ; but as they were extremely defirous of refto- {,y a corn-
ring peace to their country upon equitable conditions, mittee.
an armies near a place called FlaUluJh. Here the centre of the they would appoint a committee of their body to wait
Britifli army, confifting of Heffians, took poft; the
left wing, under General Grant, lying near the flrore ;
and the right, confifting of the greater part of the
Britifli forces, lay under Lord Percy, Cornwrallis, and
General Clinton. Putnam had ordered the pafl’es to
be fecured by large detachments, which was executed
as to thofe at hand ; but one of the utmoft importance.
upon him, and learn what propofals he had to make.
This produced a new conference. The committee
appointed by congrefs was compofed of Dr Franklin,
Mr Adams, and Mr Rutledge. They were very po¬
litely received by his Lordfliip; but the conference pro¬
ved as fruitlefs as before independency had been decla¬
red ; and the final anfwer of the deputies was, that
that lay at a diftance, was entirely negle&ed.. This they were extremely willing to enter into any treaty
gave an opportunity to a.large body of troops under
Lord Percy and Clinton to pafs the mountains and
attack the Americans in the rear, while they were en¬
with Great Britain that might conduce to the good of
both nations, but that they would not treat in any o-
ther character than that of independent ftates. This The confe-
gaged with the Hefiians in front. Through this piece pofitive declaration inftantly put an end to, all hopes of re”ce ter;
of negligence their defeat became inevitable. Thofe reconciliation ; and it was refolved to profecute the war
who were engaged with the Heffians firft perceived with the utmoft vigour. Lord Howe, after publifhing
their miftake, and began a retreat towards their a manifefto, in which he declared the refufal of c
Britifh troops, and thus regaining their camp. In this
attempt many periftied; and the right wing, engaged
fheAme- General Grant, fhared the fame fate. The victory
leans de- was complete; and the Americans loft on this fatal
camp ; but the paffage was intercepted by the Britifh
troops, who drove them back into the woods. Here
grefs, and that he himfelf was willing to confer with all
well difpofed perfons about the means of reftoring pu-
they were met by the Heffians ; and thus were they for blic tranquillity, fet about the moft proper methods for
many hours flaughtered between the two parties, no reducing the city of New York. Here the provincial
way of efcape remaining but by breaking through the troops were polled, and from a great number of batte¬
ries kept continually annoying the Britilh flopping.
The Ball River lay between them, of about 1200 yards
in breadth, which the Britilh troops were extremely
defirous of palling. At laft the Ihips having, after an
^ated with day (Auguft 27th) between 3000 and 4000 men, of inceffant cannonade of feveral days, filenced the moft
laughter.
whom 2000 were killed in the battle or purfuit. A- troublefome batteries, a body of troops was fent up
mong thefe a regiment, confifting of young gentlemen of the river to a bay, about three miles diftant, where the
fortune and family in Maryland, was almoft entirely cut
in pieces, and of the furvivors not one efcaped without
a wound.
The ardour of the Britifli troops was now fo great,
that they could fcarce be reftrained from attacking the
lines of the provincials 5 but for this there was now no
occafion, as it was certain they could not be defended.
fortifications were lefs ftrong than in other place
Here having driven off the provincials by the cannon
of the fleet, they marched direftly towards the city; ^
but the enemy finding that they Ihould now be attack- ab^oned
ed on all fides, abandoned the city, and retired to the by the pro¬
north of the ifland, where their principal force was col- vinciah.
lected. In their paffage thither they Ikirmilhed with
Of the Britifh only 61 were killed in this engagement, the Britifti, but carefully avoided a general engage-
and 257 wounded. Eleven hundred of the enemy,
among whom were three generals, were taken pri-
foners.
As none of the American commanders thought it
1 548 proper to rifle another attack, it was refolved to aban-
1»hey aban- (jon their camp as foon as poffible. Accordingly on
hnjfrinthe t^e night ^ 29^ °f Auguft, the whole of the con-
fght, tinental troops were fenried over with the utmoft fecre-
cy and filence ; fo that in the morning the Britifli had
Von. I. Part II.
ment; and it was obferved that they did not behave
with that ardour and impetuous valour which had hi¬
therto marked their character. 353
The Britifli and provincial armies were not now a- Situation of
bove two miles diftant from each other. The former thc Brnifh
lay encamped from fliore to ftiore for an extent of two^-”an
miles, being the breadth of the ifland, which though mjes>
15 miles long, exceeds not two in any part in breadth.
The provincials, who lay diredlly oppofite, had ftrength-
4 F ened
A M E
America, ened their camp with many fortifications ; at the fame
time, being mafters of all the pafles and defiles be¬
twixt the two camps, they were enabled to defend them-
felves againft an army much more numerous than their
own ; and they had alfo ftrongly fortified a pafs called
King's Bridge, whence they could fecure a paflage to
[ 594 3
A M E
and employ himfelf in reducing the forts which the America
provincials ftill retained in the neighbourhood of New »
York. In this he met with the moft complete fuccefs.
The Americans, on the approach of the king’s forces,
retreated from King’s Bridge into Fort Wafhington;
and this, as well as Fort Jfi.ee, which lay in the neigh-
the continent in cafe of any misfortune. Here general bourhood, was quickly reduced, though the garrifon 257
Wafhington, in order to inure the provincials to a&ual
fervice, and at the fame time to annoy the enemy as
much as poffible, employed his troops in continual
fkirmifhes; by which it was obferved that they foon
recovered their fpirits, and behaved with their ufual
boldnefs.
As the fituation of the two armies was now highly
inconvenient for the Britifh generals, it was refolved to
make fuch movements as might oblige general Wafh¬
ington to relinquifh his ftrong fituation. The poffef-
fion of New York had been lefs beneficial than was ex-
pe&ed. It had been concerted among the provincials,
that the city fhould be burnt at the time of evacuation;
but as they were forced to depart with precipitation,
they were prevented from putting thefcheme in execu-
New York tion. In a few days, however, it was attempted by
fet on fire fbme who had been left behind for that purpofe. Ta-
vhidal/,r0' k^nS advantage of a high wind and dry weather, the
town was fet on fire in feveral places at once, by means
of combuflibles properly placed for that purpofe ; and
notwithftanding the moft aftive exertions of the foldiery
and failors, a fourth part of the city was confumed.
On this occafion the Britifh were irritated to the
higheft degree; and many perfons, faid to be incen¬
diaries, were without mercy thrown into the flames.
It was determined to force the provincial army to a
greater diftance, that they might have it lefs in their
made their efcape. Thus the Jerfeys were laid en- The Jer- .
tirely open to the incurfions of the Britifh troops; and feysenurelfj
fo fully were thefe provinces taken pofleflion of by thetheBritiflk
Royal army, that its win ter-quarters extended from troops. ']
New Brunfwick to the river Delaware. Had any
number of boats been at hand, it is probable.that Phi¬
ladelphia would now have fallen into their hands. All
thefe, however, had been carefully removed by the A-
mericans. In lieu of this enterprife, Sir Henry Clin¬
ton undertook an expedition to Rhode-Ifland, and be- 253 I
came mafter of it without lofing a man. His expedition Rhode . j;
was alfo attended with this further advantage, that the lfland;
American fleet under commodore Hopkins was obliged116n’ |
to fail as far as poffible up the river Providence, and
thus remained entirely ufelefs.
The fame ill fuccefs continued to attend the Ame¬
ricans in other parts. After their expulfion from Ca¬
nada, they had croffed the lake Champlain, and taken
up their quarters at Crown Point, as we have already
mentioned. Here they remained for fome time in
fafety, as the Britifh had no veflels on the lake,
and confequently general Burgoyne could not purfue 25^ I
them. To remedy this deficiency, there was no poffible The Brit'fh!
method, but either to conftruCt veflels on the fpot, or convey vef-t
take to pieces fome veffels already conftru&ed, and drag iji^chaniJ
them up the river into, the lake. This, however, was plans,
effefted in no longer a fpace than three months ; and
power, by any emifTaries, to engage others in a fimilar the Britifh general, after incredible toil and difficulty^
General
Wafhing-
attempt. For this purpofe, general Howe havingleft Lord
Percy with fufficient force to garrifon New York, he em¬
barked his army in flat-bottomed boats, by which they
were conveyed thro’ the dangerous paffage called Hell-
ton obliged GWe, and landed near the town of Weft Chefter, lying
therfrorn °n cont‘ncnt towards Connefticut. Here having
New York receivecl a fupply of men and provifions, they moved
’ to New Rochelle, fituated on the found which feparates
Long Ifland from the continent. After this, receiving
ftill frefh reinforcements, they made fuch movements as
threatened to diftrefs the provincials very much, by
cutting off their convoys of provifions from Connecti¬
cut, and thus force them to an engagement. This,,
however, General Wafhington determined at all e-
vents to avoid. He therefore extended his forces in¬
to a long line oppofite to the way in which the enemy
marched, keeping the Bruna,. a river of confiderable
magnitude, between the two armies, with the North
River on his rear. Here again the provincials conti¬
nued for fome time to annoy and fkirmifh with the
. Royal army, until at laff, by fome other manoeuvres,
Fs defeated ^1C Britifli general found means to attack them advan-
at the tageoufly at a place called the White Plains, and drove
White them from fome of their pofts. The viitory on this
Blaiiis. occafion was much lefs complete than the former; how¬
ever it obliged the provincials once more to fhift their
ground, and to retreat farther up the country. General
Howe purfued for fome time; but at laft finding all his
endeavours vain to bring the Americans to a pitched
battle, he determined to give over fuch an ufelefs chace,
faw himfelf in poffeffion of a great number of veffels,
by which means he was enabled to purfue his enemies,
and invade them in his turn. The labour undergone
at this time by the fea and land forces muft indeed
have been prodigious ; fince there were conveyed over
land, and dragged up the rapids of St Laurence, no
fewer than 30 large long-boats, 400 batteaux, befides a
vaft number of flat-bottomed boats, and a gondola of
30 tons. The intent of the expedition was to pufli
forward before winter to Albany, where the army would
take up its winter-quarters, and next fpring effeft a
junction with that under general Howe, when it was
not doubted that the united force and /kill of thefe two
commanders would fpeedily put a termination to the
By reafon of the difficulties with which the equip¬
ment of this fleet had been, attended, it was the
beginning of O&ober before the expedition could be
undertaken. It was now, however, by every judge al¬
lowed to be completely able to anfwer the purpofe for
which it was intended. It confifted of one large vef-
fel with three malts, carrying 18 twelve-pounders; two
fchooners, the one carrying 14, the other 12 fix-poun¬
ders ; a large flat-bottomed radeau with 6 twenty-four
and 6 twelve-pounders; and a gondola with 8 nine-poun¬
ders. Beiides thefe were 20 veffels of a fmaller fize,
called gun-boats, carrying each a piece of brafs ordnance
from nine to 24 pounders, or howitzers. Several long¬
boats were fitted out in the fame manner; and befidea
all thefe, there was a vaft number of boats and tenders
of
?6o
iDcftroy
E the naval
force of
261
The Ame¬
ricans al-
moft en¬
tirely di-
i fperfed.
16a
peneral
pf.ee taken
prifoner.
263
•Continen-
1 tal army
J for 1777.
A M E f 595 3 A M E
of various fizes, to be ufed as tranfports for tne troops each foldier, befides an allotment of lands at the end America,
and baggage. It was manned by a number of fejefit of the war. In this allotment it was ftipulated, that ——
feamen, and the guns were to be ferved by a detach- each foldier fhould have 100 acres ; an enfign 150 ; a
merit from the corps of artillery ; the officers and fol- lieutenant 200; a captain 300 ; a major 400 ; a lieu-
diers appointed for this expedition were alfo chofen out tenant-colonel 450 ; and a colonel 500. No lands
of the whole army. were promifed to thofe who enlifted only for three
To oppofe this formidable armament the Americans years. All officers or foldiers difabled through wounds
had only a very inconfiderable force, commanded by received in the fervice were to enjoy half-pay during
general Arnold ; who, after engaging part of the Bri- life. To defray the expence, congrefs borrowed five
tiffi fleet for a whole day, took advantage of the dark- millions of dollars at five per cent. ; for payment of
nefs of the night to fet fail without being perceived, which the United States became furety. At the fame
and next morning was out of fight: but he was fo time, in order to animate the people to vigorous ex*
hotly purfued by the Britiffi, that on the fecond day ertions, a declaration was publifhed, in which they fet
after he was overtaken, and forced to a fecond engage- forth the neceffity there was for taking proper methods
ment. In this he behaved with great gallantry; but to infure fuccefs in their caufe : they endeavoured to
his force being very inferior to that of the enemy, he palliate as much as poffible the misfortunes which had
was obliged to run his fhips aftrore and fet them on fire, already happened; and reprefented the true caufe of the
A few only efcaped to lake George ; and the garrifon prefent diftrefs to be the ffiort term of enliftment.
of Crown Point having deftroyed or carried off every This declaration, together with the imminent dan-
thing of value, retired to Ticonderoga. Thither ge- ger of Philadelphia, determined the Americans to exert
neral Carleton intended to have purfued them ; but themfelves to the utmoft in order to reinforce general
the difficulties he had to encounter appeared fo many Waflrington’s army. They foon received farther en-
and fo great, that it was thought proper to march couragement, however, by an exploit of that general
back into Canada, and defiil from any further opera- againft the Heffians. As the Royal army extended in
tions till next fprihg. different cantonments for a great way, general Wafhing-
Thus the affairs of the Americans feemed every ton, perceiving the imminent danger to which Philadel-
where going to wreck: even thofe who had beeri moft phia was expofed, refolved to makefome attempt on thofe
fanguine in their caufe began to waver. The time, divifions of the enemy which lay neareft that city,
alfo, for which the foldiers had enlifted themfelves Thefe happened to be the Heffians, who lay in three
was now expired; and the bad fuccefs of the pre- divifions, the laft only 20 miles diftant from Philadel-
ceding campaign had been fo very difcouraging, that phia. On the 25th of December, having collected as
no perfon was willing to engage himfelf during the confiderable a force as he could, he fet out with an in¬
continuance of a war, of which the event feemed tent to furprife that body of the enemy who lay at
to 'be fo doubtful. In confequence of this, there- Trenton. His army was divided into three bodies ;
fore, General Waftungton found his army daily de- one of which he ordered to crofs the Delaware at Tren-
creafing in ftrength; fo that from 30,000, of whom ton Ferry, a little below the town ; the fecond at a
it confifted when general Howe landed on Staten Ifland, good diftance below, at a place called Bordentown,
fcarce a tenth-part could now be muftered. To affift where the fecond divifion of Heffians was placed; while
the chief commander as much as poffible, general Lee he bimfelf, with the third, directing his courfe to a
had colle&ed a body of forces in the north; but on his ferry fome miles above Trenton, intended to have paf-
way fouthward, having imprudently taken up his lodg- fed it at midnight, and attack the Heffians at break
ing at fome diftance from his troops, information was of day. But by reafon of various impediments, it was
given to colonel Harcourt, who happened at that time eight in the morning before he could reach the place of
to be in the neighbourhood, and Lee was made prifoner. his deftination. The enemy, however, did not perceive
The lofs of this general was much regretted, the more his approach till they were fuddenly attacked. Colonel
efpecially as he was of fuperior quality to any prifoner Ralle, who commanded them, did all that could be
in the poffeffion of the colonifts, and could not there- expected from a brave and experienced officer; but
fore be exchanged. Six field-officers were offered in every thing was in fuch confufio'n, that no efforts of
exchange for him and refufed ; and the congrefs was valour or fl<ill could now retrieve matters. The Colo-
highly irritated at its being reported that he was to be nel himfelf was mortally wounded, his troops were
treated as a deferter, having been a half-pay officer in entirely broken, their artillery feized, and about 1000
the Britifh fervice at the commencement of the war. taken prifoners.
In confequence of this they iffued a proclamation, This a&ion, though feemingly of no very decifive
threatening to retaliate on the prifoners in their poffef- nature, w'as fufficient at that time to turn the fortune
fion whatever punifliment fhould be inflifted on any of of war in favour of America. It tended greatly to
thofe taken by the Britifh, and efpecially that their leffen the fear which the provincials had of the Heffi-
conduft fhould be regulated by the treatment of gene- ans, at the fame time that ft equally abated the confi-
ral Lee. dence which the Britifh had till now put in them. Re¬
in the mean time they proceeded with the moft in- inforoements came into General Wafhington’s army
defatigable diligence to recruit their army, and bound from all quarters; fo that he was foon in a condition
their foldiers to ferve for a term of three years, or du- to leave Philadelphia, and take up his quarters at Tren- Ano*)£raN,
ring the continuance of the war. The army defigned ton. Emboldened by his fuccefs, he determined to make tempt on '
for the enfuing campaign, waste confift of 88 batta- an attempt on a divifion of the Britifh forces ftationed three Bp-
lions ; of which each province was to contribute its at Maidenhead, a town fituated half way between Tren- dfh regi.
quota ; and 20 dollars were offered as a bounty to ton and Princetown. This confifted of three regiments ments»
3 F 2 under
A M E [ 596 ]
A M E
America; under the command of Colonel Mawhood, an officer
of great merit. The troops were furprifed on their
But they march ; but though they were feparately futrounded
make good and attacked by a force fo vaftly fuperior, they charged
their re- the enemy fo refolutely with their bayonets, that they
treat. effe&ed a retreat. Thefe attempts of the Americans,
however, with the hoftile difpofition of the people,
fbowed the impoffibility of maintaining pofts fo far
advanced in the enemy’s country; fo that it was refol-
ved to retreat towards Brunfwick, in order to prevent it,
with the troops and magazines it contained, from fall¬
ing into the hands of the provincials. General Wafh-
ington loft no opportunity of recovering what had been
loft ; and by dividing his army into fmall parties, which
could be reunited on a few hours warning, he in a
manner entirely covered the country with it, and repof-
fefled himfelf of all the important places.
Thus ended the campaign of 1776, with fcarce
any real advantage other than the acquifition of the
city of New York, and of a few fortrefles in its neigh¬
bourhood t where the troops were conftrained to a£t
with as much circumfpeftion as if they had been be-
fieged by a victorious army, inftead of being themfelves
7,66 the conquerors.
Sxcurfiom The army at New York began in 1777 to exercife
of the Bn- a k;nc] 0f predatory war, by fending out parties to de-
tifli from „ • 1 ■ 1 r jr
JNew York ftroy magazines, make mcurhons, and take or deitroy
fuch forts as lay on the banks of rivers, to which their
great command of (hipping gave them accefs. In this
they were generally fuccefsful: the provincial maga¬
zines at Peek’s Hill, a place of about 50 miles diftant
from New York, were deftroyed, the town of Dun-
bury in Connecticut burnt, and that of Ridgefield in
the fame province was taken poffeffion of. In returning
from the laft expedition, however, the Britilh were
greatly harafled by the enemy under Generals Arnold,
Woofter, and Sullivan ; but they made good their re¬
treat in fpite of all oppofition, with the lofsof only 170
killed and wounded. On the American fide the lots
was much greater ; General Woofter was killed, and
Arnold in the moft imminent danger. On the other
hand, the Americans deftroyed the (lores at Sagg-har-
bour, in Long-Ifland, and made prifoners of all who
defended the place.
As this method of making war, however, could an-
fwer but little purpofe, and favoured more of the bar¬
barous incurfions of lavages than of a war carried on by
a civilized people, it was refolved to make an attempt
on Philadelphia. At firft it was thought that this
could be done through the Jerfeys; but General Walh-
ington had received fuch large reinforcements, and
polled himfelf fo ftrongly, that it was found to be im¬
practicable. Many ftratagems were ufed to draw him
from this ftrong fituation, but without fuccefs ; fo that
it was found neceffary to make the attempt on Phila¬
delphia by fea. While the preparations neceffary for
this expedition were going forward, the American's
General found means to make amends for the capture of Gene-
Prefcot ta- ral Lee by that of General Prefcot, who was feized in
ken pn- fiis quarters with his aid de camp, in much the lame
manner as General Lee had been. This was exceed¬
ingly mortifying to the General himfelf, as he had not
long before fet a price upon General Arnold, by of¬
fering a fum of money to any one that apprehended
him; which the latter anfwered by fetting a lower America,
price upon General Prefcot.  '
The month of July was far advanced before the pre¬
parations for the expedition againft Philadelphia were agg
completed; and it was the 23d before the fleet was The fleet
able to fail from Sandy Hook. The force employed fails for
in this expedition confifted of 36 battalions of Britilh BMadel-
and Heflians, a regiment of light horfe, and a body offhia*
loyalifts raifed at New York. The remainder of thefe,
with 17 battalions, and another body of light horfe,
were .ftationed at New York under Sir Henry Clinton.
Seven battalions were ftationed at Rhode Illand. Af¬
ter a week’s failing they arrived at the mouth of the
Delaware; but there received certain intelligence,
that the navigation of the river was fo effedually ob-
ItruCted, that no poffibility of forcing a paffage remain¬
ed. Upon this it was refolved to proceed further fouth-
ward to Chefapeak Bay in Maryland, from whence the
diftance to Philadelphia was not very great, and where
the provincial army would find lei's advantage from
the nature of the country than in the Jerfeys.
The navigation from Delaware to Chefapeak took
up the bed part of the month of Auguft, and that up
the bay itfelf was extremely difficult and tedious. At ■
lad, having failed up the river Elk, as far as was prac- The army
ticable, the troops were landed without oppofition, and tauds at ,
fet forward on their intended expedition. On the ^ j T
news of their arrival in Chefapeak, General Waftiing-
ton left the Jerfeys, and haftened to the relief of Phi¬
ladelphia ; and in the beginning of September met the
royal army at Brandy-wine Creek about mid-day, be¬
tween the head of the Elk and Philadelphia. Here
he adhered to his former method of (kirmiffiing and ha-
raffing the royal army on its march ; but as this pro¬
ved infufficient to flop its progrefs, he retired to that
fide of the Creek next to Philadelphia, with an intent
to difpute the paffage. This brought .on a general en- American*
gagement on the nth September, in which the Ameri-defeated,
cans were worded through the fuperior difeiphne of
the Britifli troops ; and it was only through the ap¬
proach of night that they were faved from being en¬
tirely deftroyed. On this occafion the provincials loft
about 1000 in killed and wounded, befides 400 taken
prifoners.
The lofs of this battle proved alfo the lofs of Phi¬
ladelphia. General Waftiington retired towards Lan-
cafter, an inland town, at a confiderable diltance from
Philadelphia. Here, however, the Bntiih general took
fuch meafures as muft have forced the provincials to a
fecond engagement; but a violent rain which lafted a day
and a night prevented his defign. General Wafliington,
though he could not prevent the lofs oi Philadelphia, ilill
adhered to his original plan of diftreffing the royal party,
by laying ambulhes and cutting off detached parties : An  
but in this he was lefs fuccelsful than formerly ; and one can fletaci
of his own detachments which lay in ambufh in a wood ment fur_
were themfelves furprifed and entirely defeated, with
the lofs of 300 killed and wounded, befides a great with g-ea
number taken, and all their arms and baggage. flaughter.
General Howe now perceiving that the Americans
would not venture another battle even for the lake of General |
their capital, took peaceable poffeffion of it on theHowetak
26th of September. His firft care was then to cutPoffefilon
off, by means of ftrong batteries, the communication
be-
A M E
America, between the upper and lower parts of the river; which
was executed notwithftanding the oppofition of fome
American armed veflels; one of which, carrying 36
guns, was taken. His next talk was to open a com¬
munication with it by fea ; and this was a work of
no fmall difficulty. A vaft number of batteries and
forts had been ere&ed, and immenfe machines formed
like ckevaux de frize, from whence they took their
name, funk in the river to prevent its navigation. As
the fleet was fent round to the mouth of the river in
order to co-operate with the army, this work, how¬
ever difficult, was accomplilhed; nor did the provin¬
cials give much oppofition, as well knowing that all
places of this kind were now untenable. General
Walhington, however, took the advantage of the royal
Royal army army being divided to attack the camp of the princi-
attacked at pal divifion of it that lay at German-town in the neigh-
townian" bourhood of Philadelphia. In this he met with very •
little fuccefs; for though he reached the place of defti-
nation by three o’clock in the morning, the patroles
had time to call the troops to arms. The Americans,
notwithftanding, made a very refolute attack: but they
1 were received with fuch bravery, that they were com-
The Ame Pe^ed to abandon the attempt, and retreat in great
[ 597 1
AME
north, however, matters wore a different afpeft. The America,
expedition in that quarter had been projected by the
Britilh miniftry as the moft efFeftual method that could
be taken to crufli the colonies at once. The four pro- projected a-
vinces of New England had originally begun the con- gain ft New
federacy againft Britain, and were ftill confidered as England,
the moft active in the continuation of it; and it was
thought, that any impreffion made upon them would
contribute in an effectual manner to the reduction of
all the reft. For this purpofe, an army of 4000 cho-
fen Britifh troops and 3000 Germans were put under
the command of General Burgoyne; General Carleton
was dire&ed to ufe his intereft with the Indians to per-
fuade them to join in this expedition ; and the province
of Quebec was to furnilh large parties to join in the
fame. The officers who commanded tinder General
Burgoyne were General Philips of the artillery, Gene¬
rals Frafer, Powell,, and Hamilton, with the German
officers Generals Reidefel and Speecht. The foldiers,
as lias already been obferved, were all excellently dif-
ciplined, and had been kept in their winter-quarters
with all imaginable care, in order to prepare them for
the expedition on which they were going. To aid
the principal expedition, another was proje&ed on the
diforder; with the advantage, however, of carrying off Mohawk River under Colonel St Eeger, who was
their cannon, though purfued for a confiderable way,
after having 300 killed, 600 \younded, and upwards
of 400 taken prifoners, among whom were 54 officers.
On the Britifti fide, the lofs amounted to 43 . wounded
to be affifted by Sir John Johnfon, fon to the famous
Sir William Johnfon who had fo greatly diftinguiftied
himfelf in the war of 1755. 278'
On the 2iff of June 1777, the army encamped on General
and prifoners, and 70 killed ; but among the laftwere the weftern fide of the Lake Champlain ; where being
General Agnew and Colonel Bird, with fome other joined by a confiderable body of Indians, General Bur-
excellent officers. goyne made a fpeech, in which he exhorted thefe new
There ftill remained two ftrong forts on the Dela- allies to lay afide their ferocious and barbarous manner
ware to be reduced. Thefe were Mud Ifland and Red of making war; to kill only fuch as oppofed them in
arms; and to fpare prifoners, with fuch women and
children as ftiould fall into their hands. After iffuing
a proclamation, in which the force of Britain and that
which he commanded was let forth in very oftentatious
terms, the campaign opened with the fiege of Ticon-
deroga. The place was very ftrong, and garrifoned Ticandero-
by 6000 men Under General Sinclair; neverthelefs, the ga befieged
works were fo extenfive,. that even this number wasanii takeE>-
fcarce fufficient to defend them properly. They had
therefore omitted to fortify a rugged eminence called
Sugar Hill,, the top of which overlooked and effe&ual-
Bank. - The various obftrudtions which the Ameri¬
cans had thrown in the way rendered it neceffary to
bring up the Augufta, a (hip of the line, and the
Merlin frigate, to the attack of Mud Ifland; but du¬
ring the heat of aft ion both were grounded. Upon
this, the Americans fent down four fire-lhips, and
direfted the whole fire from their galleys againft them.
The former were rendered ineffeftual by the courage
and Hull of the Britilh feamen; but during the en-
Thea&itifligaSement the Augufta and Merlin took fire and
{hips of warwere burnt to alhes, and the other Ihips obliged to
burnt. withdraw. The enemy, encouraged by this unfuccefs- ly commanded the whole works; vainly imagining that
ful attempt, proceeded to throw new obllructions in the difficulty of the afcent would be fufficient to pre-
the way ; but the Britilh general having found means vent the enemy from taking poffeffion of it. On the
276
All the
forts near
Philadel-
to convey a number of cannon and to eredt batteries
within a gunlhot of the fort by land, and bringing up
three Ihips of the line which mounted heavy cannon,
the garrifon, after making a vigorous defence for one
day, perceiving that preparations were making for a
general alfault on the next, abandoned the place in the
approach of the firft divifion of the army, the provin¬
cials abandoned and fet fire to their outworks; and fo
expeditious were the Britilh troops, that by the 5th
of July every poll was fecured which was judged ne-
ceffary for invefting it completely. A road was foon
after made to the very fummit of that eminence which
ight. Thofe who defended Red Bank followed their the Americans had with fuch confidence fuppofed could
example, and abandoned it on the approach of Lord not be afcended; and fo much were they now dilheart-
Cornr, allis. A _reat number of the American Ihipping ened, that they inftantly abandoned the fort entirely,
now finding themfelves entirely deftitute of any protec- taking the road to Skenelborough, a place to the fouth
tion,. failed up the river in the night-time. Seven- of Lake George; while their baggage, with what ar-
teen, however, remained, whofe retreat was intercept- tillery and military ftonre they could carry off,, were
ed by a frigate and fome armed veffels ; on which the fent to the fame place by water. But the Britilh ge-
Amtricans ran them alhore and burnt them, to pre- nerals were determined not to let them pafs fo eafily.
*ent their falling into the enemy’s hands. Both were purfued and both overtaken. Their armed Americans-
Thus the campaign of 1777 in Penfylvania conclu- veffels confifted only of five galleys; two of which were defeated by
ded fuccefsfully on the part of the Britilh. In the taken, and three blown up ; on which they fet fire toland
their water’
A M E C 598 ] A M E
America, their boats and fortifications at Skcnefborough. On nel, in the mean time, had advanced as far as Fort America;
v ' this occafion the provincials loft 200 boats, 130 pieces Stanwix ; the fiege of which he preffed with great vi- £ " *
of cannon, with dll their provifions and baggage, gour. On the 6th of Auguft, underftanding that a por(. goin.
Their land-forces under Colonel Francis made a brave fupply of provifions, efcorted by 800 or 900 men, was wixbeiieg-
defence againft General Frafer ; and being greatly on the way to the fort, he difpatched Sir John Johnfon ed.
fuperior in number, had almoft overpowered him, when with a ftrong detachment to intercept it. This he A
General Reidefer with a large body of Germans came did fo effeftually, that, befides intercepting the pro- ment 0£
to his afliftance. The enemy were now overpowered vifions, 400 of its guard were flain, 200 taken, andmerieans
in their turn ; and their commander being killed, they the reft efcaped with great difficulty. The garrifon., cut in
fled on all fides with great precipitation. In this ac- however, were not to be intimidated by this difafter, Piecee*
tion 200 Americans were killed, as many taken pri- nor by the threats or reprefentations of the Colonel:
foners, and above 600 wounded, many of whom pe- on the contrary, they made feveral fuccefsful fallies
riffied in the woods for want of affiftance. under Colonel Willet, the fecond in command; and
During the engagement General Sinclair was at this gentleman, in company with another, even ven-
Caftleton, about fix miles from the place; but inftead tured out of the fort, and, eluding the vigilance of
of going forward to Fort Anne, the next place of the enemy, palled through them in order to halten the
ftrength, he repaired to the woods which lie between march of General Arnold to their affiftance. agg 1
that fortrefs and New England. General Burgoyne, Thus the affairs of Colonel St Leger feemed to be The In- 1
however, detached Colonel Hill with the ninth regi- in no veiy favourable fituation notwithftanding his late diansdefertl
381 ment, in order to intercept fuch as ftiould attempt to fuccefs, and they were foon totally ruined by the defer- f°rce *
iPm dc6 Tetreat towards Fort Anne. On his way he met with tion of the Indians. They had been alarmed by the re- to raifeThe
- feated, and a body of the enemy, faid to be fix times as numerous port of General Arnold’s advancing with 2000 men to flege.
abandon as his own ; but after an engagement of three hours, the relief of the fort; and while the Colonel was attempt-
i Fort Anne, they were obliged to retire with great lofs. After fo ting to give them encouragement, another report was
many difafters, defpairing of being able to make any fpread, that General Burgoyne had been defeated with
*ftand at Fort Anne, they fet fire to it and retired to great (laughter, and was now flying before the pro-
Fort Edward. In all thefe engagements the lofs of vincials. On this he was obliged to do as they thought
killed and wounded in the royal army did not exceed proper; and the retreat could not be effe&ed without
200 men. the lofs of the tents and fome of the artillery and mili-
General Burgoyne was now obliged to fufpend his tary ftores. „
'Burgoyne 0Perati°ns fGr fome time, and wait at Skenelborough General Burgoyne, in the mean time, notwithftand-Genei.^j
makes his f°r the arrival of his tents, provifions, &c. but employ- ing all the difficulties he had already fuftained, found that Burgoyre
way to Fort ed this interval in making roads through the country he muft ftill encounter more. The roads he had made dub effed
Edward about St Anne, and in clearing a paffage for his troops with fo much labour and pains were deftroyed either by
to nroceed aoainft the enemv. This was attended the wetnefs of the feafon or hv the enemv : fo that the r ^
t to proceed againft the enemy. This was attended the wetnefs of the feafon or by the enemy ; fo that the
with incredible toil; but allobftacles were furmounted provifions he brought from Fort George could not ar-
with equal patience and refolution by the army. In rive at his camp without the moft prodigious toil. On
fhort, after undergoing the utmoft difficulty that could hearing of the fiege of Fort Stanwix by Colonel St
be undergone, and making every exertion that man Leger, he determined to move forward, in hopes of
could make, he arrived with his army before Fort Ed- inclofing the enemy betwixt his own army and that of
ward about the end of July. Here General Schuyler St Leger, or of obtaining the command of all the
had been for fome time endeavouring to recruit the country between Fort Stanwix and Albany; or at any
Shattered American forces, and had been joined by rate, a junction with Colonel St Leger would be ef-
General Sinclair with the remains of his army; the fefted, which could not but be attended with the moft
garrifon of Fort George alfo, fituated on the lake of happy confequences. The only difficulty was the want
that name, had evacuated the place and retired to Fort of provifions ; and this it was propofed to remedy by 2gg
Edward. reducing the provincial magazines at Bennington. Makes an
ceffes of the Britifh general, they (howed not the leaft and to fupport Colonel Baum’s party, the whole army Benning-
difpofition to fubmit, but feemed only to confider marched up the river’s bank, and encamped almoft ton.
how they might make the moft effeftual refiftance. oppofite to Saratoga, with the river betwixt it and
For this purpofe, the militia was every where raifed that place. An advanced party was polled at Batten
and draughted to join the army at Saratoga ; and fuch Kill, between the camp and Bennington, in order to
numbers of volunteers were daily added, that they foon fupport Colonel Baum. In their way the Britilh
began to recover from the terror into which they had feized a large fupply of cattle and provifions, which
been thrown. That they might have a commander whofe were immediately fent to the camp ; but the badnefs
abilities could be relied on, General Arnold was appoint- of the roads retarded their march fo much, that intel-
ed, who repaired to Saratoga with a confiderable train ligence of their defign was fent to Bennington. Un-
of artillery ; but receiving intelligence that Colonel St derftanding now that the American force was greatly
Leger was proceeding with great rapidity in his expe- fuperior to his own, the Colonel acquainted the Gene-
dition on the Mohawk River, he removed to Still-water, ral, who immediately difpatched Colonel Breyman with
a place about half-way between Saratoga and the June- a party to his affiftance; but through the fame caufes
■ tion of the Mohawk and.Hudfon’s River. The Colo- that had retarded the inarch of Colonel Baum, this
5 affift-'
A M E [ 599 ] A M E
America, afliftance could not arrive in time. General Starke, in
^ i the mean time, who commanded at Bennington, de-
Colonel termined to attack the two parties feparately ; and for
I Baum ut- this purpofe advanced againft Colonel Baum, whom he
kerly de- furrounded on all fides and attacked with the utmoft
taken ^ ,*°^ence' The troops defended themfch/es with great
Toner.^ valour, but were to a man either killed or taken. Co-
lonel Breyman, after a defperate engagement, had the
i 290 good luck to effeft a retreat through the darknefs of
Colonel night, which otherwife he could not have done, as
defeated, ^is men had expended all their ammunition, being 40
rounds to each.
General Burgoyne, thus difappointed in his attempt
on Bennington, applied himfelf with indefatigable dili¬
gence to procure provifions from Fort George ; and ha¬
ving at length amafled a fufficient quantity to laft for a
month, he threw a bridge of boats over the river Hud-
fon, which he crofled about the middle of September,
encamping on the hills and plains near Saratoga. As
foon as he approached the provincial army, at this
time encamped at Stillwater under General Gates, he
determined to make an attack; for which purpofe he
rheAme- Put himfelf at the head of the central divifion of his
deans at- army, having General Frafer and Colonel Breyman on
■.ack the the right, with Generals JR.eidefel and Philips on the
c itoyal jejpt> jn potion he advanced towards the enemy
my’ on the 19th of September. But the Americans did not
now' wait to be attacked: on the contrary, they at¬
tacked the central divifion with the utmoft violence ;
[ 29* and it was not until General Philips with the artillery
• are came up that they could be repulfed. On this occa-
(Jifficu1tyat h°n> though the Britilh troops loft only 330 in killed
' gulfed, and wounded, and the enemy no fewer than 1500, the
former were very much alarmed at the obftinate refo-
lution fhown by the Americans. This did not, how¬
ever, prevent them from advancing towards the enemy,
and polling themfelves the next day wuthin cannon-
; 293 ftiot of* their lines. But their allies the Indians began
The Indians to defert in great numbers; and at the fame time the
Sefert. general was in the higheft degree mortified by having
no intelligence of any afliftance from Sir Henry Clin-
'A letter ton> as had been ftipulated. He now received a letter
from Sir from him, by which he was informed that Sir Henry
Henry intended to make a diverfion on the North River in
with Ge his favour. This afforded but little comfort: how-
neral Bur- ever> he returned an anfwer by feveral trufty perfons
^oyne’s an- whom he difpatched different w'ays. Hating his prefent
1 wer. diftreffed fituation, and mentioning that the provifions
and other neceffaries he had would only enable him to
|; hold out till the 1 2th of October.
| lupedition In the mean time the Americans, in order to cut
of the pro-off the retreat of the Britilh army in the moll effeftual
ivincials a- manner,, undertook an expedition againft Ticonderoga;
jfcainft Ti- byt were obliged to abandon the enterprife after ha-
f60 ro£a‘ ving fnrprifed all the out-pcfts,.and taken a great num¬
ber of boats with fome armed veffels, and a number of
prifoners. The army under general Burgoyne, how¬
ever,, continued to labour under the greateft diftreffes ;
fo that in the beginning of Odlober he had been obli¬
ged to ditfiinilh the foldiers allowance. On the 7th of
h that month he determined to move towards the enemy.
For this purpofe he fent a body of 1500 men to re¬
connoitre their left wing ; intending, if poflible, to
break through it in order to effedl a retreat. The
detachment, however, had not proceeded far when a
dreadful attack was made upon the left wing of the America.
Britilh army, which was with great difficulty preferred
from being entirely broken by a reinforcement brought They^make
up by general Frafer, who was killed in the attack. a defperate
After the troops had with the molt defperate efforts attack on
regained their camp, it was moll furioufly affaulted bythc royal
general Arnold ; who, notwithftanding all oppofition,arm^'
would have forced the entrenchments, had he not re- Kill Gene-
ceived a dangerous wound, which obliged him to re- ral Frafer,
tire. Thus the attack failed on the left, but on the aSj8
right the camp of the German referve was forced, the Ger-^
Colonel Breyman killed, and his countrymen defeated mans with
with great flaughter and the lofs of all their artillery great
and baggage. daughter.
This was by far the heavieft lofs the Britilh army
had fuftained fince the atlion at Bunker’s Hill. The The^roya!
lift of killed and wounded amounted to near 1200, ex- army in
clufive of the Germans; but the greateft misfortune danger of
was, that the enemy had now an opening on the right
and rear of the Britilh forces, fo that the army was roU"0Q'
threatened with entire deftruclion. This obliged Attempt s
General Burgoyne once more to Ihift his pofition, that retreat
the enemy might alfo be obliged to alter theirs. This'?'l£h°ue
was accompli (lied on the night of the 7th, without any ucce *
lofs, and all the next day he continued to offer the e-
nemy battle ; but they were now too well affured of
obtaining a complete victory, by cutting off all fupplies
from the Britilh, to rifle a pitched battle. Wherefore
they advanced on the right fide, in order to inclofe him
entirely; which obliged the General to direft a retreat
towards Saratoga. But the enemy had now ftationed
a great force on the ford at Hudfon’s river, fo that
the only poflibility of retreat was by fecuring a paflhge
to Lake George; and to effedl this, a body of work¬
men were detached, with a ffrong guard, .to repair the
roads and bridges that led to Fort Edward. As foon
as they were gone, however, the enemy feemed to
prepare for an attack ; which rendered it neceffary to
recal the guard, and the workmen being of courfe left
expofed could not proceed.
In the mean time, the boats which conveyed provi¬
fions down Hudfon’s river were expofed to the conti¬
nual fire of the American markfmen, who - took many
of them; fo that it became neceffary to convey the
provifions over land. In this extreme danger, it was
refolved to march by night to Fort Edward, forcing
the paffages at the fords either above or below the
place ; and in order to effect this the more eafily, it
was refolved that the foldiers Ihould carry their provi¬
fions on their backs, leaving behind their baggage and
every other incumbrance. But before this could be
executed, intelligence was received that the enemy had
railed ftrong entrenchments oppofite to thefe fords,
well provided with cannon, and that they had likewife
taken poffelfion of the riling ground between Fort
George and Fort Edward,- which in like manner was
provided with cannon.-
All this time the American^army} wa*-increafing' ky-DIftrefiga7
the continual arrival of militia and volunteers from all fituation of'
parts. Their parties extended all along the oppofite the royal ■
bank of Hudfon’s River, and fome had even paffed itarmI*
in order to obferve the leaft movement of the Britilh
army. The whole force under General Gates was com¬
puted at 16,000 men, while the army under General
Burgoyne fcarce amounted to 6000; and every part of
th^
A M E [
. America, the camp was reached by the grape and ritfe-ihot of the
 v ' enemy, belides a difcharge from their artillery, which
was almoft inceffant. In this ftate of extreme diftrefs
and danger, the army continued with the greateft con-
ftancy and perfeverance till the evening of the 13th of
October, when an inventory of provisions being taken,
it was found that no more remained than what were
30a fufficient to ferve for three days ; and a council of war
It is obliged being called, it was unanimoully determined that there
to capita- was no method now remaining but to treat with the e-
llte‘ nemy. In confequence of this, a negociation was o-
pened next day, which fpeedily terminated in a capi¬
tulation of the whole Britifh army; the principal ar¬
ticle of which was, that the troops were to have a free
600 ] A M E
made in the mean time by the Britifh miniftry. On Atneric*.
the 6th of February 1778, the articles were formally
figned, to the great fatisfaftion of the French nation.
They were in fubftance as follows:
1. If Great Britain fhould, in confequence of this
treaty, proceed to hoftilities againft France, the two
nations fhould mutually affift one another.
2. The main end of the treaty was in an effe&ual
manner to maintain the independency of America.
3. Should thofe places of North America frill fub-
je£l to Britain be reduced by the colonies, they fhould
be confederated with them, or fubje&ed to their jurif-
diftion.
4. Should any of the Weft India iflands be reduced
paflage to Britain, on condition of not ferving againft by France, they fhould be deemed its property.
America during the war. On this occafion, General
Gates ordered his army to keep within their camp
while the Britifh foldiers went to a place appointed for
5. No formal treaty with Great Britain fhould be
concluded either by France or America without the
confent of each other ; and it was mutually engaged
them to lay down their arms, that the latter might not that they fhould not lay down their arms till the in-
have the additional mortification of being made fpec- dependence of the States had been formally acknow-
tacles of fo melancholy an event. The number of thofe
who furrendered at Saratoga amounted to 5750, ac- ^ A .
cording to the American accounts; the lift of fick and thofe powers that had received injuries from Great Bri-
wounded left in the camp when the army retreated to tain to join the common caufe.
Saratoga, to 528; and the number of thofe loft by o-
ther accidents fince the taking of Ticonderoga, to near
ledged.
6. The contracting parties mutually agreed to invite
7. The United States guaranteed to France all the
pofteffions in the Weft Indies which fhe fhould con-
3000. Thirty-five brafs field-pieces, 7000 Hand of quer ; and France in her turn guaranteed the abfolute
  r 1 1 ri--ijr independency of the States, and their fupreme au¬
thority over every country they poffeffed, or might ac¬
quire during the war.
The notification of fuch a treaty as this could not
arms, clothing for an equal number of foldiers, with the
tents, military-cheft, &c. conftituted the booty on
this occafion.
Sir Henry Clinton, in the mean time, had failed up
expedition the North River, and deftroyed the two forts called but be looked upon as a declaration of war. On its
'°* ^r.Hen' Montgomery and Clinton, with Fort Conftitution, and
ry mton. place called Continental Village, where were
being announced to the houfe, every one agreed in an pe^tes oe
addrefs to his majefty, promifing to Hand by him to Caf10ned by <
barracks for 2000 men. Seventy large cannon were the utmoft in the prefent emergency ; but it was warm-the treaty.
carried away, befides a number of fmaller artillery, and
a great quantity of ftores and ammunition; a large
boom and chain reachingacrofs the riverfrom Fort Mont¬
gomery to a point of land called St Anthony’s Nofe,
ly contended by the members in oppofition, that the
prefent miniftry ought to be removed on account of
their numberlefs blunders and mifcarriages in every in-
ftance. Many were of opinion, that the only way to
partly deftroyed and partly carried away, as was alfo
another boom of little lefs value at Fort Conftitution.
The lofs of the Britifh army was but fmall in number,
though fome officers of great merit were killed in the
different attacks.
and which coft not lefs than L. 70,000 Sterling, were extricate the nation from its trouble was to acknow-
—^1- -i n .j —j .1- J   — —- -ir ledge the independency of America at once ; and thus
we might frill do with a good grace what muft inevi¬
tably be done 'at laft, after expending much more blood
and treafure than had yet been lavifhed in this unhap¬
py conteft. The minifterial party, however, entertain-
Another attack was made by Sir James Wallace with ed different ideas. Infrigated by zeal for the national
fome frigates, and a body of land forces under Ge¬
neral Vaughan. The place which now fuffered was
named Efopus : the fortifications were deftroyed, and
the town itfelf was reduced to afhes, as that called
Continental Village had been before.
But thefe fucceffes, of whatever importance they
* u.,  .....  ^j i u...i a.* nnu
honour, it was determined at once to refent the
gance of France, and profecute hoftilities againft A-
merica with more vigour than ever, fhould the terms
now offered them be rejected.
The Americans, in the mean time, affiduoufly em- , .
, i „ . , 7; Americans-
ployed their agents at the courts of Spain, Vienna,fen(j
might be, were now difregarded by both parties. They Pruffia, and Tufcany, in order, if poffible, to conclude
Great^de ferved only to irritate the Americans, flufhed with their alliances with them, or at leaft to procure an acknow- courts.
jedlion on fuccefs; and they were utterly infufficient to raife the , J " -r - ‘ J J  aj v-.- 
account of fpirits of the Britifh, who were now thrown into the
Burgoyne’s utmoft difmay.
capture. Qn t^e 0f March 1778, Lord North intimated
ledgment of their independency. As it had been re¬
ported that Britain intended to apply for affiftance to
Ruffia, the American commiffioners were enjoined to
ufe their utmoft influence with the German princes to
to the houfe of commons, that a paper had been laid prevent fuch auxiliaries from marching through their
Treaty be- bef°re die king by the French ambaffador, intimating territories, and to endeavour to procure the recal of the
tween the conclufion of an alliance between the court of German troops already fent to America. To France
France and France and the United States of America. The pre- they offered a ceffion of fuch Weft India iflands as
America, limmaries of this treaty had been concluded in the end fhould be taken by the united ftrength of France and
of the year 1777, and a copy of them fent to congrefs, America ; and fhould Britain by their joint endeavours
in order to counteract any propofals that might be be difpoffeffed of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and
N® 15. Nova
A M E [ 601 ] A M E .
Amerk*. Nova Scotia, thefe temtories niould-be divided betwixt About this time alfo Mr Silas Deane arrived From Americ*.
" the two nations, and Great Britain be totally excluded France with two copies of the treaty of commerce v'—
' from the fifhery. The propofals to the Spanifh court and alliance to be fig tied by congrtfs. Advices, of the
were, that in cafe they fhould think proper to efpoufe raoft agreeable nature were alfo received from various
their quarrel, the American States fiiould affift in re- parts, reprefenting in the moll favourable light the
ducing Penfacola under the dominion of Spain, provi- drfpofitions of the European powers ; all of whom, it
d?d their fubje&s were allowed the free navigation of was faid, wifned to fee the independence of America 311
the river Miffifippi, and the ufe of the harbour of Pen- fetled upon the mofl. firm and permanent bafis. Con* fuccefs
facola; and they further offered, that if agreeable to
Spain, they would declare war againtt Portugal, Ihould
that power expel the American fhips from its ports.
In the mean time, the troops under General Bur-
ifjurgoyne’s goyne were preparing to embark for Britain according
Vned tn~ t0 convent^on at Saratoga ; but to their utter fur-
Rnierica Pr^e» congrefs pofitively refufed to allow them to em¬
bark, under pretence that fome finifter defigns were
I harboured on the part of Britain, and that they only
wanted an opportunity to join the other troops at Phi-
k 309 ladelphia or New York.
Pred tory The feafon for action was now approaching; and con-
the*2 grefs was indefatigable in its preparations for a new cam-
t paign, which it was confidently faid would be the laft,
. Among other methods taken for this purpofe, it was re¬
commended to all the young gentlemen of the colonies
to form themfelves into bodies of cavalry to ferve at their
own expence during the war. GeneralWalhington at the
fame time, in order to remove all incumbrances from his
army, lightened the baiggage as much as pofiible, by
fubftituting facks and portmanteaus in place of cheits
and boxes, and ufing. pack-horfes inftead of waggons.
  Britifii army, expe&ing to be
-y! i
aiy.
fidering . the fitnation of matters with the colonifts at n^ffionenT*
this time, therefore, it is no wonder that the commif-
fioners found themfelvea unable to accomplifix the er¬
rand on which they came. Their propofals were ut¬
terly rejected, themfelves treated as fpies, and all in-
tercourfe with them interdifted. ^
But before any final anfwer could be obtained from Pluladel-
congrefs, Sir Henry Clinton had taken the refolution Phia eva~
of evacuating Philadelphia. Accordingly, on the 1 oth cuate(i*
of June, after having made all neceffary preparations,
the army marched out of the city and croffed the De¬
laware before noon with all its baggage and other in¬
cumbrancer. General Walhington, apprifed of this
defign, had difpatched expreffes into the Jerfeys with
orders to collect all the force that could be affembled
in order to obftrudl the march of the enemy. Af¬
ter various movements on both fides, Sir Henry
Clinton,, with the royal army, arrived on the 27th
of June at a place called Freehold ; where, judg¬
ing that the enemy would attack him, he encamped
in a very ftrong fituation. Here General Walhington
determined to make an attack as fqon as the army
had again begun its march. The night was fpent in
aking the. neceffary preparations, and General Lee
grace ; and fome even tore the cockades from their
hats, and trampled them under their feet as a token
Defpifed by of their indignation. By the colonifts it was re-
L ceived with indifference., The Britiih commiffion-
o- On the other hand, _ _ _
7 fpeedily reinforced by 20,opo men, thought of
^ thing but concluding the war according to the-ir wifties with his divifion was ordered to be ready by day-
. before the end of the campaign. It was with the ut- break. But Sir Henry Clinton, juftly apprehending
moft concern, as well as indignation, therefore, that that the chief objedt of the enemy was the baggage,
they received the news of Lord North’s conciliatory committed it to the care of General Knyphaufen,
bill. It was univerfally looked upon as a national dii- whom he ordered to fet out early in the morning,
while he followed with the reft of the army. The
attack was accordingly made ; but the Britilh ge¬
neral had taken fuch care to arrange his troops pro¬
perly, and fo effectually fupported his forces when
ers endeavoured to make it as public as poflible; and engaged with the Americans, that the latter not
the congrefs, as formerly, ordered it to be printed -only made no impreffion, but were with difficulty pre¬
in all the nevvfpapers. On this occafion Governor ferved from a total defeat by the advance of Ge-
Tryon inclofed feveral copies of the bill to General neral Walhington with the whole army. The Bri-
Walhington in a letter, intreating that he would allow tilh troops effedted their retreat with the lofs of
them to be circulated ; to which that general returned 300 men, of whom many died through mere fatigue,
for anfwer a copy of a newfpaper in which the bill without any wound. In this adtion General Lee was
s printed, with the refolutions"of congr,efs upon it.
Tbefe were. That whoever prefumed to make a fe-
parate agreement with Britain Ihould be deemed a
charged by General Walhington with difobedience
and mifcondudt in retreating before the Britilh army.
He was tried by a court-martial, and fentenced to a
public enemy ; that the United States could not, with temporary fufpenfion from his command. After they
any propriety keep correfpondenee with the commif-
fioners until their independence was acknowledged, and
the Britilh fleets and armies removed from America.
had arrived at Sandy Hook, a bridge of boats i
by Lord Howe’s diredlions thrown from thence pver
the channel which feparated the illand from the main
At the fame time, the colonies were warned not to fuf- land, and the troops were conveyed aboard the fleet;
fer themfelves to be deceived into fecurity by any offers
that might be made ; but to ufe their utmoft endea¬
vours to fend their quotas with all diligence into the
field. The individuals with whom, the coramiffioners
converfed on the fubjeft of the conciliatory bill, gene-
. after which they failed to New York. After fending
fome light detachments to watch the enemy’s motions.
General Walhingtbn marched towards the North Rivet,
where a great force had been collefted to join him,
and where it was now expected that fome very capital
rally returned for anfwer, that the day of reconciliation operations would take place,
was paft; and that the haughtinefs of Britain had ex- In the mean time, France had fet about her prepa-
tinguilhed all filial regard in the breaks of the Ame- rations for the affiftance of the Americans. On the
ricans. 14th of April Count d’Eftaing had failed from Tou-
Von. I. Part II. 4 G Ion
A M E [ 602 ] A M E
America. I0n with a ftrong fquadron of (hips of the line and
frigates, and arrived on the coaft of Virginia in the
Fi ench fleet beginning of July, while the Britifh fleet was employed
arrives in in conveying the forces from Sandy Hook to New
America. York. It confided of one ftiip of 90 guns, one of
80, fix of 74, and four of 64, befides feveral large
/frigates; and, exclufive of its complement of failors,
had 6000 marines and foldiers on board. To op-
pofe this the Britiih had only fix fhips of 64 guns,
three of 50, and two of 40, with fome frigates and
(loops. Notwithftanding this inferiority, however,
the Britifh admiral polled himfelf fo advantageoufly,
and Ihowed fuch fuperior Ikill, that d’Ellaing did not
think proper to attack him. He therefore remained
at anchor four miles off Sandy Hook till the 22d of
July, without effecting any thing more than the cap¬
ture of fome veffels, which, through ignorance of his
arrival, fell into his hands.
Attempts The next attempt of the French admiral was, in
_ conjunction with the Americans, on Rhode Ifland. It
outfuccefs~was Pr0P°fed that d’Ellaing, with the 6000 troops he
’ had with him, Ihould make a defcent on the fouthern
part of the illand, while a body of the Americans
Ihould take poffellion of the north ; at the fame time
the French fquadron was to enter the harbour of New¬
port, and take and dellroy all the Britilh Ihipping.
On the 8th of Augufl the French admiral entered
the harbour as was propofed, but found himfelf unable
to do any material damage. Lord Howe, however,
inllantly fet fail for Rhode illand; and d’Ellaing, con¬
fiding in his fuperiority, immediately came out of the
harbour to attack him. A violent llorm parted the
two fleets, and did fo much damage that they were
rendered totally unfit for aftion. The French, how¬
ever, fuffered moll; and feveral of their (hips being
afterwards attacked fingly by the Britilh, very nar¬
rowly efcaped being taken. On the 20th of Augull
he returned to Newport in a very lhattered condition ;
and, not thinking himfelf fafe there, failed two days
after for Bolton. General Sullivan had landed in the
mean time on the northern part of Rhode Illand with
10,000 men. On the 17th of Augull they began
their operations by erecting batteries, and making
their approaches to the Britilh lines. But General
Pigot, who commanded in Newport, had taken fuch
effedlual care to fecure himfelf on the land-fide, that
without the aflillance of a marine force it was altoge¬
ther impoffible to attack him with any probability of
fuccefs. The conduft of d’Ellaing, therefore, who
had abandoned them when mailer of the harbour, gave
the greatell difgull to the people of New England, and
Sullivan began to think of a retreat. On perceiving
his intentions, the garrifon fallied out upon him with
fo much vigour, that it was not without difficulty that
he effedled his retreat. He had not been long gone when
Sir Henry Clinton arrived with a body of 4000 men ;
which, had it arrived fooner, would have enabled the
Britilh commander to have gained a decifive advantage
over him, as well as to have deftroyed the town of
Providence, which, by its vicinity to Rhode Ifland,
and .the enterprifes which were continually projected
and carried on in that place, kept the inhabitants of
Rhode Ifland in continual alarms.
The firll Britilh expedition was to Buzzard’s Bay,
«n the coali of New England and neighbourhood of
Rhode Illand. Here they deltroyed a great num- America;.
ber of privateers and merchantmen, magazines, with ’ r—J
llorehoufts, &c.; whence proceeding to a fertile and xhe^coafts
populous illand called Martha’s Vineyard, they car- Df Americji
ried off 10,000 Iheep and 300 black cattle. Ano-invaded by
ther expedition took place up the North River, *he Britifti
under Lord Cornwallis and General Knyphaufen ; theiicet'
principal event of which was the dellruftion of a re¬
giment of American cavalry known by the name of
Walhington’s Light Horfe. A third expedition was
directed to Little Egg Harbour in New Jerfey, a place
noted for privateers, the deltrudtion of which was its
principal intention. It was conducted by Captains Fer-
gufon and Collins, and ended in the deltruftion of the
enemy’s veffels, as well as of the place itfelf. At the
fame time part of another body of American troops,
called Pulafki’s Legion, was furprifed, and a great
number of them put to the fword.
The Americans had in the beginning of the year Expeditioi
projefted the conqueft of Weft Florida ; and one Cap-a£ainft.
tain Willing, with a party of refolute men, had made Geor&ia*
3i3
a fuccefsful incurfion into the country. This awaken¬
ed the attention of the Britilh to the fouthern colo¬
nies, and an expedition againft: them was refolved on.
Georgia was the place of dellination ; and the more
effectually to enfure fuccefs, Colonel Campbell, with
a fufficient force, under convoy of fome {hips of war,,
commanded by Commodore Hyde Parker, embarked
at New York, while General Prevoft, who commanded;
in Eaft Florida, was directed to fet out with all the
force he could fpare. The armament from New York
arrived off the coall of Georgia in the month of De¬
cember ; and though the enemy were very ftrongly
polled in an advantageous fituation on the Ihore, the
Britilh troops made good their landing, and advanced
towards Savannah the capital of the province. That
very day they defeated the force of the provincials which
oppofed them ; and took poffeffion of the town with
fuch celerity, that the Americans had not time to
execute a refolution they had taken of fetting it on fire.
In ten days the whole province of Georgia was re- Take pof.
duced, Sunbury alone excepted ; and this was alfo leffion of.
brought under fubjedtion by General Prevoft: in his GeorSia*
march northward. Every proper method was taken
to fecure the tranquillity of the country ; and rewards
were offered for apprehending committee and affembly
men, or fuch as they judged moll inimical to the Bri¬
tilh interefts. On the arrival of General Prevolt, the
command of the troops naturally devolved on him as
the fenior officer; and the conqueft. of Carolina was
next projected. 319
In this attempt there was no fmall probability of Carolmajj
fuccefs. The country contained a great number ofva e *'
friends to government, who now eagerly embraced the .
opportunity of declaring themfelves; many of the in¬
habitants of Georgia had joined the royal Itandard
and there was not in the province any confiderable body
of provincial forces capable of oppofing the efforts of
regular and well-difciplined troops. On the firll
news of General Prevolt’s approach, the loyalills af-
fembled in a body, imagining themfelves able to Hand
their ground until their allies Ihould arrive; but in this
they were difappointed. The Americans attacked
and defeated them with the lofs of half their number-
The remainder retreated into Georgia; and after urn-
dergoing
:ien 1
4
A M E
America, dergoing many difficulties, at laft. effected a jundtion
^—Y—with the Britifh forces.
In the mean time, General Lincoln, with a con-
fiderable body of American troops, had encamped
within 20 miles of the town of Savannah; and another
C C03 ]
A M E
and retreating continually, allowed the Britirti army to America,
come within cannon Ihot ofCharleftown on the 12th of' v
May.
The town was now fummoned to furrender, and the
inhabitants would gladly have agreed to obferve a neu-
ftrong party had polled themfelves at a place called trality during the reft of the war, and would have en-
U..-: -v.4-4-V>c\ rrov e* Cnrrkf* nnm. iY-arr^A olfX rYrrwi"Rnf tEpTf*
310
Americans
[defeated.
Briar’s Creek, farther up the river of the fame name.
Thus the extent of the Britilh government was likely
to be circumfcribed within very narrow bounds. Ge¬
neral Prevoft therefore determined to dillodge the
party at Briar’s Creek: and the latter, trufting to their
ftrong fituation, and being remifs in their guard, fuf-
fered themfelves to be furprifed on the 30th of March
1779; when they were utterly routed with the lofs
of 400 killed and taken, befides a great number drown¬
ed in the river or the fwamps. The whole artillery, ftores,
baggage, and almoft all the arms, of this unfortunate
party were taken, fo that they could no more make
any Hand ; and thus the province of Georgia was once
more .freed from the enemy, and a communication
opened with thofe places in Carolina where the royalifts
chiefly relided.
The vidtory at Briar’s Creek proved of confiderable
fervice to the Britilh caufe. Great numbers of the
loyalifts joined his army, and confiderably increafed its
force. Hence he was enabled to ftretch his polls fur¬
ther up the river, and to guard all the principal palfes:
fo that General Lincoln was reduced to a Hate of in-
adlion ; and at laft moved off towards Augufta, in or¬
der to protedt the provincial alfembly, which was obli¬
ged to fit in that place, the capital being now in the
hands of the Britilh.
Lincoln had no fooner quitted his poll, than it was
judged a proper time by the Britilh general to put in
execution the grand fcheme which had been meditated
again ft Carolina. Many difficulties indeed lay in his way.
The river Savannah was fo fwelled by the exceffive
rains of the feafon, that it feemed impaffable ; the op-
pofite Ihore, for a great way, was lb full of fwamps and
marlhes, that no army could march over it without the
greateft difficulty ; and, to render the pafl'age ftill more
difficult, General Moultrie was left with a confiderable
body of troops in order to oppofe the enemy’s attempts.
But in fpite of every oppolition, the conftancy and
Th -n. perfeverance of the Britifh forces at laft prevailed. Ge-
troops ad- neral Moultrie was defeated, and obliged to retire to-
Vance to wards Charleftown ; and the vidtorious army, after ha-
Charlef- ving Waded through the marfhes for fome time, at laft
town. arrived in an open country, through which they pur-
fued their march with great rapidity towards the capi¬
tal ; while General Lincoln remained in a ftate of fecu-
rity at Augufta, vainly imagining that the obftacles he
had left in the way could not be furmounted.
General Certain intelligence of the danger to which Charle-
l. in coin ad- ft°wn was expofed, at laft arroufed the American ge-
vances to its neral from his lethargy. A chofen body of infantry,
relief. mounted on horfeback for the greater expedition, was
-difpatched before him; while Lincoln himfelf follow¬
ed with all the forces he could collecl. General Moul¬
trie too, with the troops he had brought from the Sa¬
vannah, and fome others he had colledted fince his re¬
treat from thence, had taken poffeffion of all the ave¬
nues leading to Charleftown, and prepared for a vigo¬
rous defence. But all oppofition proved ineffedlual.
The Americans were defeated in every encounter;
gaged alfo for the reft of the province. But thefe terms
not being accepted, they made preparations for a vi¬
gorous defence. It was not, however, in the power ^
of the Britilh commander at this time to make an at- yjie 3(>
tack with any profpedt of. fuccefs. His artillery was tempt on it
not of fufficient weight; there were no fliips to fup- abandoned,
port his attack by land ; and General Lincoln advan¬
cing rapidly with a fuperior army, threatened to in-
clofe him between his own force and the town; fo that
ftiould he fail in his ftrft attempt, certain deftrudtion
would be the confequence. For thefe reafons he with¬
drew his forces from before the town, and took poffef¬
fion of two iflands called St James's and St John’s, ly¬
ing to the fouthward ; where having waited fome time,
his force was augmented by the arrival of two frigates.
With thefe he determined to make himfelf mafter of
Port Royal, another ifland poffeffed of an excellent
harbour and many other natural advantages, from its
fituation alfo commanding all the fea-coaft from Charle¬
ftown to Savannah River. The American general,
however, did not allow this to be accomplifhed with¬
out oppofition. Perceiving that his opponent had occu¬
pied an advantageous pofton St John’s ifland preparatory
to his enterprife againft Port Royal, he attempted, on
the 20th of June, to diflodge him from it; but after an
obftinate attack, the provincials were, as ufual, ob- rkans de-
liged to retire with confiderable lofs. On this occafion feated.
the fuccefs of the Britifh arms was in a great meafure
owing to an armed float; which galled the right flank
of the enemy fo effe&ually, that they could direct
their efforts only againft the ttrongeft part of the lines,
which proved impregnable to their attacks. This
difappointment was inftanly followed by the lofs of
Port Royal, which General Psevoft took poffeffion
of, and put his troops .into proper ftations, waiting for
the arrival of fuch reinforcements as were neceffary for
the intended attack on Charleftown.
In the mean time Count D’Eftaing, who, as we D.E^n .
have already obferved, had put into Bofton harbour to ,,^1^^*
refit, had ufed his utmoft efforts to ingratiate himfelf tion.
with the inhabitants of that city. Zealous alfo in the
caufe of his mafter, he had publifhed a proclamation
to be difperfed through Canada, inviting the people to
return to their original friendfhip with France, and
declaring that all who renounced their allegiance to
Great Britain fhould certainly find a protestor in the
king of France. All his endeavours, however, proved
infufficient at this time to produce any revolution, or
even to form a party of any confequence among the
Canadians.
As foon as the French admiral had refitted his fleet, D>E||.aing
he took the opportunity, while that of Admiral Byron f .ils to the
had been fhattered by a ftorm, of failing to the Weft- WefUndiei,
Indies. During his operations there, the Americans
having reprefented his conduit as totally unferviceable
to them, he received orders from Europe to affift the
colonies with all poffible fpeed.
In compliance with thefe orders, he direited his
courfe towards Georgia, with a defign to recover that
4 G 2 province
A M E [ 604 ] A M E
America, province out of the hands of the enemy, nnd to put it,
v as well as South Carolina, in fuch a poflure of defence
D’Eftaing’sas would effectually fecure them from any future at-
expcdition tack. This feemed to be an eafy matter, from the
againft little force with which he knew he fhould be oppo-
Georgia. fej . an(j the next objeft in contemplation was no.lefs
than the deftruCtion of the Britifh fleet and army at
New York, and their total expulfion from the conti¬
nent of America. Full of thefe hopes, the French
commander arrived off the coaft of Georgia with a fleet
of 22 fail of the line and 10 large frigates. His ar¬
rival was fo little expefted, that feveral veffels laden
with provifions and military ftores fell into his hands;
the Experiment alfo, a veffel of 50 guns, commanded
by Sir James Wallace, was taken after a flout refin¬
ance. On the continent, the Britifh troops were di¬
vided. General Prevoft, with an inconfiderable part,
remained at Savannah ; but the main force was under
Colonel Maitland at Port Royal.. On the firft appear¬
ance of the French fleet, an exprefs was difpatched to
Colonel Maitland: but it was intercepted by the ene¬
my ; fo that before he could fet out in order to join
the commander in chief,, the Americans had fecured.
tnoft of the paffes by land, while the French fleet effec¬
tually blocked up the'paffage by fea. But, by taking
advantage of creeks and inlets, and marching over land,
_ he arrived jufl in time to relieve Savannah.
Abfurd D’Eftaing, after making a gafeonade of what had
condudt of happened at St Vincents and Grenada, had allowed
the French General Prevofl. 24 hours to deliberate whether he
comman- capitulate or not. This time the general em¬
ployed in making the bell preparations he could for a
defence;, and during this time it was that Colonel
Maitland arrived. D’Ellaing’s fummons was now re-
Je£led ; and as on this occafion the fuperiority of the
enemy was by no means fo much out of proportion as
it had been at Grenada, there was every probability of
fuccefs on the part of the Britifh. The garrifon now
confilled of 3000 men, all of approved valour and ex¬
perience, while the united force of the French and A-
mericans did not amount to 10,000. The event was an-
fwerable to the expectations of the Britifh general. Ha¬
ving the advantage of a flrong fortification and excel¬
lent engineers, the fire of the allies made fo little im-
preffion, that D’Eftaing refolved to bombard the town,,
and a battery of nine mortars was erected for the
Cruelty of purpofe. This produced a requeft from General Pre-
the French voft, that the women and children might be allowed
and Ame- to retire to a place of fafety. But the allied comman-
ncan gene- ^er3 }laq the inhumanity to refufe compliance; and they
refolved to give a general affault. This was accor¬
dingly attempted on the 9th of O6lober : but the af-
_ 33° failants were every where repulfed with fuch daughter,
utterly de- t^at 12°° were killed and wounded; among the for-
feated. mer were Count Polafki, and among the latter was
D’Eftaing himfelf.
This difafter entirely overthrew the fanguine hopes
of the Americans-and French ; mutual reproaches and
animofities took place in the moft violent degree ; and
after waiting eight days longer, both parties prepared
for a retreat; the French to their (hipping, and the
Americans into Carolina.
While the allies were thus unfuccefsfully employ¬
ed' in- the Southern colonies, their antagonifts were
ao, lefs affiduous in diftreffing them in the north¬
ern parts. ' .Sir George Collier was fent with a America.
fleet, carrying on board General Matthews, with a   
body of land forces, into tire province of Virginia. <, 33rr, .
Their firft .attempt was.on the town of Portimouth expedition*
where, though the enemy ihad deftroyed fome fhips of againft tbe
great value, the Britifh troops arrived in time to fave northern
a great number, of others. On this occaflon about 120 Amc.ncan
veffels of different fizes were burnt, and 20 carried off; Provintes*
and an .immenfe quantity of provifions defigned for the
ufe of General Wafhington’s army was either deftroy.
ed or carried off, together with a great variety of na¬
val and military ilores. The fleet and army returned
with little or no lofs to New York.
The fuccefs with which, this expedition was attend¬
ed, foon -gave encouragement to attempt another. The
Americans had for fome time been employed in the
ereiStion of two flrong forts on the riverthe one at
Verplanks Neck on the eafl, and the other at Stoney
Point on the weft fide. Thefe when completed would
have been of the: utmoft fervice to the Americans, as
commanding the principle pafs, called the King's Ferry,,
between the northern and fouthern colonies. At pre-
fent, however, they were not in a condition to make
any effexSlual defence; and it was therefore determined
to attack them before the worksfhould be completed.
The force employed on this occafion was divided into,
two bodies.; one of which, dire&ed its courfe againfl
Verplanks, and the other againfl. Stoney Point. The
former was commanded by General Vaughan.,,the latter,
by General Pattifon, while the fliipping w'as-under the
diredion of Sir George Collier. General Vaughan,
met with no refiftance, the enemy abandoning their
works, and felting fire to every thing combuftible thclt
they could not carry off. At Stoney Point, however,
a vigorous defence was made, though the garrifon was
at lalt obliged to capitulate upon honourable condi¬
tions. To fecure the poflefiion of this laft, which was
the more important of the two, General Clinton remo¬
ved from his former fituation, and encamped in fuch a
manner that Wafhington could not give any afliftance.
The Americans, however, revenged themfelves by di¬
ftreffing, with their numerous privateers, the trade to
New York.
This occafioned a. third expedition to Connecticut,
where thefe privateers were chiefly built and harbour¬
ed. The command was given to Governor Tryon and
to General Garth, an officer of known valour and expe¬
rience. Under convoy of a confiderable number of
armed veflfels they landed at Newhaven, where they de-
molifhed the batteries that had been ere&ed to oppofe
them, and deftroyed the (hipping and naval (lores; but
they fpared the town itfelf, as the inhabitants had ab-
(lained from firing out. of their houfes upon the troops.
From Newhaven they marched to Fairfield, where they
proceeded as before, reducing the town alfo to affies.
Norwalk was next attacked, which in like manner was
reduced to alhes; as was alfo Greenfield, a fmall fea-
port in the neighbourhood...
Thefe. fucceffes proved very alarming as well as de¬
trimental to the Americans; fo that General Wafhing¬
ton determined at all events to drive the enemy from
Stoney Point. For this purpofe he fent Gen. Wayne
with a detachment of chofen men, direfling them to
attempt the recovery of it by furprife. On this occa-
fion the Americans (bowed a fpirit and refoiution ex¬
ceeding:
nfuccef—
‘ expedt-
n of the
mcricans
lainft Pe-
ifcfCjt.
A M E [ t°5 1 A M E
ceedlng any tKing they had performed during the Gourfe litary iiores, under Captain Dalrymple. Before the America,
of the war. Though after the capture of it by. the arrival of this detachment, the principal fettlement in mJ
Britiih the fortifications of this place had been comple- thofe parts, called St George’s Key, had been taken by
ted, and were very ftrong, they attacked the enemy the Spaniards and retaken by the Britiflr. In his way
with bayonets, after palling through a heavy fire of Captain Dalrymple fell in with a fquadron from Ad-
mufquetry and. grape fiiot; and in fpite of all oppofi- miral Parker in fearch of fome regifter fhips richly la-
tion, obliged the fiirviving part of the garrifon, amount- den ; but which retreating into the harbour of Omoa,
ing to 500 men, to furrender themfelves prifoners of were too ftrongly protefted by the fort to be attacked
war. with fafety. A projedt was then formed, in eonjunc-Fort Omoa
Though the Americans did not at prefent attempt to tion with the people of Honduras, to reduce this fort.ta!:eH hy
retain pofieffion of Stoney Point, the fuccefs they had The defign was to furprife it; but the Spaniards ha-the
met with in the enterprife emboldened them to make a ving difeovered them, they were obliged to fight,
fimilar attempt on Paulus Hook, a fortified poll on the Victory quickly declared for the Britifh ; but the for-
Jerfey fide oppofite to New York ; but in this they tifications were fo ftrong, that the artillery they had
were not attended with equal fuccefs, being obliged to brought along with them were found too light to make
retire with precipitation after they had made them- any impreffion. It was then determined to try the
felves mailers of one or two polls. fuccefs of an efcalade ; and this was executed with fo
Another expedition of greater importance was now much fpirit, that the Spaniards Hood allonilhed with-
proje&ed on the part of the Americans. This w as out making any refiltance, and, in fpite of all the ef-
againlt a poll on the river Penobfcot, on the borders of forts of the officers, threw down their arms and fur-
Nova Scotia, of which the Britiih.had lately taken pof-' rendered. The fpoil was immenfe, being valued at
feffion, and where they had begun to eredl a fort which three millions of dollars. The Spaniards chiefly la-
threatened to be a very great inconvenience to the colo- mented the lofs of 250 quintals of quickfilver ; a com¬
mits. The armament deltined againft it was fofoon got modity indifpenfably necefiary in the working of their
in readinefs, that Colonel Maclane, the commanding offi- gold and filver mines, fo that they offered to ranfom
cer at Penobfcot,. found himfelf obliged to drop the exe- it at any price ; but this was refufed, as well as the
eution of partof his fchemef and inllead of a regular fort, ranfom of the fort, though the governor offered
to content himfelf with putting the w’orks already con- 300,000 dollars for it. A fmall garrifon was left for
ftmdted in as good a. pollure of defence as poffible. the defence of the place : but it was quickly attacked 335
The Americans could not effietl a landing without a by a fuperior force, and obliged to evacuate it, though But ,
great deal of difficulty, and bringing the guns of their not without deftroying every thing that could be ^evacuate
largeft velfels to bear upon the Ihore. As foon as this ufe to the enemy ; fpilang the guns, and even locking ;t>
was done, however,, they erected feveral batteries, and the gates of the fort and carrying off the keys. All
kept up a bride fire for the fpace of a fortnight; after this was done in fight of the befiegers; after which the
which they propofed to give a general aflault : but be- garrifon embarked without the lofs of a man. ^.<5
fore this could be effected, they perceived Sir George As no operations of any confequence took place this Americans
Collier with a Britifh fleet failing up the river to at- year in the province of New York, the congrefs made take ven-
tack them. On this they inftantly embarked their ar- ufe of the opportunity to difpatch General Sullivan
tillery and military fibres, failing up the river as far as with a confiderable force,, in order to take vengeance
poffible in order to avoid him. They were fo clofely on the Indians for their ravages and depredations:
purfued, however, that not a Angle veffel could efcape ; and the objeft of the expedition was, not merely the
fo that the whole fleet, confifiing of 19 armed veffels redu&ion of them, but if poffible theirutter extirpation,
and 24 tranfports, was defiroyed ; moft of them indeed Of this the Indians were apprifed ; and collecting all
being blown up by themfelves. The foldiers and fail- their ftrength, refolved to come to a decifive- engage-
ors were obliged to wander through immenfe deferts, ment. Accordingly they took a ftrong poft in the
where they fuffered much for want of provifions; and moft woody and mountainous part of the country;
to add to their calamities, a quarrel broke, out between erecting a breaft-work in their front of large logs of
the foldiers and feamen concerning the caufe of their wood extending half a mile in length, while their right
difafter, which ended in a violent fray, wherein a great flank was covered by a river, and the left by a hill of
number were killed.. difficult accefs. This advantageous pofition they had
Thus the arms of America and France being almoft taken by the advice of the refugees who were among ,
every where unfuccefsful, the independency of the them, and. of whom 200 .or 300 . were prefent in . the ■
former feemed yet to be in danger notwithftanding the battle.
affifiance of fo powerful an ally, when further encou- Thus pofted, the Indians waited the approach of ~
ragement was given by the acceffion of Spain to the the American army: but the latter having brought .
confederacy againft Britain in the month of June 1779. fome artillery along with them, played it againft the
The firft effeft of this appeared in an invafion of Weft breaft-work of the enemy with fuch fuccefs, that in
Florida by the Spaniards in September 1779, As the two hours it was almoft deftroyed; and at the fame
country was in no ftate of defence, the enemy eafily time a party having reached the top of the hill, they
made themfelves mafters of the whole almoft without became apprehenfive of being furrounded, on which
eppofition. Their next enterprife were againft the tliey inftantly fled with precipitation, leaving, a great
Bay of Honduras, where the Britiffi logwood-cutters number of killed and wounded behind them,. The A- ■
were fettled. Thefe finding themfelves too weak to mericans after this battle met with no further refiftance
refill, applied to the governor of Jamaica for relief; of any confequence. They were fuffered to proceed .
who fent them a fupply of men, ammunition, and mi- without interruption, and to execute, in the moft am¬
ple
A M E [606
• pie manner the vengeance they had proje&ed. On
J entering the country of the Indians, it appeared that
they had been acquainted with agriculture and the arts
of peace far beyond what had been fuppofed. From
General Sullivan’s account it was learned, that the In¬
dian houfes were large, convenient, and even elegant}
their grounds were excellently cultivated, and their gar¬
dens abounded in fruit-trees and vegetables of all kinds
fit for food. The whole of this fine country was now
by the American general converted into a defart.
Forty towns and fettlements, befides fcattered habita¬
tions, were demoliftied ; the fields of corn, the orchards,
the plantations, were utterly laid wafte ; all the fruit-
trees were cut down ; and fo great had been the in-
duftry of the Indians, that in one orchard 1500 of thefe
were deftroyed. The quantity of corn wafted on this
occafion was fuppofed to amount to 160,000 bufliels.
In ftiort, fuch was the defolation, that on the Ame¬
rican army’s leaving the country, not a houfe, not a
field of corn, nor a fruit-tree, was left upon the ground,
nor was an Indian to be feen throughout the [whole
track.
We muft now take a view of the tranfa&iohs in the
1
A M E
upon which there was a ftrong fort of batteries, the America,
chief defence of the harbour. He weighed on the •—v—^
9th, with the Roebuck, Richmond, and Romulus,
Blonde, Virginia, Raleigh, and Sandwich armed (hip,
the Renown bringing up the rear; and, palling through
a fevere fire, anchored in about two hours under James’s
illand, with the lofs of 27 feamen killed and wounded.
The Richmond’s fore-top-maft was Ihot away, and the 1 1
fhips in general fuftained damage in their mails and
rigging, though not materially in their hulls. But
the Acetus tranfport, having on board fome naval
ftores, grounded within gun-ftiot of Sullivan’s illand,
and received fo much damage that fire was obliged to
be abandoned and burnt.
On the 10th, Sir Henry Clinton and Admiral Ar-The town j
buthnot fummoned the town to furrender to his ma- defended r
jelly’s arms: but Major-general Lincoln, who com-Linco^
manded in Charleftown, returned them an anfwer, ’de¬
claring it to be his intention to defend the place. The
batteries were now opened againft the town ; and from
their effeft the fire of the American advanced works
confiderably abated. It appears that the number of
troops under the command of Lincoln were by far too
337
Expedition
of Sir Hen-
ry Clinton
a^ainft
Charlef¬
town.
fouthern colonies; to which the war was, in the year few for defending works of fuch extent as thofe of
1780, fo effeftually transferred, that the operations Charleftown; and that many of thefe were men little
there became at laft decifive. The fuccefs of General accuftomed to military fervice, and very ill provided
Prevoft in advancing to the very capital of South Ca- ' ’ ’ ’ ~ ’
rolina has been already related, together with the ob-
ftacles which prevented him from becoming mailer of it
at that time. Towards the end of the year 1779, how¬
ever, Sir Henry Clinton fet fail from New York with
a confiderable body of troops, intended for the attack
with clothes and other neceffaries. Lincoln had been
for fome time expefting reinforcements and fupplies
from Virginia and other places : but they came in very
llowly. Earl Cornwallis, and Lieutenant-colonel Tarle-
ton under him, were alfo extremely active in intercept¬
ing fuch reinforcements and fupplies as were fent tof‘*era}
of Charleftown, South Carolina, in a fleet of Ihips of the American general. They totally defeated a c
inforce.
war and tranfports under the command of Vice-ad-
miral Arbuthnot. They had a very tedious voyage ;
the weather was uncommonly bad ; feveral of the tranf¬
ports were loft, as were alfo the greater part of the
horfes which they carried with them, intended for ca¬
valry or other public ufes ; and an ordnance-lhip like-
wife foundered at fea. Having arrived at Savannah,
where they endeavoured to repair the damages fu¬
ftained on their voyage, they proceeded from thence
on the 10th of February 1780 to North Edifto,
the place of debarkation which had been previoully
appointed. They had a favourable and fpeedy pafiage
thither: and though it required time to have the bar
explored and the channel marked, the tranfports all
il re t
l\
fiderable body of cavalry and militia which was pro- tended foe >1
ceeding to the relief of the town ; and alfo made them- his relief 11
felves matters of fome polls which gave them in a great *ntcrcepte| ^
degree the command of the country, by which means
great fupplies of provifions fell into their hands.
Such was the ftate of things, and Fort Sullivan had
alfo been taken by the king’s troops, when on the
18th of May General Clinton again fummoned the
town to furrender ; an offer being made, as had been
done before, that if they furrendered, the lives and
property of the inhabitants Ihouldbe preferved to them.
Articles of capitulation were then propofed by Gene¬
ral Lincoln ; but the terms were not agreed to by Ge¬
neral Clinton. At length, however, the town being
entered the harbour the next day ; and the army took clofely invefted on all tides, and the preparations to
poffeffion of John’s illand without oppofition. Prepa¬
rations were then made for palling the fquadron over
Charleftown bar, where the high-water fpring-tides
were only 19 feet deep : but no opportunity offered
ftorm it in every part being in great forwardnefs, and
the Ihips ready to move to the affault, General Lin¬
coln, who had been applied to for that purpofe by the
inhabitants, furrendered it on fuch articles of capitu- The p!ac<
of going into the harbour till the 20th of March, lation as General Clinton had before agreed to. This furrenden
when it was effefted without any accident, though was on the 4th of May, which was one month and
the American galleys continually attempted to prevent two days after the town had been firft fummoned to
the Englilh boats from founding the channel. The furrender.
Britilh troops had previoufly removed from John’s to
James’s illand; and on the 29th of the fame month they
effefted their landing on Charleftown neck. On the
A large quantity of ordnance, arms, and ammuni¬
tion, was found in Charleftown ; and, according to
Sir Henry Clinton’s account, the number of prifoners
ill of April they broke ground within 800 yards of taken in Charleftown amounted to 5618 men, exclu-
the American works ; and by the 8th the befiegers
guns were mounted in battery.
As foon as the army began to erefl their batteries
againft the town, Admiral Arbuthnot embraced the
ill'll favourable opportunity of palling Sullivan’s illand,
lively of near a thoufand failors in arms ; but accord¬
ing to General Lincoln’s account tranfmitted to the
congrefs, the whofe number of continental troops ta¬
ken prifoners amounted to no more than 2487. The
remainder, therefore, included in General Clinton’s
3 account,
I
A M E
| 341
, Apprehen-
i New York.
account, mufl Lave confifted of militia and InLaLitants
of the town. Several American frigates were alfo ta¬
ken or deftroyed in the harbour of Charleftown.
The lofs of Charleftown evidently excited a coiifi-
derable alarm in America : and their popular writers,
particularly the author of the celebrated performance
hnitled Common Senfe, in fome other pieces made ufe
of it as a powerful argument to lead them to more vi¬
gorous exertions againft Great Britain, that they might
the more effe&ually and certainly fecure their inde¬
pendence.
While Sir Henry Clinton was employed in his voy¬
age to Charleftown, and in the fiege of that place,
the garrifon at New York feem not to have been whol¬
ly free from apprehensions for their own fafety. An
intenfe froft, accompanied with great falls of fnow,
began about the middle of December 1779, and (hut
up the navigation of the port of New York from the
fea, within a few days after the departure of Admiral
Arbuthnot and General Clinton. The feverity of the
[ 607 ]
A M E
troops retired upon the approach of the Americans, America,
who formed the line, and macie fome movements in v——'
the courfe of the day ; but they withdrew in the night, B,;t are ;n.
after having burnt one houfe, pillaged fome others, duced to
and carried off with them about 200 head of cattle, make a pre-
Immediately on the arrival of the Americans on St a- ^lttate re~
ten Iflaiid, Lieutenant-general Knyphaufen had em¬
barked 600 men to attempt a paffage,. and to fupport
General Sterling : but the floating ice compelled them
to return. It is,- however, imagined, that the appear¬
ance of thefe tranfports, with the Britifti troops on
board, which the Americans could fee towards the
clofe of the day, induced the latter to. make fo preci¬
pitate a retreat.
After Charleftown had furrendered ter the king’s Proclama-
troops. General Clinton iffued two proclamations, and k?
alfo circulated a hand-bill amongft the inhabitants of
South Carolina, in order to induce them to return to
their allegiance, and to be ready to join the king’s
troops. It was faid, that the helping hand of every
weather increafed to fo great a degree, that towards man was wanted to re-eftabliflx peace and good go-
the middle of January all communications with New
York by water were entirely cut off, and as many new
ones opened by the ice. The inhabitants could fcarce-
ly be faid to be in an infular ftate. Horfes with heavy
vernment: and that as the commander in chief wiflied
not to draw the king’s friends into danger, while a
doubt could remain of their fuccefs; fo now that this
was certain, he trufted that one and all would heartily
carriages could go over the ice into the Jerfeys from join, and by a general concurrence give effedt to fuch
342
one ifland to another. The paffage in the North Ri¬
ver, even in the wideft part from New York to Paulus
Hook, which was 2000 yards, was about the 19th of
January practicable for the heavieft cannon : an event
which had been unknown in the memory of man.
Provifions were foon after tranfported upon fledges,
and a detachment of cavalry marched upon the ice
from New York to Staten Ifland, which was a diftance
of 11 miles.
The city of New York being thus circumftaneed,
was confidered as much expofed to the attacks from
the continental troops: and it was ftrongly report¬
ed that General Walhington was meditating a great
ftroke upon New York with his whole force, by
different attacks. Some time before this, Majc
neceffary meafures for that purpofe as from time to
time might be pointed out. Thofe who had families*
were to form a militia to remain at home, and occa-
fionally to affemble in their own diftrifts, when requi¬
red, under officers, of their own chooling,. for the
maintenance of peace and good order. Thofe who
had no families, and who could conveniently be fpared
for a time, it was prefumed, would cheerfully affift his*
majefty’s troops in driving their oppreffors, a Cling un¬
der the authority of congrefs, and all the miferies of
war, far from that colony. For this purpofe it was
faid to be neceffary that the young men ffiould be ready
to affemble when required, and to ferve with the king’s
troops for any fix months of the enfuing twelve that
ight be found requifite, under proper regulations!.
JJPorward- „ . . . „
iinefs of the general Pattifon, commandant at New York, having They might choofe officers to each company to com-
liinhabitants r ....    ’ ’ ’ ... ' ’
to be inrol- /
Wed for its
lidefence.
s received an addrefs from many of the- inhabitants,
*" offering to put themfelves in military array, he
thought the prefent a favourable opportunity of trying
the ftneerity of their profeffions. Accordingly he if¬
fued a proclamation, calling upon all the male inhabi¬
tants from 16 to 60 to take up arms. The requifition-
mand them;, and were to be allowed, wdien on fervice,
pay, ammunition, and provifions, in the fame manner
as the king’s troops. When they joined the army,
each man was to* be furnifhed with a certificate, decla¬
ring that he was only engaged to ferve as a militia-man
for the time fpecified ; that he was not to* be marched
rr 343
The pro-
ji vinciah at¬
tack Staten
iUtand;
was fo readily complied with, that in- a few days 40 beyond North Carolina and Georgia; and that, when
companies from the fix wards of the city were inrolled, *1—— -n -u:— ...u.,
officered, and under arms, to the number of 2600,
many fubftantial citizens ferving in the ranks of each
company. Other volunteer companies were formed; and
the city was put into a very ftrong pofture of defence.
No attack,, however, was made upon New York,
whatever defign might originally have been medi¬
tated ; but an attempt was made upon Staten Ifl¬
and, where there were about 1800 men, under the
the time was out, he was freed from all claims what- -
ever of military fervice, excepting the common and
ufual militia-duty where he lived. He would then,
it was faid, have paid his debt to his country, and be
intitled to enjoy undifturbed that peace, liberty, and
property, at home, which he had contributed to fe¬
cure. The proclamations and publications of General'
Clinton appear to have produced fome effect in South
Carolina ; though they probably operated chiefly upon
command of Brigadier-general Sterling, who were thofe who were before not much inclined to the caule
well intrenched. General Wa filing ton, whofe army of American independence; Two hundred and ten of
was hutted at Morris-Town, fent a detachment of the inhabitants of Charleftown figned an addrefs to
2700 men, with fix pieces of cannon, two mortars, General Clinton and Admiral Arbuthnot,. foliciting to
and fome horfes, commanded by l!ord Sterling, who be readmitted to the charadler and condition of Bri-
arrived at Staten Ifland early in the morning of the tifli fubjedls, the inhabitants of that city, having been:
15th of January. The advanced polls of the Britifh hitherto confidered as prifoners on parole; declaring-
their
346
Proceed¬
ings of
• congrefs.
. 347 .
Difficulties
arifingfrom
the depre¬
ciation of
their paper-
currency.
A M E [ 608 ] A M E
their disapprobation of the doftrine of American value. The depreciation continued, by a kind of gra.^ Ameri
independence; and expreffing their regret, that after dual progreffion, from the year 1777 to 1780 : fa that,
the repeal of thofe ftatutes which gave rife to the at the latter period, the continental dollars were paffed,
troubles in America, the overtures made by his ma- by common confent, in moft parts of America, at the
jelly’s commiffioners had not been regarded by the rate of at leal! | ®ths below their nominal value. The
congrefs. Sir Henry Clinton, in one of the procla- ■ impoffibility of keeping up the credit of the currency
mations iffued at this time, declared, that if any per- ' to any lixed ftandard, occaiioned great and almoft in-
fons ihould thenceforward appear in arms in. order to furmountable embamuTments in afcertaining the value
prevent the eftablifhment of his majefty’s government of property, or carrying on trade with any fufficient
in that country, or ihould under any pretence or an- certainty. Thofe who fold, and thofe who bought,
thority whatfoever attempt to compel any other per- were left without a rule whereon to form a judgment
fon or perfons to do fo, or who (hould hinder or inti- of their profit or their lofs; and every fpecies of com-
midate the king’s faithful and loyal fubjefts from join- merce or exchange, whether foreign or domeflic, was
ing his forces or otherwife performing thofe duties expofed to numberlefs and increafmg difficulties. The
their allegiance required, fuch perfons fhould be treat- confequences of the depreciation of the paper-currency
ed with the utmoft feverity, and their eftates be im- were alfo felt with peculiar feverity by fuch of the A-
mediately feized in order to be confifcated. mericans as were engaged in their military fervices, and
Mean time the ravages of war did not prevent the greatly augmented their other hardfhips. The requifi-
Americans from paying fome attention to the arts of tions made by the congrefs to the feveral colonies forfup-
peace. On the 4th of May an act paffed by the coun- plies, were alfo far from being always regularly complied
cil and houfe of reprefentatives of Maffachufet’s Bay with: and their troops were not unfrequently in want
for incorporating and eftablifhing a fociety for the cul- of the moft. common neceffaries; which naturally occa-
tivation and promotion of the arts and feienees. See fioned complaints and difeontent among them. Some
Academy, p. 43. col. 2. of thefe difficulties, refulting from their circumftances
Some doubts having arifen in the congrefs, towards and fituation, perhaps no wifdom could have prevent-
the clofe of the preceding year, about the propriety ed: but they feem to have arifen in part from the
of their aflembling in the city of Philadelphia, it was congrefs not being fufficiently acquainted with the
now refolved that they fhould continue to meet there : principles of finance, and from a defect of fyftem in the
and a committee of three members was appointed, to departments of their government. The caufe of the
report a proper place where buildings might be pro- Americans appears alfo to have fuffered fomewhat by
vided for the reception of the congrefs, together with their depending too much on temporary enliftments.
an eftimate of the expence of providing fuch build- But the congrefs endeavoured, towards the clefe of the
ings and the neceffary offices for the feveral boards, year 1780, to put their army upon a more permanent
It was alfo refolved by the congrefs, that a monument footing, and to give all the fatisfaftion to their offi-
fhould be eredted to the memory of their late general cers and foldiers which their circumftances would per;-
Richard Montgomery, who fell at Quebec, in tefti- mit. They appointed a Committee for arranging their
mony of his flgnal and important fervices to the United finances, and made fome new regulations refpecting
States of America, with an infeription expreffive of their war-office and treafury-board, and other public
his amiable character and heroic atchievements; and departments. * 3.18
that the continental treafurers fhould be dire&ed to Notwithftanding the difadvantages under which they Annlver
advance a fum not exceeding L. 300 to Dr Franklin laboured, the Americans feemed to entertain no doubts raiTofAl
to defray the expence ; that gentleman being defired but that they fhould be able to maintain their indepen- dependency
to caufe the monument to be executed at Paris, or in dency. The 4th of July was celebrated this year at celebrated
fome other part of France. It was likewife refolved Philadelphia with fome pomp, as the anniverfary of A-at j’tulaffi
by the congrefs, that a court fhould be eftablifhed merican independence. A commencement for confer-
for the trial of all appeals from the court of admi- ring degrees in the arts was held the fame day, in the
rally of the United States of America, in cafes of hall of the univei fity there; at which the prefident and
capture; to confift of three judges, appointed and members of the congrefs attended, and other perfons
commiffioned by congrefs, and who were to take an in public offices. The Chevalier De la Lucerne, mh
oath of office ; and that the trials in this court fhould nifter plenipotentiary from the French king to the
be determined by the ufage of nations. United States, was alfo prefent on the occafion. A
The difficulties of the congrefs and of the people of charge was publicly addreffed by the provoft of the u-
America had been greatly increafed by the deprecia- niverfity to the ftudents; in which he laid, that he could
tion of their paper currency. At the time when the not but congratulate them “ on that anfpicious day,
colonies engaged in a war with Great Britain, they which, amidft the ednfuftons and defolations of war,
had no regular civil governments eftablifhed among beheld learning beginning to revive; and animated them
them of fufficient energy to enforce the colleftion of with the pleafing profpedt of feeing the facred lamp of
taxes, or to provide funds for the redemption of fuch fcience burning with a ftill brighter flame, and fcatter-
bills of credit as their neceffities obliged them to iffue. ing its invigorating rays over the unexplored deferts of
In confequence of this ftate of things, their bills in- that exteniive continent; until the whole world fhould
creafed in quantity far beyond the fum neceffary for the be involved in the united blaze of knowledge, liberty,
purpofe of a circulating medium: and as they wanted and religion. When he ftretched his views forward
at the fame time fpecific funds to reft on for their re- (he laid), and fufveyed the rifing glories of America,
demption, they faw their paper-currency daily fink in the enriching confequences of their determined ftrug-
N°j6. 4 gle
,,, .349
large
tot'y of
French
i'oors land
Lt Rhode
Ijlland.
Sful expedi-
?.ion in the
jferfeys.
A M E [ 609 ] AM E
gle for liberty, the extenfive fields of intelleftual i'm- with more fuccefs. Earl Cornwallis, who commanded America,
provement and ufeful invention, in fcience and arts, in the Britifh troops there, obtained a very fignal victory ^ *
agriculture and commerce, in religion and government, over General Gates on the 16th of Augult. The ac-
through which the unfettered mind would range, with tion began at break of day, in a fituation very advan-
increafing delight, in queft of the undifcovered trea- tageous for the Britilh troops, but .very unfavourable
fure which yet lay concealed in the animal, vegetable, to the Americans. The latter were much more nu-vi^torygj,.
and mineral kingdoms of that new world; or in the 6- merous; but the ground on which both armies floodotrainedby
ther fertile fources of knowledge with which it abound- was narrowed by fwamps on the right and left, fo that Lo;^ Corn¬
ed. His heart fwelled with the pleafing profpect, that the Americans could not properly avail themfelves °f Gen* Oates
the fans of that inftitution would diftinguifh them- their fuperior numbers. There feems to have been
felves, in the different walks of life, by their literary fame want of generahhip in Gates, in fuffering himfelf
contributions to the embellifhment and increafe of hu- to be furprifed in fo difadvantageous a pofition : but
man happinefs.” this circumftance was partly the effeft of accident ; for
On the xoth of July, M. Ternay, with a fleet con- both armies fet out with a defign of attacking each
fifting of feven {hips of the line, befides frigates, and other precifely at the fame time, at ten the preceding
a large body of French troops, commanded by the evening, and met together before day-light at the
Count de Rochambeau, arrived at Rhode Ifland; and place where the adtion happened. The attack was
the following day 6000 men were landed there. A made by the Britifh troops with great vigour, and in a
committee from the general aflembly of Rhode Ifland few minutes the adtion was general along-the who'le
was appointed to congratulate the French !general up- line. It was at this time a dead calm, with a little
on his arrival: whereupon he returned an anfwer, in hazinefs in the -air, which preventing the fmoke from
which he informed them, that the :king his mafter Had rifing, occafioned fo thick a darknefs, that it was dif-
fent him to the affiftance'of his good and faithful al- ficult to fee' the effedf of a very heavy and well-fupport-
lies the United States of America. At prefertt, he ed fire on both fides. The Britifh troops either kept,
far’d, he only brought over the vanguard of a much up a conftant fire, or made ufe of bayonets, as oppor-
greater force deftined for their aid ; and the king had tunities offered; and after an obftinate refiflanoe du-
ordered him to aflure them, that his whole power ring three quarters of an hour, threw the Americans
fhould be exerted for their fupport. He added, that into total confufion, and forced .them to give way in all
the French troops were under the ftri&eft difeipline ; quarters. The continental troops appear to have be-
and, acting under the orders of General Waflring- haved well, but the militia were foon broken, and left
ton, would live with the Americans as their brethren. the former to oppofe the whole force of the Britifh
A feheme was foon after formed, of making a com- troops. General Gates did all in his power to rally
bined attack with Engliflr {hips and troops, under the the militia, but without effedt: the continentals re¬
command of Sir Flenry Clinton and Admiral Arbuth- treated in feme order; but the rout of the militia was
not, againft the French fleet and troops at Rhode fo great, that the Britifli cavalry are faid to have con-
Ifland. Accordingly a confiderable part of the troops tinned the purfuit of them to the diftance of 22 miles
at New York were embarked for that purpofe. Ge- from the place where the aftion happened. The lofs
•neral Wafliington having received information of this, of the Americans was very confiderable: about 1000
puffed the North River, by a very rapid movement, prifoners were taken, and more are faid to have been
and, with an army incrcafed to 12,coo-men, proceeded -killed and wounded, but the number is net very accu-
with celerity towards King’s Bridge, in order to attack rately afeertained. -Seven pieces of brafs cannon, a num-
New York; but learning that the Britifti general had her of colours, and all the ammunition-waggons of the
-changed bis intentions, and difembarked his-troops on Americans, were alfo taken. Of the Britifli troops,
the 31ft of the month, General'Wafliington reoroffed the killed and wounded amounted to 213. Among
the river, and returned to his former ftation. Sir the prifoners taken was Major-general Baron de Kalb,
Henry Clinton and the Admiral bad agreed to relin- a Pruffian officer in the American fervice, who was
quilh their defign of attacking the French and Ameri- mortally wounded, having exhibited great gallantry in
cans at Rhode Ifland as impracticable for the prefent. the courfe of the aition, and received 11 wounds. The
An unfuccefsful attempt was alfo made about this Britifli troops by which this great victory was achieved,
time in the Jerfeys by Genetal Knyphapfcn, with did not much exceed 2000, while the American army
70.00 Britifti troops under his command, to furprife is faid to have amounted to 6000; of which, however,
the advanced polls of General Wafliington’s army, -the greateft part was militia.
They proceeded very rapidly tow-ards Springfield, meet- Lieutenant-colonel Tarleton, who had greatly di-Activity of
ing little oppofition till they came to the bridge there, ftinguiflied himfelf in this a&ion, was detached the Lieut. Col.
which was very gallantly defended by 170 of the con- following day, with fome cavalry and light infantry, -1 ailetun.
tinental troops, for 15 minutes, againft-the Britifli ar- amounting to about 350 men, to attack a corps of
my: but they were at length obliged to give up fo Americans under General Sumpter. He executed this
unequal a conteft, with the lofs of 37 meh. After fe- fervice with great a&ivity and military addrefs. He
curing this pafs, the Britifh troops marched into the procured good information of Sumpter’s movements;
place, and fet fire to moft of the houfes. They alfo and by forced and concealed marches came up with and
committed fome other depredations in the Jerfeys; but furprifed him in the middle of the day on the 18th,
gained no laurels there, being obliged to return about near the Catawba fords. He totally defiroyed or dif-
the beginning of July without effecting any thing ma- perfed his detachment, which confifted of 700 men,
terial. killing 150 “on the fpot, and taking two pieces of
But■ in South Carolina the royal arms-were attended brafs cannon, 300 prifoners, and 44 waggons.
Vol. I. Part 11. 4 H Not
A M E [ 61
America. Not jong after thefe events, means were found to
^ detach Major-general Arnold, who had engaged fo ar-
General dently in thecaufe of America, and who had exhibited
Arnold de- fo much bravery in the fupport of it, from the interefts
fert the 0f the congrefs. Major Andre, adjutant-general to
eongrefs t^e army, was a principal agent in this tranf-
a&ion : or, if the overture of joining the king’s troops
came firft from Arnold, this gentleman was the perfon
employed to concert the affair with him. More muff
have been originally comprehended in the fcheme than
the mere defertion of the American caufe by Arnold :
but whatever defigns had been formed for promoting
the views of the Britilh government, they were fru-
ftrated by the apprehending of Major Andre. He
was taken in difguife, after having affumed a falfe
name, on the 23d of September, by three American
fbldiers; to whom he offered coniiderable rewards if
they wrould have fuffered him to efcape, but without
effeiff. Several papers written by Arnold were-found
upon him ; and when Arnold had learnt that Major
Unhapvy Andre was feized, he found means to get on board
fate of Ma- a barge, and to efcape to one of the king’s {hips,
jyr Andre. Qeneral Waffiington referred the cafe of Major Andre
to the examination and decifion of a board of general
officers, confiding of Major-general Green, Major-ge¬
neral Lord Sterling, Major-general the Marquis de la
Fayette, Major-general the Baron de Stenben, two
other major-generals, and eight brigadier-generals.
Major Andi e was examined before them, and the par¬
ticulars of his cafe inquired into ; and they reported to
the American commander in chief, that Mr Andre
came on fhore from the Vulture {loop of war in the
night, on an interview with General Arnold, in a pri¬
vate and fecret manner; that he changed his drefswithin
the American lines ; and, under a feigned name, and in
a difguifed habit, paffed the American works at Stoney
and Verplank’s points, on the evening of the 2.2d of
September; that he was taken on the morning of the
23d at Tarry-town, he being then on his way for New
York ; and that, when taken, he had in his poffeffion
feveral papers which contained intelligence for the
enemy. They therefore determined, that he ought
to be eonfidered as a fpy from the enemy; and that,
agreeable to the law and ufage of nations, he ought
to fuffer death. Sir Henry Clinton, Lieutenant-ge¬
neral Robertfon, and the late American general Ar¬
nold, all wrote preffing letters to General Wafhington
on the occafion, in order to prevent the decifion of the
board of general officers from being put in force : But
their applications were ineffe&ual. Major Andre was
hanged at Tappan, in the province of New York, on
the 2d of O&ober. Lie met his fate with great firm-
nefs; but appeared fomewhat hurt that he was not al-
355 lowed a more military death, for which he had foli-
HIs amiable cited. He was a gentleman of very amiable quali-
charader. t;jeSj pa(i a tafte for literature and the fine arts, and
poffefied many accompliflunents. His death, therefore,
was regretted even by his enemies ; and the feverity of
the determination concerning him was much exclaimed
againft in Great Britain. It was, however, generally
acknowledged by impartial perfons,: that there was no¬
thing in the execution of this unfortunate gentleman
but what was perfeftly confonant to the rules of war.
Arnold was made a brigadier-general in the king’s
fervice, and publiffied an addrefs te the inhabitants of
o ] A M E
America, dated from New York Oftober 7, in which Ameris
he endeavoured to juftify his defertion of their caufe.
He faid, that when he firft engaged in it, he concei- Mo^vcs^
ved the rights of his country to be in danger, and that fignedb
duty and honour called him to her defence. A redrefs Arnold
of grievances was his only aim and objedt; and there- hiseundi;
fore he acquiefced unwillingly in the declaration of in¬
dependence, becaufe he thought it precipitate. But
what now induced him to defert their caufe was the
difguft he had conceived at the French alliance, and
at the refufal of congi*efs to comply with the laft terms
offered by Great Britain, which he thought equal to
all their expectations and to all their wiffies.
The Americans, however, accounted for the con-
dudt of Arnold in a different manner. They alleged
that he had fo involved himfelf in debts and difficulties
by his extravagant manner of living in America, that
he had rendered it very inconvenient for him to con¬
tinue there : that after the evacuation of Philadelphia
by the Britiffi troops, Arnold, being invefted with the
command in that city, had made the houfe of Mr
Penn, which was the beft in the city, his head-quar¬
ters. This he had furniffied in an elegant and expen-
five manner, and lived in a ftylefar beyond his income. 357
It was manifeft, they faid, that he could at firft have Differed
no great averfion to the French alliance, becaufe that f63^0/!5 s
when M. Gerard, minifter plenipotentiary from the A,neriJa,
court of France, arrived at Philadelphia in July 1778,
General Arnold early and earneftly folicited that mi-
nifter, with his whole fuite, to take apartments and
bed and board at his houfe, until a proper houfe could
be provided by the order of the congrefs. This-offer
M. Gerard accepted, and continued with him fome
weeks. The French minifter refided upwards of 14
months in. Philadelphia; during which time General
Arnold kept up the moft friendly and intimate ac¬
quaintance with him, and there was a continued inter¬
change of dinners, balls, routes, and concerts : fo that
M. Gerard muft have believed, that in General Arnold
he had found and left one of the warmeft friends the
court of France had in America. He was alfo one of
the firft in congratulating the Chevalier la Luzerne,
the fecond French minifter. About this time com¬
plaints and accufations were exhibited againft him by
the government of Philadelphia for divers mal-pra£ti-
ces ; among which charges were, the appropriation of
goods and merchandife to his own ufe, which he had
feized as Britifti property in Philadelphia in July 1778.
It was determined by a court-martial that his conduft
was highly reprehenfible ; but he was indulgently treat¬
ed, and was therefore only reprimanded by the com¬
mander in chief General Waftiington. It was in thefe
circumftances, the Americans faid, bankrupted in re¬
putation and fortune, loaded with debts, and having
a growing and expenfive family, that General Arnold
firft turned his thoughts towards joining the royal
arms.
After the defeat of General Gates by Earl Corn-AAions
wallis, that nobleman exerted himfelf to the utmoft in South Cs
extending the progrefs of the Britiftr arms, and with r°hna*,
confiderable effedl. But one enterprize, which was
conducted by Major Fergufon, proved unfuccefsful.
That officer had taken abundant pains to difeipline fome
of the Tory militia, as they were termed; and with
a party of thefe and fome Britifti troops, amounting
J 360
ipton-ents
f'%
1 11 nc.m
tops.
!j 3615
revolt of
RsVenfyl
jtaia line.
A M E [ 611 ] AM E
In the whole to about 1400 men, made incurfions in- they were enlifted, and would ferve no longer; and 0- America,
to the country. But on the 7th of Oftober he was thers, that they would not return, unlefs their grievan- ' v——^
attacked by a fuperior body of Americans at a place ces were redreffed. But at the fame time they repeat-
called King’s-mountain, and totally defeated. One edly, and in the ftrongell terms, denied being influenced
hundred and fifty were killed in the action, and 810 by the leafl difaffection to the American caufe, or ha-
made prifoners, of which 150 were wounded. Fifteen ving any intentions of deferting to the enemy,
hundred Hands of arms alfo fell into the hands of the Intelligence of this tranfadtion was focn conveyed to
Americans, whole lofs was inconfiderable. But the New York. A large body of Britiih troops were im-
following month Lieutenant-colonel Tarleton, who mediately ordered to hold themfelves in readinefs to
continued to exert his ufual adlivity and bravery, move on the Ihorteft notice, it being hoped that the
with a party of 170, chiefly cavalry, attacked and de- American revolters might be induced to join the Royal ^1
feated General Sumpter, who is faid to have had 1000 army. Meflengers were alfo fent to them from Gene-Ineffoftual
men, at a place called Black Stocks. Sumpter was ral Clinton, acquainting them that they fliould diredlly 10
wounded, and about 120 of the Americans killed, betaken under the protedtiom of the Britifh govern-r”e^eto'
wounded, or taken. Of the Britifli troops about 50 ment; that they fliould have a free pardon for all for-join the
were killed and wounded. mer offences; and that the pay due to them from the royal army.
On the 3d of September, the Mercury, a congrefs congrefs fliould be faithfully paid them, without any
packet, was taken by the Veftal, captain Keppel, near expedlation of military fervice, unlefs it fliould be vo-
Newfoundland. On board this packet was Mr Lau- luntary, upon condition of their laying down their
rens, late prefident of the congrefs, who was bound on arms and returning to their allegiance. It was alfo re-
an embaffy to Holland. He had thrown his papers commended to them to move beyond the South river ;
overboard, but great part of them were recovered with- and they were affured, that a body of Britifti troops
out having received much damage. He was brought fliould be ready to protedl them whenever they defined
to London, and examined before the privy-council ; in it. Thefe propofitions were rejected with difdain ; and
confequence of which he was committed clofe prifoner they even delivered up twro of Sir Henry Clinton’s mef-
to the Tower on the 6th of Odlober, on a charge of fengers to the congrefs. Jofeph Reed, Efq; prefident
high treafon. His papers were delivered to the mini- of the ftate of Penfylvania, afterwards repaired to them
ftry, and contributed to facilitate a rupture with Hoi- at Prince-towm, and an accommodation took place :
land, as among them was found the Iketch of a treaty fuch of them as had ferved out their full terms were .
of amity and commerce between the republic of Hoi- permitted to return to their own homes, and others a-
land and the United States of America. gain joined the American army, upon receiving fatis-
At the beginning of the year 1781, an affair hap- factory affurances that their grievances fliould be re-
pened in America, from which expedlations were for- dreffed.
med by Sir Henry Clinton, that fome confiderable ad- Lord Cornwallis now began to make very vigorous Exertions
vantage might be derived to the Royal caufe. The exertions, in order to penetrate into North Carolina, o11'orcl
long continuance of the w'ar, and the difficulties under On the nth of January his Lordfhip’s army was
which the congrefs laboured, had prevented their trpops motion, and advancing towards that province; but was Carolina,
from being properly fupplied with neceffaries and con- fomewhat delayed by an attempt made by the Ameri-
veniences. In confequence of this, on the firll of Ja- cans, under General Morgan, to make themfelves ma-
nuary, the American troops that were hutted at Morris fters of the valuable diftndf of Ninety-fix. In order
town, and who formed what wag called the Penfylvania to prevent this, Lord Cornwallis detached Lieutenant-
line, turned out, being in number about 1300, and de- colonel Tarleton, with 300 cavalry, 300 light infantry,
dared, that they would ferve no longer, unlefs their the 7th regiment, the firft battalion of the 71ft regi-
grievances were redreffed, as they had not received ment, and two three-pounders, to oppofe the progrefs
their pay, or been furniffied with the neceffary cloath- of Morgan, not doubting but that he would be able to
mg or provilions. It is faid that they were fomewhat perform this fervice effe&ually. The Britiih troops
inflamed with liquor, in confequence of rum having came up with the Americans under General Morgan
been diftributed to them more liberally than ufual, on the 17th of January. The Americans were drawn
New-year’s day being confidered as a kind of feilival. up in an open wood, and having been lately joined by
A riot enfued, in which an officer was killed, and four fome militia, were more .numerous than the Britifli
wounded ; five or fix of the infurgents were alfo wound- troops under Lieutenant-colonel Tarleton; but the lat-
ed. They then collected the artillery, ftores, provifions, ter were fo much better difeiplined, that they had the
and waggons, and marched out of the camp. They utmoft confidence of obtaining a fpeedy vidtosy. The
paffed by the quarters of General Wayne, who fent a attack was begun by the firft line of infantry, confift-
meffage to them, requefting them to defift, or the con- .ing of the 7th regiment, and a corps of light infantry
fequences would prove fatal. They refufed, and pro- with a troop of cavalry placed on each flank. The firft
ceeded on their march till the evening, when they took battalion of the 71ft and the remainder of the cavalry
poft on an advantageous piece of ground, and elected formed the referve. The American line foon gave way,
officers from among themfelves. On the fecond, they and their militia quitted the field ; upon which the
marched to Middlebrook, and on the third to Prince- Royal troops, fuppofing the viftory already gained, en-
tawn, where they fixed their quarters. On that day a gaged with ardour in the purfuit, and were thereby
flag of truce was fent to them from the officers of the thrown into fome diforder. General Morgan’s corps,
American camp, with a meffage, defiring to know what who were fuppofed to have been routed, then imme-
were their intentions. Some of them anfwered, that diately faced about, and threw in a heavy fire upon the
they had already ferved longer than the time for which King’s troops, which occafioned the utmoft confufion
4 H 2 amongft
A M E [ 61
America, amongfl: them ; and they were at length totally defeat-
ed by the Americans. Four hundred of the BritHh
Defeat^of infantry were either killed, wounded, or taken prifon-
Col. Tarle- ers: the lofs of the cavalry was much lefs confiderable;
ton. but the two three-pounders fell into the hands of the
Americans, together with the colours of the 7th regi-
ment; and all the detachment of royal artillery were
either killed or wounded in defence of their colours.
Lieutenant-colonel Tarleton, however, made another
effort; having affembled about 50 of his cavalry, with
which he charged and repulfed Colonel Wafliington’s
horfe, retook his baggage, and killed the Americans
_ who were appointed to guard it. He then retreated
in^onfe-"5 to Hamilton’s ford, near the mouth of Bullock’s creek,
quence of carrying with him part of his baggage, and deftroying
that event, the remainder.
This defeat of the troops under Tarleton was a fe-
vere ftroke to Lord Cornwallis, as the lofs of his light
infantry was a great difadvantage to him. The day
after that event, he employed in colleding the remains
of Tarleton’s corps, and in endeavouring to form a
jun&ion with General Leflie, Who had been ordered to
march towards him with a body of Bi itifh troops from
Wynnefborough. Confiderable exertions were then
made by part of the army, without baggage, to retake
the prifoners in the hands of the Americans, and to
intercept General Morgan’s corps on its retreat to the
Catawba. But that American officer, after his defeat
of Tarleton, had made forced marches up into the conn-
try, and croffed the Catawba the evening before a great
rain, which fwelled the river to fuch a degree, as to
prevent the Royal army from croffing for feveral days;
during which time the Britiffi prifoners were got over
the Yadkin ; whence they proceeded to Dan River,
which they alfo palled, and dn the 14th of February
,.55 had reached Court-houfe in the province of Virginia.
J.ord Corn Lord Cornwallis employed a halt of two. days in
vallis collecting fome flour, and in deltroying fupeifluous
thro’North ^ab?afcrc anc* waggons, excepting thofe laden
Carolina. 'v>th hofpital {lores, fait, and ammunition, and four re¬
ferred empty in readinefs for lick or wounded. Being
thus freed from all uimeceffary incumbrances, be march¬
ed through North Carolina with great rapidity, and
penetrated to the remoteft extremities of that province
on the banks of the Dan. His progrelh was lofnetimes
impeded by parties of the militia, and fome Ikirmilhcs
enfued, but he met with no very confidefable oppoli-
tion. On the firft of February, the King’s troops
crofled the Catawba at M‘Cowan’s Ford, where Gene¬
ral Davidfon, with a party of American militiai, was
polled, in order to oppofe their pafiage ; but he falling
by the firft difeharge, the Royal troops made good
their landing, and the militia retreated. When Lord
Cornwallis arrived at Hilllborough, he eredled the
king’s llandard, and invited, by proclamation, all loyal
fubje<Sls to repair to it, and to Hand forth and take an
a&ive part in affifting his Lordfnip to reftore order and
government. He had been taught to believe that the
king’s friends were numerous in that part of the coun¬
try : but the event did not confirm the truth of the
reprefentations that had been given. The Royalills
were but few in number, and fome of them too timid
to join the King’s ftandard. There were, indeed, a-
bout 200 who were proceeding to Hilllborough, under
Colonel Pyle, in order to avow their attachment to the
2 ] A M E
Royal caufe ;: but they were met accidentally, and fur- Americ®,
rounded by a detachment from the American army, by '
whom a number of them are faid to have been killed
when they were begging for quarter, without making
the leall refiftance. Meanwhile General Greene was
marching with great expedition with the troops under
his command, in order to form a jun£lion with o-
ther corps of American troops, that he might thereby
be enabled'to put fome effectual flop to the progrefsof
Lord Cornwallis.
In other places fome confiderable advantages were
obtained by the royal arms. On the 4th of January,
fome Ihips of war with a number of tranfports, on board ,
which was a large body of troops under the command Large
o£ Brigadier-general Arnold, arrived at We Hover, a- quant i tic*
bout 140 miles from the Capes of Virginia, where t^iecfn^ftoresfi
troops immediately landed and marched to Richmond ; deftroyed’
which they readied without oppofition, the militia by Arnold 1
that was collected having retreated on their approach.
Lieutenant-colonel Simcoe marched from hence with
a. detachment of the Britilh troops to Wellham, where
they deftroyed one of the fineft founderies for cannon
in America, and a large quantity of {lores and cannon.
General Arnold, on his arrival at Richmond, found
there large quantities of fait, rum, fail-cloth, tobacco,
and other merchandize, and that part of thefe commo¬
dities which was public property he deftroyed. The
Britilh troops afterwards attacked and difperfed fome
fmall parties of the Americans, took fome llores and a
few pieces of cannon, and on the 20th of the fame
month marched into Portfmouth. On the 25th, Cap¬
tain Barclay, with feveral ffiips of war, and a body of
troops-under the command of Major Craig, arrived in
Cape Fear river. The troops landed about nine miles
from Wilmington, and on the 28th entered that town.
It was underilood that their having pofleflion of that
town, and being mailers of Cape Fear river, would be
productive of very beneficial effe&s to Lord Cornwal¬
lis’s army.
General Greene having effedled a jundlion about the
10th of March with a'continental regiment of what |
were called eighteen months, men^ and two large bodies Different*
. of militia belonging to Virginia and North Carolina,A”1 millic*
formed a refolution to attack the Britilh troops under
the command of Lord Cornwallis. The American
army inarched from the High Rock Ford on the 12th
of the month, and on the 14th arrived at Guildford.
Lord Cornwallis, from the information he had received
of the motions of the American general, concluded
what were his deligns. As they approached more
nearly to each other, a few Ikirmilhes enfued between
fome advanced parties, in which the king’s troops had
the advantage. On the morning of the 15th, Lord
Cornwallis marched with his troops at day-break in j I
order to meet the Americans or to attack them in their
encampment. About four miles from Guildford, the
advanced guard of the Britifh army, commanded by
Lieutenant-colonel Tarleton, fell in with a corps of
the Americans, confiding of Lieutenant-colonel Lee’s
legion, fome Back Mountain men and Virginian mili¬
tia, with whom he had a fevere fkirmilh, but whom he
at length obliged to retreat.
The greater part of the country in which the adlion
happened is a wildernefs, with a few cleared fields in-
terfperfed. The American army, which was fuperior
5 to
A M E
[ til 1
A M E
"I America, to the royal in point of numbers, was polled on a ri- Britifh troops having at length b-#\en the fecond Mary- America,
fing ground about a mile and a half from Guildford land regiment, and turned the left flank of the Ame- L—-v—
court-houfe. It was drawn up in three lines: the front ricahs, got into the rear of the Virginian brigade, and
line was compofed of the North Carolinian militia, appeared to be gaining their right, which would have
under the command of the generals Butter and Eaton j encircled the whole of the continental troops, when
the fecond line of Virginian militia, commanded by General Greene thought it prudent to order a retreat,
the generals Stephens and Lawfon, forming two bri- Many of the American militia difperfed in the woods;
gades; the third line, conlilling of two brigades, one but the continental troops retreated in good order to
of Virginia and one of Maryland continental troops, the Reedy Fork River, and crofled at the ford about
commanded by General Huger and Colonel Williams, three miles from the field of a&ion, and there halted.
Lieutenant-colonel Walhington, with the dragoons of When they had colie&ed their ftragglers, they retreat-
the firft and third regiments, a detachment of light in- edto the iron-works, ten miles diftant from Guildford,
fantry compofed of continental troops, and a regiment where they encamped. They loft their artillery and
of riflemen under Colonel Lynch, formed a corps of two waggons laden with ammunition. It was a. hard-
obfervation for the fecurity of their right flank. Lieu-
tenant-coloner Lee, with his legion, a detachment of
light infantry, and a corps of riflemen under Colonel
Campbell, formed a corps of obfervation for the fecu¬
rity of their left flank. The attack of the American
army was directed to be made by Lord Cornwallis ii
fought action, and lafted an hour and a half. Of the
Britifti troops, the lofs, as ftated by Lord Cornwallis,
was.532 killed, wounded, and miffing. General Greene,
in his account of the adlion tranfmitted to the con-
grefs, ftated the lofs of the continental troops to a-
mount to 329 killed, wounded, and miffing; but he
the following order : On the right, the regiment of made no eftimate of the lofs of the militia. Lieute-
Bofe and the 71ft regiment, led by Major-general nant-colonel Stuart was killed in the adlion ; and
Leflie, and fupported by the firft battalion of guards;
©n the left, the 23d and 33d regiments, led by Lieu¬
tenant-colonel Webfter, and fupported by the grena¬
diers and fecond battalion of guards commanded by
Brigadier-general 0‘Hara; the Yagers and light in¬
fantry of the guards remained in a wood on the left
Lieutenant-colonel Webfter, and the captains Schutz,
Maynard, and Goodriche, died of the wounds that
they received in it. Brigadier-general O'Hara, Bri¬
gadier-general Howard, and Lieutenant-colonel Tarle-
ton, were alfo wounded. Of the Americans the prin¬
cipal officer’ killed was Major Anderfon of the Mary-
of the guns, and the cavalry in the road, ready to a£t land line, and the generals Stephens and Huger were
as circumftances might require.
About half an hour after c
1 the afternoon, the
wounded.
The Britiffi troops underwent great hardfhips in the Hardfliips
aftion commenced by a cannonade, which lafted about courfe of this campaign; and in a letter of Lord Corn- endured by
/ „ . ’ . . . .... T 43 ’ „ . . .... . tn-u-nm-i
twenty minutes ; when the Britifh troops advanced ii
three columns and attacked the North Carolinian bri-
wallis’s to Lord George Germain, dated March 17th, ^
he obferved,- that “ the foldiers had been two days
gades with great vigour, and foon obliged part of without bread.” His lord ft; ip quitted Guildford three
thefe troops, who behaved very ill, to quit the field:
but the Virginia militia gave them a warm reception,
and kept up a heavy fire for a long time, till being
beaten back the aftion became general almoft every
where. The American corps under the lieutenant-
colonels Waffiington and Lee were alfo warmly enga-
days after the battle which was fought in that place ;
and on the 7th .of April arrived in the neighbourhood
of Wilmington. Soon after. General Greene, not-
withftanding his late defeat, endeavoured to make fome
vigorous attempts againft the king’s forces in South
Carolina. Lord Rawdon had been appointed to de-
;ed, and did confi.derable execution. Lieutenant- fend the Poll of Camden, with about 800 Britilh and
■ t-.370
| The Ame-
i; ricans de-
1 feated.
colonel Tarleton had clrreftions to keep his cavalry
compaft, and not to charge without pofitive orders,
excepting to protedl any of the corps from the moft
evident danger of being defeated. The exceffive thick-
nefs of the woods rendered the Britifh bayonets of little
ufe, and enabled the broken corps of Americans to
make frequent Hands with an irregular fire. The fe¬
cond battalion of the guards firft gained the clear
ground near Guildford court-houfe, and found a corps
of continental infantry, fuperior in number, formed in
an open field on the left of the road. Defirous of fig-
nalizing themfelves, they immediately attacked and foon
defeated them, taking two fix-pounders: but as theypur-
fued the Americans into the wood with too much ardour,
they were thrown into confufioh by a heavy fire, and
inftantly charged and driven back into -the field by
Lieutenant-colonel Wafhington’s dragoons, with the
lofs of the fix-pounders they had taken. But the A-
merican cavalry were afterwards repulfed, and the two
fix pounders again fell into the hands of the Bntifh
provincials; and on the 19th of April General Greene
appeared before that place with a large body of conti¬
nentals and militia. He found it, however, impoffible
to attempt to ftorm the town with any profpedt 6f
fuccefs; and therefore endeavoured to take fuch a po-
fition as fhould enduce the Britifh troops to fally from
their works. Fie pofted the Americans about a mile
from the toryn, on an eminence which was-covered
with woods, and flanked on the left by an impaffable
fwamp. But on the morning of the 25th, Lord Raw¬
don marched out of Camden, and with great gallantry „ _ ,
attacked General Greene in his c‘amp. The Ameri- General
cans made a vigorous refiftance, but were at laft com- Green at-
pelled to give way; and the purfuit is faid to.have jftckel1 in,
been continued three miles. For fome time after the j^ordRaw-
aftion commenced, General Gates entertained great,ion,andde-
hopes of defeating the Britifh troops ; in which, as feated.
the Americans were fuperior in point of numbers, he
would probably have fucceeded, had not fome capital
military errors been committed by one or two of the
troops. The fpirited exertions of Brigadier-general officers who ferved under him. On the American fide
O'Hara and of Lieutenant-colonel Tarleton, greatly
contributed to bring the aftion to a termination. The
Colonel Wafhington had behaved extremely well in
this action, having made upwards of 200 of the Eng-
liffi.
A M E
[ 614 ]
A M E
America, lifh prifoners, with 1 o or 12 officers, before he percei- expreffions refpe&iilg the conduct of the admiral were America.
ved that the Americans were abandoning the field of by no means equivocal. ' 
On the 16th of March 1781, a partial a&ion hap-be_
pened off the Capes of Virginia, between the fleet un- tween the
der Admiral Arbuthnot, confifting of feven (hips ofBridlhand
the line and one fifty-gun (hip, and a French fquadron, ^iench_
confifting of the fame number off ftiips of the line and capes of
one forty-gun fliip. Some of the ffiips in both fleets Virginia,
received confiderable damage in the action, and the
lofs of the Englilh was 30 killed and 73 wounded;
but no ftiip was taken on either fide. The Britifh fleet
had, however, confiderably the advantage; as the
battle. The lofs of the Englifh was about xoo killed
and wounded,' Upwards of 100 of the Americans
were taken prifoners ; and, according to the account
publilhed by General Greene, they had 126 killed and
wounded. After this a&ion, Greene retreated to
Rugeley’s mills, 12 miles from Camden, in order to
colleft his troops and wait for reinforcements.
Notwithilanding the advantage which Lord Rawdon
, had obtained over General Greene at Camden, that
nobleman foon after found it neceffary to quit that
poll; and the Americans made themfelves mailers of French were obliged to retire, and were fuppofed to
feveral other polls that were occupied by the king’s be prevented by this aftion from carrying troops upon
troops, and the garrifons of which were obliged to fur-
render themfelves prifoners of war. Thefe troops were
afterwards exchanged under a cartel which took place
between Lord Cornwallis and General Greene for the
releafe of all prifoners of war in the fouthern diltrict.
,7j After thefe events, General Greene laid clqfe fiege to
Afterwards Ninety-fix, which was confidered as the moll corn-
lay-, fiege to landing and important of all the polls intheback-
country; and on the 19th of June he attempted to
iy tsrepui- porm ty,e garrjfon? hut was repulfed by the gallantry
led.'
the Chefapeak, in order to attack General Arnold and
impede the progrefs of Lord Cornwallis. But it was
an unfortunate circumilance, that fome time before
this engagement the Romulus, a Ihip of 44 guns, was
captured by the French off the Capes of Virginia.
Lord Cornwallis, after his victory over General
Green at Guildford, proceeded, as we have feen, to
Wilmington, where he arrived on the 7th of April. pr0clama-
But before he reached that place, he publifhed a pro- tion by
clamation, calling upon all loyal fubjefts to Hand forth bord Co: n-
of the Britilh troops, with the lofs, as it is faid, of and take an adlive part in relloring good order and wa*lis•
75 killed and 150 wounded. General Greene then government; and declaring to all perfons who had en-
aifed the fiege, and retired with his army behind the gaged in the prefent rebellion againft his majefty’s au-
Saluda, to a ftrong fituation, within 16 miles of Ninety-
fix.
On the 18th of April a large body of Britifh troops,
under the command of Major-general Philips and Bri¬
gadier-general Arnold, embarked at Portfmouth in
Virginia, in order to proceed on an expedition for the
purpofe of deflroying fome of the American ftores. A
party of light-infantry were fent 10 or 1 2 miles up the
Chickahomany; where they dellroyed feveral armed
fhips, fundry warehoufes, and the American flate fhip-
thority, but who were now convinced of their error,
and defirous of returning to their duty and allegiance,
that if they would furrender themfelves with their arms
and ammunition at head-quarters, or to the officer
commanding in the dillriiSl contiguous to their refpec-
tive places of refidence, on or before the 20th of that
month, they would be permitted to return to their
homes upon giving a military parole; they would be
protected, in their perfons and properties, from all
forts of violence from the Britifh troops; and would
yards. At Peterfburgh, the Englifh deflroyed 4000 be reftored, as foon as poifible, to all the privileges of
x hogfheads of tobacco, one fhip, and a number of fmall legal and conllitutional government. But it does not
veffels on the flocks and in the river. At Cheflerfield
court-houfe, they burnt a range of barracks for 2000
•men and 300 barrels of flour. At a place called
OJborn's, they made themfelves mailers of feveral vef-
appear that any confiderable number of the Americans
were allured by thefe promifes to give any evidences of
their attachment to the royal caufe.
On the 20th of May, his Lordfhip arrived at Peterf-
fels loaded with cordage and flour, and deflroyed about burgh in Virginia, where he, joined a body of Britifh
2000 hogfheads of tobacco, and fundry veffels
funk and burnt. At Warwick, they burnt a maga¬
zine of 500 barrels of flour, fome fine mills belonging
troops that had been under the command of Major-
general Philips; but the command of which, in con-
fequence of the death of that officer, had devolved up-
to Colonel Carey, a large range of public rope-walks on Brigadier-general Arnold. Before this junction he
and flore-houfes, tan and barb houfes full of hides and had encountered confiderable inconveniences from the
bark, and great quantities of tobacco. A like deflruc- difficulty of procuring provifions and forage ; fo that
tion of flores and goods was made jn other parts of in a letter to Sir Henry Clinton, he informed him,
Virginia.
From tire account already given of fome of the
principal military operations of the prefent year in A-
S75 inerica, it appears, that though confiderable advanta-
Uducky ges had been gained by the royal troops, yet no event
n.ifurrler- had taken place from which it could rationally be ex-
i>etween Pe,fle(l that the final termination of the war would be
the Britilh favourable to Great Britain. It was alfo a difadvan-
a lmii al and tageous circumilance, that there was a mifunderftanding
general. between Admiral Arbuthnot and Sir Henry Clinton,
and a mutual difapprobation of each other’s condudl.
This was manifeftfrom their difpatches to government,
and efpecially from thofe of General Clinton, whofe
that his cavalry wanted every thing, and his infantry
every thing but fliocs. He added, that he had expe¬
rienced the dillreffes of marching hundreds of miles in
a country chiefly holtile, without one adlive or ufeful
friend, without intelligence, and without communica¬
tion with any part of the country.
On the 26th of June, about fix miles from Williamf-
burgh, Lieutenant-colonel Simcoe, and 350 of the
queen’s rangers, with 80 mounted yagers, were at- Different
tacked by a much fuperior body of the Americans; action*,
but whom they repulfed with great gallantry and with
equal fuccefs, making four officers and twenty private
men prifoners. The lofs of the Americans in this ac¬
tion
3
feated by
Col. Stuart.
A M E [615] A M E
■ tion is {aid to have been upwards of 120, and that of preflive of this intention, fell into the hands of Sir America..
the Britifli troops not more than 40. Henry, which were manifeftly written with a de- ,M‘
On the 6th of July an adtion happened near the fign that they fhouid be intercepted, and only with a
Green Springs in Virginia, between a reconnoitring view to amufe- and deceive the Britifli general. The
party of the Americans under General Wayne, amount- projedl was fuccefsful j and by a variety of judicious
ing to about 800, and a large part of the Britifli army military manoeuvres, in which he completely out-ge-
under Lord Cornwallis; in which the Americans had neralled the Britifli commander, he increafcd his ap-
127 killed and wounded, and the lofs of the royal prehenfions about New York, and prevented him from
troops is fuppofed to have been confiderably greater, fending proper affillance to Lord Cornwallis. Having
It was an adtion in which no fmall degree of military for a confiderable time kept Sir Henry Clinton in per •
fkill and courage was exhibited by the Americans. In petual alarm in New York, though with an army much
a variety of Ikirmiflies, the Marquis la Fayette very inferior to the garrifon-of that city, General Walking•
much diftinguiflied himfelf, and difplayed the utmoft ton fuddenly quitted his camp at White Plains, croffed
ardour in the American caufe, the Delaware, and marched towards Virginia, apparenp-
In South Carolina, an adtion happened on the 9th ly with a defign to attack Lord Cornwallis. Sir Henry
of September near the Eata Springs, between a large Clinton then received information,, that the Count de
body of Britifli troops under the command of Lieute- Grafle, with a large French fleet, was expedted every
nant-colonel Stuart and a much fuperior body of A- moment in the Chefapeak, In order to co-operate with
mericans, faid to amount to more than 4000, under General Wafhington. He immediately, endeavoured, InefFe&ual
the command ©f General Greene. It was an obftinate both by land and water, to communicate this informa-ajleri’i^ t0
engagement, and lafted near two hours; but the Ame- tion to Lord Cornwallis; and alfo fent him affurances,
ricans were defeated, and two of their fix pounders fell that he would either reinforce him by every poffible
into the hands of the Englifli. The lofs, however, of means in his power, or make the heft diverfion he could
the royal troops was very confiderable ; amounting to in his favour. In thh mean time, Lord Cornwallis had
more than 400 killed and wounded, and upwards of taken poffeflion of: the pofts of York-town and Glou-
200 miffing. eefter in Virginia, where He fortified himfelf in the baft
In the courfe of the fame month, General Arnold manner he was able.
3P0 was fent on an expedition againft. New London, in On the 28th of Auguft, Sir Samuel Hood, willr a
Expedition Connecticut, where he dellroyed a great part of the fquadron from the Weil-Indies, joined the fquadron'
jlg^ Lon ^1'PP*n£’ an^ an immenfe quantity of naval ftores, Eu- under the command of Admiral Graves before New
i don. ropean manufactures, and Eaft and Weft India com- York. It was then neceffary, on account of the fitua-
modities. The town itfelf was alfo burnt, which is tion of Lord Cornwallis, that they fliould immediately
faid to have been unavoidable, on account of the ex- proceed to the Chefapeak ; but feme time appears to .
plofions of great quantities of gun-powder which hap- have, been needlefsly loft, though Admiral Hood was
pened to be in the ftore-houfes that were fet on extremely anxious that no delay might.be made. They
fire. A fort, of which it was thought neceflary to gain arrived, however, in the Chefapeak,. on the 5th of Sep-.
pofieffion in this expedition,, was not taken without tember, with 19 flops of the line; where they found *
confiderable lofs. This was fort Grifwold ; which was the Count de Grafie, who had anchored in that bay on :
defended by the Americans with great gallantry, and the 30th of Auguft with 24 fliips of the line. The 3^3
the afiault was made by the Englifli with equal brave- French admiral had previoufly landed a large body of Aftion he*
ry. The Britifli troops entered the works with fixed troops, which had been brought from Rhode Ifland,
bayonets, and were oppofed with great vigour by the and who immediately marched to join the American f^erich^
garrifon with long fpears. After a moft obftinate de- army under General Wafliington. The Britifli and fleetsr.fFrfie
fence of near forty minutes, the aflailants gained'pof- French fleets came to an aCtion on the fame day in Chefapeak,
feffion of the fort, in which 85 Americans were found which the former arrived in the Chefapeak. On-board
dead, and 60 wounded, moft of them mortally. Of the Britifli fleet 90 were killed and 246 wounded: .
the Britifli troops Major Montgomery was killed by a fome of the fliips were greatly damaged in the en-
fpear in entering the American works; and 192, meu. gagement; and the Terrible, a 74 gun (hip, was fo
381 were alfo killed and wounded in this expedition. much (battered, that: it was afterwards found,neceflary
I Critical fi- Notwithftandingthefignal advantages that Lord Corn-., to fet fire to it. That this aftion had not been favour-
1“^ walks had obtained over the Americans, his fituation in able to the Englifli, was manifeft from the event: the
1 ^aiiis> Virginia began by degrees to be very critical; and the fleets continued in fight of each other for five days fuc-
rather becaufe he did not receive thole reinforcements ceffively, and fometimes.were very near; but at length
j and fupplies from Sir Henry Clinton, of which he had the French fleet all anchored within the Cape, fo as to
formed expectations, and which he conceived to be block up the paflage. Admiral Graves, who was the
neceffary to the fuccefs of his operations., Indeed, the commander in chief, then called a council-of war, in
commander in chief was prevented from fending thofe which it was refolded that the fleet fliould proceed to
reinforcements to Lord Cornwallis, which he other wife New York, that the fliips might-be there put into the
might have done, by his fears refpeefting New York,, bell Hate for the fervice : and thus were the French
againft which he entertained, great-apprehenfions that left mailers-of the navigation of the Chefapeak.
General Walhington intended to make a very formi- B-efore the news of this a&ion had reached New
dable attack. In fad, that able American general York, a council of war was held there, in which it was
appears to have taken much pains, and to have em- refqlved, that 5000 men Ihould be embarked on board,
ployed great finefle, in order to lead Sir Henry the king’s fliips, in order to proceed to the affiftance
Clinton to entertain this imagination. Letters, ex- of Lord Cornwallis. But when it was known that the
French,
A M E [
Arnarica. French were abfolute mailers of the navigation of the
S/—-J Chefapeak, it was thought inexpedient to fend off that
reinforcement immediately. In another council of war,
it was refolved, that as Lord Cornwallis had provifions
to lail him till the end of Odlober, it was advifable to
wait for more favourable accounts from Admiral Graves,
or for the arrival of Admiral Digby, who was expedl-
ed with three {hips of the line. It was not then known
at New York, that Admiral Graves had determined to
leturn with the whole fleet to tlvat port.
Danger of In the mean time, the moil effedlual meafures were
.Lor! Corn- adopted by General Walin'ngton for furrounding the
treafej11* Brithh army under Lord Cornwallis. A large body
’ of French troops under the command of Lieutenant-
General the Count de Rochambeau, with a very con-
fiderable train of artillery, afliiled in the enterprife.
The Americans amounted to near 8000 continentals
and 5000 militia. General Waihington was inveiled
with the authority of commander in chief of thefe com¬
bined forces of America and France. On the 29th of
September, the inveilment of York Town was com¬
plete, and the Britifli army quite blocked up. The day
following, Sir Henry Clinton wrote a letter to Lord
Cornwallis, containing affurances that he would do
every thing in his power to relieve him, and fome in¬
formation concerning the Heps that would be taken for
that purpofe. A duplicate of this letter was fent to
his Lordihip by Major Cochran on the 3d of Odlober.
That gentleman, who was a very gallant officer, went
in a veflel to the Capes, and made his way to Lord
Cornwallis, through the whole French fleet, in an open
boat. He got to York Town on the 10th of the
month ; and foon after his arrival had his head carried
off by a cannon ball.
After the return of Admiral Graves to New York,
a council of war was held, confifting of flag and gene¬
ral officers ; in which it was refolved, that a large body
of troops ffiould be embarked on board the king’s fliips
as foon as they were refitted, and that the exer-
tions of both fleet and army fhould be made in order
Late arrival to form a jundlion with Lord Cornwallis. Sir Henry
«f General Clinton himfclf embarked on board the fleet, with up-
Clinton. wards of 7000 troops,, on the 18th ; they arrived off
Cape Charles, at the entrance of the Chefapeak, on
the 24th, where they received intelligence that Lord
Cornwallis had been obliged to capitulate five days
386 before.
Lord Corn- It was on the 19th of Odlober that Lord Cornwal-
wallis’s ar- lis furrendered himfelf and his whole army, by capitu-
toTurren*1 ^at‘on» Pn^oners to the combined armies of America
£jcr> ’ and France, under the command of General Waftiing-
ton. He made a defence fuitable to the charadler he
had before acquired, for courage and military fltill;
but was compelled to fubmit to untoward circumllan-
ces and fuperior numbers. It was agreed by the ar¬
ticles of capitulation, that the Britiffi troops were to
be prifoners to the United States of America, and
the feamen to the French king, to whofe officers alfo
the Britifh veffels found at York Town and Glouceller
were to be delivered up. The Britiffi prifoners amount¬
ed to more than 6000 ; but many of them, at the
time of furrender, were incapable of duty. A con-
fiderable number of cannon, and a large quantity of
military flores, fell into the hands of the Americans
on this occafion.
N° 16.
16 ] A M E
As no rational expectation now remained of a fubju- America.
gation of the colonies, the military operations that fuo- < J
ceeded in America were of little confequence. Some
ineonfiderable adlkms and fleirmiffies did indeed take
place after that event; in which the,refugees chiefly
diftinguiflred themfelves, and difeovered an inveterate ^87 ‘
animofity againft the Americans. On the 5th of May Sir Guy |
1782, Sir Guy Carleton arrived at New York, being Carleton f]
appointed to the command of the Britifh troops in A- ^ I
merica in the room of Sir Henry Clinton. Two days York v. ith
after his arrival, he wrote a letter to General Waffiing- powers to
ton, acquainting him, that Admiral .Digby was joinedtreat °f J
with himfelf in a commiffion to treat of peace with itace- |
the people of America ; tranfmitting to him, at the
fame time, fome papers tending to manifefl the pacific
difpofition of the government and people of Britain
towards thofe of America. He alfo defired a paffport
for Mr Morgan, who was appointed to tranfmit a fi-
milar letter of compliment to the congrefs. General
Wafhington declined figning any paffport till he had
taken the opinion of congrefs upon that meafure ; and
by them he was diredled to refufe any paffport for fuch
a purpofe. However, another letter was fent to Ge¬
neral Wafhington, dated the 2d of Auguft, frgned by
Sir Guy Carleton and Rear-admiral Digby, in which
they informed him, that they were acquainted by au¬
thority that negociations for a general peace had alrea¬
dy commenced at Paris ; that Mr Grenville was inveil¬
ed with full powers to treat with all the parties at war;
and was then at Pa- is in the execution of his commif¬
fion. They-farther informed , him, that his Majefty,
in order to remove all obftacles to that peace which he
fo ardently wifhed to reflore, had commanded his mi-
nillers to direft Mr. Grenville, that the independency
of the thirteen provinces ffiould be propofed by him, in
the firfl inllance, inflead of making it the condition of 3gg t
a general treaty'. But fome jealoufies were entertain- Refolutiom
ed by the Americans, that it was the defign of the of cont re
Britiffi court either to difunite them, or to bring them 10 co,l e*
to treat of a peace feparately from their ally the king
of France : they therefore refolved, that any man, or
body of men, who ffiould prefume to make any fepa-
rate or partial convention or agreement with the king
of Great Britain, or wfith any commiffioner or com-
miffioners under the crown of Great Britain, ought to
be confidered and treated as open and avowed enemies
of the United States of America; and alfo that thofe
Hates could not with propriety hold any conference or
treaty with any commiffioners on the part of Great
Britain, unlefs they ffiould, as a preliminary thereto-,
either withdraw their fleets and armies, or elfe, in po-
fitive or exprefs terms, acknowledge the independence
of the faid Hates. They likewife refolved, that any
propofitions which might be made by the court of
Great Britain, in any manner tending to violate the
treaty fubfiHing between them and the king of France,
ought to be treated with every mark of indignity and
contempt. „ ■
In the month of June, the town of Savannah, and Different
the whole province of Georgia, were evacuated by the pla.-es eva
king’s troops ; as was alfo Charleflown, South Ca- c“atf? il}r
rolina, about the clofe of the year. In the mean time, * e ingL
 * 1—?  :r. 1 troops.
the negociations for peace being continued, provilional
articles of peace were figned at Paris on the 30th of
November by the commiffioner of his Britannic Ma-
jefly
A M E
39°
Indepen¬
dency of
H' America
acknow¬
ledged.
jelly and the American commiffioners, in which his
^ Majefty acknowledged the united colonies of New
Hampfhire, Maflachufets Bay, Rhode Ifland, and Pro¬
vidence Plantations, Connefticut, New York, New
Jerfey, Penfylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia,
North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, to be
“ free, fovereign, and independent ftates.” TheyJiad
conftituted themfelves fuch on the 4th of July 1776 ;
they had been acknowledged fuch by the French king
on the 30th of January 1778, when he concluded with
them a treaty of amity and commerce; Holland had
•acknowledged them as fuch April 19th 1782; Sweden
acknowledged them as fuch February 5th 1783 ; Den¬
mark the 25th February, Spain in March, and Ruffia
in July, the fame year.
According to the report of the committee appoint¬
ed for that purpofe, the Foreign Debt of the United
States incurred by the war, amounted to 7,885,085
[ 617 l
A M E
delegate for more than three years, in any term of fix America
years ; nor is any perfon being a delegate, capable of AmJ!.jCU4
holding any office under the United States, for which
he, or any other for his benefit, ffiall receive any falary,
fees, or emolument of any kind. In determining que-
ftions in the United States, in congrefs affembled, each
ftate is to have one vote. Every ftate is to abide by
the determinations of the United States in congrefs af¬
fembled, on all queftions which are fubmitted to them
by the confederation. The articles of confederation
are to be inviolably obferved by every ftate, and the
union is to be perpetual; nor is any alteration, at any
time hereafter, to be made in any of them, unlefs fuch
alteration be agreed to in a congrefs of the United
States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legiflature
of every ftate.
The ftates have been fince much employed in deli- Delibera-
berations concerning the new-modelling of their go- tions for
men and ^°^ars> and the Domejiic Debt to 34,115,290, total vernment, in order to eftabliffi fuch a form as may be _ , .
treafure by at 4s’6ch each, equal to 9,450,084 1. Sterling, the refpefted abroad, and prove falutary for domeftic
the war. intereft of which at 6 per cent, is 567,005!. But the peace and fecurity. But the feveral objects of their Vcrnmeut.
coft to Great Britain is moderately computed at attention are fo various and diffufive, as to render it
115,654,914 1. and the additional annual burthen by impoffible to give even a fummary view of the whole,
it 4,557,575 1. fince January 1775. As to the lofs of They are defirous to preferve a republican or denfo-
men during the unhappy war, the States of America, crative government, yet in fome meafure fimilar to the
according to authentic eftimates, loft by the fword and government from which they have feparated. As a
in prifon near 8o,oco men ; and by the Britifh returns parallel to our King, Lords, and Commons, it has been
39*
General
confequen-
at New York, the number of foldiers killed in the fer-
vice amounted to 43,633.
propofed to have a Prefident, a Senate, and a Houfe
of Reprefentatives; with this difference, that the Pre-
Such was the end of the conteft between Great Bri- fident and Senate are elective : The Prefident to be the
■ tain and America: A conteft in which the latter at- grand executor of the laws; Foreign treaties already
tained to an independent rank among the nations, that made, or which may hereafter be made, to be regard-
may be productive of more important confequences ed as the fupreme law of the land.
than can yet be forefeen; and in which the former,
happily for herfelf, was forced to relinquilh a fove-
The whole territory of the United States contains
by computation a million of fquare miles, in which are
reignty that ferved only to reprefs her own internal 640 millions of acres. Of thefe, 51 millions are wa-
induftry, and retard her profperity. She has, in the ter; deducing which, the tdtal amount of acres of land
event, only fuffered a diminution of unwieldy empire,
which has been more than compenfated by an increafe
of population, commerce, revenues, and wealth.
As to the general conftitution of the American
the United States is 589 millions. ^
That part of the United States comprehended be- Extent of
tween the weft temporary line of Penfylvania on the their terri-
eaft, the boundary line between Britain and the Unitedt0:
IConftitu- v ,
tion of the States :—By the afts of confederation and perpetual States extending from the river St Croix to the north-
■ American * . . - .........
'States.
union, each of the colonies contracted a reciprocal trea¬
ty of alliance and friendfhip for their common defence,
for the maintenance of their liberties, and for their ge¬
neral and mutual advantage; obliging themfelves to affift
each other againft all violence that might threaten all,
or any one of them, and to repel in common all the
attacks that might be levelled againft all, or any one
of them, on account of religion, fovereignty, commerce,
or under any Other pretext whatfoever. Each of the
colonies referred to themfelves alone the exclufive right
of regulating their internal government, and of framing ceffion of fome of the original ftates, and by the treaty
laws in all matters not included in the articles of con- of peace, transferred to the fcederal government, and is
weft extremity of the lake of the woods on the north,
the river Miffifippi to the mouth of the Ohio on the
weft, and the river Ohio on the fouth (the afore-men¬
tioned bounds of Penfylvania), contains by com¬
putation about 411,000 fquare miles, in which are
26,340,000 acres. DeduCt for water 4,340,000 acres;
there remains 220 millions of acres.
The whole of this immenfe extent of unappropriated
weftern territory, or vacant unfettled land, containing
as above ftated 220 millions of acres, has been by the
federation.— But for the more convenient management
of the general intereft of the United States, it was de¬
termined, that delegates Ihould be annually appointed
in fuch manner as the legiflature of each ftate fhould
direcft, to meet in congrefs on the firlt Monday of No¬
vember of every year, with a power referved to each
ftate to recal its delegates, or any of them, at any
pledged as a fund for finking the continental debt. It
is in contemplation to divide it into new ftates, with
republican conftitutions, fimilar to the old ftates near
the Atlantic Ocean.
AMERICAN night-shade. See Phytolacca.
AMERICAN ground-nut. SccArrachis.
AMERICUS Vespucius, a Florentine gentleman.
time within the year, and to fend others in their ftead from whom America derived its name.—The merchants
for the remainder of the year. No ftate is to be re- of Seville having obtained permiffion to attempt difco-
prefented in congrefs by lefs than two, nor more than veries as private adventurers, fent out four (hips in
feven members ; and no perfori is capable pf being a in 1499, under the command of Alonzo de Ojeda (who
Vol. I. Part II. 4 I had
A M E [ 618 ] A M E
Amersfort had accompanied Columbus in his fecond voyage), af-
II „ fifted by Americus Vefpucius, who was known to be
. me* y deeply fltilled in the fcience of navigation. This fleet
touched on that part of the weftern continent already
difcovered by Columbus, whofe track Ojeda followed ;
and Americus, who was a man of much addrefs, as well
as pofl'effed of confiderable literary talents, by publifli-
ing the firft voyages on the fubjeft, and other artful
means, gave his name to the New World, in prejudice
to the illuftrious Genoefe. The impofture, though long
dete&ed, has been fanftified by time ; and the fourth
divifion of the globe, fo long unknown to the inhabi¬
tants of Europe, Afia, and Africa, ftill continues to be
diftinguifhed by the name of America.
AMERSFORT, a city in the Netherlands, in the
province of Utrecht, featcd on the river Ems, E.Long.
5. 20. N. lat. 52. 14. The moft remarkable things
are,The town-houfe ; the grand palace, which is trian¬
gular ; the public walk, planted with trees; and the
great church, dedicated to St George. The land to the
call and fouth of this city is very fruitful; on the north
there is nothing but pafture-ground, and on the weft it
is woody. Not far from hence is a mountain called
Amersfort-lerg, on which they have planted a villa of
trees, which reaches to Utrecht.
AMERSHAM, or Agmondesham, a market-
town in Buckinghamlhire, confifting of about 200
houfes, with a free-fchool, and four alms-houfes. It
fends two members to parliament, and has a market
on Tuefday. It is a reftory rated at 48I. 16s. 8d. in the
king’s books. The market-houfe is a very handfome
ftrucfture. W. long. o. 15. N. lat. 51. 47.
AMES (William, D. D.) a learned independent di¬
vine, famous for his controverfial writings, was born in
1576, and educated at Chriit’s college, in Cambridge.
In the reign of King James I. he left the univerfity,
and foon after the kingdom, on account of his being
unwilling to conform to the rules of the church ; and
retired to the Hague, where he had not been long be¬
fore he was invited to accept of the divinity chair in
the univerfity of Franeker, in Friefland, which he filled
with admirable abilities for above twelve years ; during
which his fame was fo great, that many came from re¬
mote nations, to be educated under him. He from
thence removed to Rotterdam for a change of air, which
his health demanded; and here he continued during the
remainder of his life. His controverfial writings, which
eompofe the greateft part of his works, are chiefly a-
gainft Bellarmine and the Arminians. He alfo wrote,
1. A frefli Suit againit the Ceremonies. 2. Left tones
in Pfalmos Davidis. 3. Medulla Theologize; and fe-
veral pieces relative to the fciences. He died of an
afthma, at Rotterdam, in Nov. X633.
AMESTRATA, a town of Sicily,(Cicero); Amt-
yPrato, (Stephanus) ; Amafira (Silius Italicus); Mul-
tijlratos, (Polybius): Now Miflretta, in the Val diDe-
mona, on the river Halefus. It was a very ftrong fort of
the Carthaginians, befieged in vain by-the Romans for
feven months with confiderable lofs ; at length, after
another fiege, taken and rafed, (Diodor. Siculus).
AMETHYST, a tranfparent gem of a purple co¬
lour, which feems compofed of a ftrong blue and a
deep red ; and, according as either of thofe prevails, af¬
fording different tinges of purple, fometimes approach¬
ing to violet, and fometimes even fading to a pale-rofe
colour. Though the amethyft is generally of a purple
colour, it is neverthelefs fometimes found naturally co-
lourlefs, and may at any time be eafily made fo by put-
ing it into the fire; in which pellucid or colourlefs ftate,
it fo refembles the diamond, that its want of hardnefs
feems the only way of diilinguifliing it. Some derive
the name amethyjl from its colour, which refembles wine
mixed with water; whilft others, with more probabili¬
ty, think it got its name from its fuppofed virtue of pre¬
venting drunkennefs ; an opinion which, however ima¬
ginary’', prevailed to that degree among the ancients,
that it was ufual for great drinkers to wear it about their
necks. Be this as it will, the amethyft is fcarce inferior
to any of the gems in the beauty of its colour ; and in
its pureft ftate is of the fame hardnefs, and at leaft of
equal value, with the ruby and fapphire. It is found of
various fizes, from the bignefs of a fmall vetch, to an
inch and an half in diameter, and often to much more
than that in length. Its ftiape is extremely various,
fometimes roundilh, fometimes oblong, and at others
flatted, at leaft on one fide ; but its moft common ap¬
pearance is in a cryftalliform figure, confifting of a thick
column, compofed of four plants, and terminated by a
flat and ftiort pyramid, of the fame number of fides ; or
elfe, of a thinner and longer hexangular column ; and
fometimes of a long pyramid, without any column. It
makes the gayeft figure in the laft of thefe ftates, but
is hardeft and moft valuable in the roundiih and pebble-
like form. The amethyft is found in the Eaft and
Weft Indies, and in feveral parts of Europe ; the orien¬
tal ones, at leaft fome of the finer fpecimens, being fo
hard and bright as to equal any of the coloured gems in
value. However, by far the greater number of ame-
thyfts fall infinitely fhort of thefe ; as all the European
ones, and not a few of thofe brought from the Eaft and
Weft Indies, are very little harder than common cryftal.
Counterfeit or Factitious Amethyst. Spars and
cryftals tinged red and yellow, &c. are fold for ame-
thyfts. The falfe ones come from Germany*, are tinged
by vapours in the mines, and contain fome lead.
Amethyfts may be counterfeited by glafs, to which
the proper colour or ftain is given. There were fine
ones made in France about the year 1690, which may
even iropofe on connoiffeurs, unlefs the ftone be taken
out of the collet.—The method of giving this colour
to glafs is directed as follows : Take cryftal-frit, made
with the moft perfect and fine tarfo : Then prepare a
mixture of manganefe in powder, one pound ; and zaf-
fer prepared, one ounce and a half: Mix thefe powders
well together ; and add to every pound of the frit an
ounce of this powder. Let it be put into the pots
with the frit, not into the already made metal. When
the whole has ftood long enough in fufion to be per-*
fedtly pure, work it into veffels, and they will refenible
the colour of the amethyft.
Amethyst, in heraldry, a term for the purple co¬
lour in the coat of a nobleman, in ufe with thofe who
blazon with precious ftones, inftead of metals and co¬
lours. This, in a gentleman’s efcutcheon, is called
Purpure; and in thofe of fovereign princes, Mercury.
AMETHYSTEA, amethyst: A genus of the
monpgynia order, belonging to the diandria clafs of
plants; and, in the natural method, ranking under the
42d order, Verticillatze. The characters are : The calyx
confifts of a fingle-leaved perianthium, bell-ftiaped, an¬
gular)
AMI L 619 ] AMI
Amethy- gular, femiquinquefid, and perfiftent: The corolla is
monopetalous; the border quinquepartite, the lowefl.
Amianthus, divifion more expanding : The Jlamina confift of two
1 /lender filaments approximated; the antherae are Ample
and roundifh : The pijhllum has a four-cleft germen ;
ftylus, the fize of the ftamina; fiigmata two, acute :
No corolla : The feeds four, gibbous, and fhorter than
the calyx :—There is only one known fpecies.
This plant is a native of Siberia, from whence the
feeds were fent to the imperial garden at Peterlburgh,
and thence brought to Britain. It is an annual plant,
with an upright ftalk, which rifes about a foot high.
Towards the top it puts forth two or three fmall late¬
ral branches, garnilhed with fmall trifid leaves, fawed
on their edges, of a very dark green colour. The
flowers appear in June or July, and are produced in
fmall umbels at the extremities of the branches. They
are of a fine blue colour, as are alfo the upper part of
the branches, and the leaves immediately under the
umbel, fo that they make a fine appearance.
Culture. The feeds of the amethyftea (hould be
fown in autumn, a,f*they are apt to remain a whole year
in the ground if kept till the fpring. When the plants
come up, nothing elfe is neceffary than to keep them
clear of weeds, and to thin them where they are too
clofe. They ought to be fown where they are to re¬
main, as they_ do not thrive when tranfplanted.
AMETHYSTINE is applied, in antiquity, to a
kind of purple garment dyed of the hue of amethyft.
In this fenfe amethyftine differed from Tyrian as well
as from hyacinthine purple, being a kind of medium
between both.
AMHAR, or Amhara, a province of Abyffinia,
faid to extend 40 leagues from call to weft. It is
confidered as the moft noble in the whole empire, both
on account of its being the ufual refidence of the A-
byffinian monarchs, and having a particular dialect
different from all the reft, which, by reafon of the em¬
perors being brought up in this province, is become the
language of the court and of the politer people. Here
is the famed rock Amba-geflien, where the young mo¬
narchs were formerly confined. See Amba.
AMHURST (Nicholas), an Englilh poet and poli¬
tical writer, was born at Harden in Kent, and entered of
St John’s college Oxford; from whence he was expel¬
led for irregularity of conduct and libertine principles.
Retaining great refentment againft the univerfity on
this account, he abufed its learning and difcipline, and
fome of the moft refpeclable characters in it, in a poem
publifhed in 1724 called Qculus Britannia;, and in a
book intitled Terror Filius. He publifhed, A Mifcel-
lany of Poems, facred and profane; and. The Convo¬
cation, a poem in five cantos, which was a fatire on the
Bifhop of Bangor’s antagonifts. But he is belt known
for the fliare he had in the political paper called The
Crafifman: though, after having been the drudge of his
party for near 20 years, he was as much forgot in the
famous compromife of 1742 as if he had never been
born ; and, when he died in that year of a broken
heart, was indebted to the charity of his bookfeller for
a grave.
AMIANTHUS, or Earth-flax, in natural hi-
ftory, a fibrous, flexile, elaftic, mineral fubftance, con-
fifting of fliort, abrupt, and interwoven filaments. It
is found in Germany, in the ftrata of iron ore, fome-
times forming veins of an inch in diameter. Its fibres Amicaftte
are fo flexible that cloth has been made of them, and
the (horter filaments that feparate in the walking of the ' 1
ftone may be made into paper in the common manner.
For the method of its preparation for manufa&ure into
cloth, fee Asbestos.
Amianthus is claffed by Mr Kirwan in the muriatic
genus of earths, becaufe it contains about a fifth part r
of magnefia. Its other conftituents are, flint, mild
calcareous earth, barytes, clay, and a very fmall pro¬
portion of iron. It is fufible per fe\x\z. ftrong heat,
and alfo with the common fluxes. It differs from af-
beftos in containing fome ponderous earth.
AMICABLE, in a general fenfe, denotes any thing
done in a friendly manner, or to promote peace.
Amicable Benches, in Roman antiquity, were, ac¬
cording to Pitifcus, lower and lefs honourable feats al¬
lotted for the judices pedanei, or inferior judges, who,
upon being admitted of the emperor’s council, were dig¬
nified by him with the title amici.
Amicable Numbers, fuch as are mutually equal to
the fum of one another’s aliquot parts. Thus the num¬
bers 284 and 220 are amicable numbers: for the ali¬
quot parts 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 11, 20, 22, 44, yy, no, of
220, are together equal to the other number 284 ; and
the aliquot parts 1, 2, 4, 71, 142, of 284, are toge¬
ther equal to 220.
AMICTUS, in Roman antiquity, was any upper
garment worn over the tunica.
Amictus, among ecclefiaftical writers, the upper-
moft garment anciently worn by the clergy ; the other
five being the alba, fingulum, ftola, manipulus, and
planeta. The amiftus was a linen garment, of a fquare
figure, covering the head, neck, and fhoulders, and
buckled or clafped before the breaft. It is ftill worn
by the religious abroad.
AMICULUM, in Roman antiquity, a woman’s up¬
per garment, which differed from the pala. It was
worn both by matrons and courtezans.
AMICUS curia:, a law-term, to denote a by-
ftander who informs the court of a matter in law that
is doubtful or miftaken.
AMIDA, a god worlhipped by the Japanefe, who
has many temples erefted to him in the ifland of Ja¬
pan, of which the principal is at Jedo. The Japanefe
have fuch a confidence in their idol Amida, that they
hope to attain eternal felicity by the frequent invoca¬
tion of his name. One of the figures of this idol is
reprefented at Rome.
Amida (anc. geog.), a principal city of Mefopo-
tamia (Liber Notitias); Ammsea (Ptolemy) ; fituated
on a high mountain, on the borders of Affyria, on the
Tigris, where it receives the Nymphius.—It was ta¬
ken from the Romans, in the time of the emperor
Conftans, by Sapores king of Perfia. The fiege is
faid to have coft him 30,000 men ; however, he redu¬
ced it to fuch ruin, that the emperor afterwards wept
over it. According to Ammianus Marcellinus, the city
was rafed; the chief officers were crucified; and the reft,
with the foldiers and inhabitants, either put to the
fword or carried into captivity, except our hiftorian
himfelf, and two or three more, who, in the dead of
the night, efcaped through a poftern unperceived by the '
enemy. The inhabitants of Nifibis, however, being
obliged to leave their own city by Jovian’s treaty with
4 I 2 the
AMI [ 620 ] A M M
Amiens, the Perfians, foon re flared Amida to its former flrength;
Amilcar. jjUt was aga;n taken by Cavades in 501, but was
“*” v reftored to the Romans in 503. On the declenfion
of the Roman power, it fell again into the hands of the
Perfians; but was taken from them by the Saracens in
899. It is now in the pofTeffion of the Turks. Here
are above 20,000 Chriftians, who are better treated by
the Turks than in other places. A great trade is carried
on in this city, of red Turkey leather, and cotton cloth
of the fame colour. The Arabian name of Amida is
Diarbeker, and the Turkifh one Kara-Amed. E. Long.
39. o. N. Lat. 36. 58.
AMIENS, a large handfome city of France, the
capital of Picardy. It is agreeably fituated on the ri¬
ver Somme, and faid to have received its Latin name
Avibianum from being every where encompaffed with
water. It is a place of great antiquity ; being men¬
tioned by Csefar as a town that had made a vigorous
refiftance againft the Romans, and where he convened
a general aflembly of the Gauls after having made him-
felf mailer of it. The emperors Antoninus and Mar¬
cus Aurelius enlarged it; and Conllantine, Conllans,
Julian, and feveral others, refided here a confiderable
time. The town is encompafled with a wall and other
fortifications; and the ramparts are planted with trees,
which form a delightful walk. The river Somme en¬
ters Amiens by three different channels, under as many
bridges; and thefe channels, after wafhing the town in
feveral places, where they are of ufe in its different
manufactures,, unite at the other end by the bridge of
S. Michael. Here is a quay for the boats that come
from Abbeville with goods brought by fea. At the
gate of Noyon there is a fuburb remarkable for the
abbey of S. Achen. Next to this gate you come to
that of Paris, where they have a long mall between
two rows of trees. The houfes are well built; the
llreets fpacious, embellilhed with handfome fquares
and good buildings; and the number of inhabitants
between 40 and 50 thoufand. The cathedral, dedica¬
ted to our Lady, is one of the largeft and moll mag¬
nificent churches in France ; adorned with handfome
paintings, fine pillars, chapels, and tombs; particu¬
larly the nave is greatly admired. The other places
worth feeing are the palace of the bailiwic, the town-
houfe, the fquare des Fleurs, and the great market¬
place.
Amiens was taken by the Spaniards, in 1597, by
the following llratagem : Soldiers, difguifed like pea-
fants, condufted a cart laden with nuts, and let a bag
of them fall jull as the gate was opened. While the
guard was bufy in gathering up the nuts, the Spaniards
entered and became mailers of the town. It was re¬
taken by Henry IV. who built a citadel here.
This town is the feat of a bilhop, fuffragan of Rheims,
as alfo of a prefidial, bailiwic, vidam, a chamber of
accounts, and a generality. The bilhop’s revenue is
30,000 livres. They have fome linen and woollen ma¬
nufactures, and they alfo make a great quantity of
black and green foap. It lies in E. Long. 2. 30.
N. Lat. 49. 50.
AMILCAR, the name of feveral Carthaginian cap¬
tains. The moll celebrated of them is Amilcar Barcas,
the father of Hannibal, who during five years in-
felled the coall of Italy ; when the Romans fending
out their whole naval llrength, defeated him near Tra¬
pani, 242 years before Chrilt; and this put an end to Amili&i
the firft Punic war. Amilcar began the fecond, and II .
landed in Spain, where he fubdued the moll warlike , mi"ania*
nations ; but as he was preparing for an expedition a-
gainlt Italy, he was killed in battle, 228 years before
the Chriftian rera. He left three fons, whom he had
educated, as he faid, like three lions, to tear Rome in
pieces ; and made Hannibal, his eldelt fon, fwear an e-
ternal enmity againll the Romans.
AMIL1CTI, in the Chaldaic theology, denote a
kind of intelledual powers, or perfons in the divine hie¬
rarchy.—The amiliCti are reprefented as three in num¬
ber ; and conllitute one of the tryads, in the third or¬
der of the hierarchy.
AMIRANTE, in the Spanilh polity, a great offi¬
cer of Hate, anfwering to our lord high-admiral.
AMISUS, the chief city of the ancient kingdom of
Pontus. It was built by the Milefians, and peopled
partly by them, and partly by a colony from Athens.
It was at firll a free city, like the other Greek cities in
Alia; but afterwards fubdued by Pharnaces king of
Pontus, who made it his metropolis. It was taken by
Lucullus in the Mithridatic war, who rellored it to its
ancient liberty. Clofe by Amifus Hood another city
called Eupatoria, from Mithridates Eupator its foun¬
der. This city was likewife taken by Lucullus, who
levelled it with the ground; but it was afterwards rebuilt
by Pompey, who united it with Amifus, giving them
the name of Pompeiopolis. It was taken during the
war between Csefar and Pompey, by Pharnaces king of
Pontus, who put molt of its inhabitants to the fword ;
but Casfar, having conquered Pharnaces, made it again
a free city.
AMITERNUM, a town of the Sabines, in Italy;
(Livy, Pliny); now extimSl: The ruins are to be feen
on the level ridge of a mountain, near S. Vittorino,
and the fprings of the Aternus ; not far from Aquila,
which rofe out of the ruins of Amiternum.
AMITTERE legem terrje, among lawyers, a
phrafe importing the lofs of liberty of fwearing in any
court: The punifhmeut of a champion overcome or
yielding in battle, of jurors found guilty in a writ of
attaint, and of a perfon outlawed.
AM-KAS, in hiftory, a name given to a fpacious fa-
loon in the palace of the Great Mogul, where he gives
audience to his fubjefts, and where he appears on fo-
lemn fdlivals with extraordinary magnificence. His
throne is fupported by fix large Heps of maffy gold, fet
with rubies, emeralds, and diamonds, eftimated at
6,0,000,0001.
AMMA, among ecdefiaftical writers, a term ufed
to denote an abbefs or fpiritual mother.
AMMAN, or Ammant, in the German and Belgic
policy, a judge who has the cognifance of civil caufes.
—It is alfo ufed among the French for a public notary,
or officer, who draws up inftruments and deeds.
AMMANIA: A genus of the monogynia order, be¬
longing to the tetrandria clafs of plants; and in the
natural method ranking under the jyth order, Calycan-
thenue. The characters are : The calyx is an oblong;
ere£t, bell-fhaped perianthium, with eight ftriae, qua-
drangulated, oftodentated, and perfiftent: The corolla
is either wanting, or it confifts of four ovate expanding
petals inferted in the calyx: The Jlamina confift of
four brillly filaments the length of the calyx; the an¬
thers
A M M r 621 1 A M M
(Ammi therae are dxdymous : The pift'dlum has a large ovate
II. _ germen, above; the ftylus Ample and very (hort, the
3311 . ftigma headed: The pericarpium is a roundifh four-
celled capfule, covered by the calyx: The feeds are nu¬
merous and fmall.—Of this genus there are three fpe-
cies. enumerated ; all of them natives of warm climates.
They have no beauty or other remarkable property.
AMMI, bishop’s weed: A genus of the digynia
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants; and
ranking, in the natural method, under the 45th order,
Umb ell aide. The characters are : Of the calyx the u-
niverfal umbel is manifold ; the partial one fhort and
crowded ; the involucra are pinnatifid, with numerous
leaflets : The corolla are radiated, and all hermaphro¬
dite : The Jlamina confift of five capillary filaments;
the antherse roundiih : The pijlillum has a germen be¬
neath : the ftyli are two, and reflected ; and the ftig-
mata are obtufe : There is no pericarpiutn; the fruit is
roundiih, polilhed, ftriated, fmall, and partible : The
feeds are two, plano-convex, and ftriated. Of this there
are three
Species. 1. The majus, or common biftiop’s-weed,
the feeds of which are ufed in medicine. 2. The glau-
cifolium, with all its leaves cut in the fhape of a fpear.
3. The copticum, or Egyptian bilhop’s-weed.
Culture, &c. The firft is an annual plant; and there¬
fore is to. be propagated by feeds fown in the autumn,
in the place where the plants are to remain. They
will fibwer in June, and the feeds will ripen in Atiguft.
This plant will grow in any open fituation, but thrives
beft in a light fandy foil. The fecond fort is perennial,
and very hardy. It thrives beft in a moift.foil, and
may be propagated by feeds in the fame manner as the
former.
The third fpecies is now no otherwife known than
by the figure of its feeds, which were formerly ufed in
medicine, but have long fince given place to thofe of
the common kind. The feeds of the ammi copticum
are fmall, ftriated, of a reddilh brown colour, and have
a warm pungent tafte, and a pleafant fmell approaching
to that of origanum. They are recommended as ftoma-
chic, carminative, and diuretic ;, but have long been
ftrangers t6 the (hops. The feeds of the ammi majusr
which are ufed in their place, are much weaker both in
tafte and fmell, and without the origanum flavour of
the other.
AMMIANUS (Mareellinus), a Grecian and a fol-
dier as he calls himfelfr was born at.Antioch, and flou-
rifhed under Conftantius and the preceding emperors as
late as Theodofius. He ferved under Julian in the
eaft; and wrote in Latin an interefting hiftory, from
the reign of Nerva to tlie death of Valens, in 31 books;
of which only 18 remain. Though a Pagan, he fpeaka
with candour and moderation of the Chriftian religion,,
and even praifes it: his hero is the emperor Julian.
He died about the year 390. The beft edition of his
hiftory is that of Gronovius, in 1693.
AMMIRATO (Scipio), an eminent Italian hifto-
rian, born at Lecca in Naples in 1531. After travel¬
ling over great part of Italy, without fettling to his
fatisfailion, he was engaged by the great duke of
Tufcany to write The Hijlory of Florence; for which
he was prefented to a canonry in the cathedral there.
He wrote other works while in this ftation; and died
in 1600*
AMMOCHRYSOS, Irom a,u/ioc, fund, and Ammo-
gold, a name given by authors to a ftone very common chryfos
in Germany, and feeming to be compofed of a golden Ammon,
fand. It is of a yellow gold-like colour, and its par- y—-J
tides are very glofiy, being all fragments of a co¬
loured talc. It is ufually fo foft as to be eafily rubbed
to a powder in the hand ; fometimes it requires grind¬
ing to powder in a mortar, or otherwife. It is ufed
only as fand to ftrew over writing. The Germans call
it katzengold. There is another kind of it lefs com¬
mon, but much more beautiful, confifting of the fame
fort of gloffy fpangles, but thofe not of a gold colour,,
but of a bright red, like Vermillion.
AMMODYTES, or sand-eel, in ichthyology,
a genus of fifties belonging to the order of apodes.
This fifti refembles an eel, and feldom exceeds a foot
in length. The, head of the ammodytes is comprefled,
and narrower than the body; the upper jaw is larger
than the under ; the body is cylindrical, with fcales-
hardly perceptible. There is but one fpecies of the am¬
modytes, viz. the tobianus, or launce, a native of Europe.
This fifti gathers itfelf into a circle, and pierces the
fand with its head in the centre. It is found in moft
of our fandy Ihores during fome of the fummer-months:'
it conceals itfelf, on the recefs of the tides, beneath
the fand, in fuch places where the water is left, at the
depth of about a foot; and is in fome places dug out,
in others drawn up by means of a hook contrived for
that purpofe. They are commonly ufed as baits for
other fifti, but they are alfo very delicate eating. Thefe
filh are found in the ftomach of the Porpefs; an argu¬
ment that the laft roots up the fand with its nofe, as
hogs do the ground.
AMMON, anciently a city of Marmarica, (Ptolemy).
Arrian calls it a place, not a city, in which ftood the'
temple of Jupiter Ammon, round which there was no¬
thing but fandy waftes. Pliiiy fays, That the oracle
of Ammon was 12 days journey from Memphis, and
among the Nomi of Egypt be reckons the Nomos Am-
moniacus: Diodorus Siculus, That the diftrift where the-
temple ftood, though furrounded with defarts, was wa¬
tered by dews which fell nowhere elfe in all that coun¬
try. It was agreeably adorned with fruitful trees and
fprings, and full of villages. In the middle ftood the
acropolis or citadel, encompafled with a triple wall; the*
firft and inmoft of which'contained the palace ; the Ci¬
thers the apartments of the women, the relations and:
children,.as alfo the temple of the god, and the facred-
fountain for luftrations. Without the acropolis ftood,.
at no great diftance, another temple of Ammon, fha-
ded by a number of tall trees : hear which there was
a fountain, called that of the fun, or Solis Eons, be-
caufe fubjeft to extraordinary changes according to the-
time of the day y morning and evening warm, at noon'
cold, at midnight extremely hot. A kind of folfil fait;
was faid to be naturally produced here. It was dug'
out of the earth in large oblong pieces, fometimes three*
fingers in length, and tranfparent as cryftaL It was-
thought to be a prefent worthy of kings, and ufed by-
the Egyptians in their facrifices.—Eroin this our fal
ammoniac has taken its name.
Ammon, or Hammon, in heathen mythology, the-
name of the Egyptian Jupiter, worfhipped under the;
figure of a ram.
Bacchus having fubdued Afia, and palling with hisi
army
A M M [ 622 ] A M M
Ammon, army through the defarts of Africa, was in great want
■Ammoniac. Qy water. but Jupiter, his father, affuming the fhape
tpi(m y ^ ram^ je(j jjim to a fountain, where he refreftied
himfelf and his army ; in gratitude for which favour,
Bacchus built there a temple to Jupiter, under the title
of Ammon, from the Greek /^o©-, which fignifies fand,
alluding to the fandy defart where it was built. In this
temple was an oracle of great note, which Alexan¬
der the Great confulted, and which lafted till the time
of Theodofms.
Hammon, the god of the Egyptians, was the fame
with the Jupiter of the Greeks ; for which reafon
thefe latter denominate the city which the Egyptians
call No-Hammon or the habitation of Ammon, Diof-
folis or the city of Jupiter. He is thought to be the
fame with Ham, who peopled Africa, and was the fa¬
ther of Mizraim, the founder of the Egyptians.
Ammon, or Ben-Ammi, the fon of Lot, begot by
this patriarch upon his youngeftdaughter (Gen.xix. 38.)
He was the father of the Ammonites, and dwelt to
the eafl; of the Dead Sea, in the mountains of Gi¬
lead. See Ammonitis and Ammonites.
Ammon (Andreas), an excellent Latin poet, born
at Lucca in Italy, was fent by Pope Leo X. to England,
in the charadlers of prothonotary of the Apollolic See,
and colle&or-general of this kingdom. Being a man
of Angular genius and learning, he foon became ac¬
quainted with the principal literati of thofe times ; par¬
ticularly with Erafmus, Colet, Grocin, and others,
for the fake of whofe company he refided fome time at
Oxford. The advice which Erafmus gives him, in re¬
gard to pufliing his fortune, has a good deal of humour
in it, and was certainly intended as a fatire on the art¬
ful methods generally praftifed by the felfifh and am¬
bitious part of mankind: “ In the firft place (fays he),
throw off all fenfe of fhame ; thruft yourfelf into every
one’s bufinefs, and elbow out whomfoever you can;
neither love nor hate any one ; meafure every thing by
your own advantage; let this be the fcope and drift
of all your adtions. Give nothing but what is to be
returned with ufury, and be complaifant to everybody.
Have always two ftrings to your bow. Feign that you
are folicited by many from abroad, and get every thing
ready for your departure. Show letters inviting you
elfewhere, with great promifes.” Ammon was Latin
fecretary to Henry VIII. but at what time he was
appointed does not appear. In 1512 he was made
canon and prebendary of the collegiate chapel of St
Stephen, in the palace of Weftminfter. He was like-
wife prebendary of Wells; and in 1514 was prefented
to the redlory of Dychial in that diocefe. About the
fame time, by the king’s fpecial recommendation, he
was alfo made prebendary of Salilbury. He died in
the year 1517, and was buried in St Stephen’s chapel
in the palace of Weftminfter. He was efteemed an
elegantLatin writer, and an admirable poet. The epiftles
of Erafmus to Ammon abound with encomiums on
his genius and learning.—His works are, \.EpiJiohe
ad Erafmutn, lib, i. 2. Scotici confiiftus hijloria, lib. i.
3. Buccliccs vel eclogte lib. i. Bafil 1546, 8vo. 4. De
rebus nihil, lib. i. 5. Panegyricus quidain, lib. i. 6.
Varii generis epigrammata, lib. i. 7. Poemata diverfa,
lib. i.
AMMONIAC, a concrete gummy refinous juice,
brought from the Eaft Indies, ufually in large mafles,
compofed of little lumps or tears, of a milky colour, Ammoa^
but foon changing, upon being expofed to the air, of a v'-“
yellowifh hue. We have no certain account of the
plant which affords this juice ; the feeds ufually found
among the tears refemble thofe of the umbelliferous ?2
clafs. It has been, however, alleged, and not without
fome degree of probability, that it is an exudation
from a fpecies of the ferula, another fpecies of which 3
produces the afafeetida. The plant producing it is faid
to grow in Nubia, Abyfiinia, and the interior parts
of Egypt. It is brought to the weftern part of Eu- ;
rope from Egypt, and to England from the Red Sea, !
by fome of the (hips belonging to the Eaft India Com¬
pany trading to thofe parts. Such tears as are large,
dry, free from little ftones, feeds, or other impurities, j
fhould be picked out, and preferred for internal ufe: !
the coarfer kind is purified by folution and colature, •
and then carefully infpiffating it; unlefs this be art¬
fully managed, the gum will lofe a confiderable deal
of its more volatile parts. There is often vended in
the (hops, under the name of drained gum ammonia- f
cum, a compofition of ingredients much inferior in i
virtue.
Ammoniac has a naufeous fweet tafte, followed by a j
bitter one ; and a peculiar fmell, fomewhat like that of
galbanum, but more grateful: it foftens in the mouth,
and grows of a whiter colour upon being chewed.
Thrown upon live coals, it burns away in flame : it is
in fome meafure foluble in water and in vinegar, with
which it affumes the appearance of milk ; but the re¬
finous part, amounting to about one half, fubfides on
handing.,
Ammoniac is an ufeful deobftruent, and frequently
preferibed for opening obftruftions of the abdominal
vifcerar and in hyfterical diforders occafioned by a de¬
ficiency of the menftrual evacuations. It is likewife
fuppofed to deterge the pulmonary veffels; and proves
of confiderable fervice in feme kinds of afthmas, where
the lungs are oppreffed by vifeid phlegm: in this inten¬
tion, a folution of gum ammoniac in vinegar of fquills
proves a medicine of great efficacy, though not a little
unpleafant. In long and obftinate cholics proceeding
from vifeid matter lodged in the inteftines, this gummy
refin has produced happy effefts, after the purges and the
common carminatives had been ufed in vain. Ammo¬
niac is moft commodioufly taken in the form of pills;
about a fcruple may be given every night, or oftener.
Externally, it foftens and ripens hard tumours: a folu¬
tion of it in vinegar Hands recommended by fome for
refolving even fchirrhous fwellings. A plafter made of
it and fquill-vinegar is recommended by fome in white
fwellings. A dilute mixture of the fame is likewife
rubbed on the parts, which are alfo fumigated with the 1
fmoke of juniper-berries. In the (hops is prepared a
folution of it in pennyroyal water, called from its milky
colour, lac ammoniaei. It is an ingredient alfo in the
fquill pills.
Sal Ammoniac, a volatile fait, of which there are
two kinds, ancient and modern. The ancient fort, de-
feribed by Pliny and Diofcorides, was a native fait,
generated in thofe large inns or caravanferas where the
crowd of pilgrims, coming from the temple of Jupiter
Ammon, ufed to lodge; who, in thofe parts, travel¬
ing upon camels, and thofe creatures when in Cyrene,
a province of Egypt, where that celebrated temple
flood,
A M M [ 623 ] AM M
tmwiian flood, mining in the flables, or (fay fome) in the parch
H . ed fands, out of this urine, which is remarkably ftrong,
ra0 , arofe a kind of fait, denominated fometimes (from the
temple) Ammoniac, and fometimes (from the country)
Cyreniac. Since the ceffation of thefe pilgrimages, no
more of this fait is produced there; and, from this de¬
ficiency, fome fufpetf there never was any fuch thing:
But this fufpicion is removed, by the large quantities
of a fait, nearly of the fame nature, thrown out by
mount iEtna. The chara&ers of the ancient fal am¬
moniac are, that it cools water, turns aqua fortis into
aqua regia, and confequently diifolves gold.
The modern fal ammoniac is entirely fa&itious: for
which, fee Chemistry-ZwoVv.
AMMONIAN philosophy. SccAmmonius.
AMMONITiE, in natural hiftory. See Cornu
i Amtnonis.
AMMONITES, a people defcended from Ammon
I the fon of Lot. The Ammonites deftroyed thofe
giants which they called Zamzummims (Deut. ii. 19
—21.), and feized upon their country. God forbad
Mofes, and by him the children of Ifrael (/</. 19.),
to attack the Ammonites ; becaufe he did not intend
to give their lands unto the Hebrews. Before the If-
raelites entered the land of Canaan, the Amorites had
j by conqueft got great part of the countries belonging
to the Ammonites and Moabites. This Mofes retook
from the Amorites, and divided between the tribes of
Gad and Reuben. In the time of Jephtha, the Am¬
monites declared war againft the Ifraelites (Judges xi.),
under pretence that they detained a great part of the
country which had formerly been theirs before the
Amorites pofTefied it. Jephtha declared, that as this
I was an acquifition which the Ifraelites had made in a
|: juft war, and what they had taken from the Amorites,
, who had long enjoyed it by right of conqueft, he was
under no obligation to ^eftore it. The Ammonites
p were not fatisfied with this reafon ; wherefore Jephtha
gave them battle and defeated them. The Ammonites
and Moabites generally united whenever there was any
t, defign fet a-foot of attacking the Ifraelites. After
the death of Othniel (id. iii.), the Ammonites and
Amalekites joined with Eglon king of Moab to ep-
prefs the Hebrews ; whom they fubdued, and governed
for the fpace of 18 years, till they were delivered by
Ehud the fon of Gera, who flew Eglon king of Moab.
I Some time after this, the Ammonites made war againft
L the Ifraelites, and greatly diftrefied them.. But thefe
were at laft delivered by the hands of Jephtha ; who ha¬
ving attacked the Ammonites, made a very great flaugh-
I ter among them (chap. xi.). In the beginning of
Saul’s reign (1 Sam. xi.)', Naafti king of the Am-
! monites having fat down before Jabefh-gilead, reduced
the inhabitants to the extremity of demanding a capi¬
tulation. Naafli anfwered, that he would capitulate
with them upon no other conditions than their fub-
| i mitting to have every one his right eye plucked out,
that fo they might be made a reproach to Ifrael: but
Saul coming feafonabjy to the relief of Jabefli, deli¬
vered the city and people from the barbarity of the
king of the Ammonites. David had been the king of;
Ammon’s friend; and after the death of this prince,,
he fent ambaffadors to make his compliments of con¬
dolence to Hanun his fon and fucceffor.j who, ima¬
gining that David’s ambaffadors were come as fpies to Ammonites
obferve his ftrength, and the condition of his king- Ammonite.,
dom, treated them in a very injurious manner (2 Sam.' ' _v
x. 4.). David revenged this indignity thrown upon
his ambaffadors, by fubduing the Ammonites, the
Moabites, and the Syrians their allies. Ammon and
Moab continued under the obedience of the kings
David and Solomon ; and, after the feparation of the
ten tribes, were fubjeft to the kings of Ifrael till the
death of Ahab in the year of the world 3107. Two
years after the death of Ahab, Jehoram his fon, and
fucceffor of Ahaziah, defeated the Moabites (2 Kings
iii.): but it does not appear that this victory was fo
complete as to reduce them to his obedience. At the
fame time, the Ammonites, Moabites, and other peo¬
ple, made an irruption upon the lands belonging to
Judah ; but were forced back and routed by Jehoftia-
phat (2 Chr. xx. x, 2.). After the tribes of Reuben,
Gad, and the half-tribe of Manaffeh, were carried in¬
to captivity by Tiglath-pilefer in the year 3264, the
Ammonites and Moabites took poffeffion of the cities
belonging to thefe tribes. Jeremiah (xlix. 1.) reproach¬
es them for it. The ambaffadors of the Ammonites
were fome of thofe to whom this prophet (chap, xxvii,,
2.—4.) prefented the cup of the Lord’s fury, and di-
refted to make bonds and yokes for themfelves; ex¬
horting them to fubmit themfelves to Nebuchadnezzar,
and threatening them, if they did not, with captivity
and flavery. Ezekiel (xxv. 4.—10.) denounces their
entire deftruftion ; and tells them that God would
give them up to the people of the eaft, who ftiould fet'
their palaces in their country, fo that there fhould be
no more mention of the Ammonites among the na¬
tions. It is believed that thefe misfortunes happened
to the Ammonites in the fifth year after the taking of
Jerufalem, when Nebuchadnezzar made war againft all
the people that dwelt upon the confines of Judea, in
the year of the world 3420.
It is alfo thought probable, that Cyrus gave the
Ammonites and Moabites the liberty of returning into
their own country, from whence they had been remo¬
ved by Nebuchadnezzar: for we fee them, in the place
of their former fettlement, expofed to thofe revolu¬
tions which were common to the people of Syria and
Paleftine; fubjeft fometimes to the kings of Egypt,
and at other times to the kings of Syria. We are
told by Polybius, that Antiochus the Great took Rab-
both, or Philadelphia, their capital, demoliihed the
walls, and put a garrifon in it in 3806. During the
perfecutions of Antiochus Epiphanes, Jofephus informs,
that the Ammonites ftiowed their hatred to the Jews,
and exercifed great cruelties againft fuch of them as
lived about their country. Juftin Martyr fays, That
in his time there were ftill many Ammonites remain¬
ing ; but Grigen affures us, that when he was living
they were known only under the general name of
Arabians. Thuswas the predidlion of Ezekiel (xxv. 10.)
accompliftied ; who laid that the Ammonites ihould be
deftroyed in fuch a manner as not to be remembered
among the nations.
AMMONITIS (anc. geog.), a country of Arabia
Petrasa, occupied by the children of Ammon,, whence
the appellation. Its limits partly to the weft and part¬
ly to the north were the river Jabbok, whofe courfe is.
1
A M M [ 624 ] AMO
Ammonias.n0 where determined; though Jofephus fays, that it
runs between Rabbath-Ammon, or Philadelphia, and
Gerafa, and falls into the Jordan.
AMMONIUS, furnamed Saccas, was born in A-
lexandria, and flourilhed about the beginning of the
third century. He was one of the moft celebrated
-philofophers of his age; and, adopting with altera¬
tions the Eccleftic philofophy, laid the foundations
of that feet which was diftinguiihed by the name of
the New Platonics. See Ecclectics and Plato¬
nism.
This learned man was born of Chriftian parents, and
educated in their religion; the outward profeffion of
which, it is faid, he never entirely deferted. As his
genius was vaft and comprehenilve, fo were his projects
bold and -fingular: For he attempted a general coali¬
tion of all fefts, whether philofophical or religious, by
framing a fyftem of doctrines which he imagined cal¬
culated to unite them all, the Chriftians not excepted,
in the moft perfect harmony. In purfuance of this de-
fign, he maintained, that the great principles of all
philofophical and religious truth were to be found e-
•qually in all fefts; that they differed from each other
only in their method of expreffing them, and in fome
opinions of little or no importance; and that, by a
proper interpretation of their refpeftive fentiments,
they might eafily be united into one body. Accord¬
ingly, all the Gentile religions, and even the Chriftian,
were to be illuftrated and explained by the principles
of this univerfal philofophy; and the fables of the
priefts were to be removed from Paganifm, and the
comments and interpretations of the difciples of Jefus
■from Chriftianity. In conformity to this plan, he in¬
filled, that all the religious fyftems of all nations fhould
be reftored to their original purity, and reduced to
.their primitive ftandard, viz. the ancient philofophy
of the Eaft, preferved upcorrupted by Plato: and he
affirmed, that this projeft was agreeable to the inten¬
tions of Jefus Chrift; whofe foie view in defeending
upon earth was to fet bounds to the reigning fuperfli-
tion, to remove the errors that had blended them-
felves with the religions ,of all nations, but not to abo-
lifh the ancient theology from which they were deri¬
ved. He therefore adopted the doctrines which were
received in Egypt concerning the univerfe and the
■Deity, confidered as conflituting one great whole ;
concerning the eternity of the world, the nature of
fouls, the empire of Providence, and the government
•of the world by daemons. He alfo eflablifhed a fyftem
pf moral difeipline ; which allowed the people in ge¬
neral to live according to the laws of their country and
the dictates of nature ; but required the wife to exalt
their minds by contemplation, and to mortify the body,
fo that they might be capable of enjoying the prefence
and affiftance of the daemons, and of afeending after
-death to the prefence of the Supreme Parent. In or¬
der to reconcile the popular religions, and particularly
the Chriftian, with this new fyftem, he made the whole
hiftory of the Heathen gods an allegory ; maintaining
that they were only celeftial minifters, intitled to an
inferior kind of worfhip. And he acknowledged that
Jefus Chrift was an excellent man, and the friend of
God; but alleged that it was not his defign entirely
to abolilh the worfhip of deemons, and that his only
intention was to purify the ancient religion. This fy¬
ftem, fo plauhble in its firft rife, but fd comprehenlive Ammo™
and complying in its progrefs, has been the fource of H
innumerable errors and corruptions in the Chriftian Amomuffl
church. At its firft eftablifhment it is faid to have ’ 9
had the approbation of Athenagoras, Pantaenus, and
Clemens the Alexandrian, and of all who had the care
of the public fchool belonging to the Chriftians at A-
lexandria. It was afterwards adopted by Longinus
the celebrated author of the treatife on the Sublime,
Plotinus, Herennius, Origen, Porphyry, Jamblichus
the difciple of Porphyry, Sopater, Edifius, Euftathius,
Maximus of Ephefus, Prifcus, Chryfanthius the mafter
of Julian, Julian the Apoftate, Hierocles, Proclus,
and many others both Pagans and Chriftians.
The above opinions of Ammonius are collected from
-the writings and deputations of his difciples the mo¬
dern Platonics : for he himfelf left nothing in writing
behind him ; nay, he impofed a -law upon his difciples
not to divulge his doctrines among the multitude ;
which injunction, however, they made no fcruple to
negledt and violate.
Ammonius, furnamed Lithotome, a celebrated
furgeon of Alexandria; fo called from his inventing the
operation of extracting the ftone from the bladder.
AMMUNITION, a general name for all warlike
provifions; but more particularly powder, ball, &c.
Ammunition, arms, utenfils of war, gun-powder, J|!
imported without licence from his Majefty, are, by the
laws of England, forfeited, and triple the value. And I
again, fuch licence obtained, except for furnifhing his
Majefty’s public ftores, is to be void, and the offender
to incur a premunire, and to be difabled to hold any
office from the crown.
Ammunition Bread, Shoes, See, fuch as are ferved
out to the foldiers of an army or garrifon.
AMNESTY, in matters of policy, denotes a par¬
don granted by a prince to his rebellious fubjeCts,
ufually with fome exceptions: fuch was that granted
by Charles II. at his reftoration.—The word is form- I
ed from the Greek a^vio-na, the name of an edidt of if
this kind publifhed by Thrafibulus, on his expulfion of
the tyrants out of Athens.
AMNIOS, in anatomy, a thin pellucid membrane
which furrounds the feetus in the womb. See Foe¬
tus. < J
AMOEJLEUM, in ancient poetry, a kind of poem
reprefenting a difpute between two perfons, who are I
made to anfwer each other alternately.: fuch are the
third and feventh of Virgil’s eclogues.
AMOL, a town pf Afia, in the country of the Uf-
becks, feated on the river Gihon. E. Long. 64. 30.
N. Lat. 39. 20.
AMOMUM, Ginger: A genus of the monogy- 1
nia order, belonging to the monandria clafs of plants.
The .characters are: The calyx is an obfeure three¬
toothed perianthium, above : The corolla is jpono-
petalous, the tubus ftiort, the limbus tripartite : The
Jlamina is an oblong filament, with the anthera ad¬
joining: The fiflillum has a rpundifti germen, be¬
neath ; the ftylus is filiform, the ftigma obtufe : The 4
pericarpium is leathery, fubovate, trigonous, trilocular, > ij
and three-valved: The feeds are numerous.—Of this
genus there are four
Species. 1. The zingiber, or common ginger, is a
native of the Eaft, and alfo of fome parts of the Weft
2 Indies;
AMO [ S25 ] AMO
Indies; wliere it grows naturally without culture. The with good fnedefs, in Complaints of the vifeera, irt
toots are jointed, and fpread in the ground: they put pleuriiies, and in obilinate and continued fevers,
out many green reed-like ftalks in the fpring, which Amomum Verum, or True Anwmum, is a tound
arife to the height of two feet and an half, with nar¬
row leaves. The flower-lleins arife by the fide of thefe,
immediately from the root; thefe are naked; ending
with an oblong fcaly fpike. From each of thefe feal'es
is produced a fingle blue flower, whofe petals are but
little lower than the fqttamous covering. 2. The ze-
rumbet, or wild ginger, is a native of India. The
roots are larger than thofe of the firft, but are jointed
in the fame manner. The ilalks grow from three to
near four feet high, with oblong leaves placed alter¬
nately. The flower-ftems aVife immediately from the
root : thefe are terminated by oblong, blunt, fcaly
heads; out of each fcale is produced a fingle white flower,
whofe petals extend a confiderable length beyond the
fcaly covering. 3. The cardamomum, or cardamom,
is likewife a native of India; but is little known in
this country except by its feeds, which are ufed in
medicine. Of this there is a variety, with fmaller fruit,
which makes the diftinftion into cardamomum majus
and minus. The firft, when it comes to us, is a dried
fruit or pod about an inch long, containing, under a
thick fkin, two rows of fmall triangular feeds of a
warm aromatic flavour. The cardamomum minus is a
fruit fcarce half the length of the foregoing, but con-
fiderably flxonger both in fmell and tafte. 4. The
grana paradifi fpecies is likewife a native of the Eafi:
Indies. The fruit containing the grains of paradife is
about the fize of a fig, divided into three cells, in each
of which are contained two roots of fmall feeds like
cardamoms. They are fomewhat more grateful, and
confiderably more pungent, than cardamoms.
Culture. The firfl: two fpecies are tender, and require
a warm ftove to preferve them in this country. They
are eafily propagated by parting the roots in the fpring.
Thefe fliould be planted in pots filled with light rich
earth, and plunged into a hot-bed of tanner’s-bark,
where they muft conftantly remain. Cardamoms and
grains of paradife are not cultivated in this country. If
we may believe the Abbe Raynal, the former propa¬
gate themfelves, in thofe countries where they are na¬
tives, without either flowing or planting. Nothing more
is required than, as foon as the rainy feafon is over, to
fet fire to the herb which has produced the fruit.
Ufes. The dried roots of the firft fpecies are of great
ufe in the kitchen, as well as in medicine. They fur-
nifti a confiderable export from fome of the American
iflands. The green roots, preferved as a fweet-meat,
are preferable to every other kind. The Indians mix
them with their rice, which is their common food, to
correft its natural infipidity. This fpice, mixed with
others, gives the difties feafoned with it a ftrong tafte,
which is extremely difagreeable to ftrangers. The
Europeans, however, who come into Afia without for¬
tunes, are obliged to conform to it. The others a*
dopt it out of complaifance to their wives, who are ge¬
nerally natives of the country.-*—Ginger is a very ufe-
ful fpice, in cold flatulent colics, and in laxity and de¬
bility of the inteftines; it does not heat fo much as thofe
of the pepper kind, but its efrefts are much more du¬
rable. The cardamoms and grains of paradife have the
fame medicinal qualities with ginger.— In Jamaica, the
common people employ it in baths and fomentations
Von. I. Part II.
fruit. About the fize of a middling grape ; containing)
under a membranous cover, a number of fmall rough
angular feeds, of a blackifh brown colour on the out-
fide, and whitifh within: the feeds are lodged in three
diftinft cells; thofe in each cell are joined clofely to¬
gether, fo as that the fruit, upon being opened, ap¬
pears to contain only three feeds. Ten or twelve of
thefe fruits grow together in a clilfter; and adhere
without any pedicle, to a woody ftalk about an inch
long; each fingle fruit is furroUnded by fix leaves, in
form of a cUp; and the part of the ftalk void of fruit
is clothed with leafy feales.—The hulks, leaves, and
Items, have a light grateful fmell, and a moderately
warm aromatic tafte : the feeds, freed from the hulks,
are in both rCfpedts much ftronger; their fmell is
quick and penetrating, their tafte pungent, approach¬
ing to that of camphor. Notwithftanding umomurti
is an elegant aromatic, it has long been a ftranger to
the IhopS.
Amomvm Vulgare. See Si sox.
AMONTONS (William), an ingenious experimen¬
tal philofopher, was born at Paris in 1663. While
he was at the grammar-fchool. he by ficknefs contrac¬
ted a deafnefs that almoft excluded him converfatiort.
In this fituation, he applied himfelf to mechanics and
geometry; and, it is faidj refufed to try any remedy for
his difordef, either becaiife he deemed it incurable, or
becaufe it increafed his attention. He ftudied the na¬
ture of barometers and thermometers with great care ;
and wrote Obfervations and Experiments concerning U
new Hour-glafs, and concerning Barometers, Thermo--
meters, and Hygrofcopes; which, with fome pieces in
the Journal des Javans, are all his literary works.
When the royal academy Was neW regulated in 1699,
he was admitted a member; and read his New Theory
tf Frittion, irt which he happily cleared up an import
ant objeft in mechanics. He died irt 1705.
AMORiEANS, a feed or order of gemaric doctors,
or commentators on the Jerufalem Talmud. The A-
morasans fucceeded the Mifchnic doftors. They fub-
fifted 250 years ; and were fncceeded by the Seburseans.
AMORGOS, or AmuXgus (anc. geog.), now
Morgo, not far from Naxus to the eaft, one of the Eu¬
ropean Sporades; the Country of Simonides the Iam¬
bic poet. To this illand criminals were banilhed. It
was famous for a fine flax called Emorgis.
AMORITES, a people defeended from Amorrhas-
Us, according to the Septuagint and Vulgate; Emorse-
us, according to other expofitors; Hsemori, according to
the Hebrew; or Emorite, according to our Verfion of the
bible ; who was the fourth fon of Canaan, Gen. x. 16.
The Amorites firft of all peopled the mountains ly¬
ing to the weft of the Dead Sea. They had likewife
eftabliftiments to the eaft of the fame fea, between the
brooks of Jabbock and Arnon, from whence they for¬
ced the Ammonites and Moabites. Numb. xiii. 30. xxi.
29. Jolh: v. x. and Judges xi. 19, 20. Mofes made a
conqueft of this country from their kings Shihon and Og,
in the:year of the world 2553.
The prophet Amos (ii. 9.), fpeaking of the gigan¬
tic ftature and valour of the Amorites, compares theii"
height with that of cedars, and their ftrength with
4 K that
AMO [ 626 ] AMO
Amorium, that of an oak. The name Amorite is often taken in The flowers are of a purple colour, and (how themfelves Amortiz»j| (s
Amorpha. Scripture for all Canaanites in general. The lands in perfection with us the beginning of July. They
v—"v which the Amorite poffefled on this fide Jordan were grow in fpikes, feven or eight inches long, at the ends n^°3,
given to the tribe of Judah, and thofe which they had of the branches, and are of a Angular itru&ure. In
enjoyed beyond this river were diftributed between the order to make this tree have its bell eft’eft, it fhould
tribes of Reuben and Gad.
AMORIUM, a town of Phrygia Major, near the
river Sangarius, on the borders of Galatia.—It was
taken from the Romans by the Saracens in 668 ; but
foon after retaken by the Romans.—A war break¬
ing out again between thefe two nations in 837,
be planted among others of its own growth, in a well-
Iheltered fituation ; by which means the ends will not
be fo liable to be deftroyed by the winter’s frofts; the
branches will not fuffer by the violence of the winds;
and as it is fubjeA to put out many branches near the
root, thefe indelicacies and imperfections will be con-
the Roman emperor Theophylus deftroyed Sozopetra cealed; whilft the tree will fhow itfelf to the utmoft
the birth-place of the khalif AI’ Motafem, notwith- advantage when in blow, by elevating its purple-fpiked
Handing his earneft intreaties to him to fpare it. This
fo enraged the khalif, that he ordered every one to en¬
grave upon his fliield the word Amorium.) the birth¬
place of ThCophylus, which he refolved at all events to
deftroy. Accordingly he laid fiege to the place, but
met with a vigorous reiiftance. At length, after a fiege
of 55 days, it was betrayed by one of the inhabitants
who had abjured the Chriftian religion. The khalif,
exafperated at the lofs he had fuftained during the fiege,
flowers amongft the others in a pleafing view. The
feeds of this plant were firft fent to England by Mr
Mark Cateiby in 1724, from which many plants were
raifed in the gardens near London. Thefe were of
quick growth, and feveral of them produced flowers in
three years.
Culture. The amorpha is moft readily propagated
by feeds, which ought to be procured annually from
America. It may alfo be propagated by laying down
put moft of the men to the fword, carried the women the young branches, which in one year will make good
and children into captivity, and levelled the city with roots; and may then be taken off, and planted either
the ground. His forces being diftreffed for want of
water on their return home, the Chriftian prifoners rofe
upon fome of them, and murdered them ; upon which
the khalif put 6000 of the prifoners to death.—Ac¬
cording to the eaftern hiftorians, 30,000 of the inha¬
bitants of Amorium were flain, and as many carried
into captivity.
AMORPHA, False Indigo : A genus of the de-
eandria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of
in the nurfery, or in the places where they are defign-
ed to remain. If they are put into a nurfery, they
fhould not remain there more than one year; for as
the plants make large fhoots, they do not remove well
when they have remained long in a place.
AMORTIZATION, in law, the alienation of lands
or tenements to a corporation or fraternity and their
fucceffors. See Mortmain.
AMOS, the fourth of the fmall prophets, who in
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the his youth had been a herdfman in Tekoa, a fmall town
3?.d order, Papilionaceje. The characters are: The about four leagues fouthward of Jerufalem, was fent to
calyx is a fingle-leaved perianthium, tubular and per- the kine of Bafhan, that is, to the people of Samaria,
fiftent: The corolla confifts of an ovate, concave, ereft or the kingdom of Ifrael, to bring them back to re¬
petal, fcarcely larger than, and placed on the upper pentance, and an amendment of their lives ; whence it
fide of, the calyx : The Jlamina confift of ten ere61 is thought probable that he was born within the terri-
unequal filaments, longer than the corolla ; the anthe¬
rs: are fimple . The piJHllum has a roundifh germen j
the ftylus fubulated, and the length of the ftamina;
the ftigma fimple : The pericarpium is a lunated uni¬
locular legumen, refle6led, larger than the calyx, and
tuberculated : The feeds are two, and kidney-fhaped.
tories of Ifrael, and only retired to Tekoa on his being
driven from Bethel, by Amaziah the prieft of the gol¬
den calves at Bethel.
The prophet being thus retired to Tekoa, in the
kingdom of Judah, continued to prophefy. He com¬
plains in many places of the violence offered him, by
By the corolla alone this genus may be diftinguifhed endeavouring to oblige him to filence. He boldly re-
from all the known plants in the univerfe: The petals
are the banner, the wings and keel are wanting; which
is very Angular in a papilionaceous corolla.
Of this there is only one known fpecies, a native of
Carolina, where the inhabitants formerly made from it
a courfe kind of indigo, whence the plant took its
name. It rifes, with many irregular Items, to the
height of 12 or 14 feet. The leaves are late in the
monftrates againft the crying fins that prevailed among
the Ifraelites, as idolatry, oppreffion, wantonnefs, and
obftinacy. He likewife reproves thofe of Judah, fuch
as their carnal fecurity, fenfuality, and injuftice. He
terrifies them both with frequent threatenings, and
pronounces that their fins will at laft end in the ruin
of Judah and Ifrael, which he illuftrates by the vifions
of a plumb-line and a baiket of fummer-fruit. It in
fpring before their foliage is fully difplayed. The ends obfervable in this prophecy, that as it begins with de-
of their branches are generally deftroyed by the froft ; nunciation of judgment and deftru6lion againft the Sy-
or, if they recover it, they have the appearance of be- rians, Philiftines, Tyrians, and other enemies of the
ing dead; whilft other plants teftify their effe6ls of the Jews, fo it concludes with comfortable promifes of re-
reviving months. But, notwithftanding thefe defedls, ftoring the tabernacle of David, and ere&ing the king-
ihis tree has fome other good properties that in part dom of Chrift. Amos was chofen to the prophetic o£-
make amends for them. The leaves, when out, which flee in the time of Uzziah king of Judah, and Jero-
will not be before the middle of May, are admired by boam the fon of Joalh, king of Ifrael, two years be-
all. They are of a pleafant green colour; are very fore the earthquake (Amos i. 1), which happened in
large, beautifully pinnated, the folioles being arranged the 24th or 25th year of Uzziah, according to the rab-
along the ftalk by pairs, and terminate by an odd one. bins and moil of the modern commentators;- or the
year
AMP C 627 ] AMP
Amos year of the world 32x9, when this prince ufurped the
’ II prieft’s office, and attempted to offer incenfe to the
mPe 1S' Lord: but it is obferved, that this cannot be the cafe,
becaufe Jotham the fon of Uzziah, who was born in
3221, was of age to govern, and confequently was be¬
tween 15 and 2o years of age, when his father under¬
took to offer incenfe, and was ftruck with a leprofy.
The firil of the prophecies of Amos, in order of time,
are thofe of the 7th chapter: the reft he pronounced
in the town of Tekoa, whither he retired. He fore¬
told the misfortunes which the kingdom of Ifrael ftiould
fall into after the death of Jeroboam II. who was
then living; he foretold the death of Zechariah, the
invafion of the lands belonging to Ifrael by Phul and
Tiglath-Pilefer kings of Affyria; and he fpeaks of the
captivity of the ten tribes, and their return.
The time and manner of this prophet’s death are not
known. Some old authors relate that Amaziah, prieft
of Bethel, provoked by the difcourfes of the prophet,
had his teeth broke, in order to filence him. Others
fay, that Hofea or Uzziah, the fon of Amaziah, ftruck
him with a ftake upon the temples, knocked him down,
and wounded him much; in which condition he was
carried to Tekoa, where he died, and was buried with
his fathers; but it is generally thought that he pro-
phefied a long time at Tekoa, after the adventure
which he had with Amaziah; and the prophet himfelf
taking no notice of the ill treatment which he is faid
to have received, is an argument that he did not fuffer
in the manner they relate.
St Jerom obferves, that there is nothing great or
fublime in the ftyle of Amos. He applies the words
of St Paul (2 Cor. xi. 6.) to him, ‘ rude in fpeech
though not in knowledge.’ And he farther obferves,
that he borrows his comparifon from the ftate and pro-
feffion to which he belonged.
AMOY, an ifland in the province of Fokien, in
China, where the Englifh had a faftory: but they
have abandoned it on account of the impofitions of
the inhabitants. Long. 136. o. Lat. 24. 30. It has
a fine port, that will contain many thoufand veffels.
The emperor has a garrifon here of 7000 men.
AMPELIS, the vine, in botany. See Vitis.
Ampelis, the Chatterer, in zoology, a genus of
birds belonging to the order of pafferes; the diftin-
guifhing charafters of which are, that the tongue is
furni/hed with a rim or margin all round, and the bill
is conical and ftrait. There are feven fpecies, all na¬
tives of foreign countries, except the garrulus, which
is a native both of Europe and the Weft Indies. In
the former, the native country of thefe birds is Bohe¬
mia ; from whence they wander over the reft of Eu¬
rope, and were once fuperftitioufly confidered as pre-
fages of a peftilence. They appear annually about E-
dinburgh in February; and feed-on the berries of the
mountain-alh. They alfo appear as far fouth as North¬
umberland ; and, like the field-fare, make the berries
of the white-thorn their food. It is but by accident
that they ever appear farther fouth. They are grega¬
rious ; feed on grapes, where vineyards are cultivated ;
are eafily tamed; and are efteemed delicious food. This
fpecies is about the fize of the black-bird: the bill is
Ihort, thick, and black; on the head is a (harp point¬
ed creft reclining backwards: the lower part of the tail
is black; the end of a rich yellow: the quill-feathers
are black, the three firft tipt with white ; the fix next Ampelkes-
have half an inch of their exterior margin edged with U,.
fine yellow, the interior with white. But what diftin- A”,,,sia*
guifties this from all other birds, are the horny appen- - v ’ 1
dages from the tips of feven of the fecondary feathers,
of the colour and glofs of the beft red wax.
AMPELITES, CANNEL-coAi.,/ or candle-coal,
a hard, opaque, foffile, inflammable fubftance, of a
black colour. It does not effervefce with acids. The
ampelites, though much inferior to jet in many re-
fpe&s, is yet a very beautiful foffile; and, for a body
of fo compaft a ftru&ure, remarkably light. Examined
by the microfcope, it appears compofed of innumerable
very fmall and thin plates, laid clofely and firmly on
one another; and full of very fmall fpecks of a blacker
and more ffiining matter than the reft, which is evi¬
dently a purer bitumen than the general mafs. Thefe
fpecks are equally diffufed over the different parts of
the maffes. There is a large quarry of it near Alen-
fon in France. It is dug in many parts of England,
but the fineft is in Lancaffiire and Chefliire; it lies u-
fually at confiderable depths. It makes a very briflc
fire, flaming violently for a fhort time, and after that
continuing red and glowing hot a long while ; and fi¬
nally is reduced into a fmall proportion of grey afhes,
the greater part of its fubftance having floWn off in the
burning.— It is capable of a very high and elegant po-
lifli; and, in the countries where it is produced, is
turned into a vaft number of toys, as fnuff-boxes and
the like, which bear all the nicety of turning, and are
made to pafs for jet.—Hufbandmen fmear their vines
with it, as it kills the vermin which infefts them. It
is likewife ufed for the dyeing of hair black. In me¬
dicine, it is reputed good in colics, againft worms, and
of being in general an emollient and difcutient; but the
prefent praftice takes no notice of it.
AMPELUSIA, (anc. geog.) a promontory of
Mauritania Tingitana, called Cotter by the natives,
which is of the fame fignification with a town of the
fame name not far from the river Lixus, near the ftraits
of Gibraltar : now Cape SparteL W. Long. 6. 30.
Lat. 36. o.
AMPHERES, in antiquity, a kind of veffels where¬
in the rowers plied two oars at the fame time, one with
the right hand and another with the left.
AMPHIATHROSIS, in anatomy, a term for fuch
jun£lures of bones as have an evident motion, but dif¬
ferent from the diarthrofis, &c. See Diarthrosis.
AMPHIARAUS, in pagan mythology, a celebra¬
ted prophet, who poffeffed part of the kingdom of Ar¬
gos. He was believed to excel in divining by dreams,
and is faid to be the firft who divined by fire. Am-
phiaraus knowing, by the fpirit of prophecy, that he
fhould lofe his life in the war againft Thebes, hid him¬
felf in order to avoid engaging in that expedition: but
his wife Eriphyle, being prevailed upon by a prefent,
difcovcred the place in which he had concealed him¬
felf ; fo that he was obliged to accompany the other
princes who marched againft; Thebes. This proved fa¬
tal to him ; for the earth being fplit afunder by a thun¬
der-bolt, both he and his chariot were fwallowed up in
the opening.— Amphiaraus, after his death, was rank¬
ed among the gods ; temples were dedicated to him;
and his oracle, as well as the (ports inftituted to his ho¬
nour, were very famous.
4 K 2 AMPHIBIA,
AMP F 628 1 AMP
Amphibia. AMPHIBIA, in zoology, the name of Linnaeus's
third clafs of animals; including all thofe which live
partly in water and partly on land. This clafs he fub-
divides into four orders, v/z. The amphibia reptiles;
the amphibia ferpentes; the amphibia nantes; and the
amphibia meantes. See Zoology.
It has been a queftion whether the animals common¬
ly called amphibious, live moll in the water or on land.
If we confider the words [utrinque, both ways),
and (vita, life), from which the term amphibious
is derived ; we Ihould underlland, that animals, having
this title, fhould be capable of living as well by land, or
in the air, as by water; or of dwelling in either con-
flantly at will: but it will be difficult to find any ani¬
mal that can fulfil this definition, as being equally qua-
* Dr Par- Plied for either. An ingenious naturalift*, therefore,
from confidering their ceconomy refpeftively, divides
fore the them into two orders, viz. 1. Such as enjoy their chief
Royal So- functions by land, but occafionally go into the water.
c!«y- 2. Such as chiefly inhabit the water, but occafionally
go alhore. What he advances on this fubjett is curious,
and well illultrates the nature of this clafs.
1. Of the firft order, he particularly confiders the
phocse; and endeavours to Ihow, that none of them can
live chiefly in the water, but that their chief enjoy¬
ment of the fundiions of life is on Ihore..
f See the Thefe animals (he obferves) are. really quadrupedsf;
article Pbo- as their chief food, is filh, they are under a ne-
ceffity of going out to fea to hunt their prey, and to
great diftances from fliore ;. taking care that, however
great the diltance, rocks or fmall iflands are at hand,
as relling-places when they are tired, or when their
bodies become too much macerated in the water; and
they return to the places of their ufual refort to fleep,
copulate, and bring forth their young, for the follow¬
ing reafons, viz. It is well known, that the only efien-
tial difference (as to the general ftruflure of the heart)
between amphibious and mere land animals, or fuch as
never go into the water, is, that in the former the oval
hole remains always open. Now, in fuch as are with¬
out this hole, if they were to be immerfed in water for
but a little time, refpiration would ceafe, and the ani¬
mal muff die; becaufe a great part of the mafs of blood
paffes from the heart by the pulmonary artery through
the lungs, and by the pulmonary veins returns to the
heart, while the aorta is carrying the greater part of
the mafs to the head and extremities, &c.
Now, the blood paffes through the lungs in a conti¬
nual uninterrupted ftream, while refpiration is gentle
and moderate: but when it is violent, then the circu¬
lation is interrupted, for infpiration and exfpiratibn are
now carried to their extent; and in this ftate the blood
cannot pafs through the lungs either during the total
infpiration or total exfpiration of the air in breathing:
for, in the former cafe, the inflation compreffes the re¬
turning veins ; and, in the latter, by the collapfion of
the lungs, thefe veins are interrupted alfo; fo that it is
only between thefe two violent actions that the blood
can pafs: and hence it is, that the lives of animals are
(hortened, and their health impaired, when they are
fubjetted to frequent violent refpiration; and thus it is,
that when animals have once breathed, they muff con¬
tinue to refpire ever after, for life is at an end when
Shat ceafes.
There are three neceffary and principal ufeS of refpi¬
ration in all land-animals, and in thofe kinds that are Amphibia.
counted amphibious.-—The firft is that of promoting ' ^
the circulation of the blood through the whole body
and extremities. In real fiflies, the force of the heart
is alone capable of fending the blood to every part, as
they are not furniflred with limbs or extremities; but,
in the others mentioned, being all furniflied with
extremities, refpiration is an affiftant force to the arte¬
ries in fending blood to the extremities; which, being
fo remote from the heart, have need of fuch affiftance,
otherwife the circulation would be very languid in thefe
parts: thus we fee, that in perfons fubjeft to afthmatic
complaints, the circulation grows languid, the legs grow
cold and oedematous, and other-paits fuffer by the de-
fe£t in refpiration.—Afecond ufe of breathing is, that,
in infpiration, the variety of particles, of different qua¬
lities, which float always in the air, might be drawn in¬
to the lungs, to be infinuated into the mafs of blood,
being highly neceffary to contemperate and cool the a-
gitated mafs,. and to contribute refined pabulum to the
finer parts of it, which, meeting with the daily fupply
of chyle, ferves to affiipilate and more intimately mix
the mafs, and render its conftitution the fitter for fup-
porting the life of the animal. Therefore it is, that
valetudinarians, by changing foul or unwholefome air
lor a free, good, open air, often recover from lingering
difeafes.—A third principal ufe of refpiration is, to
promote the exhibition of voice in animals; which all
thofe that live on the land do according to their fpe-
cific natures.
From thefe confiderations it appears, that the phocje
of every kind are under an abfolute neceffity of ma¬
king the land their principal refidence. But there is.
another very convincing argument why they reiide on
fliore the greateft part of their time; namely, that the
flefli of thefe creatures is analogous to that of other land
animals; and therefore, by over long maceration, ad¬
ded to the fatigue of their chacing their prey, they
would fuffer fuch a relaxation as would deftroy them.
It is well known, that animals which have lain long
under water, are reduced to a very lax and even putrid
ftate; and the phoca muft balk in the air on ftiore: for
while the folids are at reft, they acquire their former
degree of tenfion, and the vigour of the animal is re-
ftored; and while he has an uninterrupted placid refpi¬
ration, his blood is refrefhed by the new fupply of air,
as explained above, and he is rendered fit for his next
cruife: for aClion waftes the moft exalted fluids of the
body, more or lefs, according to its duration and vio¬
lence ; and the reftorative reft muft continue a longer
or fiiorter time, according to the quantity of the pre¬
vious fatigue.
Let us now examine by what power thefe animals
are capable of remaining longer under water than land-
animals.
All thefe have the oval hole open between the right
and left auricles of the heart; and, pn many, the cana-
lis arteriofus alfo: and while the phoca remains under
water, which he may continue an hour or two more or
lefs, his refpiration is flopped; and the blood, not
finding the paffage through the pulmonary artery free,
nifties through the hole from the right, to the left au¬
ricle, and partly through the arterial canal, being a
ftiort paffage to the aorta, and thence to every part of
the body, maintaining the circulation; {>ut, upon riling
AMP [ 629 ] AMP
)ia. to come afhore, the blood finds its paffage again thro’
the lungs the moment he refpires.
Thus the foetus in utero, during its confinement,
having the lungs comprefled, and confequently the pul¬
monary arteries and veins impervious, has the circula¬
tion of the blood carried on through the oval hole and
the arterial canal. Now, fo far the phoca in the water,
and the foetus in utero, are analogous; but they differ
in other material circumftances. One is, that the foetus
having never refpired, remains fufficiently nourifhed
by the maternal blood circulating through him, and
continues to grow till the time of his birth, without
any want of refpiration during nine months confine¬
ment : the phoca, having refpired the moment of his
birth, cannot live very long without it, for the reafons
given before ; and this hole and canal would be clofed
in them, as it is in land-animals, if the dam did not,
foon after the birth of the cub, carry him fo very fre¬
quently into the water to teach him; by which prac¬
tice thefe paffages are kept open during life, otherwife
they would not be capable of. attaining the food de-
figned for them by Providence.
Another difference is, that the phoca, as was faid be¬
fore, would be relaxed by maceration in remaining too
long in the water; whereas the foetus in utero fuffers
no injury from continuing its full number of months
in the fluid it fwims in : the reafon is, that water is a
powerful folvent, and penetrates the pores of the fkins
of land-animals, and in time can difiblve them; where¬
as the liquor amnii is an infipid foft fluid, impregnated
with particles more or lefs mucilaginous, and utterly
incapable of making the leafl alteration in the cutis of
the foetus.
Otters, beavers, and fome kindsof rats, go occafion-
ally into the water for their prey, but cannot remain
very long under water. “ I have often gone to {hoot
otters (fays our author), and watched all their mo¬
tions: I have feen one of them go foftly from a bank,
into the river, and dive down; and in about two mi¬
nutes rife, at 10 or 15 yards from the place he went
in, with a middling falmon in his mouth, which he
brought on fliore: I (hot him, and fayed the filh
whole.” Now, as all fcetufes have thefe paflages open,
if a whelp of a true water-lpaniel was, immediately af¬
ter its birth, ferved as the phoca does her cubs, and
immerfed in water, to flop refpiration for a little time
every day, it is probable that the hole and canal would
be kept open, and the dog be made capable of remain¬
ing as long under water as the phoca.
Frogs, how capable foever of remaining in the wa-.
ter, yet cannot avoid living on land, for they refpire ;
and if a frog be thrown into a river, he makes to the
fliore as fall as he can.
The lizard kind, fuch as may be called water-liz¬
ards (fee Lacerta), are all obliged to come to land,
in order to depofite their eggs, to reft, and to fleep.
Even the crocodiles, who dwell much in rivers, fleep
and lay their eggs on fliore ; and, while in the water,,
are compelled to rife to the furface to breathe ; yet,
from the texture of his fcaly covering, he is capable of
remaining in the water longer by far than any fpecies
of the phbca, whofe Ikin is analogous to that of a horfe,
or cow.
The hippopotamus (fee Hippopotamus), who
wades into the lakes or rivers, is a quadruped, and re¬
mains under the water a confiderable time; yet his Amphibia.,
chief refidence is upon land, and he muft come on ftiore
for refpiration.
The teftudo, or fea tortoife (fee Testudo), though
he goes out to fea and is often found far from land;
yet being a refpiring animal, cannot remain long un¬
der water. He has indeed a power of rendering him-
felf fpecifically heavier or lighter than the water, and
therefore can let himfelf down to avoid an enemy or a
ftorm : yet he is under a neceflity of rifing frequently
to breathe, for reafons given before; and his moft ufual
fituation, while at fea, is upon the furface of the water,
feeding upon the various fubftances that float in great
abundance every where about him ; thefe animals fleep
fecurely upon the furface, but not under water; and.
can remain longer at fea than any other of this clafs,
except the crocodile, becaufe, as it is with the latter,
his covering is not in danger of being too much mace¬
rated ; yet they muft go on ftiore to copulate and lay
their eggs.
2 , The confideration of thefe is fufficient to inform
us of the nature of the firft order of the clafs of amphi¬
bious animals ; let us now fee what is to be faid of the
fecond in our divifion of them, which are fuch as chiefly
inhabit the waters, but occafionally go on ftiore.
Thefe are but of two kinds: the eels, and water fer-
pents or fnakes of every kind. It is their form that-
qualifies them for loco-motion on land, and they know
their way back to the water at will; for by their ftruc-
ture they have a ftrong periftaltic motion, by which
they can go forward at a pretty good rate : whereas all'
other kinds of fifli, whether vertical or horizontal, are
incapable of a voluntary loco-motion on ftiore; and'
therefore, as foon as fuch fifti are brought out of the
water, after having flounced a while, they lie motion-
lefs, and foon die.
Let us now examine into the reafon why thefe ver- •
micular fifti, the eel and ferpent kinds, can live a confi¬
derable time on land, and the vertical and horizontal ’
kinds die almoft immediately when taken out of the
water : and, in this refearch, we ftiall come. to know.
what analogy there is betiveen land animals and thofe
of the waters. All land-animals have lungs, and can
live no longer than while thefe are inflated by the am¬
bient air, and alternately comprefled for its expulfion ;.
that is, while refpiration is duly carried on, by a regu¬
lar infpiration and exfpiration of air..
In like manner, the fifti in general have, inftead of
lungs, gills or branchiae: , and as in land-animals the
lungs have a large portion of the mafs of blood circu¬
lating through them, which muft be Hopped if the air
has not a free ingrefs and egrefs into and from them ; ,
fo, in fifti, there is a great number of bloqd-veflels that
pafs through the branchiae, and a great portion of their
blood circulates through them, which muft in like man¬
ner be totally flopped, if the branchiae are not perpe¬
tually wet with water. So that, as the air is to the lungs
in land-animals a conftant affiftant to the circulation ;
fo is the water to the branchiae of thofe of the rivers
and feas : for when thefe are out of the water, the bran¬
chiae very foon grow crifp and dry, the blood-vefiels are
ftirunk, and the blood is obftrufted in its paflage ; fo,.
when the former are immerfed in water, or otherwife
prevented from having refpiration, the circulation ceafes, ,
and the animal dies. .
Agairi,-,
AMP
Amphibia, Again, as land-animals would be deftroyed by too
Amphibo- macerat;ion {n water; fo fifhes would, on the other
t ^ . hand, be ruined by too much exficcation ; the latter
being, from their general ftrufture and conftitution,
made fit to bear, and live in, the water ; the former,
by their conflitution and form, to breathe and dwell in
the air.
But it may be a (Iced, why eels and water-fnakes are
capable of living longer in the air than the other kinds
of fi(h ? This is anfwered, by confidering the providen¬
tial care of the great Creator for thefe and every one
of his creatures : for fince they were capable of loco¬
motion by their form, which they need not be if they
were never to go on fhore, it feemed neceffary that they
fhould be rendered capable of living a confiderable time
on (hore, otherwife their loco-motion would be in vain.
How is this provided for ? Why, in a moll convenient
manner : for this order of fifhes have their branchise
well covered from the external drying air; they are alfo
furnifhed with a flimy mucus, which hinders their be¬
coming crifp and dry for many hours; and their very
Ikins always emit a mucous liquor, which keeps them
fupple and moiftfor a long time: whereas the branchire
of other kinds of fifh are much expofed to the air, and
want the flimy matter to keep them moift. Now, if
any of thefe, when brought out of the water, were laid
in a veflel without water, they might be preferved alive
a confiderable time, by Only keeping the gills and fur-
face of the fkin conftantly wet, even without any water
to fwim in. 
It has been advanced, that man may, by art, be ren¬
dered amphibious, and able to live under water as well
as frogs. As the fcetus lives in utero without air, and
the circulation is there continued by means of the fora¬
men ovale; by preferving the pafiage open, and the o-
ther parts in Jiatu quo, after the birth, the fame facul¬
ty would ftill continue. Now, the foramen, it is al¬
leged, would be preferved in its open ftate, were peo¬
ple accuftomed, from their infancy, to hold their breath
a confiderable time once a-day, that the blood might
be forced to refume its priftine paffage, and prevent its
drying up as it ufually does. This conjecture feems,
in fome meafure, fupported by the practice of divers,
who are taught from their childhood to hold their
breath, and keep long under water, by which means the
ancient channel is kept open.—A Calabrian monk at
Madrid laid claim to this amphibious capacity, making
an offer to the king of Spain, to continue twice twen¬
ty-four hours under water, without ever coming up to
take breath. Kircher gives an account of a Sicilian,
named the fifh Colas, who, by a long habitude from his
youth, had fo accuftomed himfelf to live in water, that
his nature feemed to be quite altered ; fo that he lived
•rather after the manner of a fifh than a man.
AMPHIBOLOGY, in grammar and rhetoric, a
term ufed to denote a phrafe fufceptible of two differ¬
ent interpretations. Amphibology arifes from the or¬
der of the phrafe, rather than from the ambiguous
meaning of a word.
Of this kind was that anfwer which Pyrrhus received
from the oracle : sUo te, JEacida, Romanos vincere pofi
fe; where the amphibology confifts in this, that the
words ie and Romanos, may either of them precede, or
either of them follo\ , the words pofi'e vincere, indiffe¬
rently. See Oracle.
AMP
The Englifli language ufually fpeaks in a more na- Amphibr
tural manner, and is not capable of any amphibologies cliy8
of this kind: nor is it fo liable to amphibologies in Amphic)
the articles, as the French and moft other modern tyons.
tongues. ——v—.
AMPHIBRACHYS, in ancient poetry, the name
of a foot confifting of three fyllables, whereof that in
the middle is long, and the other two fhort; fuch is the
word [jabTre].
AMPHICOME, in natural hiftory, a kind of figu¬
red ftone, of a round fhape, but rugged, and befet with
eminences, celebrated on account of its ufe in divina¬
tion. The word is originally Greek, q. d. «-
trinque comat a, or “ hairy on all fides.” This ftone is
alfo called Erotylos, E^uxor, A materia, probably on
account of its fnppofed power of creating Jove. The
amphicome is mentioned by Democritus and Pliny,
though little known among the moderns. Mercatus
takes it for the fa my with the lapis lumbncatus, of
which he gives a figure.
AMPHICTYONS, in Grecian antiquity, an affem-
bly compofed of deputies from the different ftates of
Greece: and refembling, in fome meafure, the diet of
the German empire. — Some fuppofe the word kftpiHhcvtf
to be formed of *.ua“, “ about,” and Aiuv or in
regard the inhabitants of the country round about met
here in council: others, with more probability, from
Amplifiyon, fon of Deucalion, whom they fuppofe to
have been the founder of this affembly; though others
will have Acrifius, king of the Argives, to have been
the firft who gave a form and laws to it.
Authors give different accounts of the number of the
Amphi&yons, as well as of the ftates who were inti-
tled to have their reprefentatives in this council. Ac¬
cording to Strabo, Harpocration, and Suidas, they
were twelve from their firft inftitution, fent by the fol¬
lowing cities and ftates ; the lonians, Dorians, Per-
rhasbians, Boeotians, Magnefians, Ach<eans, Phthians,
Melians, Dolopians, jEnianians, Delphians, and Pho-
cians. ^Efchines reckons no more than eleven; inftead
of the Achaeans, iEnianians, Delphians, and Dolo¬
pians, he only gives the Theffalians, Oetians, and
Locrians. Laftly, Paufanius’s lift contains only ten,
viz. the lonians, Dolopians, Theffalians, iEnianians,
Magnefians, Melians, Phthians, Dorians, Phfcians,
and Locrians.
In the time of Philip of Macedon, the Phocians
were excluded the alliance, for having plundered the
Delphian temple, and the Lacedtemonians were ad¬
mitted in their place ; but the Phocians, 60 years af¬
ter, having behaved gallantly againft Brennus and his
Gauls, were reftored to their feat in the Amphiflyonic
council. Under Auguftus, the city Nicopolis was ad¬
mitted into the body ; and to make room for it, the
Magnefians, Melians, Phthians, and iEnianians, who
till then had diftindt voices, were ordered to be num¬
bered with the Theffalians, and to have only one com-
mon reprefentative. Strabo fpeaks as if this council
were extinft in the times of Auguftus and Tiberius :
but Paufanias, who lived many years after, under An¬
toninus Pius, affurcs us it remained entire in his time,
and that the number of Amphiftyons was then 30.
The members were of two kinds. Each city fent
two deputies, under different denominations; one called
’UgofM/j.ov, whofe bufinefs feems to have been more im-
5 mediately
[ 630 1
AMP £ 631 ] AMP
imphic- mediately to infpedl what related to facrifices and ccre-
t7M!ls monies of religion ; the other n<j\ayoictcf charged with
toiphilo- hearing and deciding of caufes and differences between
(ehus. private perfons. Both had an equal right to delibe-
rate and vote, in all that related to the common inte-
refts of Greece. The hisromnemon was elected by lot;
the pylagoras by plurality of voices.
Though the Amphidlyons were firft inftituted at
Thermopylae, M. de Valois maintains, that their firil
place of rcfidence was at Delphi; where, for fome ages,
the tranquillity of the times found them no other em¬
ployment than that of being, if we may fo call it,
chu’-ch-wardens of the temple of Apollo. In after¬
times, the approach of armies frequently drove them to
Thermopylae, where they took their ftation, to be near¬
er at hand to oppofe the enemies progrefs, and order
timely fuccour to the cities in danger. Their ordinary
refidence, however, was at Delphi.
Here they decided all public differences and difputes
between any of the cities of Greece ; but before they
* i entered on bufmefs, they jointly facrificed an ox cut in¬
to fmall pieces, as a fymbol of their union. Their de¬
terminations were received with the greateft veneration,
and even held facred and inviolable.
The Amphittyons, at their admiflion, took a folemn
oath never to diveft any city of their right of deputa-
Ition ; never to avert its running waters; and if any at¬
tempts of this kind were made by others, to make mor-
i tal war againft them: more particularly, in cafe of any
attempt to rob the temple of any of its ornaments, that
they would employ hands, feet, tongue, their whole
power, to revenge it.—This oath was backed with ter¬
rible imprecations againft fuch as ilrould violate it; e.g.
May they meet all the vengeance of Apollo, Diana,
Minerva, &c. their foil produce no fruit, their wives
bring forth nothing but monfters, &c.
The ftated terms of their meeting was in fpring and
I f autumn ; the fpring meeting was called nuxai*,
that in autumn MtUzscfivn. On extraordinary occafions,
however, they met at any time of the year,' or even con¬
tinued fitting all the year round.
Philip of Macedon ufurped the right of prefiding in
the affembly of the Amphi&yons, and of firft confulting
the oracle which was called
AMPHIDROMIA, a feaft celebrated by the an¬
cients on the fifth day after the birth of a child.
AMPHIDRYON, in ecclefiaitical writers, denotes
the veil or curtain which was drawn before the door of
the bema in ancient churches.
AMPHILOCHIA (anc. geog.), the territory of
the city of Argos in Acamania; Amphikchium, (Thu-
cidydes); called Amphilochi (from the people,) in the
lower age, (Stephanus.) A town alfo of Spain, in
Galiicia, built by Teucer, and denominated from Am-
philochus one of his companions, (Strabo): now Orenfe.
W. Long. 8. 20. Lat. 42. 36.
AMPPIILOCHIUS, bifhop of Iconium, in the
fourth century, was the friend of St Gregory Nazian-
zen and St Bafil. He affifted at the firft general coun¬
cil of Conftantinople in 381; prefided at the council of
Sidae; and was a ftrenuous oppofer of the Arians. He
died in 394 ; and his works were publifhed in Greek
andTLatin at Paris 1644, by Francis Combefis.
AMPHILOCHUS, fon of Amphiarus and Eri-
phyle, was a celebrated diviner. He had an altar erec¬
ted to him at Athens, and an oracle at Mallus in Ci- Amphi-
licia, which city was founded by him and Mopfus. The ma<je£'
anfwers of this oracle were given by dreams; the party Amphif-
inquiring ufed to pafs a night in the temple, and that bana.
night’s dream was the anfwer. Dion Caffius mentions —v—*-
a picture done by order of Sextus Condianus, reprefent-
ing the anfwer he received of the oracle, in the reign
of the emperor Commodus.
AMPHIMACER, in ancient poetry, a foot con-
fifting of three fyllables, whereof the firft and laft are
long, and that in the middle'fhort; fuch is the word
[Caftitas.j
AMPHION, fon of Jupiter and Antiope; who, ac¬
cording to the poets, made the rocks follow his mufic ;
and at his harp the ftones of Thebes danced into walls
and a regular city.
AMPHIPOLES, in antiquity, the principal ma-
giftrates of Syracufe. They were eftabliflied by Ti-
moleon in the 109th Olympiad, after the expulfion of
the tyrant Dionyfius. They governed Syracufe for the
fpace of 300 years: and Diodorus Siculus affures us,-
that they fubfifted in his time.
AMPH1POLIS, a city of Macedonia, an Athe¬
nian colony, on the Strymon, but on which fide is not
fo certain : Pliny places it in Macedonia, on this fide;
but Scylax, in Thrace, on the other. The name of the
town, Amphipolis, however, feems to reconcile their dif¬
ference ; becaufe, as Thucidydes obferves, it was wafh-
ed on two fides by the Strymon, which dividing itfelfi
into two channels, the city ftood in the middle, and on
the fide towards the fea there was a wall built from
channel to channel. Its ancient name was Ema the
Nine Ways, (Thucidydes, Herodotus.) The citizens
were called Amphipolitani, (Livy.,) It was afterwards
called Cbrijlopolis; now Chrifopcli, or Chijopoli, (Hol-
ftenius.)
Amphipolis, a town of Syria, on the Euphrates^,
built by Seleucus, called by the Syrians CTurine da,
(Stephanus) : the fame with Thapfacus, (Pliny); and
fuppofed to have been only renewed and adorned by
Seleucus, becaufe long famous before his time, (Xeno¬
phon.)
AMPHIPPII, in Grecian antiquity,, foldiers who,
in war, afed two horfes without faddles, and were dex¬
terous enough to leap from one to the other.
AMPHIPRORJEj in the naval affairs of the an¬
cients, veffels with a prow at each end. They were
ufed chiefly in rapid rivers and narrow channels, where
it was not eafy to tack about.
AMPHIPROSTYLE, in the arehite&ure of the
ancients, a temple which had four columns in the front,,
and as many in the afpeft behind.
AMPHISBJENA, in zoology, a genus of ferpents
belonging to the order of amphibia ferpentes, fd called
from the falfe notion of its having two heads, becaufe
it moves with either end foremoft.
The head of the amphifbsena is fmall, fmooth, and-
blunt; the noftfils are very fmall; the eyes are minute•
and blackilh ; and the mouth is furniflied with a great
number of fmall teeth. The body is cylindrical, about
a foot long, and divided into about 200 annular convex,
fegments like thofe of a wormand it has about 40
longitudinal ftreaks, of which 12 on each fide are in
.the form of fmall croffes like the Roman X ; the anus
is a tranfverfe flit; and the laft ring or fegment of the
AMP
Amph'f- belly has eight ftnall papillcc, forming a tranfverfe line
*|ia before the anus; the tail, i. e. all the fpace below the
Amphitanc aHUS> 's fhort, confifting of 30 annular fegments, with-
t'—- v 'but being marked with the crofs-lines, and is thick
and blunt at tlm/point. The colour of the whole ani¬
mal is black, variegated with white ; but the black
prevails moft on the back, and the white on the belly.
It has a great refemblance to a worm, living in the
earth, and moving equally well with either end fore-
moft. There are but two fpecies, viz. 1. The fuligi-
nofa, which anfwers exaftly to the above defcription,
and is found in Libya and in different parts of Ame¬
rica. 2. The alba, which is totally white, is a native
of both the Indies, and is generally found in ant-hil¬
locks. The bite of the amphifbasna is reckoned to be
mortal by many authors ; but as it is not furnifhed
with dog-fangs, the ufual inftruments of conveving the
poifon of ferpents, later writers efleem it not to be poi-
fonous. They feed upon ants and earth-worms, but
particularly the latter. See Plate XVI.
Amphisbmna slquatica, a name given by Bertrutius,
Albertus, and feveral other authors, to that long and
flender infeft, called by others the feta aquatica, and
vermis fetarius. It has the name amphijbeena, from its
going backwards or forwards with equal eafe and cele¬
rity. The ufual fize is four or five inches long, and
the thicknefs of a large hair.
Dr Lifter accidentally found out the origin of this
worm, in his refearches into the hiftory of a very dif¬
ferent fort of infeft. Difle&ing one of the common
black beetles dug up in a garden, he found in its belly
two of thefe hair worms, or amphifbaens ; and renew¬
ing the experiment on other beetles of the fame fpecies,
he found that they ufually contained, one, two, or three
of thefe worms. As foon as the body of the beetle is
opened, they always crawl out. When put into wa¬
ter they will live a confiderable time, and fwim nimbly
about; but often put up their heads above water, as if
endeavouring to make their efcape, and fometimes fa-
ftening themfelves by the mouth to the fides of the vef-
fel, and drawing their whole bodies after them. Thefe
creatures are not only found in the waters, but buried
in earth, and fometimes on the leaves of trees, in our
gardens and hedges. Phil. Tranf. No 83.
AMPHISCII, among geographers, a name applied
to the people who inhabit the torrid zone. The Am-
phifcii, as the word imports, have their fiiadows one
part of the year towards the north, and the other to¬
wards the fouth, according to the fun’s place in the ec¬
liptic. They are alfo called Afcii. See Ascii.
AMPHISSA (anc. geog.), the capital of the Locri
Oxolse, J2oftadia (or 15 miles) to the weft of Delphi,
( Paufanias.) So called, becaufe furrounded on all hands
bymountains, (Stephanus.) Hencey/w^^e/Aheinhabi-
tants ; who plundered the temple at Delphi, (Demoft-
henes.)—Alfo a town of Magna Graecia, at the mouth
of the Sagra, on the coaft of the Farther Calabria, fi-
tuated between Locri and Caulona ; now called Rocel-
ia. Amphijfius the epithet, (Ovid.)
AMPHITANE, among ancient naturalifts, a ftone
faid to attraft gold as the loadftone does iron. Pliny
fays it was found in that part of the Indies where the
native gold lay fo near the furface of the earth as to
be turned up in fmall maffes among the earth of ant¬
hills ; and defcribes it to have been of a fquare figure,
N° 16.
AMP
and of the colour and brightnefs of gold. The defcrip*
tion plainly points out a well-known foifil, called, by
Dr Hill, pyricubiwn : this is common in the mines of
moft parts of the world ; but neither this nor any other
ftone was ever fuppofed, in our times, to have the power
of attracting gold.
AMPHITHEATRE, in antiquity, a fpacious e-
difice, built either round or oval, with a number of ri¬
ling feats, upon which the people ufed to behold the
combats of gladiators, of wild beafts, and other fports.
Amphitheatres were at firft only of wood ; and it was
not till the reign of Auguftus, that Statilius Taurus
b*uilt one, for the firft time, of ftone. The loweft part
was of an oval figure, and called arena, becaufe, for the
conveniency of the combatants, it was ufually ftrewed
with fand; and round the arena were vaults ftyled ca-
veee, in which were confined the wild beafts appointed
for the fliews.
Above the caves: was ereCted a large circular peri-
ftyle, or podium, adorned with columns. This was the
place of the emperors, fenators, and other perfons of
diftinCtion.
The rows of benches were above the podium. Their
figure was circular; and they were entered by avenues,
at the end of which were gates called vomitorix.
Their theatre was built in form of a femicircle, on¬
ly exceeding a juft femicircle by one fourth part of the
diameter ; and the amphitheatre was nothing elfe but
a double theatre, or two theatres joined together : fo
that the longeft diameter of the amphitheatre was to
the fiiorteft as i-f to 1.
There are amphitheatres ftill Handing at Rome, at
Pola, at Nifmes, &c. The amphitheatre of Vefpa-
fian, called the Colifeum, and that at Verona in Italy,
are the moft celebrated now remaining of all antiqui¬
ty. Remains of amphitheatres are fhown alfo at Arles,
Bourdeaux, &c. The amphitheatre at Pola, an ancient
republic of Iftria, is very entire : it confifts of two
orders of Tufcan pillars, one over the other. The
lower have pedeftals, which is extraordinary ; this or¬
der having fcarce ever more than bafes to fupport them.
The amphitheatre of Vefpafian is computed to have been
capable of holding 87,000 fpe&ators. That of Ve¬
rona is the bell preferved: for though moft of the
great and beft ftones of the outfide are picked out,
yet the great vault, on which the rows of the feats
are laid, is entire ; the rows alfo (which are 44 in
number) are entire. Every row is a foot and a half
high, and as much in breadth ; fo that a man fits con¬
veniently in them ; and allowing for a feat a foot and
a half, the whole will hold 23,000 perfons. Pliny
mentions an amphitheatre built by Curio, which turned
on large iron pivots ; fo that of the fame amphitheatre
two feveral theatres were occafionally made, whereon
different entertainments were fometimeo prefented at
the fame, time. Mr Brydone (vol. i. 295.) mentions
an amphitheatre at Syracufe, the theatre of which is
fo entire, that the gradini for feats ftill remain ; but
it is a fmall theatre, he fays, in comparifon of the
others.- See Plate XIV.
Amphitheatre, in gardening, certain difpofitions
of trees and ftirubs on the fides of hilly places, which,
if the hill or rifing be naturally of a circular figure,
always have the beft effedl. They are to be formed of
evergreens, fuch as hollies, phillereys, lauruftines, bays,
4 and
[ 632 1
Amp HI THE A. THE s.
Tlafe XIV.
AMP [ 633 ] AMP
Amph!trite and fuch plants, obferving to plant the Ihorteft grow-
; fl . ing trees in the front, and thofe which will be the
Amp ntion behind, fuch as pines, firs, cedars of Lebanon,
&c.
Amphitheatres are alfo fometimes formed of Hopes
on the fides of hills, covered only with turf; and, when
well kept, they are a great ornament to large gar¬
dens.
AMPHITRITE, from circumferendo),
in the heathen mythology, the wife of Neptune, and
goddefs of the fea, fometimes taken for the fea.
AMPHITRYON, fon of Alcaeus, lefs known by
his own exploits than from his wife Alcmena’s adven¬
ture. See Alcmena.
AMPHORA, in antiquity, a liquid meafure among
the Greeks and Romans. The Roman amphora con¬
tained 48 fextaries, equal to about feven gallons one
pint Englifh wine-meafure ; and the Grecian or Attic
amphora contained one-third more.
Amphora was alfo a diy meafure ufed by the Ro¬
mans, and contained about three bufliels.
Amphora, among the Venetians, is the larged mea¬
fure ufed for liquids, containing about 16 quarts.
AMPHORARIUM vinum, in antiquity, denotes
that which is drawn or poured into amphor# or pitch¬
ers ; by way of diftinftion from vinum dolt are, or calk
wine.—The Romans had a method of keeping wine in
amphora for many years to ripen, by faftening the lids
tight down with pitch or gypfum, and placing them
either in a fituation where the fmoke came, or under
ground.
AMPHOTIDES, in antiquity, a kind of armour
or covering for the ears, worn by the ancient pugiles,
to prevent their adverfaries from laying hold of that
part.
AMPHRYSUS, or Amphryssus, (anc. geog.) a
river of Phthiotis a diftrift of Thelfaly, running by
the foot of mount Othrys, from fouth to north, into
the Enipeus at Thebes of Theflaly; where Apollo
fed the herds of king Admetus (Virgil, Lucan). A-
nother Amphryfus in Phrygia, rendering women bar¬
ren, according to Pliny : Hence the epithet Amphryfia-
cus (Statius). Alfo a town of Phocis, at the foot of
mount Parnalfus, encompaffed with a double wall by
the Thebans in the war with Philip (Paufanias) :
Amphryjia Vates, in Virgil, denotes the Sibyl.
AMPHTHILL,atown in Bedfordlhire, feated plea-
fantly between two hills, but in a barren foil. W. Long,
o. 29. N. Lat. 52. 2.
AMPLIATION, in a general fenfe, denotes the aft
of enlarging or extending the compafs of a thing.
On a medal of the emperor Antoninus Pius, we find
the title Ampliator civium given him, on account of
his having extended the jus civitatis, or right of ci-
tizenlhip, to many ftates and people before excluded
from that privilege. In effeft, it is generally fuppofed
to have been this prince that made the famous conltitu-
tion, whereby all the fubjefts of the empire were made
citizens of Rome.
Ampliation, in Roman antiquity, was the defer¬
ring to pafs fentence in certain caufes. This the judge
did, by pronouncing the word amplius ; or by writing
the letters N. L. for non liquet: thereby fignifying,
that, as the caufe was not clear, it would be neceffary to
bring further evidence.
Vol. I. Part II.
AMPLIFICATION, in rhetoric, part of a dif-Amplifict-
courfe or fpeech, wherein a crime is aggravated, a tljjn
praife or commendation heightened, or a narration eti- Ampulla,
larged, by an enumeration of circumftances ; fo as to y——j
excite the proper emotions in the fouls of the auditors.
Such is the paflage in Virgil, where, inftead of fay¬
ing merely that Turnus died, he amplifies the circum¬
ftances of his death.
—AJl illi folvuntur frigore membra,
Vitaque cum gemitu fugit indignat a fub umbras.
The mailers of eloquence make amplification to be the
foul of difcourfe. See Oratory, n° 39.
AMPLITUDE, in aftronomy, an arch of the ho¬
rizon intercepted between the call or weft point and
the centre of the fun, or a planet, at its rifing or fet-
ting ; and fo is either north and fouth, or ortive and
occafive.
Magnetical Amplitude, the different rifing or fel¬
ting of the fun from the eaft or weft points of the com¬
pafs. It is found by obferving the fun, at his rifing
and fetting, by an amplitude-compafs.
AMPSAGA, a river of ancient Numidia. See
Algiers, n° 57.
AMPSANCTI Vallis, or Ampsancti Lacus, a
cave or lake in the heart of the Hirpini, or Principato
Ultra, near the city Tricento (Cicero, Virgil, Pliny) ;
it is now called Moffetta, from Mephitis, the goddefs
of ftench, who had a temple there. The ancient poets
imagined that this gulf led to hell. The Moffetta is
thus defcribed by Mr Swinburn : “ We were led into
a narrow valley, extending a confiderable way to the
fouth-weft, and preffed in on both fides by high ridges
thickly covered with copfes of oak. The bottom of
the dell is bare and arid: in the loweft part, and clofe
under one of the hills, is an oval pond of muddy afti-
coloured water, not above 50 feet in diameter: it boils
up in feveral places with great force in irregular fits,
which are always preceded by a hilling found. The
water was feveral times fpouted up as high as our heads
in a diagonal direftion, a whirlpool being formed round
the tube, like a bafon, to receive it as it fell. A large
body of vapour is continually thrown out with a loud
rumbling noife. The ftones on the rifing ground that
hangs over the pool are quite yellow, being ftained
with the fumes of fulphur and fal ammoniac. A moll
naufeous fmell rifing with the fteam obliged us to watch
the wind, and keep clear of it, to avoid fuffocation.
The water is quite infipid both as to tafte and fmell;
the clay at the edges is white, and carried into Pug¬
lia to rub upon fcabby Iheep, on which account the
lake is farmed out at too ducats a-year. On a hill
above this le^e Hood formerly a temple dedicated to
the goddefs Mephitis; but I perceived no remains of
it.”
AMPULLA, in antiquity, a round big-bellied vef-
fel which the ancients ufed in their baths, to contain oil
for anointing their bodies.—Alfo the name of a cup for
drinking out of at table.
Ampulla, among ecclefiaftical writers, denotes one
of the facred veffels ufed at the altars. Ampullae were
alfo ufed for holding the oil ufed in chrifmation, con-
fecration, coronation, &c. Among the ornaments of
churches we find frequent mention made of ampuls or
vials. In the inventory of the cathedral of Lincoln
4 L we
AMS [ 634 ] AMS
one Ambrus, and afterwards for a nunnery of noble Amfdor-
women. There is a nobleman’s feat here, built by J
Ampulh we meet with ampuls of cryftal, varioufly enriched
II _ with fdver feet and covers; one containing a tooth of
. m “ur^' gt Chriftopher, another a tooth of St Cecily, another
a bone of the head of St John Baptift.
Knights of St Ampulla, belong to an order inftitu-
ted by Clovis I. king of France; at the coronation
they bear up the canopy, under which the ampulla
is carried in proceffion.
AMPURA, a province of the kingdom of Peru,
before its conqueft by the Spaniards. Here the inha¬
bitants worfhipped two lofty mountains from a princi-
Inigo Jones, to which new works were added under the
direction of Lord Burlington. It is 80 miles weft of
London, and fix miles north of Salifbury.
AMSDORFIANS, in church-hiftory, a fe£t of
Proteftants in the 16th century, who took their name
from Amfdorf their leader. They maintained, that
good works were not only unprofitable, but were ob-
ftacles to falvation.
AMSTERDAM, the capital city of the province
pie of gratitude, becaufe of the defcent of the water of Holland and of the United Netherlands, is feated
from them by which their lands were fertilized. It is
faid to have been conquered by Virachoca the eighth
inca.
AMPURIAS, the capital of the territory of Am-
on the river Amftel and an arm of the fea called the
IVye. The air is but indifferent, on account of the
marfhes that furround it, and render the city almoft in-
acceffible : but this inconvenience is abundantly recom-
purdan, in Catalonia, feated at the mouth of the river penfed by the utility of its commerce, which the port
Fluvia, in E. Long. 2. 56. N. Lat. 42. 5. The land ferves greatly to promote ; for it will contain above a
about it is barren, full of briars and bulrulhes, except thoufand large (hips.
In 1204, it was nothing but a fmall caftle, called
Amjiel from the name of the river, which its lords
made a retreat for fifhermen, who at firft lived in huts
covered with thatch : but it foon became confiderable,
and had a bridge and towers built about it, infomuch
that it rofe to a fmall city ; though, till the year 1490,
it was furrounded with nothing but a weak pallifado.
The walls were then built with brick, to defend it
from the incurfions of the inhabitants of Utrecht, with
whom the Hollanders were often quarrelling ; but fome
1 fome places, which produce flax.
AMPUTATION, in furgery, the cutting off a
limb, or any part, from the body. See Surgery-
JnJex.
AMRAPHEL, the king of Shinar, or Babylonia,
confederated with Chedorlaomer, king of the Elamites,
and two other kings, to make war againft the kings
of Pentapolis; that is to fay, of Sodom, Gomorrah,
and the three neighbouring cities. The kings who
were in league with Amraphel worfted thofe of Pen¬
tapolis, plundered their city, and carried off abundance months afterwards it was almoft reduced to aflies. In
of captives, among whom was Lot, Abraham1
phew : but Abraham purfued them, retook Lot, and
recovered all the fpoil. See Abraham.
AMRAS, a ftrong caftle of Germany, feated in Ti-
»ol; by fome German writers called Arx Ambrojiana,
which was a houfe of pleafure for the archdukes to re¬
tire to in the heat of the fummer. By others this fort
1512, it was befieged by the people of Guelderland ;
who, not being able to take it, fet fire to the flaps in
the harbour. In 1525, an Anabaptift leader, with 600
of his followers, got into the city in the night-time, at¬
tacked the town-houfe, and defeated thofe that made
any refiftance. At length they barricaded, with wool
and hop-facks, the avenues to the market-place, where
is called Ombrafs; a name derived from the defign of thefe enthufiafts were polled; and fo put a flop to their
it, which was to be a lhady fummer-houfe. It is moll
delightfully fituated at the foot of a mountain, but has
no great external beauty. All the furniture of ordi¬
nary ufe has been carried away •, yet it is Hill remark¬
able for its galleries, which contain a very large col-
fury till day appeared, at which time the citizens fell
upon them on all fides, and forced them to retire into-
the town-houfe, where moft of them were cut to pieces.
About ten years after, there was another tumult railed
by a parcel of fanatics, confifting of men and women.
kftion of antiquities, and both natural and artificial who ran about the ftreets ftark naked, and had a de-
curiofities. It excels all others in its curious colleflion fign of making themfelves mailers of the town-houfe.
©f armour and coats of mail, many of which belonged Their Ihrieks and cries, which were dreadful enough,
to very great men. There is alfo a great colle&ion of foon alarmed the inhabitants, who feized the greateft
gold medals, which weigh, as they affirm, about 16 part of them, and gave them the chaftifement they de¬
pound ; there are alfo 3000 cameos and intaglios, but ferved.
few of them very fine. . A great part of thefe anti¬
quities were fent to this place by Charles V. On the
walls and cieling there are fome very good paintings;
and, among the reft, they have an admirable pidlure
of Noah’s ark, done by Baffano, for which the grand
duke of Tufcany is faid to have offered 100,000
crowns. They have a library,, which is not in very
good order; and a gallery full of bulls and other pieces
of antiquity, befidqs many other apartments adorned
with pictures of great value. E. Long. 11. 40. N.
Lat. 47. o.
AMSANCTI. See Ampsancti.
AMSBURY, or Ambersbury, a town in Wilt-
fhire, lying in W. Long. i. 20. N. Lat. yt. 29. It
is the Pagus Ambri, famous for a monaftery built by
Amfterdam was one of the laft cities that embraced
the reformed religion. It was befieged by the Hollan¬
ders in 1578, and fubmitted after a liege of ten months.
One article of the capitulation was, a free exercife
of the Roman-catholic religion : but this was not ob-
ferved by the Proteftants ; for they foon drove the ec-
clefiaftics, monks, and nuns, out of the city, broke the
images, and demolilhed the altars. From this time it
became the general rendezvous of all nations and of
every fedl, which railed it to that degree of grandeur
and opule'nce it now enjoys. The inhabitants were of¬
ten obliged to enlarge the bounds of their eity, and in
1675 it was increafed to its prefent extent. It was fus-
rounded with a brick wall, and a large ditch 80 feet
broad full of running water. The walls were fortified
with
AMS [ 635 ] AM
Atafterdam with 26 baftions, on each of which there is now a wind- lowed them, being looked upon
mill. There are eight gates towards the land, and one
towards the water.
Amfterdam being feated on a marfhy foil, is built on
piles of wood ; for which reafon no coaches are allow¬
ed, except to great men and phyficians, who pay a tax
for that privilege; and all kinds of goods are drawn on
fledges. It Hands fo low, that they would be expofed
to inundations, if they did not fecure themfelves by
dikes and fluices. The fmeft ftreets are, the Keyfar’s
Graft, or Emperor’s Canal; the Heer Graft, or Lords
Canal; the Cingel; and the ftreet of Haerlem. The
principal canal is remarkable for its houfes, which are
magnificent ftru&ures of an equal height. Here are
three prodigious fluices, and a great number of canals,
which crofs the city in many parts, and render the ftreets
clean and pleafant. The canals are deep, their fides are
lined with hewn ftone, they have generally rows of trees
planted on each fide, and many ftone-bridges over dif¬
ferent parts of them.
The fineft is that called the Ammarack, which is
formed by the waters of the Amftel, into which the
tide comes up, and on the fides of which are two large
conventicles, and Amfterdam
may be ftiut up and opened according as the govern-  v
ment pleafes. The other third part of the city is
made up of Jews, Lutherans, Arminians, Anabaptifts,
&c. none of whom, as was faid of the Roman Catho¬
lics, are allowed to have bells in their churches. Thofe
who marry, and are not of the eftablifhed religion, are
obliged to be joined firft by the magiftrates, and then
they may perform the ceremony in their own afiem-
blies. The Jews, who arg very confiderable in this
place, have two fynagogues; one of which, namely
the Portuguefe, is the largeft in Europe. Within the
court-yard, where their fynagogue Hands, they have
feveral rooms or fchools, where their children are taught
Hebrew, and very carefully inftructed in the Jewifti re¬
ligion.
The moft remarkable of the religious buildings is
the New Church, dedicated to St Catharine. It was
begun in the year 1408, others fay 1414; and was
100 years a-building. It had the misfortune of being
burnt in the year 1645, ^ut was a ft101* time af¬
ter built in a more magnificent manner. The foun¬
dation of a fteeple is laid before this church, which
quays. This canal has feveral bridges. The principal was defigned to be very high. The piles on whicli it
is that next the fea, called Pont-Neuf, or the New was to be erected are not above ipo feet fquare, and
Bridge: it is 600 feet long, and 70 broad, with iron yet they are 6334 in number, and thofe very large,
baluftrades on each fide; it has 36 arches, of which 11
are very high, and eight are fnut up to inclofe the
yachts. From this bridge there is a moft charming
profpeft of the city, port, and fea. The port is a
mile and half in length, and above 1000 paces in
breadth. It is always filled with a multitude of vef-
fels, which look like a foreft, or rather a floating city.
The ftreets in general are well paved, and the houfes
built of brick or ftone. Towards the fides of the ha¬
ven, the city is inclofed with great poles driven into
the ground, which are joined by large beams placed
horizontally. There are openings to let the ftiips in
and out, which are ftiut every night at the ringing of a
bell.
Amfterdam is computed to be half as big as Lon¬
don, including the fortifications, and almoft as popu¬
lous in px-oportion. There are people hei-e of almoft
every nation and religion in Europe, who are all tole-
Neverthelefs it was thought that thefe vaft piles, or
rather the ground, were not able to fupport the pro¬
digious weight they intended to lay upon it; for which
x-eafon the fteeple x-emains unfiniftxed. The pulpit is a
mafterpiece of the kind, where the four evangelifts and
many other curious pieces of fculpture are reprefented.
The glafs-windows are adorned with paintings, among
which the emperor Maximilian is defcribed, prefenting
an imperial crown to the burgomafters of Amfterdam
for the creft of the arms of this city. The organ is
very large, and reckoned one of the beft in the world.
It has a fet of pipes that counterfeit a chorus of voices,
and has 52 whole Hops befides half flops, with two
rows of keys for the feet, and three rows of keys for
the hands. Thofe who hear it play for the firft time
imagine they hear a human voice. The grate dividing
the chancel from the body of the church is all of Co¬
rinthian brafs. The branches of candlefticks are the
rated in their refpedtive perfuafions; hut none admit- richeft in the Seven Provinces. There is a very fine
ted to any fhare in the government except the Calvinifts. —-t-1   1~‘j A -i—-’—’ »—1
There are eleven churches for the Dutch of the efta¬
blifhed or Calviniftical religion, with two French and
one High Dutch. The Englifh have alfo three church¬
es in this city; one for the Prefbyterians, whofe mini-
fters are paid by the magiftrates ; a fecond for thofe of feet long, its fides 255 feet, and its height to the roof
the church of England, whofe minifter is paid by his
Britannic majefty ; and a third for the Bi'ownifts, who
maintain their own minifters. None but the Calvinifts
are allowed to have bells, and their minifters are main¬
tained by the magiftrates. All thefe churches or con¬
gregations make up only a third part of the inhabi¬
tants of the city. The Roman Catholic, who have
27 houfes or chapels for their worflxip, form another
third part. Here they have a long fquare of houfes
for their beguines (a kind of nuns) to live in; who are
not ftiut up in cloyfters as other nuns in Roman Catho-
- lie countries, but have liberty to walk abroad, and may
even marry when they are tired of this kind of life.
Thefe chapels of the Roman catholics have no bells al-
marble monument eredted to Admiral Ruyter, who was
killed at Meflina.
The public buildings of a civil nature are very mag¬
nificent. The ftadt-houfe was founded in 1648. It is
built upon 14,000 wooden piles; and its front is 282
116. There is a marble pedimerit in the front, whereon
a woman isjearved in relievo, holding the arms of the
city; fixe is feated in a chair, fupported by two lions,
with an olive-branch in her right hand; on each fide
are four Naiads, who prefent her with a crown of palm
and laurel, and two other marine goddefles prefent her
with different forts of fruit; befides, there is Neptune
with his trident, accompanied with Tritons, a fea-uni-
corn, and a fea-horfe. On the top ftand three ftatues
in bronze, repi'efenting Juftice, Strength, and Plenty.
On the top of the ftrudlure is a round tower, 50 feet
above the roof, adorned with ftatues, and an harmoni¬
ous chime of bells, the biggeft of which weighs about
7&00 pounds, and the next 6000. They are mjide to
4 L 2 play
AMS
AmfterJam play different tunes every month.
1 "'"~v ' 1 handfome gate, but only feven doors to anfwer to the
number of the United Provinces. On the floor of the
great hall are two globes, the celeftial and terreftrial,
which are 2 2 feet in diameter and 69 in circumference.
They are made of black and white marble, and are in¬
laid with jafper and copper. In general, all the cham¬
bers are enriched with paintings, carvings, and gild¬
ings. While this ftadt-houfe was building, the old one
was fet on fire, and confumed with all the archives and
regifters.
Under the ftadt-houfe is a prodigious vault, wherein
is kept the bank of Amfterdam, where there is a vaft
quantity of ingots both of gold and filver, as alfo bags,
which are fuppofed to be full of money. The doors
are proof againft petards, and are never opened but in
the prefence of one of the burgomafters. The prifons
for debtors and criminals are likewife under the ftadt-
houfe ; as alfo the guard-room for the citizens, wherein
the keys of the city are locked every night. At the
end of the great hall is the fchepens or aldermens cham-
[ 636 ] AMS
It has not one large magazines of nutmegs, cloves, mace, and cinnamon. Amfterdam
In the court-yard there is a guard-chamber, where 1 * ‘
every night the houfe-keeper has a watch; and on the
other fide of the gate there is a chemift, who with his
men prepares medicines for the Indies ; and adjoining
to this court-yard is their warehoufe and packhoufe for
pepper and grofs goods. In the new part of the city
they have a magazine or palace, which may properly
be called an arfenal. The ground on which this build¬
ing ftands is 2000 feet, and fquare every way, reckon¬
ing the moats or burgwall about it. The two rope-
alleys are 1800 feet long, on the backfide of which is
a ftore of 500 large anchors befides fmall ones. In
this arfenal they build the ihips belonging to the India
chamber of Amfterdam; for which reafon they have
all forts of workhoufes here for the artificers that ferve
the company.
The academy called the Illujirious School, is likewife
a very fine building. It was formerly a convent be¬
longing to the nuns of St Agnes. Here they teach
Latin, the oriental languages, theology, philofophy,
     J * 1 VI ir..
ber, where civil caufes are tried. Befides thefe, there hiftory, &c. The lawyers and phyficians have likewife
are the chambers of the fenate and council, the burgo- their fchools.
mafters chamber, the chambers of accounts, &c. In
the fecond ftory is a large magazine of arms; and on
Befides thefe, there are feveral hofpitals, or houfes
for orphans, for poor widows, for fick perfons, and for
the top of the building are fix large cifterns of water, mad people ; all which are regulated with much pru-
which may be conveyed to any room in the houfe in rri1-" r>_r_ 1—  r 1 
cafe of fire ; to prevent which the chimneys are lined
With copper.
The bourfe, or exchange, where the merchants af-
femble, is all of free-ftone, and built upon 2000
wooden piles. Its length is about 250 feet, and its
breadth 140. The galleries are fupported by 26 mar¬
ble columns, upon each of which are the names of the
people that are to meet there. They are all numbered;
and there is a place fixed for every merchandife under
dence. The Rafp-houfe, which was formerly a nun¬
nery, is now a fort of a work-houfe for men that be¬
have ill. They are commonly fet to faw or rafp Brafil
wood; and if they will not perform their talk, they are
put into a cellar which the water runs into, where if
they do not almoft conftantly ply the pump, they run
the rifle of being drowned. There is likewife a fpin-
houfe for debauched women, where they are obliged to
fpin wool, flax, and hemp, and do other work. All
the hofpitals are extremely neat, and richly adorned
fome one of thefe numbers. On the right hand of with pictures. They are maintained partly by volun-
the gate is a fuperb ftair-cafe which leads to the gal¬
leries ; on one fide of which there are feveral fhops, and
on the other a place to fell clothes. It is not unlike
the royal exchange in London.
The admiralty-office is in a houfe which belonged
formerly to the princes of Orange. The arfenal for
their men of war is in the harbour. This is a very
handfome building, 200 feet long and 22 broad. The
ground floor is filled with bullets 5 the fecond floor
contains the arms and cordage; the third their fails,
pulleys, flags, &c. This arfenal contains a great many
curiofities; among the reft an Indian canoe brought
from the ftraits of Davies, and a confervatory of water
a the top of the houfe that holds 1600 tuns of water,
tary contributions, which are raifed by putting money
into the poor’s boxes fixed up all over the city ; and
partly by taxing all public diverfions, as well at fairs
as elfewhere. Likewife every perfon that paffes through
any of the gates at candle-light pays a penny for the
fame ufes. Thefe charities are taken care of by cer¬
tain officers called deacons. The governors are nomi¬
nated by the magiftrates out of the moft confiderable
men in the city.
The common fort have places of diverfion called
Spiel-houfes, where there are mufic and dancing. They
are much of the fame kind as the hops which were fo
frequent about London. If ftrangers go there, they
muft take care not to make their addreffes to a woman
which may be diftributed in cafe of fire into 16 differ- that is engaged to any other man.
ent parts by leaden pipes. Hard by this edifice you There are two fuburbs to this city ; one at the gate
fee the dock or yard where they build their men of of the regulars; and the other goes as far as Overtoon, a.
war. This dock is 508 feet long, and contiguous to village a little way from Amfterdam, where boats which
it are houfes for lodging the ffiip-carpenters. The come from Leyden are rolled over land upon wooden
dock is plentifully fupplied with every thing neceffary rollers. There is likewife in this city an hofpital for
for the conftru&ion of (hips. thofe that are infe&ed with the plague ; which was
The Eaft India,company occupy a large building built in the year 1630, and has 360 windows,
divided into feveral offices or apartments. In fome This city is governed by a fenate or council, which
of thofe they have great ftores of packed goods, eonfifts of 36 perfons, called a Vroedjhup, who enjoy
and likewife a room with all fort of drugs, tea, their places for life; and when any of them dies, the
wax, ambergrife, and mufle. Here they have a maga- remainder choofe another in his ftead. This fenate
zxne full of medicaments for furgeons chefts, to furnifh clefts deputies to be fent to the States of Holland, and
•the company’s (hips and garrifons in the Indies; as alfo appoints the chief magiftrates of the city, called Burgo-
vi afters
AMS
ffterdam maflers or Echevint, who are like our aldermen. The
number is twelve ; out of which four are chofen every
year to execute the office, and are called Burgomafien -
regent. Three of thefe are difcharged every year, to
[ 637 ]
A M S
It is broad at the eafl end, and runs taper towards the Amfterdam
weft, where it turns, and runs to a point due north. ir¬
itis about'fix leagues to the weft of Middleburgh.
The ftiore is furrounded by a coral rock, and its moft
make room for three others. One of the four is kept elevated parts are not above fix or eight yards above
in to inform the new ones of the ftate of affairs, and alfo
prefides the three firft months in the year, and the others
three months each; fo that, when they are in this of¬
fice, they may be compared to the lord-mayor of the
city of London. Thefe alterations and appointments
are made by their own body. They difpofe of all in¬
ferior offices which become vacant during their regency.
They have likewife the direftion of all public works,
which regard the fafety, tranquillity, and embellifhment
of the city. The keys of the famous bank of this city
are in the hands of thefe magiftrates.
The college confifts of new burgomafters or echevins,
who are judges in all criminal affairs, without appeal;
but in civil caufes they may appeal to the council of the
province. There are two treafurers, a bailiff, and a
penfionary. The bailiff continues in his office three
years; and fearches after criminals, takes care to pro-
fecute them, and fees their fentence executed. The
penfionary is the minifter of the magiftraey, is well
verfed in the laws, makes public harangues, and is
the level of the fea. S. Lat. 21. 11. W. Long. 175.
It is wholly laid out in plantations, in which are cul¬
tivated fame of the richeft produftions of nature.
Here are bread-fruit, cocoa-nut trees, plantains,
bananas, /haddocks, yams and fome other roots, fu-
gar-canes, and a fruit like a ne&arine called by the
natives fighega. There did not appear an inch of
wafte ground : the roads occupied no more fpace than
was abfolutely neceffary: the fences did not take up
above four inches each; and even thefe were not
wholly loft, for in many grew fome ufeful trees or
plants: it was every where the fame, change of place
altered not the fcene: nature, affifted by a little art,
nowhere appeared with more fplendor than on this ifland.
Water is not fo plentiful here as at the Society-iflands;
but the chief pointed out a pool of frefh water una/ked,
to fupply the /hips with that neceffary article. Cafu-
arinas, pandangs, and wild fago-palms, appear here
with their various tints of green, and barringtoniae as
big as the loftieft oaks, The bread-fruit does not.
the defender of the interefts of the city. The city of however, thrive here with the fame luxuriance as at
Amfterdam contributes to thfe public income above
50,000 Kvres per day, befides the excife of beer, flelh,
and corn ; which in all amounts to above 1,600,0001.
a-year. This is more than is paid by all the reft of the
provinces put together; and yet Amfterdam bears but
the fifth rank in the a/Ttmbly of the ftates of Holland,
with this diftinttion, that whereas other cities fend two
members, this fends four.
the Society-iflands; the coral rock, which compofes
the balls of this fpot, being much more thinly covered
with mould.
Both men and women are of the common fize of
Europeans, and their colour is that of a lighti/h cop¬
per; they are well-fhaped, have regular features, are
a&ive, brilk, and lively. They have fine eyes, and-
in general good teeth, even to an advanced age. The
The militia of Amfterdam is very confiderable. They women are the merrieft creatures imaginable, and in-
have 60 companies, each of which has from 200 to
300 men. Jews and Ahabaptifts are excluded from this
fervice, not being admitted to bear arms: But they
are obliged to contribute to the maintenance of the
city-guard, which confifts of 1400 foldiers ; as alfo
ceffant talkers. In general, they appear to be modeft;
although there was no want- of thofe of a different
ftamp. Among the natives, who fwam about the /hip
very vociferoufly, were a confiderable number of wo¬
men, who wantoned in the water like amphibious
to the night-watch, who patrole about the ftreets, and creatures, and were eafily perfuaded to come on board
proclaim the hour. Befides thefe, there are trumpeters
on every church fteeple, who found every half hour;
and if there happens a fire, they ring the fire-bell, and
perfectly naked; but none of them ventured to ftay
there after funfet, but returned to the /hore to pafs the
night, like the greater part of the inhabitants, under
/how where it is. The inhabitants have excellent con- the /hade of the wild wood which lined the coaft..
There they lighted great fires, and were, heard con-
verfing almoft the whole night. The hair of both
fexes in general is black, but efpecially that of the
women; both fexes wear it fliort, except a fingle lock,
on the top of the head, and a fmall quantity on each.
fide. The men cut or /have their beards quite clofe,.
which operation they perform with two /hells. The
hair of many was obferved to be burnt at the ends, and
trivances to extingui/h it fpeedily.
The trade of Amfterdam is prodigious,: for almoft
the whole trade of the Eaft India company centres in
this city, which befides carries on a commerce with all
the reft of the world, infomuch that it may be called
the magazine or ftore-houfe of Europe., They import
a vaft deal of corn from the Baltic, not fo much for
prefent confumption, as to lay up againft times of fcar-
city. The richeft fpices are entirely in the hands of ftrewed with a white powder, which was found, on
the Eaft India company, who furni/h all Europe there¬
with. They have vaft quantities of military /lores, with
which they fupply feveral nations ; which is owing to
their engroffing moft of the iron-works on the Rhine
and other great rivers that run into Holland. The longi¬
tude of Amfterdam is 4. 30. E.; the latitude, 52. 25. N.
Amsterdam, is alfo the name of an iftand in the
fouth -fea, faid to have been difcovered by Tafman a
Dutch navigator. It was vifited by Captain Cook in
his late voyages. Its greateft extent from eaft to weft
Labout 2 x miles, and from north to fouth about 13.
examining it, to be lime made of /hell or coral, which
had corroded or burnt the hair; fome made ufe of a
blue powder, and others, both men and women, of an
orange-coloured powder made of turmeric.
The drefs of both fexes confifts of a piece of cloth
or matting wrapped round the waift, and hanging
down below the knees. From the waift upwards they
are generally naked, and it feems to be a cuftom to
anoint thefe parts every morning. The practice of
tattowing, or puncturing the /kin, likewife prevails.-
The men are tattowed from the middle of the thigh to
above
AMU [ 638 ] AMU
Atnfterdam above the hips; the women have it only on their arms
Amu et. anci fingers, and on thofe parts but very flightly.
U““’""v Their ornaments are amulets, necklaces, and bracelets,
the bone, fhells, and beads of mother-of-pearl, tortoife-
fhell, See. which are worn by men as well as wo¬
men. The women alfo wear on their fingers neat
rings made of tortoife-ftiell, and pieces in their ears
about the fize of a fmall quill: but here ornaments
are not commonly worn, though all have their ears
pierced. They have alfo a curious apron, made of
the cocoa-nut (hell, and compofed of a number of
fmall pieces fewed together in fuch a manner as to
form liars, half-moons, little fquares, &c.; it is ftud-
ded with beads and fhells, and covered with red fea¬
thers, fo as to have a pleafing efleet. They make the
fame kind of cloth, and of the fame materials, as at
O-Taheitee, though they have not fnch a variety, nor
do they make any fo fine ; but as they have a method
of glazing it, it is more durable, and will refill rain
for fome time, which the other cloth would not.
Their colours are black, brown, yellow, purple, and
red; all made from vegetables. They make various
forts of matting, fome of a very fine texture, which is
generally lifed for cloathing; and the thick and llronger
fort ferves to lleep upon, and to make fails for their
canoes, &c. Among other ufeful utenfils, they have
various forts of balkets, fome made of the fame mate¬
rials as their mats, and others of the twilled fibres of
cocoa-nuts. Thefe are not only durable, but beauti¬
ful, being generally compofed of different colours, and
lludded with beads made of Ihells or bones. They
have many little nicknacks among them, which Ihow
that they neither want tafte to defign, nor lie ill to exe¬
cute, whatever they take in hand. Their filhing im¬
plements are much the fame as in other illands: here
was purchafed a filh-net made like our calling-nets,
knit of very firm though llender threads.
Notwithftanding their very friendly difpofition, thefe
people have very formidable weapons; fome of their
fpears have many barbs, and mull be very dangerous
weapons when they take effeft. A large flat Ihell or
breallplate was purchafed, made of a roundilh bone,
white and polilhed like ivory, about 18 inches in dia¬
meter, which appeared to have belonged to an animal
of the whale tribe.
AMULET, a charm, or prefervative againll mif-
chief, witchcraft, or difeafes.
Amulets were made of Hone, metal, fimples, ani¬
mals, and in a word of every thing that imagination
fuggelted.
Sometimes they confilled of words, charafters, and
fentences, ranged in a particular order, and engraved
upon wood, Iff<7. and worn about the neck, or fome o-
ther part of the body. See Abracadabra.
At other times they were neither written nor engra¬
ved; but prepared with many fuperllitious ceremonies,
great regard being ufually paid to the influence of the
liars. The Arabians have given to this fpecies of a-
mulet the name of talisman.
All nations have been fond of amulets: the Jews
were extremely fuperllitious in the ufe of them, to
drive away difeafes; and the Mifna forbids them, un-
lefs received from an approved man who had cured at
.leall three perfons before by the fame means.
Among the Chrillians of the early times, amulets
were made of the wood of the crofs, or ribbands with Amurat
a text of feripture written in them, as prefervatives a- 1
gainll difeafes. Notwithftanding the progrefs of learn¬
ing and refinement, there is not any country in Eu¬
rope, even at this day, who do not believe in fomc
charm or other. The pope is fuppofed to have the vir¬
tue of making amulets, which he exercifes in the con-
fecrating of Agnus Dei's, See. The fpunge which has
wiped his table, was formerly in great veneration as
a prefervative from wounds, and from death itfelf: on
this account it was fent with great folemnity by Gre¬
gory II. to the duke of Aquitain.
Amulets are now much fallen from the repute they
were anciently in; yet the great Mr Boyle alleges them
as an inftance of the increafe of external effluvia into
the habit, in order to Ihow the great porofity of the
human body. He adds, that he is perfuaded fome of
thefe external medicines do anfwer; for that he him-
felf, having once been fubjeft to bleed at the nofe, and
reduced to ufe feveral remedies to check it, found the
mofs of a dead man’s Ikull, though only applied fo as
to touch the Ikin till the mofs was warm thereby, the
moll effedtual of any. The fame Mr Boyle Ihows how
the effluvia, even of cold amulets, may, in tra£l of
time, pervade the pores of a living animal; by fuppo-
fing an agreement between the pores of the flein and
the figure of the corpufcles. Bellini has demonftrated
the poffibility of the thing in his laft propofitions De
Fehibus ; and the like is done by Dr Wainwright,
Dr Keill, &c.
AMURAT, or Amurath, I. the fourth emperor
of the Turks, and one of the greateft princes of the
Ottoman empire, fucceeded Solyman in 1360. He
took from the Greeks Gallipoli, Thrace, and Adriano-
ple, which lall he chofe for the place of his refidence.
He defeated the prince of Bulgaria, conquered Mifnia,
chaftifed his rebellious bafhaws, and is faid to have gain¬
ed 36 battles. This prince, in order to form a body
of devoted troops that might ferve as the immediate
guards of his perfon and dignity, appointed his offi¬
cers to feize annually, as the imperial property, the
fifth part of the Chriftian youth taken in war. Thefe,
after being inftru&ed in the Mahometan religion, inu¬
red to obedience by fevere difeipline, and trained to
warlike exercifes, were formed into a body diftinguilh-
ed by the name of JaniJfaries, or New Soldiers. E-
very fentiment which enthufiafm can infpire, every
mark of diilintlion that the favour of the prince could
confer, were employed in order to animate this body
with martial ardour, and with a confcioufnefs of its
own pre-eminence. The Janiffaries foon became the
chief ftrength and pride of the Ottoman armies, and
were diftinguifhed above all the troops whofe duty it
was to attend on the perfon of the Sultan.—At length
the death of Lazarus, defpot of Servia, who had en¬
deavoured in vain to flop the progrefs of Amurath’s
arms, touched Milo, one of his fervants, in fo fenfible
a manner, that, in revenge, he ftabbed the fultan in
the midil of his troops, and killed him upon the fpot,
A. D. 1389, after he had reigned 23 years. '
Amurat II. the 10th emperor of the Turks, was
the eldeft fon of Mahomet I. and fucceeded his fa¬
ther in 1421. He befieged Conftantinople and Bel¬
grade without fuccefs; but he took Thefialonica from
the Venetians, and compelled the prince of Bofnia
and
AMY [ 639 ] AMY
fiycLr, and John Caftriot prince of Albany to pay him tri-
ygdalus }3Ute> jje obliged the latter to fend his three fons as
^ hoftages; among whom was George, celebrated in hif-
tory by the name of Scanderbeg. John Hunniades de¬
feated Amurat’s troops, and obliged him to make peace
with the Chriftian princes, in 1442. Thefe prince^
afterwards breaking the peace, Amurat defeated them
in the famous battle of Varna, November 10th, 1444,
which proved fo fatal to the Chriftians, and in which
JLadiflaus king of Hungary was killed. He afterwards
defeated Hunniades, and killed above 20,000 of his
i men ; but George Caftriot, better known by the name
of Scanderbegy being re-eftablilhed in the eftates of
his father, defeated the Turks feveral times, and obli¬
ged Amurat to raife the fiege of Croia, the capital of
: Albany. Amurat died, chagrined with his ill fuccefs,
and infirm with age, February 1 ith, 1451, at Adrian-
ople. It is obferved to this prince’s honour, that he
always kept his treaties with the greateft fidelity.
AMYCLiE, a city of Laconia, dillant about 18
miles from the metropolis, founded by Amyclas the
fon of Lacedaemon, and famed afterwards for the birth
of Caftor and Pollux the fons of Tydareus, eighth
king of Sparta. It was afterwards famed for fending
^ I a confiderable colony of its own inhabitants into Upper
Calabria, who built there a city which they called by
l the fame name. This laft city was fituated between
E Caieta and Terracina, and gave its name to the neigh-
• bouring fea. According to Pliny and Solinus, the
territory of Amyclae was fo infefted with vipers and o-
ther ferpents, that the inhabitants were obliged to a-
■ \ bandon their dwellings and fettle elfewhere.—Among
I the ancient poets, the Amycli, or inhabitants of this
city, obtained the epithet of taciti or filent. The rea-
fon of this was, either becaufe it was built by the La¬
cedaemonians, whoj as they followed the doftrine of
11 Pythagoras, were always inculcating the precept of
* filence, and thence called taciti: or becaufe of a law
which obtained in this place, forbidding any one, un¬
der fevere penalties, to mention the approach of an e-
nemy. Before this law was made, the city was daily
alarmed by falfe reports, as the enemy had been already
at the gates. From terrors of this kind the abovemen-
tioned law indeed deliscred them ; but in the end
it proved the ruin of the city : for the Dorians ap¬
pearing unexpectedly under the walls, no one ventured
to tranfgrefs the law; fo that the city was eafily taken.
They reduced it to an inconfiderable hamlet;, in which,
however, were feen fome of the remains of its ancient
II grandeur. One of the fineft buildings that efcaped the
common ruin, was the temple and ftatue of Alexan¬
dra, whom the inhabitants pretended to be the fame
with Cafiandra the daughter of Priam.
11 . AMYGDALUS, the Almond and Peach : a ge¬
nus of the monogynia order, belonging to the icofan-
dria clafs of plants ;• and, in the natural method, rank¬
ing under the 36th order, Pomacea. The characters
are : The calyx is a fingle-leaved perianthium beneath,
tubular, and quinquefid: The corolla confifts of five
)' oblong petals, which are inferted into the calyx : The
Ramina confift of 30 flender ereCt filaments, half the
length of the corolla, and inferted into the calyx ; the
antherae are fimple : The pjiillum has a round villous
germen above ; a fimple ftylus, the length of the {la¬
mina ; and. the ftigma headed : The pericarpittm is a
large roundifh villous drupa, with a longitudinal fur- Amygrfaltis
row : The feed is an ovate comprefled nut perforated in
the pores.
Species. 1. The Communis, or Common Almond,
a native of Africa, will grow to near 20 feet high
and whether planted fingly in an open place, or mixed
with others in clumps, fiirubbery-quarters, &c. {hows
itfelf one of the fineft flowering trees in nature. Thofe
who never yet faw it, may eafily conceive what a noble
appearance this tree muft make, when covered all over
with a bloom of a delicate red, which will be in March;
a time when very few trees are ornamented either with
leaves or flowers. No ornamental plantation, therefore,
of what fort or kind foever, ftiould be without almond-
trees. Neither are the beauties of the flowers the on¬
ly thing defirable in this tree : The fruit would render
it worthy of planting, were there no other motive. It
ripens well, and its goodnefs is not unknown to us.—
The white-flowering almond, well known in our nurfe-
ries, is a variety of this fpecies, and is cultivated for
the fake of the flowers and the fruit, though the flow¬
ers are inferior to the others ; and unlefs it be fet a-
gainft a fouth wall, in. a well flickered place, there will
be little hopes of bearing fruit.
2. The Nana, Dwarf Almond, is a native of Afia
Minor. Gf this ihrub there are two forts, the Angle and
the double. Both grow to about four or five feet high j
and are in. the firft efteem as flowering ftirubs. The
Angle fort has its beauties but the double kind is
matchlefs. In both the flowers are arranged the whole
length of the laft year’s {hoots ; their colour is a deli*
cate red; and they ftiow themfelves early in the fpring,
which ftill enhances their value.
3. The Perfica, or Peach,, is faid to be a native of
Europe ; but of what place is not known. Cultivation
has produced many varieties of this fruit; of which the
following are the moft efteemed.
1. The White Nutmeg. 15. The Bellegarde.
2. The Red Nutmeg. i§. The Bourdine.
3. The Early Purple. 17. The Rofianna.
4. The Small Mignon. 18. The Admirable.
5. The White Magdalen. 19. The Old Newington.
6. The Yellow Alberge. 20. The Royal.
7. The Large French 21. The Rambouillet.
Mignon. 22. The Portugal.
8. The Beautiful Chev- 23. The Late Admirable,.
reufe. 34. The Nivette.
9. The Red Magdalen. 25. Venus’s Nipple.
10. The Chancellor. 26. The Late Purple.
11. Smith’s Newington. 27. The Perfique.
12. The Montauban. 28. The Catharine.
13. The Malta. 29. The Monftrous Pavy,.
14. The Vineufe.. 30. The Bloody Peach.
The White Nutmeg is the firft peach in feafon, it:
being often in perfedlion by the end of July. The
leaves are doubly ferrated, the flower large, and
of a pale colour ; the fruit is white, fmall, and round’;:
the flefh too< is white, parts from the ftone,. and has a
fugary, mufley flavour.
The Red Nutmeg hath yellowifh green leaves, with
ferpentine edges, which are {lightly ferrated. The
flowers are large, open, and'of a deep blufti-colour.
The fruit is larger and rounder than the former, and is
of a bright vermilion next the fun, but more yellow on
the other fide. The flefti is. white,, except next the
ftone,,
AMY
[ 640 ]
AMY
/. mygdalus ftone, from which it feparates, and has a rich muflcy the ftohe, from which it feparates._ The juice is rich, ^mygdal)
' flavour. It ripens juft after the white nutmeg.
The Early Purple hath fmooth leaves, terminated in
a fliarp point. The flowers are large, open, and of a
lively red. The fruit is large, round, and covered with
a fine deep red coloured down. The flefh is white, red
next the ftone, and full of a rich vinous juice. Ripe
about the middle of Auguft.
The Small Mignon hath leaves (lightly ferrated, and
the flowers fmall and contra&ed. The peach is round,
of a middling fize, tinged with darkifli red on the fun-
fide, and is of a pale yellowifli colour on the other.
The flefh is white, parts from the ftone, where it is red,
and contains plenty of a vinous, fugary juice. Ripens
rather before the former.
The White Magdalen hath long, (hining, pale-green
leaves, deeply ferrated on the edges, and the wood is
moftly black at the pith. The flowers are large and
open, appear early, and are of a pale red. The fruit
is round, rather large, of a yellowifh-white colour, ex¬
cept on the funny fide, where it is (lightly ftreaked
with red. The flefh is white to the ftone, from which
-it feparates, and the juice is pretty well flavoured. Ripe
at the end of Auguft.
and well flavoured. It ripens a little before the for- '
The Malta hath deeply ferrated leaves, and the flow¬
ers are large and open. The fruit is almoft round, of
a fine red next the fun, marbled with a deeper red, but
the (hady fide is of a deep green. The flefli is fine,
white, except at the ftone, from which it parts, where
it is of a deep red ; the juice is a little muiky, and a-
greeable. It ripens at the end of Auguft, or beginning
of September.
The Vineufe hath large deep green leaves, and full
bright red flowers. The fruit is round, of a middle
fize; the (kin is thin, all over red; the flefli fine and
white, except at the ftone, where it is very red, and
the juice is copious and vinous. Ripe in the middle of
September.
The Bellegarde hath fmooth leaves, and fmall con-
trafted flowers. The fruit is very large, round, and of
a deep purple colour next the fun. The fldh is white,
parts from the ftone, where it is of a deep red, and
the juice is rich and excellent. It ripens early in Sep¬
tember.
The Bourdine hath large, fine green, plain leaves.
The Yellow Alberge hath deep red, middle-fized and fmall flefli-coloured contrafted flowers. The fruit
flowers ; the peach is fmaller than the former, of a is round, of a dark red next the fun ; the flelh white.
yellow colour on the (hady fide, and of a deep red on except at the ftone, where it is of a deep red, and the
the other. The flefh is yellow, red at the ftone, and juice is rich and vinous. Ripens with the former.
the juice is fugary and vinous.
The Great French Mignon hath large, finely ferra¬
ted leaves, and beautiful red flowers. The fruit is
large, quite round, covered with a fine fattiny down,
of a brownifti red colour on the funny fide, and of a
greenilh yellow on the other. The flefh is white, ea-
fxly parts from the (kin, and is copioufly ftored with a
fugary high-flavoured juice.
A-uguft.
The Beautiful Chevreufe hath plain leaves, and fmall
■contrafted flowers. The fruit is rather oblong, of a
middling fize, of a fine red colour next the fun, but
yellow on the other fide. The flefli is yellowifti, parts
from the ftone, and is full of a rich fugary juice. It
ripens a little after the former.
The Red Magdalen hath deeply ferrated leaves, and
The Roflanna hath plain leaves, and fmall contraft¬
ed flowers. The fruit is rather longer than the alberge,
and fome count it only a variety of the latter. The
flefh is yellow, and parts from the ftone, where it is red;
the juice is rich and vinous. Ripe early in Septem¬
ber.
The Admirable hath plain leaves, and fmall contraft-
Ripe near the middle of ed flowers, which are of a pale red. The fruit is very
large and round ; the flefti is firm, melting, and white,
parts from the ftone, and is there red; and the juice
has a fweet, fugary, high vinous flavour. Ripe early
in September,
The Old Newington hath ferrated leaves, and large
open flowers. The fruit is large, of a fine red next
the fun ; the flefti is white, (licks clofe to the ftone,
where it is of a deep red, and the juice has an excel-
large open flowers. The fruit is large, round, and of lent flavour. It ripens juft after the former.
a fine red next the fun. The fldh is firm, white, fepa¬
rates from the ftone, where it is very red ; the juice is
fugary, and of an exquifite rich flavour. Ripe at the
end of Auguft.
The Chancellor hath large, (lightly ferrated leaves.
The peach is about the fize of the Beautiful Chevreufe,
but rather rounder. The (kin is very thin, of a fine
red on the funny fide ; the flefli is white and melting,
parts from the ftone, and the juice is very rich and fu¬
gary. It ripens with the former.
The leaves of Smith’s Newington are ferrated, and
the flowers are large and open The fruit is of a middle
fize, of a fine red on the funny fide; the fldh white
and firm, but very red at the ftone, to which'it (licks
clofely, and the juice has a pretty good flavour. Ri¬
pens with the former.
The Royal hath plain leaves, and fmall contrafted
flowers. The fruit is about the fize of the admirable,
and refembles it, except that it has fometimes a few
knobs or warts. The fldh is white, melting, and full
of a rich juice ; it parts from the ftone, and is there of
a deep red. Ripe about the middle of September.
The Rambouillet hath leaves and flowers like the
royal. The fruit is rather round than long, of a mid¬
dling fize, and deeply divided by a furrow. It is of a
bright yellow on the (hady fide, but of a fine red on
the other. The fldh is melting, yellow, parts from
the ftone, where it is of a deep red, and the juice is
rich and vinous. Ripe with the former.
The Portugal hath plain leaves, and large open flow¬
ers. The fruit is large, fpotted, and of a beautiful red
on the funny fide. The flefh is firm, white, dicks to
the ftone, and is there red. The ftone is fmall, deep-
Ripe
The Montauban hath ferrated leaves, and large open
flowers. The fruit is about the fize of the former, of ly furrowed, and the juice is rich and fugary.
a purplifh red next the fun, but of a pale one on the towards the end of September,
fhady fide. The flefh is melting, and white even to
N° i£.
The Late Admirable hath ferrated leaves, andbrown-
ifh
AMY l 641 ] AMY
Amygdalusifh red fmall contracted flowers. The fruit is rather
large and round, of a bright red next the fun, marbled
with a deeper. The fleflr is of a greenifli-white, and
Hicks to the ftone, where it hath feveral red veins; the
juice is rich and vinous. Ripe about the middle of
September.
The Nivette hath ferrated leaves, and fmall con [raft¬
ed flowers. The fruit is large and roundifh, of a bright
red colour next the fun, but of a pale yellow on the
lhady-fide. The flffh is of a greenifh-yellow, parts
from the ftone, where it is very red, and is copioufly
ftored with a rich juice. It ripens about the middle of
September.
Venus’s Nipple hath finely ferrated leaves, and rofe-
coloured, fmall contrafted flowers, edged with carmine.
The fruit is of a middling fize, and has a rifing like a
breaft. It is of a faint red on the fun-fide, and on the
lhady one of a ftraw-colour. The flefh is melting,
white, feparates from the ftone, where it is red, and the
juice is rich and fugary. Ripens late in September.
The Late Purple hath large, ferrated leaves, which
are varioufly contorted, and the flowers are fmall and
contrafted. The fruit is round, large, of a dark red
on the funny-fide, and yellowifti on the other. The
flelh is melting, white, parts from the ftone, where it
is red, and the juice is fweet and high-flavoured. Ri¬
pens with the former.
The Perfique hath large, very long indented leaves,
and fmall contrafted flowers. The fruit is large, ob-
k>ng, of a fine red next the fun ; the flefh firm, white,
but red at the ftone, juicy, and of a high pleafant fla¬
vour. The ftalk has frequently a fmall knot upon it.
Ripe late in September.
The Catharine hath plain leaves, and fmall flowers.
The fruit is large, round, of a very dark red next the
fun. The flefli white, firm, flicks clofe to the ftone,
and id there of a deep red. The juice is rich and plea-
fant. It ripens early in Oftober. _
TheMonftrous Pavy hath large, very flightly ferrated
leaves, and large, but rather contrafted flowers. The
fruit is round, and very large, whence its name. It is
of a fine red on the funny fide, and of a greenifh-white
on the other. The flefh is white, melting, flicks clofe
to the ftone, and is there of. a deep red. It is pretty
full of juice, which in dry feafons is fugary, vinous, and
agreeable. 'Ripe towards the end of Oftober.
'The Bloody Peadi hath rather large, ferrated leaves,
'which turn red in autumn. The fruit is of a middling
fize, the flcin all over of a dull red, and the flefh is red
down to the .ftone. The fruit is but dry, and the juice
rather fharp and bitterifh. It feldom ripens well in
England, but is well worth cultivating notwithftand-
|. ang, for the fruit bake and prefer ve excellent well.
'The peach-tree has hitherto been planted againft
-walls for the fake of the fruit: “ but, (fays Hanbury),
as I hardly ever knew a perfon who was not ftruck with
the beauty of the flowers when in full blow againft a
wall, why fhould it not have a fhare in wildernefs-
quarters and fhrubberies, amongft the forts of almonds,
&c. ? It may be kept down, or permitted to grow to
the height of the owner’s fancy; and the flowers are
inferior to none of the other forts-. Add to this, they
frequently, in well-fheltered places, produce fruit which
will be exceeding well-flavoured ; and thus the owner
.may enjoy the benefit of a double treat.” The above
Vol. I. Part II.
obfervations refpeft the fingle yjeach ; with regard to Amygdalus
the double-flowered, it is generally propagated for or-
namental plantations, and is univerfally acknowledged
to be one of the fineft flowering-trees yet known.
Againft a wall, however, thefe trees are always the
faireft ; and if they have this advantage, they are fuc-
ceeded by very good fruit.
The Nectarine, according to Linnaeus, is only a
variety of the peach, its having a fmooth coat being
only an accident originally. Of this alfo many varie¬
ties are now cultivated ; and the following are fome of
the moft efteemed : 1. The Elruge. 2. The Newing¬
ton. 3. The Scarlet. 4. The Roman. 5. The Mur¬
rey. 6. The Italian, 7. The Golden. 8. The
Temple’s.
The Elruge hath large ferrated leaves, and fmall
flowers. The fruit is of a middling fize, of a dark
purple colour next the fun, and of a greenilh yellow
on the ftiady fide. The flefli parts from the ftone, and
has a foft, melting, good flavoured juice. Ripe early
in Auguft.
The Newington hath ferrated leaves, and large open,
flowers. The fruit is pretty large, of a beautiful red
on the funny fide, but of a bright yellow on the other.
The flefh flicks to the ftone, is there of a deep red co¬
lour, and the juice has an excellent rich flavour. Ripe
towards the end of Auguft.
The fcarlet is rather lefs than the former, of a fine
fcarlet colour next the fun, but fades to a pale red on
the fhady fide. It ripens near the time of the former.
The Roman, or clufter red neftarine, hath plain
leaves, and large flowers. The fruit is large, of a deep
red towards the fun, but yellowifh on the fhady fide.
The fiefh is firm, flicks to the ftone, and is there red;
the juice is rich, and has an excellent flavour. Ripe
about the end of Auguft.
The Murrey is a middling-fized fruit, of a dirty
red colour on the funny fide, and yellowifii on the
fhady one. The flefh is firm, and tolerably well fla¬
voured. It ripens early in September. -
The Italian Neftarine hath fmooth leaves arid fmall
flowers; the fruit is red next the fun, hut yellowifli on
the other fide ; flefli firm, adheres to the ftone, where
it is red, and when ripe, which is early in September,
has an excellent flavour.
The Golden Neftarine has an agreeable red colour
next the fun, bright yellow on the oppofite fide ; flefh
very yellow, flicks to the ftone, where it itf of a pale
red, has a rich flavour, and ripens in September.
Temple’s Neftarine is of a middling fize, of a fair
red next the fun, of a yellowifti green on the other fide.;
flefli white near the ftoise, from which it feparates ; ri- '
pens in September, and has a high poignant flavour.
Propagation, See. All the above fpecies are propa¬
gated by inoculating them into plum-ftocks in Auguft.
The flocks fliould be firft planted in the nurfery when
of the fize of a ftraw ; and the firft or fecond fummer
after they will he ready to receive the bud. The ufual
method of inoculation muft be obferved, and there is
no danger of fuccefs ; though it may be proper to oh-
ferve, that the double-blofTomed peach fhould always
be worked into the flocks of the mufiel-plum. The
two forts of dwarf almond may alfo be propagated by
layers, or from the fuckers, which they fometimes fend
forth in great plenty.
4 M The
AMY C 642 ] AMY
Amygdala* The varieties of the peach are produced like thofe hollow bafon of about fix feet in diameter, and cover Amygdalus
1 v- 1 of the finer flowers, by fowing the feeds ; and though the furface of the ground in this bafon with mulch ;
many raifed this way will be of little value, as is alfo and once in a week or fortnight, according to the
the cafe of flowers, yet probably among a parcel of drought of the feafon, to pour down eight or ten gal-
ftones, faved from the finer kinds of peaches, there Ions of water to the root of each tree; or the water
would be fome new kinds produced; which, as they may be fprinkled by an engine over the branches of
were raifed here, would be eafily kept up in their per- the trees, which, fhaking down to the roots, will pro-
feftion, which is not to be expefted of thofe brought mote the growth of the fruit and prevent its'falling off
from other countries. The belt method of faving the the trees. This, however, fliould be continued only
ffones is, to let fome of the finelt peaches of the beft while the fruit is growing.
kinds hang till they drop of themfelves from the tree, The peach-tree, as well as the rofe-tree, are very fub-
and then the flones Ihould be immediately planted on jeft to be over-run with the aphides; which may be
a bed of light dry earth, planting them about three deffroyed by fumigating the houfe in which the plants
inces deep in the earth, and at about four inches afun-
der. The beds fliould be covered to preferve them in
the winter; and in fpring, when the plants come up,
they muff be cleared of weeds, and well watered. The
kept with tobacco, or, which is faid to be the moft
effeftual method, by fleam raifed from water poured over
the fluesf.—Soap-fuds are faid to deftroy effectually the t
different fpecies of infefts that infeft fruit-trees growing j
next fpring they fliould be carefully taken up, and againff walls,, and particularly the peach, cherry, and
planted in the nurfery, in rows three feet afunder, and
one foot diftant from each other; laying a little mulch
irpon the furface of the ground.about their roots, and
in a dry fpring watering them once in a week; and
after one or two years Handing here, they may be re¬
moved to the places where they are to remain; or they
may at that time, when the condition of their fruit is
known, be grafted on other flocks.
There are two general rules given for the pruning
of peach and ne&arine trees; viz. 1. Always to have
enough of bearing wood; And, 2. Not to lay in the
branches too clofe to one another. All peach trees
plum. For this purpofe, a perfon on a ladder fliould
pour them from a watering-pot over both trees and wall,
beginning at the top of the wall, and bringing it on in
courfes from top to bottom. The fuds contribute like-
wife, it is faid, to preferve the wood of the delicate and
tender kinds of peaches.
Ufes. Sweet almonds are reckoned to afford little
nourifliment; and, when eaten in fubftance, are not
eafy of digeftion, unlefs thoroughly comminuted: Peel¬
ed, and eaten fix or eight at a time, they fometimes
give prefent relief in the heart-burn. But in medicine
they are moftly ufed for making emulfions; and they
produce their fruit from the young wood either of the abound not only with an oil, but likewife with a muci-
fame, or at the moft of the former year’s ftioot; for lage fit for incorporating oil and water together,
which reafon the branches are to be fo pruned, as to Emulfions are commonly prepared from almonds, by
encourage them to throw out new (hoots in every part beating an ounce of them, after being blanched, into
of the tree 1 and this is to be done in May ; when by
pinching, or flopping the ftrpng (hoots, there may be
new wood forced out in any part of the tree. This is
the method of the fummer pruning : the winter pru¬
ning is ufually done in February or March; but is
much better done at Michaelmas, as foon as their leaves
begin to fall; and the wounds will then have time to
heal before the fevere frofts come on.
In pruning of thefe trees it muft always be obfer-
ved alfo, that it is beft done under a wood bud, not a
a fine pulp, in a marble or ftone mortar; and tritura¬
ting them well with half an ounce (more or lefs) of
fine fugar; and theft adding by little at a time, a
quart of water; taking care to continue grinding
them while the water is poured on; after which the
white milky liquor is drained through a cloth, and put
into a quart bottle. Some people add a dram of
blanched bitter almonds to an ounce of the fweet,
which they think make the emulfions more agreeable.
Such emulfions have been,much ufed as drink in acute
bloffom bud ; which may be diltinguiftied by the wood difeafes, for diluting and blunting acrimonious juices
bud’s being lefs turgid, and longer and narrower than
the bloffom bud; for if the (hoot have not a leading
bud where it is cut, it will commonly die down to the
leading bud. In nailing the (hoots to the wall, they
in the firft paflages, and acrid faline particles in the
blood ; and for foftening and lubricating the fibres and
membranes.
It has been a common practice to diffolve from half
Ihould be placed at as equal diftances as poffible ; and an ounce to an ounce, or more, of gum arabic in the-
fo far apart that the leaves may have room ; and they
jnufl always be trained as horizontally as pofiible, that
water ufed for making the emulfions ; and to make pa¬
tients drink freely of them, while bliflers are applied
the lower part of the tree may be well wooded, which to the body, in order to prevent ftrangury ; and to or-
it will not be if the branches are fuffered to run. up- der them to be ufed in cafes of gravel, and of inflam-
right. When the fruit is fet and grown to the fize of mation of the bladder or urethra ; and in heat of urine
from virulent gonorrhoea or other caufes.
Camphor, refin of jalap, and other refinous fubftan-
ces, by being triturated with almonds, become mifcible
1 fmall nut, it (hould be thinned, and left five or fix
inches afunder : by this management the fruit will be
larger and better tailed, and the trees in a condition
to bear well the fucceeding year. The quantity of with water, and more mild and pleafant than they were
fruit to be left on large full grown trees (hould never before ; and therefore they are frequently ordered to
be greater than five dozen upon each; but on middling be rubbed with them, and made up into pills or bolu-
trees, three or four dozen will be enough. If the fea¬
fon (hould prove hot and dry, it will be proper to draw
up the earth, round the ftem of each tree, to form
fes, with the addition of fome conferve or gum arabic
mucilage; or they are incorporated with watery li¬
quors into the form of an emulfion.
Formerly
AMY C 643 ] AMY
Amyg<3a!us Formerly the feeds of the lettuce, of the cucumber,
II of the white poppy, and of a number of other plants,
.. mJ° ' , were employed for making emulfions ; but now in this
country the fweet almonds fupply the place of all the
reft.
The bitter almonds are not fo much ufed as they
were formerly; becaufe they have been found to de-
ftroy fome forts of animals : this effect was related by
the ancients, but believed to be li&itious ; becaufe
when eaten by men they appear to be innocent, and
to produce no deleterious effects. However, the fafts
related by Wepfer in his Treatife de Cicuta /Jquatica,
having been confirmed by later experiments > and it
having been difcovered that a water drawn from them
had deleterious effedts, and that the diftilled water from
the lauro-cerafus leaves, which have a bitter tafte re-
fembling that of bitter almonds,, was ftill more poifon-
ous; itraifeda fufpicion of the wholefomenefs of thofe
bitter fubftances, and has made phyficians more cau¬
tious of ufmg them, though they have been employed
for making orgeate and other liquors, without produ¬
cing any bad effedts.
As to the peach and nedtarine, they are fufficiently
known as delicious fruits. Peach-flowers have an a-
greeable fmell, and a bitterifti tafte : diftilled, without
any addition, by the heat of a water-bath, they yield
one-fixth their weight, or more, of a whitifti liquor,
which, as Mr Bolduc obferves, communicates to a large
quantity of other liquids a flavour like that of the ker¬
nels of fruits. An infufion in water of half an ounce
of the frefti-gathered flowers, or a dram of them when
dried, fweetened with fugar, proves for children an ufe-
ful laxative and anthelmintic: the leaves of the tree
are, with this intention, fomewhat more efficacious,
though lefs agreeable. The fruit has the fame quality
with the other fweet fruits, that of abating heat,
quenching thirft, and gently loofening the belly.
AMYLACEOUS, from amylum <irftarch;” a term
applied to the fine flour of farinaceous feeds, in which
confifts their nutritive part. See Bread.
AMYNTA, in literary hiftory, a beautiful paftoral
comedy, compofed by Taffo ; the model of all drama¬
tic pieces wherein fhepherds are adlors. The Pajlor
Fido, and Filli di Sciro, are only copies of this excel¬
lent piece.
AMYNTOR, art-wrap, formed of the verb apwa, /
defend, or avenge, properly denotes a perfon vvho de¬
fends or vindicates a caufe. In this fenfe, Mr Toland
intitles his defence of Milton’s life, Amyntor, as being
a vindication of that work againft Mr Blackball and
others, who had charged him with queftioning the au¬
thority of fome of the books of the New Teftament,
and declaring his doubt that feveral pieces under the
name of Chrift and his apoftles, received now by the
whole Chriftian church, were fuppofititious.
AMYOT (James), biflrop of Auxerre and great al¬
moner of France, was born of an obfcure family at Me-
lun, the 30th of October 1514, and ftudied philofophy
at Paris, in the college of Cardinal Le Moine. He
was naturally dull and heavy; but diligence and appli¬
cation made amends for thefe natural defedts. He left
Paris at the age of twenty-three 5 and went to Bourges
with the Sieur Colin, who had the abbey of St Am-
brofe in that city. At the recommendation of this
abbot, a fecretary of ftate took Amyot into his houfe
to be tutor to his children. The great improvements Amyral-
they made under his dire&ion induced the fecretary to
recommend him to the princefs Margaret duchefs of Amyris.
Berry, only After of Francis I. and by means of this w—y—J
recommendation Amyot was made public profeffor of
Greek and Latin in the univerfity of Bourges. It
was during this time he tranflated into French the
“ Amours of Theagines and Chariclea,” which Fran¬
cis I. was fo pleafed with, that he conferred upon him
the abbey of Bellofane, He alfo tranflated Plutarch’s
Lives, which he dedicated to the king ; and after¬
wards undertook that of Plutarch’s Morals, which he
ended in the reign of Charles IX. and dedicated to
that prince. Charles conferred upon him the abbey of
St Cornelius de Compiegne, and made him great al¬
moner of France and bifliop of Auxerre. He died in
I59L aged 79.
AMYRALDISM, a name given by fome writers
to the do&rine of univerfal grace, as explained and af-
ferted by Amyraldus, or Mofes Amyrault, and others
his followers, among the reformed in France, towards
the middle of the 17 th century.
This do&rine principally confifted of the following
particulars, viz. that God defires the happinefs of all
men, and none are excluded by a divine decree ; that
none can obtain falvation without faith in Chrift ; that
God refufes to none the power of believing, though he
does not grant to all his affiftance, that they may im¬
prove this power to faving purpofes; and that many
perifh through their own fault. Thofe who embraced
this doftrine were called Univerfalifts; though it is evi¬
dent they rendered grace univerfal in words, but partial
in reality, and are chargeable with greater inconfiften-
ces than the Supralapfarians.
AMYRAULT (Mofes), an eminent French Pro-
teftant divine, born at Bourgueil in Touraine in 1596.
He ftudied at Saumur, where he was chofen profeffor
of theology ; and his learned works gained him the e-
fteem of Catholics as well as Proteftants, particularly
of Cardinal Richelieu, who confulted him on a plan of re¬
uniting their churches, which however, as may well be
fuppofed,. came to nothing. He publiftied a piece in
which he attempted to explain the myftery of prede-
ftination and grace, which occafioned a controverfy
between him and fome other divines. He alfo wrote,
An Apology for the Proteftants; a Paraphrafe on the
New Teftament; and feveral other books. This emi¬
nent divine died in 1664.
AMYRIS: Agenus of the monogynia order,belong¬
ing to the decandria clafs of plants. The charafters
are : The calyx is a fmall fingle-leaved perianthium,
four-toothed and perfiftent: The corolla confifts of four
oblong petals, concave and expanding : The Jlamina
confift of eight ere£t fubulated filaments ; the antherae
are oblong, ere£t, and the length of the corolla: The
piflillum has an ovate germen, above ; a thickifli ftylus,
the length of the ftamina ; and a four-cornered ftig-
ma: The pericarpium is a round drupaceous berry :
The feed is a globular gloffy nut.—The moft remark¬
able fpecies are : 1. The elemifera, or ftirub which bears plate XV,
the gum elemi, a native of South America. It grows
to the height of about fix feet, producing trifoliated
ftiff fhining leaves, growing oppofite to one another
on footftalks two inches long. At the ends of the
branches grow four or five flender ftalks fet with many
4 M 2 very
AMY [ 644 ] ANA
Amyn's. very fmall white flowers. 2. The gileadenfis, or opo-
 * balfamum, is an evergreen fhrub, growing fpontane-
oully in Arabia Felix, from whence the opobalfam,
or balm of gilead, is procured. 3. Toxifera, or poi-
fon-wood, is a fmall tree, with a fmooth light-coloured
bark. Its leaves are winged ; the middle rib is feven
or eight inches long, with pairs of pinnse one againft
another on inch-long footftalks. The fruit hangs in
bunches, is fhaped like a pear, and is of a purple co¬
lour, covering an oblong hard Hone. From the trunk
of this tree diftils a liquid as black as ink. Birds feed
on the fruit; particularly one, called the purple grofs-
beak, on the mucilage that covers the Hone. It grows
ufually on rocks, in Providence, Ilathera, and others
of the Bahama iflands. 4. The balfamifera, or rofe-
wood, is found on gravelly hills in Jamaica and others
of the Well India illands. It rifes to a confiderable
height, and the trunks are remarkable for having large
protuberances on them. The leaves are laurel-fhaped ;
the fmall blue flowers are on a branched fpike ; and
the berries are fmall and black.
Properties. From the firft fpecies, which is called
, by the natives of the Brafils icicariba, is obtained the
refxn improperly called gum elemi, or gum lemon. This
drug is brought to us from the Spanilh Weft Indies,
and fometimts from the Fall Indies, in long roundilh
cakes, generally wrapped up in flag leaves. The bell
fort is foftilh, fomewhat tranfparent, of a pale whitilh
yellow colour, inclining a little to green, of a ftrong
not unpleafant fmell. It almoft totally diflblves in pure
fpirit, and fends over fome part of its fragrance along .
with this menftruum in diftillation : diftilled with wa¬
ter, it yields a confiderable quantity of pale coloured,
thin, fragrant eflential oil. This refin gives name to
one of the officinal unguents, and is at prefent fcarce
any otherwife made ufe of; though it is certainly pre¬
ferable, for internal purpofes, to fome others which are
held in greater efteem. The fecond fpecies yields the
balfam of Mecca, of Syria, or of Gilead, which is
the moft fragrant and pleafant of any of the balfams.
The true balfam tree is found near to Mecca, which is
fituated about a day’s journey from the Red Sea, on
the Afiatic fide. It has a yellowifh or greenilh yellow
colour, a warm bitterifh aromatic tafte, and an acidu¬
lous fragrant fmell. It has long been held in great
efteem. The Turks, who are in poffefiion of the coun¬
try in which it grows, value it much as an odoriferous
unguent and cofmetic, and fet fuch a high price upon
it, that it is adulterated when it comes into the hands
of the dealers, fo that it is very difficult to get genu¬
ine fpecimens of it, and therefore it is very feldom ufed
in this country: it has been recommended in great va¬
riety of complaints ; but now it is generally believed
that the Canada and copiava balfams are equally effi¬
cacious, and will anfwer every purpofe for which it can
be ufed. Dr AlftonMays, that the fureft mark of this
balfam being pure and unadulterated is, its fpreading
quickly on the furface of water when dropped into it;
and that if a Angle drop of it is let fall into a large
faucer full of water, it immediately fpreads all over
its furface, and as it were diflblves and difappears ;
but in about half an hour it becomes a tranfparent pel¬
licle covering the whole furface, and may be taken up
with a pin, having loft both its fluidity and colour,
and become white and foft, cohering, and communi¬
cating its fmell and tafte to the water. This teft, he Ana
fays, all the balfam he faw in Holland bore, though it H
is rare to get any from London that anfwers it. The AEia ^ 1 *
balfamifera, or rofe-wood, affords an excellent timber :
it is alfo replete with a fragrant balfam or oil, and re¬
tains its flavour and folidity though expofed to the wea¬
ther many years. By fubjefting this wood to diftilla¬
tion, Dr Wright thinks, a perfume equal to the oleum
rhodii may probably be obtained.
ANA, among phyficians, denotes a quantity equal
to that of the preceding ingredient, It is abbreviated
thus, aa, or a.
Ana, in matters of literature, a Latin termination,
adopted into the titles of feveral books in other lan¬
guages.—Anas, or boohs in ana, are collebtions of the
memorable fayings of perfons of learning and wit;
much the fame with what we otherwife call table-
talk.
Wolfius has given the hiftory of books in ana, in
the preface to the Cafauboniana. He there obferves,
that though fuch titles be new, the thing itfelf is very
old ; that Xenophon’s books of the deeds and fayings
of Socrates, as well as the dialogues of Plato, are So-
cratiana; that the apophthegms of the philofophers
collected by Diogenes Laertius, the fentences of Py¬
thagoras and thofe of Epidletus, the works of Athe-
n;eus, Stobeusi and divers others, are fo many anas.
Even the Gernara of the Jews, with feveral other ori¬
ental writings, according to Wolfius, properly belong
to the fame clafs. To this head of ana may likewife
be referred the Orphica, the Pythagoraea, ALfopica,
Pyrrhonea, &c.
Scaligerana was the firft piece that appeared with a
title in ana. It was compofed by Ifan de Vaffan, a
young Champanois, recommended to Jof. Scaliger by
Cafaubon. Being much with Scaliger, who was daily
vifited by the men''of learning at Leyden, De Vaffan
wrote down whatever things of any moment he heard
Scaliger fay. And thus arofe the Scaligerana, which
was not printed till many years after, at Geneva in
1666. Patin. Let. 431.—Soon after came the Perro-
niana, Thuana, Naudseana, Patineana, Sorberiana, Me-
nagiana, Anti-Menagiana, Furetiana, Chevraeana, Leib-
nitziana, Arlequiuiana, Poggiana, &c.
ANABAPTISTON, the fame with Abaptiston.
ANABAPTISTS, a name which has been indif-
criminately applied to Chriftians of very different prin¬
ciples and pradtices ; though many of them objedt to
the denomination, and hold nothing in common, be-
fides the opinion that baptifm-ought always to be per¬
formed by immerfion, and not adminiftered before the
age of diferetion.
The word Anabaptift is compounded of «>'*, “ new,”
and S««rrimy “ a baptiftand in this fenfe the Nova-
tians, the Cataphrygians, and the Donatifts, may be
confidered as a kind of Anabaptifts in the earlier ages,
though not then denoted by this name ; for they con¬
tended, that thofe Chriftians of the catholic church
who joined themfelves to their refpedtive parties fliould
be rebaptized. But we muft not clafs under the fame
denomination thofe bilhops of Alia and Africa, who,
in the third centuiy, maintained, that baptifm admi¬
niftered by thofe whom they called heretics was not
valid, and therefore that fuch of them as returned in¬
to their churches ought to be rebaptized. Nor do the
Englifh.
Hate XV.
ANA [ 645 '] ANA
(abaptifts EngKfh and Dutch Baptifts confider the denomination
|r“v——' as at all applicable to their fe'ft : by whom the baptifm
appointed by Chrift is held to be “ nothing (hort of
1immerjion, upon a psrfonal profejjlon of faith of which
I profeflion infants being incapable, and fprinkling be¬
ing no adequate fymbol of the thing intended, the
baptizing of profelytes to their communion, who in
L their infancy had undergone the ceremony of fprinkling,
cannot, it is urged, be interpreted a repetition of the
baptifmal ordinance.
Anabaptifts, in a drift and proper fenfe, appear to
be thofe who not only rebaptize, when they arrive at
an adult age, perfons that were baptifed in their in¬
fancy, but alfo, as often as any perfon comes from
one of their fefls- to another, or as often as any one is
, excluded from their communion and again received in¬
i' to the bofom of their church, they baptize him.
f And fiwh were many of the German Baptifts. But
the Angle opinion common to all the fefts to which the
name of Anahaptifs has been indifcriminately applied,
is that of the invalidity of infant baptifm, in whatever
way adminiftered : And whence the general denomina¬
tion of Antipadobaptijls ; which includes Anabaptifts,
Baptifts, Mennonites, Waterlandians, &c. as diftinguifh-
ed by their refpeftive peculiarities ; though Anabaptifts
jt feem to have been adopted by moft writers as the ge-
k neral term.
To the above peculiar notion concerning the bap¬
tifmal facrament, the Anabaptifts added principles of
f a different nature, depending upon certain ideas which
they entertained concerning a perfeft church-eftablifh-
ment, pure in its members, and free from the inftitu-
[ tions of human policy.
The Anabaptifts appear to have made little noife,
or to have been little noticed, before the time of the
reformation in Germany. The moft prudent and ra-
y tional part of them confidered it poffible, by human
jt., wifdo'm, induftry, and vigilance, to purify the church
; from the contagion of the wicked, provided the man¬
ners and fpirit of the primitive Chriftians could but
recover their loft dignity and luftre ; and feeing the at-
H tempts of Luther,feconded by feveral perfons of eminent
piety, prove fo fuccefsful, they hoped that the happy
period was arrived in which the reftoration of the
church' to purity was to be accomplifhed, under the
divine prote&ion, by the labours and counfels of pious
and eminent men. Others, far from being fatisfied
with the plan of reformation propofed by Luther,
looked upon it as'much beneath the fublimity of their
views ; and confequently undertook a more perfedl re¬
formation, or, to exprefs more properly their vifionary
enterprife, they' propofed to found a new church, en-
feg tirely fpiritual,' and truly divine.
This fefi: was foon joined by great numbers, and
j (as ufually happens in fudden revolutions of this na¬
ture) by many perfons, whofe charadbers and capacities
were very different, though their views feemed to turn
i , upon the fame objedt. Their progrefs was rapid ; for,
; in a very fhort fpace of time, their difcourfes, viftons,
and predidtions, excited commotions in a great part of
(; Europe, and drew into their communion a prodigious
multitude, whqfe ignorance rendered them eafy vidtims
to the illufions of enthufiafm. The moft pernicious
fadtion of all thofe which compofed this motley mul¬
titude, was that which pretended that the founders of
the new and perfeft church, already mentioned, were Anabaptifts
under the diredlion of a divine impulfe, and were ~v-”J
armed againft ail oppofition by the power of working
miracles. It was this fadlion that, in the year 1521,
began their fanatical work, under the guidance of
Munzer, Stubner, Storck, &c.
Thefe perfons were difciples of Luther J but well
knowing that their opinions were fuch as would receive
no fanction from him, they availed themfelves of his
abfence to diffeminate them in Wittemburgh, and had
the addrefs to over-reach the piety of Melandthon.
Their principal purpofe was to gain over the populace,
and to form a confiderable party. To effect this, fays
Bayle, they were induftrious and aftive, each in his
own way. Storck wanting knowledge, boafted of in-
fpiration ; and Stubner, who had both genius and e-
rudition, laboured at commodious explications of Scrip¬
ture. Not content with difcrediting the court of
Rome, and decrying the authority of confiftories, they
taught, That among Chriftians, who had the precepts
of the gofpel to direft and the Spirit of God to guide
them, the office of magiftracy was not only unneeef-
fary, but an unlawful encroachment on the-ir fpiritual
liberty; that the diftinftions occalioned by birth, or
rank,, or wealth, being contrary to the fpirit of the
gofpel, which confiders all men as equal, fhould be en¬
tirely abolilhed ; that all Chriftians, throwing their
poffeffions into one common ftock, fhould live together
in that ftate of equality which becomes members off
the fame family ; that as neither the laws of nature
nor the precepts of the New Teftament had placed any
reftraint upon men with regard to the number of wives-
which they might marry, they fhould ufe that liberty
which God himfelf had granted to the patriarchs*..
They employed at firft the various arts of perfuafion
in order to propagate their do&rine. They preached,,
exhorted, admoniflied, and reafoned, in a manner that
feemed proper to imprefs the multitude ; and related a
great number of viftons and revelations with which
they pretended to have been favoured from above. But
when they faw that thefe methods of making profelytes
were not attended with fuch a rapid fuccefs as they
fondly expe&ed, and that the miniftry of Luther and
other eminent reformers were detrimental to their caufe,
they then had reeourfe to more expeditious meafuresr
and madly attempted to propagate their fanatical doc¬
trine by force of arms. Munzer and his affociates, in
the year 1525, put themfelves at the head of a nume¬
rous army, eompofed for the moft part of the peafants
of Suabia, Thuringia, Franconia, and Saxony, and'
declared war againft ail laws, government, and magi-
ftrates of every kind, under the chimerical pretext that
Chrift was now to take the'reins of civil and eecleftaftical
government into his own hands, and to rule alone over
the nations. But this feditious crowd was routed and’
difperfed, without much difficulty, by the Ele&or of
Saxony and other princes; and Munzer their ring¬
leader ignominioufly put to death, and his faftious
counfellors fcattered abroad in different places.
Many of his followers, however, furvived, and pro¬
pagated their opinions through Germany, Switzerland,
and Holland. In the year 1533, a party of them fet¬
tled at Munfter under the direction of two Anabaptift
prophets, John Matthias a baker of Haerlem, and
John Bockholdt a journeyman taylor of Leyden. Ha-
ANA L 646 ] ANA
AnaTwptlfls ving made themfelves mafters of the city, they depofed
the magiftrates, confifcated the eftates of fuch as had
efcaped, and depofited the wealth they amaffed toge¬
ther in a public treafury for common ufe. They made
preparations of every kind for the defence of the city ;
and fent out emiffaries to the Anabaptift's in the Low
» Countries, inviting them to alfemble at Munfter, which
was now dignified with the name of Mount Sion, that
from hence they might be deputed to reduce all the
nations of the earth under their dominion. Matthias,
who was the firft in command, was foon cut off in an aft
of phrenfy by the bifhop of Munfter’s army ; and was
fucceeded by Bockholdt, who was proclaimed by a
fpecial defignation of Heaven, as he pretended, king
of Sion, and invefted with legiflative powers like thofe
of Mofes. The extravagances of Bockholdt were too
numerous to be recited: it will be fufficient to add,
that the city of Munfter was taken after a long fiege
and an obftinate refiftance ; and Bockholdt the mock
monarch was puniftied with a moft painful and ignomi¬
nious death.
It muft, however, be acknowledged, that the true
life of the numerous infurrerftions of this period ought
not to be attributed to religious opinions. The firft
infurgents groaned under the moft grievous oppref-
fions ; they took up arms principally in defence
of their civil liberties; and of the commotions that
took place. The Anabaptift leaders above mentioned
feem rather to have availed themfelves, than to have
been the prime movers. See the article Reforma¬
tion.—That a great part of the main body, in¬
deed, confifted of Anabaptifts feems indifputable ; and
whatever fanaticifm exifted among them would natu¬
rally be called forth or be inflamed by the fituations
that occurred, and run riot in its wildeft ihapes. At
the fame time it appears from hiftory, that a great part
alfo confifted of Roman Catholics, and a ftill greater
of perfons who had fcarcely any religious principles at
all. Indeed, when we read of the vaft numbers that
were concerned in thofe infurre&ions, of whom it is
reported that 100,000 fell by the fword, it appears
reafonable to conclude that a great majority of them
were not Anabaptifts.
Before concluding this article, it muft be remarked,
that the Baptifts or Mennonites in England and Hol¬
land are to be confidered in a very different light from
the enthufiafts we have been defcribing: And it ap¬
pears equally uncandid and invidious, to trace up their
diftinguiftiing fentiment, as fome of their adverfaries
have done, to thofe obnoxious charafterS, and there to
flop, in order as it were to affociate with it the ideas
of turbulence and fanaticifin, with which it certainly
has no natural connexion. Their coincidence with
fome of thofe oppreffed and infatuated people in deny¬
ing baptifm to infants, is acknowledged by the Bap¬
tifts : but they difavow the practice which the appella¬
tion of Anabaptijis implies; and their doctrines feem
referable to a more ancient and refpe&able origin.
They appear fupported by hiftory in confidering them¬
felves as the defcendants of the Waldenfes, who were
fo grievoufly oppreffed and perfecuted by the defpotic
heads of the Romifh hierarchy; and they profefs an
equal averfion to all principles of rebellion on one
hand, and to all fuggeftions of fanaticifm on the other.
See Baptists.—The denomination of Mennonites, by
which they are diftinguiftied in Holland, they derive
from Menno, the famous man who latterly gave con¬
fidence and liability to their fetft: See Mennonites.
ANABASII, in antiquity, were couriers who were
fent on horfeback, or in chariots, with difpatches of
importance.
ANABATHRA, in ancient writers, denote a
kind of fteps or ladder whereby to afcend to fome emi¬
nence. In this fenfe we read of the anabathra of
theatres, pulpits, &c. Anabathra appears to have been
fometimes alfo applied to ranges of feats riling gradu¬
ally over each other.
Anabathra is more particularly applied to a kind
of ftone blocks railed by the highway fides, to affift
travellers in mounting or alighting, before the ufe of
ftirrups was invented.—The firft author of this con¬
trivance among the Romans was C. Gracchus brother
of Tiberius.
ANABLEPS, in ichthyology, the trivial name of
a fpecies of cobitis. See Cobitis.
ANABOA, a fmall illand fituated near the coaft of
Loango in Africa, in E. Long. 90. N. Lat. i°. Here
are feveral fertile valleys, which produce plenty of ba¬
nanas, oranges, pine-apples, lemons, citrons, tama¬
rinds, cocoa nuts, &c. together with vaft quantities of
cotton. In this ifland are two high mountains, which,
being continually covered with clouds, occafion fre¬
quent rains.
ANABOLiEUM, or Anabole, in antiquity, a
kind of great or upper coat, worn over the tunica.
ANABOLEUS, in antiquity, an appellation given
to grooms of the liable, or equerries, who afiilled their
mailers in mounting their horfes. As the ancients had
no ftirrups, or inftruments that are now in ufe for
mounting a horfe, they either jumped upon his back,
or were aided in mounting by anabolei.
ANACALYPTERIA, according to Suidas, were
prefents made to the bride by her hulband’s relations
and friends when Ihe firft uncovered her face and Ihow-
ed herfelf to men. Thefe prefents were alfo called
ixavxccia ; for, among the Greeks, virgins before mar¬
riage were under Uriel confinement, being rarely per¬
mitted to appear in public, or converfe with the other
fex; and when allowed that liberty, wore a veil over
their faces, termed Ka\v#1pov, or Koaus-fya, which was
not left off in the prefence of men till the third day af¬
ter marriage ; whence, according to Hefychius, this
day was alfo called anacalypterion.
ANACAMPSEROS, in botany, a fynonime of
the portulaca and feveral other plants.
ANACAMPTERIA, in ecclefiaftical antiquity, a
kind of little edifices adjacent to the churches, defigned
for the entertainment of ftrangers and poor perfons.
ANACAMPTIC, a name applied by the ancients
to that part of optics which treats of refledlion, being
the fame wfith what is now called Catoptrics.
ANACARDIUM, or cashew-nut tree|: A ge¬
nus of the monogy-nia order, belonging to the decan-
dria clafs of plants ; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 12th order, Holoracets. The characters
are : The calyx is divided into five parts, the divifions
ovate and deciduous: The corolla confifts of five re¬
flected petals, twice the length of the calyx : Theyfo-
mina confift of ten capillary filaments ftiorter than the
calyx, one of them caftratedthe anthers are fmall
Anabaff
ANA [ 647 1 ANA
and roundi/h : The piftillum has a roundifli germen ;
the ftylus is Tubulated, infiefted, and the length of
the corolla ; the ftigma oblique : There is no pericar-
pium; the receptaculum is very large and flelhy: The
feed is a large kidney-ihaped nut, placed above the re¬
ceptaculum.
Of this only one fpecies is as yet known to the bo-
tanifts, viz. the occidentale. It grows naturally in
the Weft Indies, and arrives at the height of 20 feet
in thofe places of which it is a native, but cannot be
preferved in Britain without the greateft difficulty.
The fruit-of this tree is as large as an orange ; and is
full of an acid juice, which is frequently made ufe of
in making punch. To the apex of this fruit grows a
nut, of the fize and fhape of a hare’s kidney, but much
larger at the end which is next the fruit than at the
other. The (hell is very hard ; and the kernel, which
is fweet and pleafant, is covered with a thin film. Be¬
tween this and the fhell is lodged a thick, blackifli, in¬
flammable liquor, of fuch a cauftic nature in the frelh
nuts, that if the lips chance to touch it, blifters will
immediately follow. The kernels are eaten raw, roaft-
ed, or pickled. The cauftic liquor juft mentioned is
efteemed an excellent cofmetic with the Weft India
young ladies, but they muft certainly fuffer a great
deal of pain in its application; and as fond as our
Britifti females are of a beautiful face, it is highly
probable they would never fubmit to be flayed alive
to obtain one. When any of the former fancy them-
felves too much tanned by the fcorching rays of the
fun, they gently fcrape off the thin outfide of the
ftone, and then rub their faces all over with the ftone.
Their faces immediately fwell and grow black; and
the ikin being poifoned by the cauftic oil above men¬
tioned, will, in the fpace of five or fix days, come en¬
tirely off in large flakes, fo that they cannot appear in
public in lefs than a fortnight; by which time the new
jfkin looks as fair as that of a new-born child. The
negroes in Brazil cure themfelves effectually of difor-
ders in the ftomach by eating of the yellow fruit of
this tree ; the juice of which, being acid, cuts the
thick tough humours which obftruCted the free circu¬
lation of the blood, and thus removes the complaint.
This cure, however, is not voluntary: for their ma¬
ilers, the Portuguefe, deny them any other fuftenance ;
and letting them loofe to the woods, where the calhew-
nuts grow in great abundance, leave it in their option
to perifh by famine or fuftain themfelves with this
fruit.—Tlie milky juice of this tree will ftain linen of
a good black, which cannot be walked out. See
Plate XVI.
Culture. This plant is eafily raifed from the nuts,
which Ihould be planted each in a feparate pot filled
with light fandy earth, and plunged into a good hot¬
bed of tanners bark; they muft alfo be kept from moi-
fture till the plants come up, otherwife the nuts are apt
to rot. If the nuts are frelh, the plants will come up
in about a month; and in two months more, they will
be four or five inches high, with large leaves: from
which quick progrefs many people have been deceived,
imagining they would continue the like quick growth
afterwards; but with all the care that can be taken,
they never exceed the height of two feet and an half,
and for the molt part fcarce half as much.
ANACEPHAL-ffiOSIS, in rhetoric, the fame with Anacepha-
recapitulation. See Recapitulation. kcofis
ANACHARSIS, a famous Scythian philofopher, Anaclaftics.
converfed with Solon, and lived an auftere life. Upon i—^
his return from his travels through Greece, he attempt¬
ed to change the ancient cuftoms of Scythia, and to
eftablilh thofe of Greece ; which proved fatal to him.
The king Ihot him dead in a wood with an arrow. A
great many ftatues were eredled to him after his death.
He is faid to have invented tinder, the anchor, and the
potter’s wheel; but the latter is mentioned by Homer,,
who lived long before him. Anacharfis flourilhed in.
the time of Croefus.
ANACHORET, in church-hiftory, denotes a her¬
mit, or folitary monk, who retires from the fociety of
mankind into fome defart, with a view to avoid the
temptations of the world, and to be more at leifure
for meditation and prayer. Such were Paul, Anthony,,
and Hilarion, the firft founders of monaftic life in
Egypt and Paleftine.
Anachorets, among the Greeks, confift principally
of monks, who retire to caves or cells, with the leave
of the abbot, and an allowance from.the monaftery ?
or who, weary of the fatigues of the monaftery, pur-
chafe a fpot of ground, to which they retreat, never
appearing again in the monaftery, unlefs on folemn oc-
cafions.
ANACHRONISM, in matters of literature, an er~
ror with refpeCt to chronology, whereby an event is
placed earlier than it really happened.—The word ia
compounded of ava, “ higher,” and x?'1'1®', “ time.”
Such is that of Virgil, who placed Dido in Africa at
the time of jEneas, though in reality ihe did not come
there till 300 years after the taking of Troy.—An er¬
ror on the other fide, whereby a fa£t is placed later
and lower than it flrould be, is called a parachronifm.
ANACLASTIC glasses, a kind of fonorous
phials, or glaffes, chiefly made in Germany, which have
the property of being flexible;. and emitting a vehement
noife by the human breath.—They are alfo called vex-
ingglaffes by the Germans [vexter glafer), on account
of the fright and difturbance they occafion by their re-
filition.—The anaclaftic glaffes are a low kind of phials
with flat bellies, refembling inverted funnels, whofe
bottoms are very thin, fcarce furpaffing the thicknefs
of an onion peel: this bottom is not quite flat, but a
little convex. But upon applying the mouth to the o-
rifiee, and gently infpiring, or as it were fucking out
the air, the bottom gives way with a prodigious crack,
and of convex becomes concave. On the contrary,
upon exfpiring or breathing gently into the orifice of
the fame glafs, the bottom with no lefs noife bounds
back to its former place, and becomes gibbous as be¬
fore.—The anaclaftic glafies firft taken notice of were
in the caftle of Goldbach; where one of the acadcmifts
Naturae Curioforum, having feen and made experiments
on them, publiftied a piece exprefs on their hiffory and
phenomena. They are all made of a fine white glafs.
It is to be obferved in thefe, 1. That if the bottom be
concave at the time of infpiration, it will burft; and
the like will happen if it be convex at the time of ex-
fpiration. 2. A ftrong breath will have the fame effect
even under the contrary circumftances.
ANACLASTICS, that part of optics which con-
fiders
3
ANA
C 648 ]
ANA
Anacleteria fiders the refi'aftion of light, and is commonly called
II Dioptrics. See Dioptrics.
,-.-aC<re0r‘' ANACI^ETERIA, in antiquity, a folemn feftival
celebrated by the ancients when their kings or princes
came of age, and affumed the reins of government. It
is fo called, becaufe proclamation being made of this
event to the people, they went to falute their prince
during the anacleteria, and to congratulate him upon
his new dignity.
ANACLETICUM, in the ancient art of war, a
particular blail of the trumpet, whereby the fearful
and flying-foldiers were rallied, and recalled to the
combat.
_ AN ACLINOPALE, ;n antiquity, a
kind of wreftling, wherein the champions threw them-
felves voluntarily on' the ground, and continued the
combat by pinching, biting, fcratching, and other me¬
thods of offence. The Anac)inopale was contradiflin-
and tuning his harp to the fmooth an&pleafant temper
of his foul. But none has given a jufter chara6ter of
his writings than the God of Love, as taught to fpeak
by Mr Cowley:
All thy verfe is fofter far
Than the downy feathers are,
Of my wings, or of my arrows,
Of my mother’s doves and fparrows:
Graceful, cleanly, fmooth, or round,
All with Venus’ girdle bound.
ANACREONTIC verse, in ancient poetry, a kind
of verfe, fo called from its being much ufed by the poet
Anacreon. It confifts of three feet and an half, ufually
fpondees and iambufes, and fometimes anapefts: Such
is that of Horace, Lydia, die per omnes.
ANACRISIS, among the ancient Greeks, is ufed
for a kind of trial or examination, which the archons.
guifhed from the Ortbopale, wherein the champions flood or chief magiftrates of Athens, were to undergo before
ere ft:. In the Anaclinopcdc, the weaker combatants
fometimes gained the vijflory.
ANACLINTERIA, in antiquity, a kind of pil¬
lows on the dining-bed, whereon the guefls ufed to
their admiflion into that office. The andcrifu ftands
diftinguifhed from the docimajia, which was a fecond
examination, in the forum. The anacrifis was per¬
formed in the fenate-houfe. The queftion here propo-
lean. The ancient tricliniary beds had four pillows, one fed to them were concerning their family, kindred, be¬
at the head, another at the feet, a third at the back,
and a fourth at the breaft. That on which the head
lay, was properly called by the Greeks avaxxn-^iiv, 0r
avaxxivlfov; by the Romans fulcrum, fometimes pluteus.
ANACOLLEMA, a compofition of ailringent
powders, applied by the ancients to the head, to pre¬
vent defiuftions on the eyes.
ANAC0NDO, in natural hiftory, is a name given
in the ifle of Ceylon to a very large and terrible rattle-
fnake, which often devours the unfortunate traveller a-
live, and is itfelf accounted excellent and delicious
fare.
ANACREON, a Greek poet, born at Teos, a city
of Ionia, flourifhed about 532 years before the Chrif-
haviour, eftate, See. Some will have it that all magi¬
ftrates underwent the anacrifts.
Anacrisis, among civilians, an invefligation of
truth, interrogation of witneffes, and inquiry made in¬
to any faff, efpecially by torture.
ANACROSIS, in antiquity, denotes a part of
the Pythian fong, wherein the combat of Apollo and
Python are deferibed.—The anacrofts was the ftrfl
part, and contained the preparation to the light.
ANACYCLUS, in botany: a genus of the poly-
gamia fuperfiua order, belonging to the fyngenelia clafs
of plants; and, in the natural method, ranking under
the 49th order, Compfitx-thfcoides. The charafters
are : The calyx is hemifpheric and imbricated : The
tian cera. Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, invited him corolla is radiated: The fiamina confift of five very
u:., * „..,i —1.:™ n .uni.:— :_ i v... Ihort capillary filaments; the anthera cylindric and tu¬
bular : The pi/lillum has an oval germen ; a filiform
ftylus; a bifid ftigma in the hermaphrodites, two flen-
der reflected fligmatainthe females: There is nopericar-
pium; but the calyx unchanged: The Jeeds are folitary,
with membranous wings; the receptaculum h chaffy.
ANADAVADiEA, in ornithology, a barbarous
name of a fpecies of alauda. See Alauda.
ANADEMA, among the ancients, denotes an or¬
nament of the head, wherewith viftors at the facred
games had their temples bound.
ANADIPLOSIS, in rhetoric and poetry, a repe¬
tition of the la ft word of a line, or claufe of a fentence,
to his court, and made him fhare with him in his bu-
finefs and his pleafures. He had a delicate wit, as may
be judged from the inexpreflible beauties and graces
that ftiine in his works: but he was fond of pleaflire,
was of an amorous difpofition, and addifted to drunk-
ennefs : yet, notwithftanding his debaucheries, he lived
to the age of 85; when, we are told, he was choaked
by a grape-ftone which ftuck in his throat as he was
regaling on fome new wine.
There is but a fmall part of Anacreon’s works that
remain; for, befides his odes and epigrams, he com-
pofed elegies, hymns, and iambics. His poems which
e refeued from oblivion by Henry Ste-
are extant
phens, and are dniverfally admired. The ’verfesof in the beginning of the next: Thus,
Anacreon are fweeter, fays Scaliger, than Indian fu-
gar.. His beauty and chief excellence, fays Madam
, Dacier, lay in imitating nature, and in following rea-
fon ; fo that he prefented to the mind no images but
what were' noble and natural. The odes of Anacreon,
fays Rapin, are flowers, beauties, and perpetual graces;
Pier ides, vos hsec facietis maxima Gallo;
Gallo cujus amor, &c.
Et ms tut inis accredula vocibics infat,
Vocibus infat, <& ajfduas jacii ore querelas.
. ■ . - - * i o , ANADROMOUS, among ichthyologifts, a name
it is familiar to him to write what is natural and to the given to fuch fifties as go' from the fea to the frefli
life, he having an air fo delicate, fo eafy, and graceful, waters at ftated feafons, and return back again; fuch as
that among all the ancients there is nothing comparable the falmon, &c. See Salmo.
to the method he took, nor to that kind of writing he
followed. He flows foft and eafy, every where diffu-
fing the joy and indolence of his mind thro’ his verfe,
N° 17.
ANADUOMENE Venus, in the Grecian mytho-
logy, anfwered to the Sea-Venus in the Roman, and
was the appellation given to one of the chief deities of
ANA [ 649 ] ANA
the fea. The moft celebrated plilure In all antiquity ver fupped without reading; fo that the minds of his Anagogicah
was that of this goddefs by Apelles; and the famous guefts were no lefs agreeably entertained than their ap- l!
Venus of Medici is a Sea-Venus. _ _ _ petites. The fame cuftom, Egihhard obferves, was Anagrair^
ANJiDEIA, in antiquity, a denomination given to kept up by Charlemagne, who at table had the hift'ories ^v
filver ftool placed in the Areopagus, on which the and afts of ancient kings read to him. This cuftom
defendent, or perfon accufed, was feated for examina- feemsto have been a relic of that of the ancient Greeks,
tion. The word is Greek, Atacfux, which imports im¬
prudence; but according to Junius’s correction, itfhould
rather be q. d. innocence. The plaintiff, or aC- kept up the like ufage, as we a
cufer, was placed on an oppofite ftool called hybris, or guftin.
injury; here he propofed three queftions to the party
accufed, to which pofitive anfwers were to be given,
who had the praifes of great men and heroes fung t
them while at table. The ancient monks and clergy
informed by St Au-
ANAGOGICAL, fignifies myfterious, tranfport-
ing ; and is ufed to exprefs whatever elevates the mind,
Thelirft, Are you guilty of this fadt ? The fecond, How not only to the knowledge of divine things, but of di-
did you commit the facff ? The third. Who were your vine things in the next life. This word is feldcm ufed,
but with regard to the different fenfes of Scripture.
The anagogical fenfe is, when the facred text is explain¬
ed with a regard to eternal life, the point which Chri-
accomplices ?
ANAESTHESIA, fignifies a privation of the fenfes.
ANAGALLIS, pimpernel : A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of . ftians ftiould have in view: for example, the reft of the
plants ; and, in the natural method, ranking under the
20th order, Rotacea. The charadters are : The calyx
is a quinquepartite perianthium, which is perfiftent:
The corolla coofifis of one rotated petal: The ft a mi ti a
confift of five' ereft filaments fhorter than the corolla;
the anthers ‘ are fimple : The piftilium has a globular
germen ; the ftylus flightly declinated, the ftigma but have a further
headed: The pericarpium is a globular capfule, undo- fible,
Cular and circumcifed: The feeds are numerous and
fabbath, in the anagogical fenfe, fignifies the repofe of
everlafting happinefs.
ANAGOGY, or Anagoge, among ecclefiaftical
writers, the elevation of the mind to things celeftial and
eternal.—It is particularly ufed, where words, in them
natural or primary meaning, denote fomething fenfible,
to fomething fpiritual or invi-
Anagogy, in a more particular fenfe, denotes the
angled ; the receptaculum globular and very large. Of application of the types and allegories of the Old Te-
ftament to fubjedts of the New ; thus called, becaufe
the veil being here drawn, what before was hidden, is
expofed to open fight.
ANAGRAM (from the Qxook. backwards, and
ygxy.f/M letter), in matters of literature, a tranfpofition
of the letters of fome name, whereby a new word is
formed, either to the advantage or difadvantage of the
this there are four
Species. i.The arvenfis, or common pimpernel, with
a red flower. 2. The fsemina, with a blue flower. 3.
Th6 monelli, or narrow-leaved pimpernel. 4. The
latifolia, or Spanifli pimpernel.—The firft fort is very
common in corn-fields, and other cultivated places in
Britain. The fecond is fometimes found wild in the
fields, but is not fo common as the firft. The third is a perfon or thing to which the name belongs. Thus, the
beautiful fmall perennial plant, and produces numbers anagram of Galenus is angelus; that of Logica, cali-
of fine blue flowers. The fourth is a native of Spain,
and likewife produces blue flowers.
Thefe plants are very eafily propagated by feeds;
and if fuffered to remain till their feeds fcatter, they
become troublefome weeds.—-The arvenfis is not un- calls himfelf ftlcuinus,
frequently taken as food ; it makes no unpleafant fa-
lad, and in fome parts of this kingdom is a common
pot-herb. All the fpecies are eat by cows and goats,
but refufed by fheep ; fmall birds are greatly delighted
with the feeds.—Great medicinal virtues were former¬
ly expected from the firft two fpecies ; but they are
now juftly difregarded.
ANAGNIA, (anc. geog.), a town of Latitim,
capital of the Hernici; which, after a faint refift-
go; that of Alftedius, fedulitas; that of Loraine is
alerion, on which account it was that the family of Lo¬
raine took tiler ions for their armoury.—Calvin, in the
title of his Irftitutions, printed at Straftmrg in 1539,
himfelf Alcuinus, which is the anagram of Calvi-
and the name of an eminently learned perfon in
the time of Charlemagne, who contributed greatly to
the reftoration of learning in that age.
Thofe who adhere ftrictly to the definition of an a-
nagram, take no other liberty than that of omitting
or retaining the letter h, at pleafure ; whereas others
make no fcruple to ufe' e for is., "V for w, s for z, and
c for k ; and vice verfa.
Befides anagrams formed as above, we meet with an-
ance, fubmitting to the Romans, was admitted to the other kind in ancient writers, made by dividing a fingle
freedom of the city, yet without the right of fuffrage,
(Livy.) It was afterwards a colony of DrufusCrefar,
and willed round, and its territory affigned to the ve¬
terans, (Frontinus.) Here Antony married Cleopatra,
and divorced- ORavia. Now Aftagni, 36 miles to the
eaft of Rome. Long. 13. 45. Lat. 42. 48.
ANAGNOSTA, or Anagnostes, in antiquity, a
word into feveral; thus, fus tinea mus, are formed out
of the word fuftineavms.
Anagrams are fometimes alfo made out of feveral
words : fuch is that on the queftion put by Pilate to
our Saviour, Quid eft veritas ? whereof we have this
admirable anagram, viz. Eft vir qui a deft.
The Cabbalifts among the Jews are profeffed ana-
kind of literary fervant, retained in the families of per- grammatifts; the third part of their art, which they call
ikemuru, i. e. “ changing,” being nothing but the art
of making anagrams, or of finding hidden and myftical
meaningsin names; which they do by changing, tranf-
agnoftes at his meals. He ne-. poling, and differently combining, the letters of thofe
4 N names.
fons of diftimStion, wbofe chief bufinefs was to read to
■them during meals, or at any other time wben they
Were at leifure. Cornelius Nepos relates of-Atticus,
that he had always
Vol.L Part II.
ANA
[ 650 1
ANA
Anagram- names.—Thus, of ns the letters of Noah’s name, they ges i. 20. and Jolh. xv. 14.) in the year of the world Analedta
make in grace} of n^a the MeJJlah, they make noir he 2559. . P
Anak. foatt rejoice. ANALECTA, or Analectes, in antiquity, a fer- , na °gy-,
y—-> ANAGRAMMATIST, a maker or compofer of vant whofe employment it was to gather up the off-falls
Thomas Billon, a provincial, was a celebra- of tables.
anagrams.
ted anagrammatift, and retained by Lewis XIII. with
a penfion of 1200 livres, in quality of anagrammatift
to the king.
ANAGROS, in commerce, a meafure for grain ufed
in fome cities of Spain, particularly at Seville; 46 ana-
gros make about 1 quarters of London.
ANAGYRIS, stinking bean-trefoil: A'genus
Analecta, Analefts, in a literary fenfe, is ufed
to denote a colleftion of fmall pieces ; as effays,. re¬
marks, &c.
ANALEMMA, in geometry, a proje&ion of the
fphere on the plane of the meridian, orthographically
made by ftraight lines and ellipfes, the eye being fup-
pofed at an infinite diftance, and in the eaft or weft
of the monogynia order, belonging to the decandria points of the horizon,
clafs of plants; and, in the natural method, ranking An A lemma, denotes likewife an inftrument of brafs
under the jzd order, Papilionacea. The charafters or wood, upon which this kind of proje&ion is drawn,
are: The ca/yx is a bell-fhaped perianthium: The ewe//# with an horizon and curfor fitted to it, wherein the'
is papilionaceous ; the vexillum cordated, ftraight, e- folftitial colure, and all circles parallel to it, will be
marginated, and twice as long as the calyx; the alas concentric circles; all circles oblique to the eye, will
ovate, and longer than the vexillum ; the carina ftraight be ellipfes ; and all circles whofe planes pafs through
and very long : The Jlamirta confift of xo filaments; the eye, will be right lines. The ufe of this inftrument
the anther® fimple : The piflillum has an oblong ger- is to (how the common aftronomical problems ; which
men, a fimple ftylus, and a villous ftigma : The peri- it will do, though not very exactly, unlefs it be very
earpium is an oblong legumen : The jeech are fix or large.
more, and kidney-fhaped. _ ANALEPSIS, the augmentation or nutrition of an
Of this genus there is but one fpecies, the fetida, emaciated body.
which grows naturally in the fouthern parts of Europe.
It is a flirub which ufually rifes to the height of eight
or ten feet, and produces its flowers in April or May.
Thefe are of a bright yellow colour, growing in fpikes,
fomewhat like the laburnum.
Culture. This plant may be propagated either by
ANALEPTICS, reftorative or nourifhing medi¬
cines.
ANALOGY, in philofophy, a certain relation and
agreement between two or more things, which in other
refpetts are entirely different.
u _ There is likewife an analogy between beings that
feeds, or by laying down the tender branches in the have fame comformity or refemblance to one another ;
fpring ; but the firft method is preferable. ' The feeds for example, between animals and plants; but the ana-
(hould be Town toward the end of March in pots filled logy is ftill ftronger between two different fpecies of
with light earth, and plunged in a gentle hot-bed. certain animals.
The plants ufually appear in a month, when they fhould Analogy enters much into all our reafoning, and
be gradually inured to the open air, that they may be ferves to explain and illuftrate. A great part of our phi-
hardened before winter. In the autumn and winter, lofophy, indeed, has no other foundation than analogy,
they muft be flickered under a hot-bed frame .: the It is natural to mankind to judge of things lefs
fpring following, they muft be tranfplanted, each into known, by fome fimilitude, real or imaginary, between
a feparate fmall pot, placed in a flickered fituation, and them and things more familiar or better known. And
again removed into a frame to flicker them during the where the things compared have really a great fimilttude
following winter. „ The fecond fpring after the plants in their nature, when there is reafon to think that they
come up, fome of them may be taken out of the pots, are fubjeft to the fame laws, there may be a confider-
and planted in a border near a fouth-wall, where, if able degree of probability in conclufions drawn from
they are protefted in winter, they may remain. analogy. Thus we may obferve a very great fimili-
Anagyris, or Anagyrus, the name of a place in tude between this earth which we inhabit, and the o-
Attica, of the tribe Erechtheis, where a fetid plant, ther planets, Saturn; Jupiter, Mars, Venus, and Mer-
oalled Anagyris, proVibly the fame with the forego- v cury. They all revolve round the fun, as the earth
ing, grew in great plenty, (Diofcorides, Pliny, Ste- does, although at different diftances, and in different
phanus ;) and the more it was handled, the ftronger it periods. They borrow all their light from the fun, as
faielled : hence commovere anagyrin (or anagyrum), is the earth does. Several of them are known to revolve
to bring a misfortune on one’s felf, (Ariftophanes.) round their axis like the earth, and, by that means,
ANAK, the father of the Anakims, was the fon of muft have a like fucceffion of day and night. Some of
Arba, who gave his name to Kirjath-arba, or Hebron, them have moons, that ferve to give them light in the
Jofli. xiv. 15. Anak had three fons, Sheflxai, Ahiman, abfence of the fun, as our moon does to us. They are
and Talmai, (chap. xv. 14. and Numb. xiii. 22.) who, all, in their motions, fubjeft to the fame law of gravi-
as well as their father, were giants, and who with their tation, as the earth is. From all this fimilitude, it is
pofterity, all terrible for their fiercenefs and extraordi- not unreafonable to think, that thofe planets may, like
nary ftature,, were called the Anakims; in comparifon
©f whom the Hebrews, who were fent to view the land
of Canaan, reported that they were but as grafshoppers.
Numb. xiii. ult. Caleb, affifted by the tribe of Judah,
took Kirjath-arba, and deftroyed the Anakims, (J.ud-
our earth, be the habitation of various orders of living
creatures. There is fome probability in this conclufion
from analogy.
But it ought to be obferved, that, as this kind of
r-eafoning can afford only probable evidence at beft ; fo
unlefs
ANA
[ 6Si ]
ANA
^Analogy, unlefs great caution be ufed, we are apt to be led into men maintained, that if a hungry afs were placed be- Analogy.
‘ v ~ error by it. To give an instance of this: Anatomifts, tween two bundles of hay equally inviting, the beaft u—nr*—^
ancient ages, feldom differed human bodies ; but muft Hand ftill and llarve to death, being unable to turn
Reid on the
IntellcBual (
Poitiers, . i . ' r r t n
Effay I. conceiving a greater fimilitude between the ftrufture of of the itrongeft that can be found between matter and
very often the bodies of thofe quadrupeds whofe inter¬
nal ftru&ure was thought to approach neareft; to that
, of the human body. Modern anatomifts have difcover-
ed many miftakes the ancients were led into, by their
conceiving a greater fimilitude between the ftru<? r
j. men and of fome beafts than there is in reality.
Perhaps no author has made a more juft and a more
happy ufe of this mode of reafoning, than biftiop But¬
ler in his Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed,
to the Conftitution and Courfe of Nature. In that ex¬
cellent work, the author does not ground any of the
truths of religion upon analogy, as their proper evi¬
dence. pie only makes ufe of analogy to anfwer ob-
jeftions againft them. When objeftions are made a-
gainft the truths of religion, which may be made with
equal ftrength againft what we know to be true in the
courfe of nature, fuch obje&ions can have no weight.
Analogical reafoning, therefore, may be of excellent
to either, becaufe there are equal motives to both. This
is an inftance of that analogical reafoning, which, it is
conceived, ought never to be trufted ; for the analogy
between a balance and a man deliberating, though one
mind, is too weak to fupport any argument. A piece
of dead inaftive matter, and an adtive intelligent being,
are things very unlike ; and becaufe the one would re¬
main at reft in a certain cafe, it does not follow that
the other would be inadtive in a cafe fome what fimilar.
The argument is no better than this, that, becaufe a
dead animal moves only as it is pulhed, and, if pufhed
with equal force in contrary diredtions, muft remain at
reft ; therefore the fame thing muft happen to a living
animal; for furely the fimilitude between a dead anir
mal and a living, is as great as that between a balance
and a man.
The derivation of the word Analogy indicates, as
ufe in anfwering objedtions againft truths which have profeffor Caftillon of Berlin * obferves, a refemblance
other evidence. It may likewife give a greater or a lefs difcernible by reafon. This is confirmed by the fenfe
degree of probability in cafes where we can find no o- in which the term is ufed in geometry, where it figni-
ther evidence. But all arguments drawn from analogy fies an equality of ratios.—In explaining this fubjedt,
Haarlem
Memoir sioT
786, or
are ftill the weaker, the greater difparity there is b4
tween the things compared ; and therefore muft be
weakeft of all when we compare body with mind, be¬
caufe there are no two things in nature more unlike.
There is no fubjedt in which men have always been
fo prone to form their notions by analogies of this kind,
as in what relates to the mind. We form an early ac¬
quaintance with material things by means of our fenfes,
and are bred up in a conftant familiarity with them.
it is obferved, there may be a refemblance between fen-
fations and a refemblance between perceptions: the
former is called phyjical refemllance, becaufe it adts up¬
on the phyfical or fenfitive faculty ; the latter moral
refemblance, becaufe it affedts the moral or rational fa¬
culty of man.
Every refemblance may be reduced to aa equality in
fenfations or perceptions ; but this fuppofes fome equa¬
lity in their caufes : we fay fome equality, becaufe the
Hence we are apt to meafure all things by them ; and difpofition of the organs, or of the foul, muft necefla-
to aferibe to things moft remote from matter the qua¬
lities that belong to material things. It is for this rea¬
fon that mankind have, in all ages, been fo prone to
■conceive the mind itfelf to be fome fubtile kind of mat¬
ter : That they have been difpofed to aferibe human
figure, and human organs, not only to angels, but even
to the Deity.
To illuftrate more fully that analogical reafoning
from a fuppofed fimilitude of mind to body, which ap¬
pears to be the moft fruitful fource of error with regard
to the operations of our minds, the following inftance
may be given. When a man is urged by contrary mo-
*:   1 1 : .v: 1. • r  
rily affedt the fenfations or perceptions; but this can
influence_only their degree, and not their nature.
The charadter of one perfon refembles that of ano¬
ther only when they both fpeak and adt fo as to excite
equal perceptions, or to fpeak more ftvidtly, the fame
perception ; when they both difplay vivacity or indif¬
ference, anger or meeknefs, on the fame occafions, and
both excite in the foul of the obferver identical percep¬
tions, or rather the fame perception of vivacity or in¬
difference, of anger4>r meeknefs. Thefe identical per¬
ceptions, the degree of which will depend much on the
difpofition of the obferver’s mind, muft have identical
hand inciting him to do fome ac- caufes, or, in other words, the fame caufe; which is
tion, thofe on the other to forbear it; he deliberates the vivacity or indifference, the anger or meeknefsj
about it, and at laft refolves to do it, or not to do it. „i — .
The contrary motives are here compared to the weights
difplayed by each of thefe charadters. •
Every phyfical refemblance may therefore be redu-
the oppofite feales of a balance ; and there is not ced to one or more equalities; and every moral refem-
perhaps any inftance that can be named of a more ftri-
king analogy between body and mind. Hence the
phrafes of weighing motives, of deliberating upon ac¬
tions, are common to all languages.
blance to one or more identities. Wherever there is
ral refemblance there is analogy. Analogy may therefore
be reduced to identity, and always fuppofes comparifon-
Two objedts are faid to have an analogy to each o-
From this analogy, fome philofophers draw very im- ther, or are called analogous, when fome identity is dif-
portant conclufions. They fay, that, as the balance covered upon comparing them. An analogical conclu-
cannot Incline to one fide more than the other, when fan, is a conclufion deduced from fome identity,
the oppofite weights are equal; fo a man cannot The principles of analogy are a comparifon of two
poffibly determine himfelf if the motives on both hands objedis ; and one or more identities refulting from their
are equal; and as the balance muft neceffarily turn to being thus compared. The charadters of analogy are
that fide which has moft weight, fo the man muft ne- —that two bbjedts be compared—that there be one or
ceffarily be determined to that hand where the motive more identities between thefe objedts—and that this is
is ftrongeft. And on this foundation fome of the fchool- difcernible only by reafon or intelledt.
4 N 2
Phyfaal
ANA [ 652 ] ANA
' Analogyr Pby/tcal refsmblance is to the fenfes what analogy is to
' Anaiyli-. ^ tjle Undei-ftanding.—The former, when perfect, becomes
*~v ^" equality; but the latter, identity.
Refemblance and analogy are the foundations both
of probability and of certainty. When we are not fa-
tisfied that the refemblance or the analogy is complete,
we flop at probability; which becomes certainty when
we are, or think we are, alfured that the rcfemblance
or the analogy is perfect.
In reafoning by analogy, we fhould be careful not to
confound it with refemblance; and alfo not to deduce
from the identity or identities, on which the analogy
is founded, a conclufion, which has either no relation,
or only a partial relation, to thefe identities.
The principal ufe of analogy in the inveftigation of
phyfical and moral truth, according to our author,
may be reduced to the four following: 1. By means
of our fenfes to improve, fir ft our own judgment,
and afterwards that of others, with refpedt to intel-
leftual fubje&s. 2. To deduce a general from a
particular truth. Having difcovered and proved the
truth of a propofition with refpedt to any particular
Objcft, examine whether this truth flows from a
qfiality peculiar to this Angle obje£t, or common to
feveral obje&s. In the latter cafe all thefe objects may
be comprehended under one general idea, founded
on their common quality. Subftitute this general idea
inftead of the particular objeft, and the propofition
.will become general, without ceafing to be true ; be-
caufe whatever evidently and folely refults from the i-
dentity, on which an analogy is founded, muft necef-
farily be true with refpeft to all thofe objefts in which
the analogy is the fame. 3. To prove the truth or
falfehood of propofitions which cannot be otherwife
demonftrated. 4. To difcover new truths in both na¬
tural and moral philofophy.
Analogy, among grammarians, is the correfpon-
dence which a word or phrafe bears to the genius and
received forms of any language.
ANALYSIS, in a general fenfe, implies the refo-
liition of fomething compounded into its original and
conftituent parts. The word is Greek, and derived
from avaxuu, to refolve.
Analysis, in mathematics, is properly the method
of refolving problems by means of algebraical equa¬
tions ; whence we often find that thefe two words, a-
nalyfis and algebra, are ufed as fynonymous.
Analyfis, under its prefent improvements,, muft be al¬
lowed the apex or height of all human learning : it is
this method which furniflies us with the moft perfedt
examples of the art of reafoning; gives the mind an un¬
common readinefs at deducing and difcovering,. from a
few data, things unknown ^ and, by ufing figns for i-
deas, prefents things to the imagination, which other-
wife feemed out of its fphere: by this, geometrical
demonftrations may be greatly abridged, and a long
feries of argumentations,, wherein the mind cannot with¬
out the utmoft effort and attention difcover the connec¬
tion of ideas, are hereby converted into fenfible figns,,
and the feveral operations required therein effedted by
the combination of thofe figns. But, what is more
extraordinary, by means of this art, a number of truths
are frequently expreffed by a Angle line, which in the
common way of explaining and demonftrating things
would fill whole volumes. Thus, by mere contempla¬
tion of one fingle line, whole fciences may be fometimes Analyfls,
learnt in a few minutes time, which otherwife could —
fcarce be attained in many years.
Analysis is divided, with regard to its objedf, into
that offitutes, and infinites.
Analysis of Finite Quantities, is what we otherwife
call fpecious arithmetic or algebra. See Algebra.
Analysis of Infinites, called alfo the New Analfist
is particularly ufed for the method of fluxions, or the
differential calculus. See Fluxions.
Analysis, in logic,, fignifies the method of tracing
things backward to their fource, and of refolving know¬
ledge into its original principles. This is alfo called
the method of refolution; and ftands oppofed to the
fynthetic method, or that of eompoftion. — The art of
logical analyfis confifts principally in combining our
perceptions, clafling them together with addrefs, and
contriving, proper expreffions for conveyingourthoughts,
and reprefenting their feveral divifions, claffes, and re¬
lations.
Analysis, in rhetoric, is that which examines the
connexions, tropes, figures, and the like, inquiring in¬
to the propofition, divifion, pafiions, arguments, and
other apparatus of rhetoric.
Several authors, as Freigius and others, have given
analyfes of Cicero’s Orations, wherein they reduce
them to their grammatical and logical principles; ftrip
them of all the ornaments and additions of rhetoric
which otherwife difguife their true form, and conceal
the connexion between one part and another, The
defign of thefe authors is to have thofe admired ha¬
rangues juft fuch as the judgment difpofed them, with¬
out the help of imagination; fo that here we may
coolly view the force of each proof, and admire the
ufe Cicero made of rhetorical figures to conceal the
weak part of a caufe.
A colleXion has been made of the analyfes formed
by the moft celebrated authors of the 16th century,
in 3 vols. folio.
Analysis is alfo ufed, in chemiftry, for the de¬
compounding of a mixed body, or the feparation of
the principles and conftituent parts of a compounded,
fubftance.
To analyze bodies, or refolve them into their com¬
ponent parts, is indeed the chief objeX of the art of
chemiftry. Chemiftry furniflies feveral means for the
decompofitron of bodies, which are all founded on the
differences of the properties belonging to the different
principles of which the body to be analyzed is compo-
fed. If, for example, a body be compofed of feveral
principles, fome of which have a great, and others a
moderate degree of volatility, and, laftly, others are
fixed, its. moft; volatile parts may be firft feparated by
a gradual heat in diftilling vefiels;. and then the parts
which are next in volatility will pafs over in diftilla-
tion ; and, laftly, thofe parts which are fixed, and ca-.
pable of refilling the aXion of fire, will remain at the-
bottom of the veflel.
Analysis is alfo ufed for a kind of fyllabus, or
table of the principle heads or articles-of a continued
difeourfe,difpofed in their natural orderand dependency.
Analyfes are more fcientificalthan alphabetical indexes;,
but they are lefs ufed, as being more intricate.
Analysis islikewifeufedforabrief, but methodical,
illuftration of the principles of a faience; in,which
fenfe
ANA
t 653 )
ANA
nalytic fenfe it is nearly fyhonymous with what we otherwife
call a fyhopjis.
’oa' ANALYTIC, or Analytical, fomething that
belongs to, or partakes of, the nature of analyfis.—
Thus we fay, an analytical demonllration, analytical
procefs, analytical table or fcheme, analytical method
of inveftigation, See.
The analytic method Hands oppofed to the fynthe-
tic. In natural philofpphy, as in mathematics, the in¬
veftigation of difficult things by the analytic method
ought to precede the method of compofition. This a-
nalyfis confifts in making experiments and obfervations,
and in drawing general conclufions therefrom by in¬
duction; and admitting of no objections againft the
conclufions, but fuch as are drawn from experiments,
and other certain truths; and though the reafoning
from experiments and obfervations by induction be no
demonftration of general conclufions, yet it is the bell
method of reafoning which the nature of things admits
of; and may be efteemed fo much the ftrOnger, as the
induction is more general; and, if no exception occur
from phenomena, the conclufion may be pronounced
general. By this way of analyfis, we may proceed
from compounds to their ingredients; from motions to
the forces producing them ; and in general from effeCts
to their caufes, and from particular caufes to more ge¬
neral ones, until we arrive at thofe which are the molt
general. This is the analytic method, according to
the illuftrious Newton.
The fynthetic method confifts in affuming the caufes
difeovered and received as principles: and by them ex¬
plaining the phenomena proceeding from them, and
proving the explanations. See Synthesis.
ANALYTICS, Analytica, the fcience and ufe of
analyfis. The great advantage of the modern mathe¬
matics above the ancient is in point of analytics.
Pappus, in the preface to his feventh book of Mathe¬
matical ColleClions, enumerates the authors on the an¬
cient analytics; being Euclid, in his Data and Perif-
t/iata; Apollonius, de SeRione Rationis, and in his Co¬
nics ; Ariftaeus, de IjOcis Solidis.; and Eratofthenes, de
Mediis Prcportionalibus. But the ancient analytics
were very different from the modern.
To the modern analytics principally belong algebra;
an hiftorical account of which, with the feveral authors
thereon, fee under the article Algebra.
ANAMABGA, a populous town in the kingdom
ef Fantin, in Guinea. The natives are generally great
cheats, and muft be carefully looked after in dealing
with them, and their gold well examined, for it is.
commonly adulterated. It lies under the cannon of
the Engliih caftle. The landing is pretty difficult on
r account of the rocks; and therefore thofe that come,
here to trade are forced to go alhore in canoes. The
Carth here is very proper to make bricks;. the oyfters,
when burnt, afford good lime ; and there is timber in
great abundance; fo that here are all the materials for
building. The country at. Anamaboa is full of hills,
beginning at a good diftance from the town, and af¬
fording a very pleafant profpedL Indian corn and
palm-wine are in great plenty. They have a green
fruit called papas^ as big as a fmall melon, and which
has a tafte like cauliflower. Anamaboa is much fre¬
quented by the Englilh ftups and others for. corn and
flaves, which laft are fometimes to be had in great.
numbers. The Englifti fort is built on the foundation Anameledv
of a large old houfe, which fubfifted entire in 1679. . 0
It is a large edifice, flanked by two towers, and forti- nai ^ lc*.
fied towards the fea with two baftions: the whole of
brick and ftone cemented with lime. It Hands upon a
rock at the diftance of 30 paces from the fea. It is
mounted with x 2 pieces of cannon and x 2 patereroes;
and defended by a garrifon of 12 whites and 18 blacks,
under the command of the chief fa&or.
The natives treat the garrifon of this fort with great
infolence, infomuch as often to block them up, and fre¬
quently, if they diflike the governor, fend him off in
a canoe to Cape Coaft with marks of the utmoft con¬
tempt. Far from: being able to oppofe them, the Eng¬
lifti are glad to obtain their favour with prefents. In
1701, they declared war againft the Englifti; and having
affembled in a tumultuous manner before the fort, they
fet fire to the exterior buildings, and went on with
their outrages, till they were dilperfed by a difeharge-
of the cannon from the batteries. The night following
the Englilh took their revenge, by fetting fire to the
town of Anamaboa; and thus hoftilities continued
for 20 days, till at laft the natives were obliged to
fue for peace. This fort was abandoned in 1733 ; but
has been refumed by the Englifti, who have continued
in it ever fince.
ANAMELECH,. an idol of the Sepharvaites, who-
are faid in Scripture to have burned their children in
honour of Adrammelech and Anamelech.—Thefe idols
probably fignified the fun and moon. Some of the:
rabbins reprefent Anamelech under the figure of a,;
mule, others under that of a quail or pheafant.
ANAMIM,the fecondfon of Mizraim (Gen.X.13.).
Anamim, if we may credit the paraphraft Jonathan
the fon of Uzziel, peopled the Mareotis ; or the Pen-
tapolis of Cyrene, according to the paraphraft of Je-
rufalem. Bochart is of opinion that thefe Anamims.
were the people that dwelt in the parts adjacent to the
temple of Jupiter Ammon, and in the Nafamonitis.
Calmet thinks the Amanians and Garamantcs to be
defeended from Anamim.
ANAMOR.PHOSIS, in perfpe&ive drawings, is a
deformed or diftorted portrait or figure, generally con-
fufed and unintelligible.to the common unaffifted view ;
but when feen at a certain diftance and. height, or?
as reflefted from a plain or curved mirror, will appear
regular and in right proportion. See Optics (the
Index), and Pep.spec.tIVe.
ANANAS, in botany, the trivial name of a fpecie^
of bromelia. See Bromelia.
ANANCITIS, in antiquity, a kind of figured
ftone, otherwife called fyncebitis, celebrated for.its ma¬
gical virtue of raifing the ftiadows of the infernal gods.-
ANANIAS, a Sadducee, high-prieft of the Jewsr
who put to death St Jamfes the brother of our Lord,
and was depofed by .Agrippa.
ANANISABTA, or Ananisapta, a magical
word frequently found inferibed on coins and other
amulets, fuppofed to have a virtue, of preferving the
wearer from the plague.
ANAPAEST, in ancient poetry, a foot confifting of
two ftiort fyllables and one lon^: Such is the word
fcopulds. It is juft the reverfe of the da&yl.
ANAPAESTIC verses, thofe confifting wholly or
chiefly of anapefts.
ANAPHE,
ANA
Anaphe ANAPHE (anc. geog.), an ifland fpontaneoufly
. II. emerging out of the Cretan fea, near Thera (Pliny,
Strabo); now called Nanfio. Its name is from the
fudden appearance of the new moon to the Argo¬
nauts in a ftorm (Apollonius), Anaphccus, an epithet
of Apollo, who was worlhipped there. Anaphxi, the
people.
ANAPHORA, in rhetoric, the repetition of the
fame word or words in the beginning of a fentence or
verfe : Thus Virgil,
Pan etiam Arcadia mecum fe judice certet.
Pan etiam Arcadia dicat fe judice viilum.
Anaphora, among phyficians, the throwing off pu¬
rulent matter by the mouth.
ANAPHRODISIA, fignifies impotence, or want
of power to procreate. See Impotence.
ANAPLASIS, fignihes the replacing or fetting a
fraftured bone.
ANAPLORETICS, medicines that promote the
growth or granulation of the fleih in wounds, ulcers,
&c.
ANARCHI, A-vag%u, in antiquity, a name given
"Ty the Athenians to four fupernumerary days in their
* year, during which they had no magiftrates. The At¬
tic year was divided into ten parts, according to the
number of tribes, to whom the precedency of the fe-
nate fell by turns. Each divifion confifted of 35 days;
what remained after the expiration of thefe, to make
the lunar year complete, which according to their com¬
putation confided of 3 54 days, were employed in the
creation of magidrates, and called wa-gx?1 «ii(Sa‘> and
agx«'gt<”0,
ANARCHY, the want of government in a nation,
where no fupreme authority is lodged, either in the
prince or other rulers ; but the people live at large,
and all things are in confufion. The word is derived
from the Greek privative «, and “W command, prin¬
cipality. Anarchy is fuppofed to have reigned after the
deluge, before the foundation of monarchies. We dill
find it obtain in feveral parts, particularly of Africa
and America.
Anarchy is alfo applied to certain troublefome and
diforderly periods, even in governments otherwife regu¬
lar. In England, the period between the death of
Cromwell and King Charles’s redoration is commonly
reprefented as an anarchy. Every month produced a
new fcheme or form of government. Enthufiads talk¬
ed of nothing but annulling all the laws, abolidiing all
writings, records, and regiders, and bringing all men
to the primitive level. No modern nation is more fub-
je£t to anarchies than Poland ; where every interval be¬
tween the death of one king and the election of another
is a perfedl picture of confufion, infomuch that it is a
proverb among that people, Poland is governed by con-
fujion. The Jewifh hidory prefents numerous indances
of anarchies in that date, ufually denoted by this phrafe,
that in thofe days there <was no king in Ifrael, but every
man did that ‘which was right in his own eyes ; which is
a jud piclure of an anarchy.
ANARRHICAS, in ichthyology, a genus of fillies
of the order of apodes. There is but one fpecies of this
genus, viz. the anarrhicas lupus, or fea-wolf; which
feems to be confined to the northern parts of the globe.
We find it in the feas of Greenland; in thofe of Ice-
A N A
land and Norway; on the coads of Scotland and of Anarrhh
Yorklhire ; and ladly, in that part of the German  v*-’
ocean which wadies the fliores of Holland, the mod
fouthern of its haunts that we can with any certainty
mention.
It is a mod ravenous and fierce filh, and, when taken,
fadens on any thing within its reach : the fifhermen
dreading its bite, endeavour as foon as pofiible to beat ’I
out its fore-teeth, and then kill it by driking it behind j
the head. Schonevelde relates, that its bite is fo hard, |
that it will feize on an anchor, and leave the marks of -j |
its teeth in it; and the Danifii and German names of |l
Jleenbider and JleinbeiJfer, exprefs the fenfe of its great 1!
drength, as if it was capable of crulhing even dones
with its jaws.
It feeds almod entirely on crudaceous animals and, |
fliell-filh, fuch as crabs, lobders, prawns, mufcles, fcol-
lops, large whelks, &c. thefe it grinds to pieces with f
its teeth, and fwallows with the lefier (hells. It does
not appear they are difiblved in the domach, but are I j
voided with the feces; for which purpofe the aperture . J
of the anus is wider than in other filh of the fame ;
fize.
It is full of roe in February, March, and April, and j
fpawns in May and June.
This filh has fo difagreeable and horrid an appear¬
ance, that nobody at Scarborough except the filhermen i
will eat it, and they prefer it to holibut. They always
before dreffing take off the head and Hein.
The fea-wolf grows to a large fize: thofe on the
Yorkdiire coad are fometimes found of the length of
four feet; according to Dr Gronovius, they have been
taken near Shetland feven feet long, and even more.
The head is a little fiatted on the top ; the nofe blunt;
the nodrils are very fmall; the eyes fmall, and placed
near the end of the nofe.
The teeth are very remarkable, and finely adapted
to its way of life. The fore-teeth are drong, conical,
diverging a little from each other, dand far out of the
jaws, and are commonly fix above and the fame below,
though fometimes there are only five in each jaw : thefe
are fupported within-fide by a row of lefier teeth,
which makes the number in the upper jaw 17 or 18, in
the lower 11 or 12. The fides of the under jaw are
convex inwards, which greatly adds to their drength,
and at the fame time allows room for the large mulcles
with which the head of this filh is furnilhed. , The
dentes molares, or grinding teeth of the under jaw,
are higher on the outer than the inner edges, which in¬
clines their furfaces inward: they join to the canine
teeth in that jaw, but in the upper are feparate from
them. In the centre are two rows of flat drong teeth,
fixed on an oblong balls upon the bones of the palate 1
and nofe.
The teeth of the anarrhicas are often found fpffil;
and in that date called bufonites, or toad-Jlones : thefe
were formerly much edeemed for their imaginary vir¬
tues, and were fet in gold, and worn as rings.
The two bones that form the under jaw are united
before by a loofe cartilage ; which mechanifm admit¬
ting of a motion from fide to fide, mod evidently con¬
tributes to the defign of the whola. viz. a facility of
breaking, grinding, and comminuting, its tedaceous
and crudaceous food. At the entrance of the gullet,
above and below, are two echinated bones : thefe are
t very
C 654 1
ANA [ 655 ] ANA
■rrojila, very fmal!, being the lefs neceflary, as the food is in a
1 ^nai- great meafure comminuted in the mouth by aid of the
grinders.
The body is long, and a little compreffed fidewife;
the flcin fmooth and flippery : it wants the lateral line.
The pe&oral fins confift of 18 rays. The dovfal fin
extends from the hind-part of the head almoft to the
I tail; the rays in the freih fifh are not vifible. The anal
fin extends as far as the dorfal fin. The tail is round
at its end, and conlxfts of 13 rays. The fides, back,
and fins, are of a livid lead colour ; the two firft mark¬
ed downwards with irregular obfcure dufky lines : thefe
in different fifh have different appearances. The young
are of a greenifh caff, refembling the fea-wrack,amongft
which they refide for fome time after their birth.
ANARROPIA, among phyficians, a tendency of
the humours to the head or fuperior parts.
ANAS (anc. geog.}, a river of Spain, riling in
the territory of Laminium of the Hither Spain, and
now fpreading into lakes, again reftraining its waters,
or, burrowing itfelf entirely in the earth, is pleafed
often to reappear ; it pours into the Atlantic (Pliny) ^
now Guadiana, rifing in the fouth-eaff of New Caftile,
m a diftrift commonly called Campo de Montiel, not
far from the mountain Confuegra, from the lakes called
lea Lagunas de Guadiana, and then it is called Rio
Roydera ; and, after a courfe of fix leagues, burying
itfelf in the earth for a league, it then rifes up again
| from three lakes, called lot Ojos de Guadiana, near the
1 village Villa Harta, five leagues to the north of Ca-
latrava, and dire&s its courfe weftward through New
Caflile, by Medelin, Merida, and Badajox, where it
begins to bend its courfe fouthwards, between Portu-
p gal and Andalufia, falling into the bay of Cadiz near
| Ayamonte.
Anas, in ornithology, a genus of birds belonging
I to the order of anferes. The beak of this genus is a
|i little obtufe, covered with an epidermis or (kin, gib¬
bous at the bafe and broad at the apex : the tongue is
obtufe and flefhy ; the feet are webbed and fitted for
I fvvimming. The fpecies are,
1. The cygnus, ferns & manfuetus.
“. The ferns, with a femieylindrical black Bill, yel¬
low wax, and a white body, is the whiffling or wild
fwan of Englilh authors, and is lefs than the tame or
mute fpecies, being about five feet in length. Thefe
birds inhabit the northern^ world as high as- Iceland,
and as low as the foft climate of Greece or of Lydia,
the modern Anatolia, in Afia Minor : it even defcends
as low as Egypt.. They fwarm, during fummer, in
I the great lakes and marfhes of the Tartarian and Si¬
berian defarts ; and refort in great numbers to winter
about the Cafpian and Euxine feas. Thofe of the
eaftern parts of Siberia retire beyond Eamtfchatka,
either to the coafts of America, or to the ifles north
of Japan. In Siberia they fpread far north, but not
to the Ardtic circle. They arrive in Hudfon’sBay about
the end of May, where they breed in great numbers on
the ihores, in the iflands, and fn the inland lakes ; but all
retire to the fouthern parts of North America in au-
r tumn, even as low as Carolina and Louifiana. In Ca¬
rolina they are faid to be of two forts; the larger,
called from its note the Trumpeter, arrive in great
flocks to the frefh rivers in winter, and in February
retire to the great lakes to breed : the leffer are called
i,
Hoopers, and frequent moftly the fait water. The In- Anas,
dians of Louifiana wear the {kins, with the down at- “
tached to them, fewed together by way of covering ;■
and of the larger feathers they make diadems for their
chiefs, as well as weave the fmaller on threads, as bar¬
bers do for their wigs, with which they cover gar¬
ments, which are worn only by women of the higheff
rank. In Auguft thefe birds lofe their feathers, and are
not able to fly ; when the natives of Iceland and Kamt-
fchatka hunt them with dogs, which catch them by
the neck, and eaiily fecure their prey. In the laff
place they are alfo killed with clubs. The eggs are
accounted good food •, and the fleffi, efpecially that of
the young, is much efteemed by the inhabitants. The
ufes of the feathers are manifeft to every one ; and
the {kins of the body are worn by the inhabitants; be-
fides which, that of the legs, taken off whole, is ufed
for purfes, and appears not unlike lhagreen. Wild
fwans, Linnaeus fays, frequently vifit Sweden after a
thaw, and are caught with apples in which a hook is
concealed. The wild fwan frequents our coafts in hard
winters in large flocks, but does not breed in Great
Britain. Martia# acquaints us, that fwans come in * Defcnpr*
06tober in. great numbers to Lingey, one of the Weft- ^eji. ljlesv,
ern Iftes; and continue there till March, when they ^
return northward to breed. A few continue in Main¬
land, one of the Orkneys, and breed in the little ifles
of the frefti-water lochs ; but the multitude retires at
the approach of fpring. On that account, fwans are
there the country-man’s almanack : on their quitting
the ifle, they prefage good weather; on their arrival,
they announce bad. Thefe, as well as moft other wa¬
ter-fowl, prefer, for the purpofe of incubation, thofe
places that are leaft frequented by mankind : accord¬
ingly we find that the lakes and forefts of the diftant
Lapland are filled ddring fummer with myriads of wa¬
terfowl ; and there fwans, geefe, the duck-tribe, goofan-
ders, divers, &c. pafs that feafon p but in autumn re¬
turn to us, and; to other more hofpitable ftrores.
This fpecies has feveral diftinftions from the fpecies
which we in Britain call the tame fwan. In Ruffia
this fpeeies more fitly claims the name, it being the
kind moft commonly tamed' in that empire. The
whiffling fwan carries its neck quite ereft, the other
fwims with it arched. This is far inferior in fize.
This has twelve ribs on a fide, the mute only eleven.
But the moft remarkable is the ftrange figure of the-
windpipe ; which falls into the cheft, then turns back
like a trumpet, and afterwards makes a fecond bencl to
join the lungs. Thus it is enabled to utter a loud and
{brill note. The other fwan, on the contrary, is the
moft filent of birds : it can do nothing more than hifs,
which it does on receiving any provocation. The
vocal kind emits its loud notes only when flying, or
calling. Its found is, 'ivhoogh, ruho'gh, very loud and
fhrill, but not difagreeable, when heard far above one’s
head and modulated by the winds. The natives of
Iceland compare it to the notes of a violin. In fadl,-
they hear it (fays Mt Pennant) at the end of' their
long and gloomy winter, when the return of the fwans-
announces the return of fummer; every note muff; be
therefore melodious which prefages the fpeedy thaw,
and the releafe from their tedious confinement.
It is from this fpecies alone that the ancients have
given the fable of the fwan being endued with the*
powers-
ANA [ 6j6 ] ANA
Anas, powers of melody. Embracing the Pythagorean doc-
  J trine, they made the body of this bird the manfion of
the fouls of departed poets; and after that, attributed
to the birds the fame faculty of harmony which their
inmates poffeffed in a pre-exiftent ftate. The vulgar,
not diftinguifhing between fweetnefs of numbers and
melody of voice, thought that real which was only in¬
tended figuratively. The mute fwan, Mr Pennant ob-
ferves, never frequenta the Padus, nor is ever feen on
the Cayfter in Lydia ; each of them ftreams celebrated
by the poets for the great refort of fwans.
In time, a fwan became a common trop for a lard.
Horace calls Pindar Directum Cygnum; and in one ode
even fuppofes himfelf changed into a fwan. Virgil
fpeaks of his poetical brethren in the fame manner:
Vare, tuum nomen
Cantantes fublime ferent ad fidera cygni. Eclog. ix.
When he fpeaks of them figuratively, he aferibes to them
melody, or the power of mufic j but when he talks of
them as birds, he lays afide fiction, and, like a true na-
turalift, gives them their real note:
Dant fonitum rami per ilagna loquacia cygnL
JEneid. Lib. x. 50.
It was alfo a popular opinion among the ancients,
that the fwan foretold its own end. , To explain this,
we muft confider the twofold character of the poet,
sw/e/and poet a, which the fable of the tranfmigration
continues to the bird ; or they might be fuppofed to
derive that faculty from Apollo their patron deity, the
god of prophecy and divination.
As to their being fuppofed to ding more fweetly at
the approach of death, the caufe is beautifully explain¬
ed by Plato, who attributes that unufual melody to the
■fame fort of eeftafy that good men are fometimes faid
to enjoy at that awful hour, forefeeing the joys that are
preparing for them on putting off mortality.
P, The manfuetus, or mute fwan, is the largeft of
the Britiih Birds. It is diftinguifhed externally from
the wild fwan ; firft, by its fize, being much larger;
fecondly, by its bill, which in this is red, and the tip
and fides black, and the Hein between the eyes and bill
us of the fame colour. Over the bafe of the upper man-
■dible, projects a black callous knob : the whole plu¬
mage, in old birds, is white; in young ones, afh-colour-
«d till the fecond year: the legs are dulky; but Dr Plott
mentions a variety found on the Trent near Hugely,
with red legs.
The fwan is found wild in Ruflia and Siberia, moil
•plentiful in the laft. It arrives later from the fouth,
and does not fpread fo far north. Thofe about the
fouthern part of the Cafpian Sea are very large, and
much elleemed for the ufe of the table. The fwan is
held in high veneration by the Mahometans. It is a
very ftrong bird, and fometimes exceeding fierce: has
not unfrequently-been known to throw down and tram¬
ple under feet youths of fifteen or fixteen years of age,
and an old one to break the leg of a man with a ftroke
of the wings. It is .faid to be very long-lived, and fre¬
quently to arrive at the hundredth year. The young
are not perfeft in plumage till the fecond year. The
fwan lays the firft egg in February, and continues lay¬
ing every other day to the amount of fix, feven, or
«ight eggs; thefe it (places on a bed of grafs near the
K° 17. 2
water, and fits fix weeks. It feeds on both filh and
herbage.
No bird, perhaps, makes fo inelegant a figure out
of the water, or has the command of fuch beautiful
attitudes on that element, as the fwan : almoft every
poet has taken notice of it; but none with that juft-
nefs of defeription, and in fo pifturefque a manner, as
our Milton:
The fwan, with arched neck
Between her white wings mantling, proudly rows
Her Hate with oary feet. Ear. Loft, B. vii.
In former times, it was ferved up at every great feaft,
when the elegance of the table was meafured by the fize
and quantity of the good cheer. Cygnets arc to this
day fattened at Norwich about Chriftmas, and are fold
for a guinea a-piece.
Swans were formerly held in fuch great efteem in
England, that by an a& of Edward IV. c. 6. <{ no one
that polfeffed a freehold of lefs clear yearly value than
five marks, was permitted to keep any, ether than the
fen of our fovereign lord the king.” And by the eleventh
of Henry VII. c. 17. the punilhment for taking their
eggs was imprifonment for a year and a day, and a
fine at the king’s will. Though at prefent they are
not fo highly valued as a delicacy, yet great numbers
are preferved for their beauty; we fee multitudes on
the Thames and Trent, but no where greater numbers
than on the falt-water inlet of the fea near Abbotfbury
in Dorfetftiire.
2. The cygnoides, with a femicylindrical bill, gib¬
bous wax, and tumid eye-brows. It is the fwan-goofe
of Ray, from Guinea. There is likewife a variety of
this fpecies, of a lefs fize, called the goofe of Mufcovy.
They are found wild about the Lake Baikal in the
eaft of Siberia, and in Kamtfchatka. They are alfo
kept tame in moft parts of the Ruffian empire. Thefe
birds likewife inhabit China, and are common at the
Cape of Good Hope. This is no doubt the fpecies
mentioned by Kolben called crop-goofe; who fays, that
the failors make tobacco-pouches and purfes of the
membrane which hangs beneath the throat, as it is fuffi-
ciently tough for fuch purpofes, and will hold two
pounds of tobacco.
They are fufficiently common in Britain, and rea¬
dily mix with the common goofe ; the breeds uniting
as freely, and continuing to produce as certainly, as if
no fuch mixture had taken place. They are much
more noify than the common tame geefe, taking alarm
at the leaft noife ; and even without difturbance will
emit their harlh and difagreeable feream the whole day
through. They walk very ereft, with the neck much
elevated ; and as they bear a middle line between that
of the fwan and goofe, they have not improperly been
called fwan-goof. -
3. The tadorna, or ffieildrake, has a flat bill, a com-
prefled forehead, a greenifh black head, and the body
is variegated with whitf. This fpecies is found as far
as Iceland to the north. It vifits Sweden and the Ork-
nies in the winter, and returns in fpring. It is found in
Afia about the Cafpian Sea, and all the fait lakes of
the Tartarian and Siberian defarts, as well as in Kamt¬
fchatka. Our voyagers, if right in the fpecies, have
alfo met with it at Falkland Hies and Van Diemen’s
Land. It breeds in deferted rabbit holes, or occupies
them
'
ANA [ 657 ] ANA
the in in the abfence of the owners? who, rather than
make an attempt at diflodging the intruders, form
others; though, in defedt of ready-made quarters,
thefe birds will frequently dig holes for themfelves.
They lay fifteen or fixteen roundilh white eggs. Thefe
are placed at the further end of the hole, covered with
down fupplied from the breaft of the female, who fits
about 30 days. She is very careful of the young; and
will often carry them from place to place in her bill:
“ this we are certain of (fays Mr Latham), from a
young one having been dropt at the foot of an intelli¬
gent friend unhurt, by the mother flying over his
head.” When a perfon attempts to take their young,
the old birds fliow great addrefs in diverting his at¬
tention from the brood : they will fly along the ground
as if woilnded, till the former are got into a place of
fecurity, and then return and collect them together.
From this inllindtive cunning, Turner, with good rea-
fon, imagines them to be the chenalopex, or fox-goofe,
of the ancients. The natives of the Orkneys to this
day call them the fty-goofe, from an attribute of that
quadruped.
The young, as foon as hatched, take to the water,
and fwim furprifingly well; but do not come to their
full plumage till the fecond year. This fpecies, Mr
Latham informs us, may be hatched under a tame duck,
and the youg readily brought up; but are apt, after a
few years, to attempt the maftery over the reft of the
poultry. In a ftate of nature, the food feems chiefly
to be fmall fifli, marine infefts, and ftiells ; herbage has
likewife been found in their ftomachs. In a tame ftate
will eat brekd, grain, and greens. Their great beauty
would tempt us to endeavour at domefticating the race;
but it will not thrive completely, except in the neigh¬
bourhood of fait water, which fomehovv feems effen-
tial to its well-being. The flefti likewife is rank and
unfavoury, though the eggs have at all times been
thought very good.
4. The fpectabilis, has a comprefied bill gibbous at
the bafe, a black feathery carina, and a hoary head.
It is the grey-headed duck of Edwards, and the king-
duck of Pennant. This beautiful fpecies is found at
Hudfon’s Bay, at Churchill River, and (though fcarce)
at York Fort; in winter it is- met with as far South as
New York. It is pretty frequent in the north of Si¬
beria and Kamtfchatka; it is found alfo on the coaft
of Norway, and has been killed in the Orkneys. It is
cottimon in Greenland; where the flefti is accounted
excellent, and the crude gibbous part of the bill a great
delicacy. It produces a down equally valuable as the
eider. The fkins are fewed together, and make warm
garments. The natives kill them with darts, and ufe
the following method to fucce'ed -A number of men
in canoes falling in with a flock while fwimming, on a
fudden fet up a fhouting, making as much noife as they
can ; on which, the birds being too much frightened
to fly away, dive under the water r but as the place at
which they are to rife again is known by the bubbling
of the water above, the hunters follow them up as clofe
as may be; and after afting this three dr four times
over, the birds become fo fatigued as to be eafily kill¬
ed.—This fpecies builds on the fides of ponds and ri¬
vers ; making its neft of fticks and mofs, and lining k
with feathers from the breaft. It lays four or five
vvhitifti eggs, as large as thofe of the goofe. The
Vol. I. Part II.
young fly in July. The food confifts chiefly of worms
and grafs.
5. The fufca, or velvet duck, is of a blackifh colour,
has a white fpot behind the eyes, and a white line on
the wings. The male of this fpecies is diftinguifhed by
a gibbofity at the bafe of the bill. It is the black duck
of Ray, and is in length about 20 inches. This fpe¬
cies frequents Hudfon’s Bay in fummer, where it
breeds. The neft is compofed of grafs; in which it
lays from four to fix white eggs, and hatches in July.
It feeds ori grafs, and is known by the name of cm cuji
qua turn. It retires fouth in winter; when it is fre¬
quently feen as far fouth as New York. Our late na¬
vigators met with it at Aoonalafttka. It is now and
then feen on the coafts of England, but is not com¬
mon. It is more frequent on the continent, inhabi¬
ting Denmark and Ruflia. In fome parts of Siberia
it is very common ; and it enters the lift of thofe found
at Kamtfchatka. ( In breeding-time, it goes far inland
to lay the eggs; which are eight or ten in number,
and white. After the feafon is over, the males are
faid to depart; the females ftaying behind till the young
are able to fly, when the two laft go likewife off, but
to what part is not certain. It is in greater plenty at
Ochotlka, efpecially about the equinox. Fifty Or
more of the natives go in boats and furround the whole
flock, driving them in the flood up the river Ochot-
flta; and, as foon as it ebbs, the whole company fall
on them at once with, clubs, and often knock fo many
of them on the head that each man has 20 or 30 for
his ftiare.
6. The nigra, or fcoter, is totally black, and has a
gibbofity at the bafe of the bill; the tail refembles a
wedge ; the female is brownilh. It is the lefler black
diver of Ray, and meafures in length 22 inches. Thefe
birds are found on the northern coafts of England and
thofe of Scotland in the winter feafon; but no where
fo common as on the French coafts, where they are
feen in prodigious numbers from November to March,
efpecially if the wind be to the north or north-weft.
Their chief food is a glofiy bivalve fhell, near an inch
long, called by the French vaimeaicx. Thefe they are
perpetually diving after, frequently to the depth of
fome fathoms; and an i-ifual method of catching them
is by placing nets under the water in fuch places as
the Ihells are moft numerous; by which means 30 or
'40 dozen of them have been taken irv orie tide. The
day feems to be fpeht by thefe birds between diving
and flying to fmall diftances over the water, which it
does fo low as frequently to dip the legs therein. It
fwallows the food whole, and foon digefts the ihells,
which are found quite crumbled to powder amoitg the
excrements. It has been kept tame for fome time,
and will feed on foaked bread. The flefh taftes hfliy
to an extreme; 63 which account it is allowed by the
Roman Catholics to be eaten on faft-days and in lent-;
and indeed mull be a fufficient mortification.—Thefe
birds abound in all the northern parts of the continent,
Lapland, Sweden, Norway, and Ruffia; and are found
in great plenty on the great lakes and rivers of the
north arid eaft of Siberia, as well as on the fea-fhores.
It likewife inhabits North America; being met with
at New York; and in all probability much more to
the north on that continent and that of Afia, Ofbeck
having met with them in 30 and 34 degrees fouth la-
4 O titude,
Anas.
ANA [ 662 ] ANA
•jured, infomuch as at laft to hinder it from walking.
The flefli is much efteemed, and the birds are often
feen in the markets at the proper feafon. This fpecies
is found in America ; in winter, as low as New York ;
in fummer, at Hudfon’s Bay, where it frequents the
freih-water lakes, and makes in hollow trees a round
neil of grafs lined with feathers from its brealt; lays
from feven to ten white eggs.
23. The merfa, or Ural duck of Pallas, is fomewhat
bigger than the common teal. The bill is large, broad,
very tumid above the noftrils, and bifid in the adult
bird, the end marked with diverging ftrite ; colour
blue: the head, and part of the neck, are white; on
the crown is a large patch of black : the middle of the
neck is black : the fore-parts of the body are ayellow-
ilh brown, undulated with black : the back is clouded
with a cinereous and pale yellow, powdered with brown:
the wings are fmall; the tail longilh, wedge-lhaped,
and black : the legs are brown, on the forepart bluifh,
and placed far back as in the diver genus. This fpe¬
cies is not unfrequent in the greater lakes of the Ural
mountains, and the rivers Ob and Irtifch. It is not
feen on the ground, for from the fituation of its legs it
is unable to walk : but it fwims very well and quick ;
■at which time the tail is immerfed in the water as far
as the rump, ferving by way of rudder, contrary to the
common method of a duck’s fwimming. The nefi is
formed of reeds, and floats, fomething like to that of
the grebe.
24. The American wigeon {le canard jenfen of Buf-
fon), is rather bigger than our wigeon. The bdl is of
a lead-colour: the crown and forehead of a yellowifli
white : the hind-part of the head and neck is black and
white, fpeckled; and behind the eye is a black mark,
changing in fome lights to green : the back and fca-
pulars are of a pale ruft-colour, waved with tranfverfe
black lines : in the middle of the wing coverts there is
a large bed of white: the quills and tail are deep brown:
the legs dulky. It inhabits North America, from Caro¬
lina to Hudfon’s Bay; but is nowhere a common bird.
It is called at New-York, the Pheafant Duck. It is
more plenty at St Domingo and Cayenne, where it is
called vingeon or gingeon. At Martinico great flocks
of them often take fhort flights from one rice planta¬
tion to another, where they make much havoc, parti¬
cularly during the rainy feafon. They are faid to perch
on trees. They feed in company; and have a centinel
on the watch, like fome other birds. They are feldom
feen during the day, lying hid in places {haded from
the fun : but fo foon as that luminary difappears, they
come forth from their hiding-places to feed ; and, du¬
ring this, make a particular kind of noife, by which the
fportfman is directed in his fearch after them : at other
times their note is a kind of foft whiftle, which is oft¬
en imitated in order to decoy them within reach of
the gun. They fit in January; and in March the
young are feen running about. They lay many eggs.
Sometimes thefe are hatched under hens; in which
cafe they are, while young, familiar, though when
grown up exceedingly quarrelfome with other ducks :
their flefh is moft excellent, efpecially fuch as are brought
up tame. They appear upon the coafts of Hudfon’s
Bay in May, as foon as the thaws come on, chiefly in
pairs : they lay there only from fix to eight eggs; and
feed on flies and worms in the fwamps. They depart
in flocks in autumn. They are known by the name of
athcikimo ajheep
25. The acuta, pin-tail, or fea-pheafant of Ray, has
a long acuminated tail, black below, with a white line
on each fide of the back part of the head. It is a na¬
tive of Europe. Mr Hartlib, in the appendix to his
Legacy, tells us, that thefe birds are found in great a-
bundance in Connaught in Ireland, in the month of
February only ; and that they are much efteemed for
their delicacy.
26. The glacialis, or long-tailed duck, is inferior i*
fize to the former. The bill is fhort, black at the tip
and bafe, orange-coloured in the middle; the cheeks are
of a pale brown ; the hind part of the head, and the
neck both before and behind, are white; the breaftand
back are of a deep chocolate colour; the four middle
feathers of the tail are black, and two of them near
four inches longer than the others, which are white :
the legs dufky. Thefe birds breed in the moft north¬
ern parts of the world; and only vifit our coafts in the
fevereft winters. It breeds in Hudfon’s Bay and
Greenland, among the ftones and grafs, making its
neft, like the eider, with the down of its own breaft,
which is equal in value to that of the eider, if it could
be got in equal quantity; but the fpecies is fcarcer.
It lays five eggs; fwims and dives admirably; and
feeds on fhell-fifti, which it gets in very deep water.
It flies irregularly, fometimes fhowing its back, fome-
times its belly. It continues in Greenland the whole
year, in unfrozen places: but there are feafons fo very
fevere, as at times to force them towards the fouth.
Thofe which breed between Lapland and the polar
circle, are often driven into Sweden; and the neigh¬
bourhood of Peterfburgh : thofe from the coaft of the
Icy fea,as low as lat. 55 ; but on the fetting in of froft,
they retire ftill further fouth, unlefs where fome open
fpots remain in the rivers. They vifit the frefti-water
lakes in the Orkneys, in October, and continue there
till April. At fun-fet they are feen, in great flocks,
returning to and from the bays, where they frequently
pafs the night, and make fuch a noife as to be heard
fome miles in frofty weather.
27. The ferina, pochard, or red-headed widgeon of
Ray, has a lead-coloured bill: the head and neck are
of a bright gay Colour; the breaft and part of the
back where it joins the neck, are black : the coverts of
the wings, the fcapulars, back, and fides under the
wings, are of a pale grey, elegantly marked with nar¬
row lines of black : the tail confifts of twelve fliort fea¬
thers, of a deep grey colour : the legs are lead colour¬
ed ; and the irides of a bright yellow, tinged with red.
The head of the female is of a pale reddifh brown.
With us, thefe birds frequent the fens in the winter
feafon, and are brought up to the London markets
fometimes in confiderable numbers, where they arc
known by the name of Dun Birds, and are efteemed
excellent eating. In winter, they pafs pretty far
to the fouth, being found in Egypt, about Cairo.
They come into France the end of October in fmall
flocks, from 20 to 40; and are found in Carolina in
winter. They feed on fmall fifti and {hells. Their
flight is rapid and ftrong; but the flocks form no par¬
ticular ftrape in flying.
28. The querquedula, garganey, or firft teal of Al-
drovandus, has a green fpot on the wings, and a white
line
ANA [ 663 ] ANA
Anas, line above the eyes. It frequents the frefh waters of
“■'V Europe. In many places it is called the fummer-teal.
29. The creca, or common teal, has a green fpot
on the wings, and a white line both above and below
the -eyes. It is of a fmall fize, only 14 inches in
length. The teal is frequent in the London markets
along with the wild-duck. It is met with in Dud-
dingilon-loch, a frefh-water lake, within a mile of E-
dinburgh. In France it ftays throughout the year,
and makes a nefl: in April among the rufhes, on the
edges of ponds ; it is compofed of the tendereft Ilalks
of them, with the addition of the pith, and a quantity
of feathers. The neft is of a large fize, and placed in
. the water, fo as to rife and fall with it. The eggs are
the fize of thofe of a pigeon, of a dirty white, marked
with fmall hazel fpots. It is faid to feed on the grafs
and weeds which grow on the edges of the ponds which
it frequents, as well as the feeds of the rufhes; it will
alfo eat fmall fifh. The flefh is accounted excellent.
It is found to the north as high as Iceland; and is
mentioned as inhabiting the Cafpian fea to the fouth.
30. The hiflrionica, or dufky-fpotted duck of Ed¬
wards, is of a brown colour, variegated with white and
blue ; it has a double line on the ears and temples; the
collar is white, and there is a white ftreak on the neck.
It inhabits from Carolina to Greenland : in the lafl it
frequents, during fummer, the rapid rivers, and the
moft fhady parts; nettling on the banks, among the low
Ihrubs. It fwims and dives admirably. In winter it
feeks the open fea, flies high and fwiftly, and is very
clamorous. It feeds on fhell-fifh, fpawn, and the lar¬
vae of gnats. Is found in Iceland, and as low as Sond-
mor. It is common from the lake Baikal to Kamtf-
chatka ; and breeds there, as well as every where elfe,
about the moft rocky and rapid torrents.
31. The minuta, or little white and brown duck of
Edwards, is of a greyifh colour, with white ears, and
the prime feathers of the wings blackifh. This and the
former, according to Latham, are found both on the old
and new continents. On the firft, it is feen as far fouth
as the lake Baikal, and from thence to Kamtfchatka,
particularly up the river Ochotfka; alfo in Iceland, and
as low as Sondmor. In America, it is found from
Carolina to Newfoundland, and Hudfon’s Bay ; alfo in
Greenland, where it frequents', during fummer, bays
and rivers, efpecially near their mouths, and is a very
noify fpecies. It is fond of' fhady places, and makes
the nett on the fliore among the fhrubs. Its food is
fmall fhells, eggs of fiflies, and particularly the larvae
of gnats. It fwims w’ell, even in the moft rapid
ftreams ; and dives to admiration: it likewife flies fwift,
and to a great height: from which circumftances, it is
not ealily taken. Our late navigators met with it at
Aoonalafhka. It is pretty frequent in the fmall rivu¬
lets of Hudfon’s Bay, about 90 miles inland; feldom
in large rivers. It lays I o or .more white eggs, like
thofe of the pigeon, on the grafs; and the young
brood fpeckled in a very pretty manner. It migrates
fouth in autumn.
32. The bofchas, common wild-duck of Ray, or
mallard ; the intermediate tail-feathers of the drake are
turned backward, and the bill is ftrait. It frequents
the lakes of different countries, and feeds upon frogs
and feveral forts of infefts. —The wild-ducks pair in
the fpring; build their nefts among rufhes near the
water, and lay from 10 to 16 eggs. The female is
a very artful bird; and does not always make the neft
clofe to the water, but frequently at a good diftance
from it; in which cafe the duck will take the young in
its beak or between the legs. It is knowm fometimes
to lay the eggs in a high tree, in a deferted magpie’s
or crow’s neft. At moulting-time, when they cannot
fly, they are caught in great numbers. They abound
particularly in Lincolnfliire, the great magazine of
wild-fowl in this kingdom ; where prodigious numbers
are taken annually in the Decoys. Birds with flat
bills, that find their food by groping, have three pair
of nerves that extend to the end of their bills: thefe
nerves are remarkably confpicuous in the head and bill
of the wild-duck, and are larger than thofe of a goofe
or any other bird yet known : this is the reafon they
grope for food more than any other bird whatever.—
The common tame fpecies of ducks take their origin
from thefe, and may be traced to it by unerring cha-
rafters. The drakes, howfoever they vary in colours,
always retain the curled feathers of the tail, and both
fexes the form of the bill, of the wild kind. Nature
fports in the colours of all domeftic animals; and for
a wife and ufeful end, That mankind may the more
readily diftinguilh and claim their refpe&ive property.
In France this fpecies is not often feen, except in
winter; appearing in O&ober, and going north in
fpring. They are caught in various manners; among
the reft, in decoys, as in England ; the chief place for
which is Picardy, where prodigious numbers are ta¬
ken, particularly on the river Somme. It is alfo cuf-
tomary there to wait for the flocks palling over certain
known places, and the fportfman, having a wicker
cage, containing a quantity of tam£ birds, lets out one
at a time, at a convenient feafon, which enticing the
paffengers within gunfhot, live or fix are often killed at
once by an expert markfman. They are now and
then taken alfo by a hook baited with a bit of Iheep’s
lights, which fwimming on the water, the bird fwal-
lows the bait, and with it the hook. Various other
means of catching ducks and geefe are peculiar to cer¬
tain nations; of which one feems worth mentioning
from its Angularity:—The perfon wifhing to take
thefe, wades into the water up to the chin, and ha¬
ving his head covered with an empty calabalh, ap¬
proaches the place where the ducks are; when they,
not regarding an objeft of this fort, fuffer the man
freely to mix with the flock; after which he has only
to pull them by the leg under the water, one after a-
nother, till he is fatisfied ; returning as unfufpetted by
the remainder as when he firft came among them.
This method is frequently put in pra&ice on the ri¬
ver Ganges, ufing the earthen vellels of the Gentoo*
inftead of the calabalhes: thefe veffels are what the
Gentoos boil their rice in, and are called Kutcharee
pots (they likewife make a diih for their tables in them,,
which goes by the fame name): after thefe are once
ufed they look upon them as defiled, and in courfe
throw them into the river as ufelefs; and the duck-
takers find them convenient for their purpofe, as the
ducks, from conftantly feeing the veffels float down the
ftream, look upon them as objects of full as little re¬
gard as a calabafli. The above, or fome fuch method,
is alfo practifed in China as well as in India. The
Chinefe, however, though they make great ufe of
3 O 2 ducks.
ANA
zyn, between the fixth and tenth of April. They reft
a little time on the hanks of the Sarpa, but foon re-
fume their arfiic courfe. Their winter retreat is pro¬
bably in Perfta. They are highly efteemed for the
table, being quite free from any fifty tafte.
14. The cafarca, or ruddy goofe, is larger than a
mallard, and feems even larger than it really is, from
the length of wing, and ftanding high on its legs. The
bill is black : the irides are yellowift brown: forehead,
cheeks, and throat, yellowift; fore part of the neck
ferruginous, encircled with a collar of black, inclining
to deep rufous on the throat: the breaft and fides are
pale rufous ; the belly is obfcure : the back is pale ;
the lower part is undulated, hoary, and brown, not very
diftintt ; the rump and tail are greenift black : the legs
long and black. This fpecies is found in all the
fouthern parts of Rufiia and Siberia in plenty. In win¬
ter it migrates into India, and returns northward in
fpring. It makes the neft in the craggy banks of the
Wolga and other rivers, or in the hollows of the defec¬
ted hillocks of marmots ; making it after the manner
of the fteldrake, and is faid to form burrows for itfelf
in the manner of that bird. It has been known alfo to
lay in an hollow tree, lining the neft with its own fea¬
thers. It is monogamous: the male and female fit in
turns. The eggs are like thofe of the common duck.
When the young come forth, the mother will often
carry them from the place of hatching to the water
with her bill. They have been attempted to be do-
mefticated, by rearing the young under tame ducks ;
but without fuccefs, as they ever are wild,- effe&ing
their efcape the firft opportunity : or if the old ones
are taken and confined, they lay the eggs in a difperfed
manner, .and never fit. The voice is not unlike the
note of a clarinet, while flying ; at other times they
cry like a peacock, efpecially when kept tame ; and
now and then cluck like a hen. It is very choice of
its mate ; for if the male is killed, the female will not
leave the gunner till fte has been two or three times
fhot at. The' fleft is thought very good food.
15. The bernicla, is of a brown colour ; with the
head, neck, and breaft, black; and a white collar.
Thefe birds, like the bernacles, frequent our coafts in
winter; and are particularly plenty, at times, on thofe
of Holland and Ireland, where they are taken in nets
placed acrofs the rivers. In fome feafons they have re-
forted to the coafts of Picardy, in France, in fuch prodi¬
gious flocks as to prove a peft to the inhabitants, efpe¬
cially in the winter of the year 1740, when thefe birds
deftroyed all the corn near the fea-coafts, by tearing it
up by the roots. A general war was for this reafon
declared againft them, and carried on in earneft, by
knocking them on the head with clubs; but their num¬
bers were fo prodigious, that this availed but little :
nor were the inhabitants relieved from this fcourge till
the north wind, which had brought them, ceafed to
blow, when they took leave. They eafily become
tame ; and, being fatted, are thought to be a delicate
food. They breed pretty far north, returning fouth-
ward in autumn. They fly in the ftape of a wedge,
like the wild geefe, with great clamour. They are
called in Shetland, Horra geefe, from being found in
that found. They are common alfo in America; breed¬
ing in the iflands, and along the coaft, and feed about
high-water mark. Their food confifts of plants, fuch
ANA
as the fmall biftort, and black-berried heath, fea-worms,
berries, and the like. They are apt to have a fifty
tafte, but are in general thought good food. The fame
fable has been told of this bird as of the bernacle, in
refpeft to its being bred from trees. Called at Hud-
fon’s Bay, Wctha may pa <wenu.
16. The canadenfis is brown ) its neck and head are
black, and the throat is white. It meafures three and a
half feet in length. It is found during the fummer in
Pludfon’s Bay, and parts beyond; alfo in Greenland i
and, in the fummer months, in various parts of North
America, as far as Carolina. Numbers breed at Hud-
fon’s Bay, and lay fix or feven eggs; but the major
part retire ftill farther north. Their firft appearance
in the Bay is from about the middle of April to about
the middle of May, when the inhabitants wait for them,
with impatience, being one of the chief articles for
food, and many years kill as far as 3000 or 4000, which
are falted and barrelled. Their arrival is the harbin¬
ger of fpring, and the month is named by the Indians
the goofe-moon. The Britift fend out their fervants, as.
well as Indians, to ftoot thefe birds on their paflage.
It is in vain to purfue them ; they therefore form a
row of huts made of boughs, at mulket-lhot diftance
from each other, and place .them in a line acrofs the
vaft marftes of the country. Each hovel, or, as they
are called, Jiand, is occupied by only a Angle perfon.
Thefe attend the flight of the birds, and on their ap¬
proach mimic their cackle fo well, that the geefe will
anfwer, and wheel, and come nearer the ftand. The
fportfman keeps motionlefs, and on his knees, with his
gun cocked, the whole time ; and never fires till he has
feen the eyes of the geefe. He fires as they are going
from him, then picks up another gun that lies by him,
and difeharges that. The geefe which he has killed
he fets up on flicks as if alive, to decoy others ; he alfo
makes artificial birds for the fame purpofe. In a good
day (for they fly in very uncertain and unequal num¬
bers) a fingle Indian will kill 20a. Notwithftanding
every fpecies of goofe has a different call, yet the In¬
dians are admirable in; their imitation of every one.
In this fport, however, they muft be very careful to, fe-
crete themfelves ; for the birds are very fty, and on
the leaft motion fly off dire&ly. On their return fouth,.
which is from the middle of Auguft to the middle of
Odlober, much havoc is made among them ; but thefe
are preferved freft for winter ftore, by putting them,,
feathers and all, into a large hole dug in the ground,
and covering them with mould ; and thefe, during the
whole time of the froft’s lading, are found perfeftly
fweet and good. The Indians at Hudfon’s Bay call
them ApiJUJkifh. This fpecies is now pretty common,
in a tame llate, both on the continent and in England;:
on the great canal at Verfailles hundreds are feen mix¬
ing with the fwans with the greateft cordiality; and
the fame at Chantilly. In England, likewife, they
are thought a great ornament to the pieces of water in.
many gentlemens feats, where they are very familiar,
and breed freely. The fleft of the young birds is ac¬
counted good ; and the feathers equal to thofe of other
geefe, infomuch as to prove an article of commerce
much in the favour of thofe places where they are in
fufficient numbers.
17. The molliffima, or eider-duck, is double the fize
of the common duck, has a cylindrical bill, and the
wax
I 660 ]
ANA
Anas, wax is divided behind, aftd wrinkled. The feathers,
which are very foft and valuable, fall .off during incu¬
bation. The male is white above, but black below and
behind: the female is greenifh. This fpecies1 is found
in the Weftern Ifles of Scotland, particularly on Oran-
fa, Barra, Rona, and Heifker, and on the Farn Ides;
but in greater numbers in Norway, Iceland, and Green¬
land ; from whence a vaft quantity of the down, known
by the name of eider or edder, which thefe birds fur-
nifh, is annually imported. Its remarkably light, ela-
ftic, and warm qualities, make it highly efteemed as a
fluffing for coverlets, by fuch whom age or infirmities
render unable to fupport the weight of common blan¬
kets. This down is produced from the breaft of the birds
in the breeding feafon. It lays its eggs among the ftones
or plants near the ffiore ; and prepares a foft bed for
them, by plucking the down from its own breaft : the
natives watch the opportunity, and take away both eggs
and neft: the duck lays again, and repeats the pluck¬
ing of its breaft: if fhe is robbed after that, fhe will ftill
lay; but the drakes muft fupply the down, as her flock
is now exhaufted; but if her eggs are taken a third
time, (he wholly deferts the place. See Down.
Thefe birds are not numerous on the ifles ; and it is
obferved that the drakes keep on thofe moft remote
from the fitting places. The ducks continue on their
nefts till you come almoft clofe to them; and when they
rife, are very flow fliers. The. number of eggs in each
neft are from three to five, warmly bedded in the
down ; of a pale olive colour ; and very large, gloffy,
and fmooth. They now and then, however, lay fo
many as eight; for Van Troil informs us, that no lefs
than 16 have been found in one neft, with two females,
who agree remarkably well together.— In America this
bird is found as far fouth as New York, and breeds on
the defert ifles of New England; but moft common
every where to the north. They are faid to be con-
ftant to the fame breeding places, and that a pair has
been obferved to occupy the fame neft for 20 years to¬
gether. They take their young on their backs in-
ftantly to fea ; then dive, to ftiake them off and teach
them to fhift for themfelves. It is faid, that the males
are five years old before they come to their full colour;
that they live to a great age, and will at length grow
quite grey. Their food is fhells, for which they dive
to great depths. They are very numerous in the Ef-
quimaux lands, where and in Greenland they are called
mettek. The natives kill them on the water with darts,
ftriking them the moment they appear after diving;
and know the place from their being preceded by the
rifing of bubbles. The flefti is faid to be much va¬
lued.
18. The maula, or fcaup-duek, is lefs than the com¬
mon duck. The bill is broad, flat, and of a greyiflt
blue colour; the head and neck are black, gloffed with
green ; the breaft is black; the back, the coverts of
the wings, and the fcapulars, are finely marked with nu¬
merous narrow tranfverfe bars of black and grey; the
legs are dulky. Mr Willughby acquaints us, that
thefe birds, take their name from feeding on fcaup, or
broken fhell-fifh; they differ infinitely in colours, fo that
in a flock of 40 or 50 there are not two alike.
19. The mofchata, or Mufcovy duck of Ray, has a
naked papillous face, and is a native of India.—It is
bigger than the wild duck, being in length two feet.
ANA
This fpecies is pretty common in a domefticated ftate
in almoft every nation ; and the breed ought to be en¬
couraged, as there is more flefh on it than on the com¬
mon duck, and of a very high flavour. The eggs
are rounder than thofe of a duck, and in young birds
frequently incline to green. They lay more eggs, and
fit oftener, than other ducks. In an unconfined ftate
they make the neft on the flumps of old trees, and
perch during the heat of the day on the branches of
fuch as are well clothed with leaves. When kept tame,
they are fufficiently docile; and the male will not un-
frequently affociate and produce a mongrel breed with
the common ducks. The name of Mufcovy duck was
given to them from their exhaling a nvufky odour,
which proceeds from the gland placed on the rump in
common with other birds.
20. The clypeata, or flioveler of Ray, has the end
of its bill broad, rounded, and furnifhed with a fmall
hook. It is in length 21 inches; the female a trifle
fmaller. Both fexes are apt to vary much in colour:
the male likewife differs from the female inwardly, ha¬
ving, juft above the divarication of the windpipe where
it paffes into the lungs, an enlargement, or, as it is.
called by fome, a labyrinth.—This bird is now and
then met with in England, though not in great num¬
bers. It is faid to come into France in February, and
fome of them to ftay during the fummer. It lays 1 o
®Br 12 rufous-coloured eggs, placed on a bedof rulhes,
in the fame places as the fummer-teal; and departs in
September, at leaft the major part of them, for it is
rare that one is feen in the winter. The chief food is
' infects, for which it is continually muddling in the
water with its bill. It alfo is faid dexteroufly to catch,
flies which pafs in its way over the water. Shrimps,,
among-other things, have been found in its ftomach
on diffeftion. This fpecies is alfo found in moft parts
of Germany; throughout the Ruffian dominions, as
far as Kamtfchatka ; and in North America, in New
York and Carolina during the winter feafon. With
us it is accounted pretty good food.
21. The ftrepera, or gad-wall, has the wings varie¬
gated with black, white, and red. It inhabits England
in the winter months, and is alfo found at the fame
feafon in various parts of France and Italy. It mi¬
grates as far as Sweden as fummer advances in order
to breed; and found throughout Ruffia and Siberia,
except in the eaftern part of the laft, and Kamtfchatka.
Being a very' quick diver, it is difficult to be fliot. It
feeds morning and evening only, being hid among the
reeds and rulhes during the day. The noife it makes
is not unlike that of the mallard, but louder. The
fteflr is good.
22. The clangula, or golden-eye of Ray, is varie¬
gated with black and white, and the head is interfper-
fed with blackiflt green feathers: it has a white Ipot
near the mouth; and the eyes are of a fliining gold co¬
lour. It is not unfrequent on our fea-coafts in winter,
and appears in fmall flocks; but paffes to the north in-
fpring in order to breed. It inhabits Sweden and
Norway during the fummer. It is an excellent diver,
and feeds on fmall Ihells. It is moftly feen in the wa¬
ter, as it is very awkward in walking. It has been
attempted to be domefticated, but feems out of its ele¬
ment on land. With difficulty k can be brought to
eat any thing but bread; and the feet foon grow in-
jured.
[ 661 ]
ANA [ 658 ] ANA
titude, between the ifland of Java and St Paul, in the
month of June.
7. The anfer, fents et manfuetus; or grey lag, and
tame goofe. The grey lag or wild goofe, is two feet
nine inches in length, and five feet in extent. The bill
is large and elevated ; of a flefh colour, tinged with
yellow ; the head and neck cinereous ; breaft and bel¬
ly whitifh, clouded with grey or afh colour; back,
grey ; the legs of a flefh colour. This fpecies refides
in the fens the whole year ; breeds there, and batches
about eight or nine young, which are often taken, ea-
fily tamed, and efteemed moft excellent meat, fuperior
to the domeftic goofe. Towards winter they coll eft
in great flocks, but in all feafons live and feed in the
fens. On the continent they are migratory, changing
place in large flocks, often 500 or more : in this cafe
the flock is triangular in fhape, with one point fore-
nxoft ; and as the goofe which is firft is tired fooneft,
it has been feen to drop behind, and another to take
his place. In very fmall flocks, however, they are
fometimes feen to follow one another in a xlireft line,
Geefe feein to be general inhabitants of the globe.
The matifuetus, is the grey lag in a ft ate of dome-
flication, and from which it varies in colour, though
much lefs fo than either the mallard or. cock, being ever
more or lefs verging to grey ; though in all cafes the
whitenefs of the vent, and upper tail coverts, is manifeft.
It is frequently found quite white, efpecially the males ;
and doubts have arifen, which of the two colours fhould
have the preference in point of eating.—Tame geefe
are kept in great multitudes in the fens of Lincoln-
fhire: a Angle perfon will have 1000 old geefe, each
of which will rear feven ; fo that towards the end of
the feafon he will become mailer of 8000. During
the breeding feafon thefe birds are lodged in the fame
houfes with the inhabitants, and even in their very bed¬
chambers : in every apartment are three rows of coarfe
wicker pens, placed one above another ; each bird has
its feparate lodge divided from the other, which it keeps
poflelfion of during the time of fitting. A perfon,
called a gozzard, i. e. goofe-herd, attends the flock, and
twice a-day drives the whole to water; then brings
them back to their habitations, helping thofe that live
in the upper ftories to their nefts, without ever mifpla-
cing a Angle bird. The geefe are plucked five times
in the year: the firft plucking is at Lady-day, for
feathers and quills; and the fame is renewed, for fea¬
thers only, four times more between that and Michael¬
mas. The old geefe fubmit quietly to the operation,
but the young ones are very noify and unruly. If the
feafon proves cold, numbers of them die by this bar¬
barous cuftom. Vaft numbers of geefe are driven an¬
nually to London to fupply the markets; among them,
all the fuperannuated geefe and ganders, which, by a
long courfe of plucking, prove uncommonly tough and
dry.
The goofe in general breeds only’once in a year; but
will frequently have two hatches in a feafon, if well
kept. The time of fitting is about 30 days. They
will alfo produce eggs fufficient for three broods, if they
are taken away in fuccefiion. It is faid to be very long-
lived, as we have authority for their arriving at no lefs
than too years.
The common price of geefe in Wiltfhire, is regula¬
ted by that of mutton, both being the fame by the
pound, without the feathers. The nfual weight of a Anas,
fine goofe is 15 or 16 pounds ; but it is fcarce credible -“"V'""
how far this may be increafed by cramming them with
bean-meal and other fattening diet. The viftims de-
ftined for this furfeit are by fome nailed to the floor by
the webs of the feet, which caufes no pain, and is
meant to prevent the leaft pofiibility of aftion : to
which, we are told, the French add the refinement of
putting out their eyes ; but what end this lail piece of
barbarity is meant to ferve, is hard to conjefture. To
what weight they arrive in France is not faid ; but we
have been well informed, that 28 or even 30 pounds, is
no uncommon thing in England.
8. The bean-gooje is two feet feven inches in length ;
in extent four feet eleven. The bill, which is the chief
diftinftion between this and the former, is fmall, much
comprefled near the end, whitifli, and fometimes pale
red in the middle, and black at the baie and nail: the
head and neck are cinereous brown, tinged with ferru¬
ginous ; breaft and belly, dirty white, clouded with ci¬
nereous ; the back of a plain afh colour ; feet and legs
of a faffron colour; claws black. This fpecies arrives
in Lincolnfhire in autumn; and is called the lean-goofe,
from the likenefs of the nail of the bill to a horfe-bean.
They always light on corn-fields, and feed much on the
green wheat. They never breed in the fens ; but all
difappear in May. They retreat to the fequeftered
wilds of the north of Europe’; in their migration they
fly a great height, cackling as they go. They preferve
a great regularity in their motions j fometimes forming
a flraight line; at others, affuming the fhape of a wedge,
which facilitates their progrefs, for they cut the air
readier in that form than if they flew pell-mell.
9. The erythropus, or laughing-goofe of Edwards,
is a native of Europe and America. The length of
this fpecies is about two feet four, the extent four feet
fix ; the bill is elevated, of a pale yellow colour, with a
white ring at the bafe ; the forehead is white; the
breaft and belly are of a dirty white, marked with great
fpots of black; and the legs yellow. Thefe vifit the
fens and other parts of England during winter, in fmall
flocks; they keep alwayrs in marftiy places, and never
frequent the corn-lands. They difappear in the ear-
lieft fpring, and none are feen after the middle of
March. Linnaeus makes this goofe the female of the
bernacle ; but Mr Pennant thinks his opinion riot well
founded.
The bernacle (erythropus mas, Lin.) is two feet one
inch in length, the breadth four feet five inches: the
bill is black ; the forehead and cheeks are white ; from
the bill to the eyes, there is a black line ; the hind'
part of the head, the whole neck, and upper part of the
breaft and back, are of a deep black ; the tail is black,
the legs are of the fame colour, and fmall. Thefe birds
appear in vaft flocks during winter, on the north-well
coafts of this kingdom : they are very ftiy and wild ;
but on being taken, grow in a few days as familiar as
our tame geefe. In February they quit our fliores, and
retire as far as Lapland, Greenland, and even Spitzber-
gen, to breed. 1 hey live to a great age : the Rev.
Dr Buckworth of Spalding, had one which was kept
in the family above 32 years, but was blind during the
two laft; what its age was when firft taken, was un¬
known.
Thefe are the birds that about 200 years ago were
believed
ANA [ 059 ] ANA
Anas, believed to be generated out of wood, or ratlier a fpe-
•"“"■v ""' cies of (hell that is often found (ticking to the bottonas
of (hips, or fragments of them ; and were called tree-
StuLefas.geefe *. Thefe were alfo thought by fome writers to
have been the chenalopeces of Pliny; they (liould have
fa id chcnerotes, for thofe were the birds which that na-
turalift faid were found in Britain> but as he has fcarce
left us any defcription of them, it is difficult to fay which
fpecies he intended. Mr Pennant imagines it to be
the following ; which is far inferior in fize to the wild-
goofe, and very delicate food, in both refpedts fuiting
his defcription of the cheneros.
10. The race-horfe or loggerhead goofe, is in length
32 inches, and weighs from 20 to 30 pounds. The
bill is three inches long, and of an orange colour: the
irides are orange, furrounded with black, and then with
orange: the head, neck, and upper parts of the body are
of a deep affi-colour; the outer edge of the fecondaries
white, forming a band of the fame on the wing : the
under parts of the body dulky down the'middle ; over
the thighs cinereous blue ; vent white ; quills and tail
black: the wings are very (hort, not reaching to the
rump : on the bend of the wing is a yellow knob, half
an inch in length: the legs are browniffi orange, the
webs dulky, and the claws black. Thefe inhabit Falk¬
land I (lands, Staaten Land, &c. and were moftly feen
in pairs, though fometimes they were obferved in large
flocks. From the (hortnefs of the wings they were
unable to fly; but they made coniiderable ufe'of them
when in the water, on which they feemed as it were to
run, at lead they fwam, with the affiftance of the wings
ufed as oars, at an incredible rate, infomuch that it was
a moft difficult thing to (hoot them while on that ele¬
ment: to catch them, the Tailors ufed to furround a
flock with boats, and drive them on (hore ; where, un¬
able to raife themfelves from the ground, they ran Very
fail:, but foon growing tired, and fquatting down to
reft, were eaffly overtaken, and knocked on the head.
Their fleffi was fometimes eaten by the failors, in de¬
feat of that of the buftard goofe ; but it was not much
reliihed, being rank and ftihy, and thought more fit for
the hogs, which ate it greedily, and fatted well upon
it, boiled.
11. The fnow-goofe is in length two feet eight inch¬
es, and weighs between five and fix pounds’. The bill
is fomewhat ferrated at the edges ; the upper mandible
fcarlet, the lower whitiffi: the general colour of the
plumage is fnow white, except thefirft ten quills, which
are black, with white (hafts : the legs are of a deep
red. The young are of a blue colour, till they are a
year old. Thefe are-very numerous at Hudfon’s Bay,
and called by the natives Way-way, and Wapa whe whe.
Theyvifit Severn River in.May, and flay a fortnight; but
go farther north to breed: they return to Severn Fort
the beginning of September, and (lay to the middle of
October, when they depart for the fouth, and are ob¬
ferved to be attended with their young, in flocks in¬
numerable. At this time many thoufands are killed
by the inhabitants ; who pluck them, and take out the
entrails, and putting the bodies into holes dug in the
gro\md, cover them with earth, which freezing above
them, keeps "them perfectly fweet throughout the fe-
vere feafon ; during which there is no more to do than
occafionally to open one of thefe ftorehoufes, when they
find them fweet and good. They feem to occupy alfo
the weftern fide of America. In the fummer months, Anas-
they are plenty on the arftic coaft of Sibiria, but ne-
ver migrate beyond longitude 130. They are fuppo-
fed to pafs the winter in more moderate climes, as they
have been feen flying at a great height over Silefia ;
probably on their paffage to fome other country, as it
does not appear that they continue there. In like
manner, thofe of America pafs the winter in Carolina.
Here they arrive in vaft flocks; and feed on the roots
of fage and grafs, which they tear up like hogs. It
ufed to be a common pra&Lce in that country to burn
a piece of a marffi, which enticed the geefe to come
there, as they could then more readily get at the roots,
which gave the fportfman opportunity of killing as ma¬
ny as he pleafed. This fpecies is the moft numerous
and the moft ftupid of all the goofe race. They feem
to want the inftindt of others, by their arriving at the
mouths of the Arftic Afiatic rivers before the feafon
in which they can poffibly fubfift. They are annually
guilty of the fame miftake, and annually cdmpelled to
make a new migration to the fouth in queft of food,
where they pafs their time till the northern eftuaries
are freed from the bonds of ice. They have fo little
of the (hynefs of other geefe, that they are taken in
the moft ridiculous manner imaginable, about Jakut,
and the other parts of Siberia, which they frequent.
The inhabitants firft place, near the banks of the ri¬
vers, a great net, in a ftraight line, or elfe form a ho¬
vel of (kins fewed together. This done, one of the
company drefles himfelf in the ft in of a white rein¬
deer, advances towards the flock of geefe, and then
turns back towards the net or the hovel; and his com¬
panions go behind the flock, and by making a noife
drive them forward. The limple birds miftake the
man in white for their leader, and follow him within
reach of the net, which is fuddenly pulled down and
captivates the whole. When he choofes to conduct
them to the hovel, they follow in the fame manner;
he creeps in at a hole left for that purpofe, and out at
another on the oppofite fide, which he clofes up. The
geefe follow him through the firft; and as foon as they
are got in, he paffes round, and fecures every one.
12. The great goofe is of a very large fize, weigh¬
ing near 25 or 30 Ruffian pounds. The bill is black;
bafe of it tawny: body dulky : the under parts are
white ; the legs fcarlet. It is found in the eaft of Si¬
beria, from the river‘Lena to Kamtfchatka ; and is ta¬
ken in great numbers, together with the red-necked
goofe, in glades, as we do woodcocks in England, but
upon a largei feale.
13. The ruficollis, or red-breafted goofe, is in length
21 inches; weight three pounds troy. The bill is
fmall, and brown ; the tail black : the irides are yel¬
low brown ; round the eyes, fringed with brown : fore
part of the head and crown black, palling backwards
in a narrow (tripe quite to the back : on the bread is
a narrow band of white feathers with black ends, form¬
ing a band of white and another of black: the fides
are ftriped with black ; back and wings black, the laft
even with the tail: legs black. This moft elegant of
geefe is found to breed from the mouth of the Ob, along
the coatts of the Icy fea, to that of the Lena. Its
winter quarters are not certainly known. Small flocks
are obferved in the fpring, flying from the Cafpian fea
along the Volga northward j and are feen about Zari-
5 . ^
ANA C 664 ] ANA
Anas, ducks, do not prefer the wild fort, being in general
—y——^ extrefnely fond of tame ones: and it is faid that the
major part of thefe are hatched by artificial heat; the
eggs, being laid in boxes of fand, are placed on a brick,
hearth, to which is given a proper heat during the
time required for hatching. The ducklings are fed
with little craw-fifhes and crabs, boiled and cut fmall,
and afterwards mixed with boiled rice; and in about a
fortnight (hift for themfelves, when the Chinefe pro-
vide'them an old ftepmother, who leads them where
they are to find provender for themfelves; being firli
put on board a fampane or boat, which is deftined for
tlitir habitation, and from which the whole flock, oft¬
en to the amount of 300 or 400, go out to feed, and
return at command. This method is ufed nine months
out of the twelve (for in the colder months it does not
fucceed); and is fo far from a novelty, that it may be
every where ieen ; but more efpecially about the time
of cutting the rice and gleaning the crop, when the
mailers of the duck fampanes row up and down the ri¬
ver according to the opportunity of procuring food,
which is found in plenty, at the tide of ebb, on the
rich plantations, as they are overflowed at high water.
It is curious to fee how the ducks obey their mailer;
for fome thoufands, belonging to different boats, will
feed at large on the fame fpot, and on a fignal given
will follow their leader to their refpe£live Tampanes,
* OJlet; 55s without a llranger being found among them*. This
s js {]■;][ more extraordinary, if we confider the number
194/1 i’255 inhabited fampanes on the Tigris, fuppofed to be no
lefs than 40,000, which are moored in row's clofe to
each other, with a narrow paffage at intervals for boats
to pafs up and dowii the river. The Tigris, at Canton,
is fomewhat wider than the Thames at London, and the
whole river is there covered in this manner for the ex¬
tent of at lealt a mile. See Cook’s lafi voyage, iii. 433.
33. The galerieulata, or Chihefe teal of Edwards,
has a hanging creff; and on the hinder part of the
back, on both fides, there is a crooked, flat, elevated
feather; the crell is green and red; and the back is
browm, and fpotted with blue; and ere£t feathers on
the back are red and blunt; one edge of the inmoll
wing-feather, when the wings are Ihut, is railed over
the back, and is red, and like a fickle before. This
moll fingular and elegant fpecies is a native of China
and Japan, where it is kept by the inhabitants for the
fake of its beauty. It is not near fo common in Chi¬
na as many other kinds, or perhaps they are politically
held dear to the European purchafers: they are fre¬
quently expofed to fale at Canton in cages, and the
common price is from fix to ten dollars per pair: they
are not unfrequently brought into England alive ; but
require care, as they feem more tender than our fpecies.
Attempts have been made to breed them in this coun¬
try, but without fuccefs, though they are familiar e-
nough. The bird is known in Japan by the name of
Kimnodjui. The Englilh in China give it the name of
mandarin duck.
34. The fponfa, or fummer-duck of Catelby, is a
moll elegant fpecies. It has a depending green crell,
variegated with blue and white ; the back is like wife
variegated with blue and white ; the breall is grey, and
fpotted with white; and the throat is white. It in¬
habits Mexico, and fome of the Well India illes, mi-
N° 17.
grating in the fummer feafon as far north as 40 de¬
grees, or a little beyond. It appears at New York early
in the fpring, and breeds there; making its nell in the
decayed hollows of trees, or fuch as have been made by
woodpeckers, and often between the forks of the bran¬
ches ; and when the young are hatched, the mother
takes them on her back to the water. The fielh is
much efteemed by the Americans. This is the fpecies,
the neck of which the natives of Louifiana ufe to or¬
nament their pipes or calumets of peace with ; and at
the lad-named place it is found throughout the year.
Thefe birds are often kept tame in our menageries,
and will breed there.
35. The arborea, or black-billed whillling duck of
Edwards, is of a reddilh brown colour, with a fort of
crell on the head; the belly is fpotted with black and
white. It is a native of America. Sloane informs us,
that this duck perches on trees; that it is about 20
inches long from the end of the bill to the point of the
tail; and that it makes a kind of whiflling noife, from
which circumllance it has received its name.
36. The fuligula, or tufted duck of Ray, has a
hanging crell, a black body, and the wings and belly
fpotted with white. This fpecies is found in Europe
as far as Norway. In the winter months it is not un¬
frequent in England; being met with in the markets
in that feafon, and is much elleemed. It is common
alfo throughout the Ruifian empire, going northward
to breed. Is frequent in Kamtfchatka. The male dif-
appears during the incubation of the female.
There are 62 other fpecies enumerated by ornitho-
logills; the whole number hitherto defcribed be¬
ing 98.
ANASARCA, a fpecies of dropfy. See Medi¬
cine.
ANASSUS, or Anaxus (anc. geog.), a river in the
territory of Venice, (Pliny) ; now the Piave, which ri-
fing from the mountains of Tyrol, not far from the bor¬
ders of Carinthia, runs from north to fouth, through
the territories of Cadorina, Belluno, Feltre, and, after
running from well to call, through Trevigi, falls into
the Adriatic, 13 miles to the fouth-eall of Venice.
ANASTAS IS, a term among ancient phyficians,
for a riling up to go to llool. It alfo fignifies the paf¬
fage of any humour, when expelled from one part, and
obliged to remove to another.
ANASTASIUS 1. emperor of the Eall, fucceed-
ed Zeno in the year 491, and was inaugurated that
fame year on April the 1 ith. The Manicheans and
Arians were greatly in hopes of being fupported by
the new emperor ; the former becaule his mother was
their friend, and favoured their feft ; the latter becaufe
the emperor’s uncle was of their opinion : but if Ana-
ftafius did not perfecute them (as we do not find he
ever did), yet it does not appear that he fupported ei¬
ther of thefe fcdts. But in order to maintain the peace
of the church, upon which the tranquillity of the Hate
very much depends, he declared, that fuch bilhops or
other clergymen who fhould dilturb the public tran¬
quillity, by maintaining with too much heat either fide
of the queilion for or againll the council of Chalcedon,
Ihould be deprived of their benefices. Accordingly
the difputes concerning Eutychianifm running to a
very great height, and Euphemius being deeply con¬
cerned
ANA i 6% ] ANA
Atiaftafuu. cerned in them, the emperor expelled him from his fee,
^ ' and chofe Macedonius in his Head. The hatred which
the different parties entertained againft one another oc-
cafioned often fuch tumults and feditions at Conftanti-
nople, as threatened the life of the emperor himfelf;
who, to keep the people in awe, ordered that the go¬
vernor of the city flrould be prefent at all church-af-
femblies and public proceffions. This was fo much the
more neceflary, becaufe thefe tumults were chiefly oc*
cafioned by a kind of doxology or fhort hymn which
ufed to be fung at divine fervice. This doxology con-
fifted only of the following words, °
*xvg°(, xyiot aS-avarof, that is, “ Holy God, holy the
powerful, holy the immortalfor which reafon it was
called Tfio-aynr, Trifagius, “ three times holy be¬
caufe the word ■holy was therein three times repeated.
The orthodox ufed to fing that hymn without any ad¬
dition, or by adding only to it, a?'* r^iat, e\in<rov H/tac,
i. e. “ Holy Trinity, have mercy upon usBut Pe¬
ter the Fuller, bifliop of Antioch, pretended to add
thefe words to it, viz. o cuvga&tK ft Hfiae, J. e. “who
haft been crucified for us and as it was fuppofed that
the firft holy related to the Father, the fecond to the
Son, the third to the Holy Ghoft, the adding thefe
words, nuho haft been crucified for us, feemed to infi-
nuate that the whole confubftantial Trinity had fuffer-
ed; for which reafon the orthodox were refolved not
to admit this addition. Anaftafius defiring to have
thbfe fatal words added to thathymn whenever it Ihould
be fung at Conftantinople, this occafioned a terrible
fedition in the city, as though the very fundamentals
of Chriftianity had been overthrown. Macedonius and
his clergy are faid to have raifed that fedition, which
came to fuch a height that the emperor himfelf was
obliged to come, without his crown on his head, and
in a very humble manner, to the Circus, where he de¬
clared to the people that he was very willing to quit
the imperial throne; but he told them at the fame
time, that they could hot all enjoy the fovereign power,
which does not admit of a partnerihip; and that one
perfon ftill muft govern them if he refigned the crown.
This difcourfe had fuch a power over the raging mul¬
titude, that, as if they had been divinely infpired,
they immediately requ^fted the emperor to take up his
crown, promifing that they would be quiet and obe¬
dient for the future. Anaftafius is by the Popifh wri¬
ters reprefented as a great perfecutor of the orthodox,
becaufe he baniihed and deprived Euphemius and Ma¬
cedonius ; but they fhould prove that thefe two pre¬
lates had been unjuftly baniihed, which is a very hard
talk. As to his civil government, it is confefled that
at the beginning of his reign he ihowed himfelf a very
.good prince ; he eafed the people of a very heavy tax
called Chryfargyrum, under which they had groaned
for a long time ; he prohibited the fighting with wild
beafts; he raifed feveral buildings; he avoided being
involved in dangerous wars as much as lay in his power.
Anaftafius reigned 27 years three months and three
days, or, according to F. Pagi, wanting three days ;
and died July the 10th, A. C. 518, in the 88th year
of his age.
Anastasius, furnamed Bibliothecarius, a Roman
abbot, library-keeper of the Vatican, and one of
the moft learned men of the ninth century, affifted
Vql. I. Part II.
in 869 at the fourth general council, the ads and Anaflatica
canons of which he tranflated from the Greek into La- Anjjfus>
tin. He alfo compofed the lives of feveral popes, and .
other works ; the beft edition of which is that of the
Vatican.
ANASTATICA, the rose of Jericho : A genus
of the filiculofa order, belonging to the tetradynamia
clafs of plants ; and, in the natural method, ranking
under the 39th order, Siliquofise, The charaders are :
The calyx is a perianthium confifting of four leaves,
and perfiftent: The corolla confifts of four cruciform
petals: The ftamina confift of fix fubulated filaments
the length of the calyx ; the antherae are roundiih:
The piftillum has a fmall bifid germen; the ftylus mu-
cronated and oblique ; the itigma headed : The peri-
car pium is a ftiort bilocular filicle, retufe, and crown¬
ed on the margin with valvulas twice as long as the
partition: The feeds are folitary and roundiih.—Of
this genus there are two
Species. 1. The fyriaca, a native of Syria, is not
cultivated or known in Britain. 2. The hierochun-
tica is a native of the fandy parts of Paleftine and the
Red Sea. It is a low annual plant, dividing into many
irregular woody branches near the root. At each joint
is placed a Angle, oblong, hairy leaf; and at the fame •
places come out fmall Angle flowers, of a whitiih green
colour, compofed of four leaves placed in the form of
a crofs. Thefe are fucceeded by ftiort wrinkled pods,
having four fmall horns; thefe open into four cells, in
each of which is lodged a fingle brown feed.—When
the feeds of this plant are ripe, the branches will draw
up and contraft ; fo that the whole plant forms a kind
of ball or globular body, which will expand on laying
it a ftiort time in warm water. This.property it retains
Tor many years, on which account it is preferved as a
curiofity by fome people. From this property the
monks have given it the name of Rofa Marine, pretend¬
ing that the flowers open on the night in ;which our
Saviour was born.
Culture. This plant is propagated by feeds, which
ftiould be fown in the beginning of March, in a mode¬
rate hot-bed in pots, in which the plants are defigned
to remain. When they dome up, the plants fhould be
thinned, leaving them about fix inches afimder, and
obfervjng to keep them clear of weeds, which is all
the care they require. If the feafon proves favourable,
they will flower in Auguft ; but unlefs the autumn
proves warm and dry, they will not perfect their feeds
in Britain.
ANASTOMOSIS, in anatomy, the opening of the
mouths of veflels, in order to difeharge their contained
fluids. It is likewife ufed for the communication of
two veflels at their extremities; as the inofculation of a
vein with a vein, of an artery with an artery, or of an
artery with a vein.
ANASTOMATICS, medicines fuppofed to have
the power of opening the mouths of the veflels, and
promoting the circulation; fuch as deobftruent, ca¬
thartic, and fudorific medicines.
ANASTROPHE, in rhetoric and grammar, de¬
notes the inverfion of the natural order of the words :
fuch is, faxa per ei fcopalos, for per faxa et fcopulos.
ANASUS, or Anisus (anc. geog.), now the Ens,
a river of Germany j which, rifing on the borders of
4 P the
ANA [ 666 ] ANA
Anathema, the territory of Saltzburg, then feparating Upper Sti- Anathema, in heathen antiquity, was an offering Anathotk
' ria from Upper Auftria, and wafhing the town of Ens, or prefent made to fome deity, and hung up in the Ana[l0j;
falls, at the diftance of a mile below it, into the Da- temple. Whenever a perfon left off his employment, / 01 °f
nube, in a courfe from fouth to north. it was ufual to dedicate the tools to the patron-deity of
ANATHEMA, among ecclefiaitical writers, im- the trade* Perfons too who had efcaped from immi-
ports whatever is fet apart, feparated, or divided ; but nent danger, as fhipwreclt and the like, or had met
is moft ufually meant to exprefs the cutting off a perfon with any other remarkable inftance of good fortune,
from the privileges of fociety and communion with feldom failed to teftify their gratitude by fome prefent
the faithful. of this kind.
The anathema differs from excommunication in the ANATHOTH, a hamlet of PalefKne, very near
eircumftances of being attended with curfes and exe- Jerufalem (Jofephus), about three miles and a half
crations. It was pra&ifed in the primitive church a- to the north ; the ruins of which are ftill to be feen..
gainft notorious offenders ; and the form of that pro- It was the birth-place of the prophet Jeremiah, and
nounced by Synecius againft one Andronicus, is as one of the Levitical towns in the tribe of Benjamin,
follows : “ Let no church of God be open to Andro- ANATIFERA concha, the trivial name of a fpe-
nicus, but let every fanftuary be fhut againft him. I cies of the lepas, a teftaceous animal. See Lepas.
admonifh both private men and magiftrates, to receive ANATOCISM, Anatocismus, an ufurious con-
him neither under their roof nor to their table ; and traft, wherein the interefts arifing from the principal
priefts more efpecially, that they neither converfe with fum are added to the principal itfelf, and intereft ex-
him Irving, nor attend his funeral when dead.” a cited upon the whole. The word is originally
Several councils alfo have pronounced anathemas a- Greek, but ufed by Cicero in L^tin; whence it is.
gainft fuch as they thought corrupted the purity of the defcended into moft other languages. It comes from
faith; and their decifions have been conceived in the the prepofition which in compofition figniiies
following form : Si quis dixerit, &e. anathema Jit. petition or duplication, and tom;, ufury. Anatocifm is
There are two kinds of anathemas, the one judici- what we properly call interejl uponinterejl, ox compound.
ary, and the other abjuratory. The former can only interejl. This is the worft kind of ufury, and has
be denounced by a council, a pope, or a bifhop ; the been feverely condemned by the Roman law, as well
latter makes a part of the ceremony of abjuration, the as by the common laws of moft other countries. S.ee
convert being obliged to anathematize the herefy he Interest.
abjures. ANATOLIA. See Natouia..
ANA
O M Y,
t"T'lHE art of differing, ,or artificially feparating and
J- taking to pieces, the different parts of the human
body, in order to an exaft difcovery of their fituation,
ftmfture, and ceconomy.—The word is Greek,
derived from to diffecft, or feparate by cutting.
INTRODUCTION.
(S r. Hijlory of Anatomy.
This art feems to have been very ancient; though,
for a long time, known only in an imperfeft manner.
—The firft men who lived muft have foon acquired
fome notions of the ftructure of their own bodies, par¬
ticularly of the external parts, and of fome even of
the internal, fuch as bones, joints, and finews, which
are expofed to the examination of the fenfes.in living
bodies.
This rude knowledge muft have been gradually im¬
proved, by the accidents to which the body is expofed,
by the neceffities of life, and by the various cuftoms,
ceremonies, and fuperftitions, of different nations.
Thus, the obfervance of bodies killed by violence, at¬
tention to wounded men, and to many difeafes, the
various ways of putting criminals to death, the fune¬
ral ceremonies, and a variety of fuch things, muft have
ihown men every day more and more of themfelves ;
efpeciallyas curiofity and felf-love would here urge them
powerfully to obfervation and reflection.
The brute-creation having fuch an affinity to man -
in outward form, motions, fenfes, and ways of life ;
the generation of the fpeeies, and the effedt of death
upon the body, being obferved to be fo nearly the
fame in both ; the conclufion was not only obvious, but
unavoidable, that their bodies were formed nearly upon
the fame model. And the opportunities of examining
the bodies of brutes were fo eafily procured, indeed fo
neceffarily occurred in the common bufinefs of life, that
the liuntfman in making ufe of his prey, the prieft in fa-
crificing, the augur in divination, and above all, the
butcher, or thofe who might out of curiofity attend upon
his operations, muft have been daily adding to the little
ftock of anatomical knowledge. Accordingly we find,
in fact, that the South-fea-iflanders, who have been left
to their own obfervation and reafoning, without the
affiftance of letters, have yet a confiderable ftrare of
rude or wild anatomical and phyfiological knowledge.
Dr Hunter informs us, that when Omai was in his ;
mufeum with Mr Banks, though he could not explain
himfelf intelligibly, they plainly faw that he knew the
principal parts of the body, and fomething likewife-
of their ufesand manifefted a great curiofity or de¬
fire of having the functions of the internal parts of
the body explained to him; particularly the relative
fun6tions of the two fexes, which with him feemed to
be the moft interefting objedft of the human mind.
We may further imagine, that the philofophers of
the
Hiftory. A N A T
the mofl early ages, that is, the men of curiofity, ob-
fervation, experience, and refle&ion, could not over¬
look an inftance of natural organization, which was fo
interdling, and at the fame time fo wonderful, more
efpecially.fuch of them as applied to the ftudy and-
cure of difeafes. We know that phyfic was a branch
of philofophy till the age of Hippocrates.
Thus the art muft have been circumftanced in its
beginning. We lhall next fee from the teftimony of
hiftorians and other writers, how it actually appeared
as an art, from the time that writing was introduced
among men ; how it was improved, and conveyed down
to us through a long feries of ages.
Civilization, and improvements of every kind, would
naturally begin in fertile countries and healthful cli¬
mates, where there would be leifure for reflection, and
an appetite for amufement. Accordingly, writing,
and many other ufeful and ornamental inventions and
arts, appear to have been cultivated in the eaftern
parts of Afia long before the earlieft times that are
treated of by the Greek or other European writers ;
and that the arts and learning of thofe eaftern people
were in fubfequent times gradually communicated to
adjacent countries, efpecially by the medium of traffic.
The cuftoms, fuperftitions, and climate of eaftern
countries, however, appear to have been as unfavour¬
able to practical anatomy as they were inviting to the
ftudy of aftronomy, geometry, poetry, and all the
fofter arts of peace.
Animal bodies there run fo quickly into naufeous
putrefa&ion, that the early inhabitants muft have a-
voided fuch offenfive employments as anatomical in¬
quiries, like their pofterity at this day. And in fact
it does not appear, by the writings of the Grecians,
or Jews, or Phoenicians, or of other eaftern countries,
that anatomy was particularly cultivated by any of
thofe eaftern nations. In tracing it backwards to its
infancy, we cannot go farther into antiquity than the
times of the Grecian philofophers. As an art in the
ftate of fome cultivation, it may be faid to have been
brought forth and bred up among them as a branch
of natural knowledge.
The sera of philofophy, as it was called, began with
Thales the Milefian being declared by a very general
confent of the people, the moft wife of all the Gre¬
cians, 480 years before Chrift. The philofophers of
his fchool, which was called the Ionian, cultivated
principally natural knowledge. Socrates, the feventh
in fucceffion of their great teachers, introduced the
ftudy of morals, and was thence faid to bring down
philofophy from heaven, to make men truly wife and
happy.
In the writings of his fcholar and fucceffor Plato,
we fee that the philofophers had carefully confidered
the human body, berth in its organization and func¬
tions; and though they had not arrived at the know¬
ledge of the more minute and intricate parts, which
required the fucceffive labour and attention of many
ages, they had made up very noble and comprehenfive
ideas of the fubject in general. The anatomical de-
fcriptions of Xenophon and Plato have had the honour
of being quoted by Longinus (§ xxxii.) as fpecimens
of fublime writing; and the extract from Plato is ftill
more remarkable for its containing the rudiments of
the circulation of the blood. “ The heart (fays Plato)
o M T. 667
is the centre or knot of the blood-veffels ; the fpring
or fountain of the blood, which is carried impetuoufly
round; the blood is the pabulum or food of the flefti;
and for the purpofe of nourifliment, the body is laid
out into canals, like thofe which are' drawn through
gardens, that the blood may be conveyed, as from a
fountain, to every part of the pervious body.”
Hippocrates was nearly contemporary with the great
philofophers of whom we have been fpeaking, about
400 years before the Chriftian sera. He is faid to
have feparated the profeffion of philofophy and phyfic,
and to have been the firft who applied to phyfic alone
as the bufinefs of his life. He is likewife generally
fuppofed to be the firft who wrote upon anatomy. We
know of nothing that was written exprefsly upon the
fubject before ; and the firft anatomical difiedtion which
has been recorded, was made by his friend Democritus
of Abdera.
If, however, we read the works of Hippocrates with
impartiality, and apply his accounts of the parts to what
we now know of the human body, we muft allow his
defcriptions to be imperfedt, incorredt. fometimes ex¬
travagant, and often unintelligible, that of the bones
only excepted. He feems to have ftudied thefe with
more fuccefs than the other parts, and tells us that he
had an opportunity of feeing an human ikeleton.
From Hippocrates to Galen, who flourilhed towards
the end of the fecond century, in the decline of the
Roman empire, that is, in the fpace of 600 years, ana¬
tomy was greatly improved; the philofophers ftill con-
fidering it as a moft curious and interefting branch of
natural knowledge, and the phyficians as a principal
foundation of their art. Both of them, in that inter¬
val of time, contributed daily to the common ftock, by
more accurate and extended obfervations, and by the
lights of improving philofophy.
As thefe two great men had applied very particular¬
ly to the ftudy of animal bodies, they not only made
great improvements, efpecially in phyfiology, but raifed
the credit of natural knowledge, and fpread it as wide
as Alexander’s empire.
Few of Ariftotle’s writings were made public in his
lifetime. He affected to fay that they would be un¬
intelligible to thofe who had not heard .them explain*
ed at his leftures : and, except the ufe which Theo-
phraftus made of them, they were loft to the public for
above 139 years after the death of Theophraftus ; and
at laft came out defective from bad prefervation, and
corrupted by men, who, without proper qualifications,
prefumed to correft and to fupply what was loft.
From the time of Theophraftus, the ftudy of natu¬
ral knowledge at Athens was for ever on the decline ;
and the reputation of the Lycaeum and Academy was
almoft confined to the ftudies which are fubfervient to
oratory and public fpeaking.
The other great inftitution for Grecian education,
was at Alexandria in Egypt. The firft Ptolemies,
both from their love of literature, and to give true and
permanent dignity to their empire, and to Alexander’s
favourite city, fet up a grand fchool in the palace it-
felf, with a mufeum and a library, which, we may fay,
has been the moft famed in the world. Anatomy,
among other fciences, Was publicly taught; and the
two diftinguifhed anatomifts were Erafiftratus the pu¬
pil and friend of Theophraftus, and Herophilus. Their
4 P 2 voluminous
m
ANA
voluminous works are all loft; but they are quoted by
Galen almoft in every page. Thefe profeffors were
probably the firft who were authorized to diffeft hu¬
man bodies; a peculiarity which marks ftrongly the
philofophical magnanimity of the firft Ptolemy, and
fixes a great sera in the hiftory of anatomy. And it
was, no doubt, from this particular advantage which
the Alexandrians had above all others, that their fchool
not only gained, but for many centuries preferved, the
firft reputation for medical education. AmmianusMar-
cellinus, who lived about 650 years after the fchools
were fet up, fays, they were fo famous in his time, that
it was enough to fecure credit to any phyfician, if he
could fay that he had ftudied at Alexandria.
Herophilus has been faid to have anatomized 700
bodies. We muft allow for exaggeration. Nay, it
was faid, that both he and Erafiftratus made it a com¬
mon practice to open living bodies, that they might
difcover the more fecret fprings of life. But this, no
doubt, was only a vulgar opinion, rifing from the pre¬
judices of mankind ; and accordingly, without any good
reafon, fuch tales have been told of modern anatomifts,
and have been believed by the vulgar.
Among the Romans, though it is probable they had
phyficians and furgeons from the foundation of the city,
yet we have no account of any of thefe applying them-
felves to anatomy for a very long time. Archagathus
was the firft Greek phyfician eftablifhed in Rome, and
he was baniftied the city on account of the feverity of
his operations.—Afclepiades, who flourifhed in Rome
1 o 1 years after Archagathus, in the time of Pompey,
attained fuch a high reputation as to be ranked in the
fame clafs with Hippocrates. He feemed to have fome
notion of the air in refpiration a<fting by its weight;
and in accounting for digeftion, he fuppofed the food
to be no farther changed than by a comminution into
extremely fmaH parts, which being diftributed to the
feveral parts of the body, is afiimilated to the nature
of each. One Cafilus, commonly thought to be a dif-
ciple of Afclepiades, accounted for the right fide of the
body becoming paralytic on hurting the left fide of the
brain, in the fame manner as has been done by the mo¬
derns, viz. from the croffing of the nerves from the right
to the left fide of the brain.
From the time of Afclepiades to the fecond century,
phyficians feem to have been greatly encouraged at
Rome ; and in the writings of Celfus, Rufus, Pliny,
Ccelius Aurelianus, and Arasteus, we find feveral anato¬
mical obfervations, but moftly very fuperficial and in¬
accurate. Towards the end of the fecond century lived
Claudius Gallenus Pergamus, whofe name is fo well
known in the medical world. He applied himfelf par¬
ticularly to the ftudy of anatomy, and did more in that
way than all that went before him. He feems, however^
to have been at a great lofs for human fubjedts to ope*
rate upon ; and therefore his defcriptions of the parts
are moftly taken from brute animals. His works con¬
tain the fulleft hiftory of anatomifts, and the moft
complete fyftem of the fcience, to be met with any
■where before him, or for feveral centuries after ; fo
that a number of paflages in them were reckoned abfo-
lutely unintelligible for many ages, until explained by
the difcoveries of fucceeding anatomifts.
About the end of the fourth century, Nimefius bi-
Ihop of Emiffa wrote a treatife on the nature of man,
4
T O M Y. Hiftory
in which it is faid were contained two celebrated mo¬
dern difcoveries ; the one, the ufes of the bile, boafted
of by Sylvius de la Boe ; and the other, the circulation
of the blood. This laft, however, is proved by Hr
Friend, in his Hiftory of Phyfic, p. 229. to be falfely
afcribed to'this author-
The Roman empire beginning now to be Opprefled ;
by the barbarians* and funk in grofs fuperftition, learn¬
ing of all kinds decreafed; and when the empire was
totally overwhelmed by thofe barbarous nations, every
appearance of fcience was almoft extinguilhed in Eu¬
rope; The only remains of it were among the Ara¬
bians in Spain and in Alia.—The Saracens, who came-
into Spain, deftroyed at firft all the Greek books which
the Vandals had fpared : but though their government:
was in a conftant ftruggle and fludluation during 800.
years before they were driven out, they received a tafte;
for learning from their countrymea of the eaft ; feveral
of their princes encouraged liberal ftudies ; public,
fchools were fet up at Cordova, Toledo, and other
towns, and tranflations of the Greeks into the Arabic
were univerfally in the hands of their teachers.
Thus was the learning of the Grecians transferred to
the Arabians. But though they had fo good a foun¬
dation to build upon, this art was never improved
while they were mafters of the world; for they were
fatisfied with commenting upon Galen ; and feem to
have made no diffeftions of human bodies.
Abdollaliph, who was himfelf a teacher of anatomy,,
a man eminent in his. time (at and before 1203) for
his learning and curiofity ; a great traveller, who had
been bred at Bagdad, and had feen many of the great
cities and principal places for ftudy in the Saracen em¬
pire ; wdio had a favourable opinion of original obfer-
vation, in oppofition to book-learning; who boldly
corredte.dftome of Galen’s errors, and was perfuaded
that many more might be detefted ; this man, w'e fay,
never made or faw, or feemed to think of a human dif-
fedtion. He difcovered Galen’s errors in the ofteology;
by going to burying-grounds, with his ftudents and o-
thers, where he examined and demonftrated the bones ;
he earneftly recommended that method of ftudy, in
preference even to the reading of Galen, and thought
that many farther improvements might be made ; yet
he feemed not to have an idea that a frefti fubjecl might
be difledted with that view.
Perhaps the Jewilh tenets which the-Mahometans ■
adopted about uncleanlinefs and pollution, might pre¬
vent their handling dead bodies; or their opinion of
what was fuppofed to pafs between an angel and the
dead perfon, might make them think difturbing the
dead highly facrilegious. Such, however, as Arabian,
learning w'as, for many ages together there was hard¬
ly any other in all the weftern countries of Europe. It
was introduced by the eftablifhment of the Saracens in
Spain in 711, and kept its ground till the reftoration
of learning in the end of the 15 th century-- The ftate .
of anatomy in Europe, in the times of Arabian influ¬
ence, may be feen by reading a very fliort fyftem of a-
natomy drawn up by Mundinus, in the year 1315. It
was extrafted principally from w'hat the Arabians had
preferved of Galen’s doftrine; and, rude as it is, in
that age, it was judged to be fo mafterly a performance,
that it was ordered by a public decree, that it fhould .
be read in all the fchools of Italy; and it a&ually con¬
tinued.
ttory. A N A
tinued to be almoft the only book which was read up¬
on the fubjedt for above 200 years. Cortefms gives
him the credit of being- the great reftorer of anatomy,
!i and the firfl: who differed human bodies among the
moderns.
A general prejudice againft diffection, however, pre¬
vailed till the 16th century. The emperor Charles V.
V ordered a confultation to be held by the divines of Sa¬
lamanca, in order to determine whether or not it was
lawful in point of confcience to dilfedl a dead body.
In Mufcovy, till very lately,, both anatomy and the
ufe of Ikeletons were forbidden, the firft as inhuman,:
and the latter as fubfervient to witchcraft.
In the beginning of the 15th century, learning re¬
vived confiderably in Europe, and particularly phyfic,
by means of copies of the Greek authors brought from
the fack of Conilantinpple ; after which the number of
i anatomifts and anatomical books increafed to a prodi¬
gious degree.—The Europeans becoming thus poflef-
fed of the ancient Greek fathers of medicine, were for
a long time fo much occupied in correcting the copies
they could -obtain,; ftudying the meaning, and com¬
menting upon them, that they attempted nothing of
their own, efpecially in anatomy.
And here the late Dr Hunter introduces into the-
annals of this art, a genius of the firft rate, Leonardo
da Vinci, who had been formerly overlooked,, becaufe
he was of another profeffion, and becaufe he publifhed
I nothing upon the fubjedt. He is confidered by the
Doctor as by far the belt anatomift and phyfiologift of
his time ; and was certainly the firft man we know of
who introduced the practice of making anatomical
t. drawings.
Vaffare, in his lives of the painters, fpeaks of Leo¬
nardo thus, after telling us that he had compofed a
I book of the anatomy of a horfe, for his-own ftudy:
p “ He afterwards- applied himfelf with more diligence
k to the human anatomy; in which ftudy he reciprocally
E received and communicated affiftance to Marc. Anto-
re ' nio della Torre, an excellent philofopher, who then
f, read leCtures in Pavia, and.wrote upon this fubject; and
who was the firft, as I have heard, who began to illuf-
trate medicine from the doctrine of Galen, and to give
S: true light to anatomy, which till that time had been
involved in clouds of darknefs and ignorance. In this
he availed himfelf exceedingly of the genius, and labour
of Leonardo, who made a book of ftudies, drawn with
red chalk, and touched with a pen, with great diligence;
of fuch fubjects as he had himfelf diffected; where he
made all the bones, and to thofe he joined, in their or¬
der, all the nerves, and covered them with the mufclesi
And concerning thofe, from part to part, he wrote re-
jk marks in letters of an ugly form, which are written by
the left hand, backwards, and not to be underftood but
by thofe who know the method of reading them ; for
they are not to be read without a looking-glafs. Of
thefe papers of the human anatomy, there is a great
I part in the pofTeifion of M. Francefco da Mefeo, a Mi-
ianefe gentleman,, who, in the time of Leonardo, was a
moft beautiful boy, and much beloved by him, as he is
now a beautiful and genteel old man, who reads thofe
writings, and carefully preferves them, as precious re-
lifts, together with the portrait of Leonardo, of happy
memory. It appears impofiible that that divine fpirit
fhould reafon fo well upon the arteries, and mufcles,
T O M Y.
and nerves, and veins ; and with fuch diligence of every¬
thing, &c. &c.”
Thofe very drawings and the writings are happily^
found to be preferved in his Majefty’s great colleftiorv
of original drawings, where the Doftor was permitted
to examine them; and his fentiments upon the occafioir
he thus exprefles : “ I expefted to fee little more than
fuch defigns in anatomy, as might be ufeful to a pain¬
ter in his own profeffion ; but I faw, and indeed with
aftoniffiment, that Leonardo had been a general and a
deep ftudent. When I confider what pains he has ta¬
ken upon every part of the body, the fuperiority of his*
univerfal genius, his particular excellence in mechanics
and hydraulics, and the attention with which fuch a--
man would examine and fee objefts which he was to
draw, I am fully perfuaded that Leonardo was the heft
anatomift at that time in the world. We muft give the-
15 th century the credit of Leonardo’s anatomical fin-
dies, as he was 55 years of age at the clofe of that cen-
tury.’*
In the beginning of the 16th century, Achillinus and
Benediftus, but particularly Berengarius and Mafia, fol¬
lowed out the improvement of anatomy in Italy, where
they taught it, and publiftred upon the fubjeft. Thefe
firft improvers made fome difcoveries from their owa
diffeftions : but it is not furprifing that they fhould
have been diffident of themfelves, and have followed
Galen almoft blindly, when his authority had been fa
long eftablifhed, and when the enthufiafm for Greek
authors was rifing to fuch a pitch.
Soon after this, we may fay about the year 1540,
the great Vefalius appeared. He was ftudibus, labo¬
rious, and ambitious. From Bruffels, the place of his
birth, he went to Louvain, and thence to Paris, where
anatomy was not yet making a confiderable figure, and
then to Louvain to teach; from which place, very for¬
tunately for his reputation, he was called to Italy,
where he met with every opportunity that fuch a ge¬
nius for anatomy could defire, that is, books, fubjefts,
and excellent draughtfmen. He was equally laborious
in reading the ancients, and in diffefting bodies. And
in making the comparifon, he could not but fee, that
there was great room for improvement, and that many
of Galen’s defcriptions. were erroneous. When he was
but a young man, he publiftied a noble fyftem of ana¬
tomy, illuftrated with a great - number of elegant fi¬
gures.—In this work he found fo many occafions of
correcting Galen, that his contemporaries, [partial to
antiquity, and jealous of his reputation, complained that
he carried his turn for improvement and criticifms to
licentioufnefs. The fpirit of oppofition and emulation
was prefently roufed ; and Sylvius in France, Colum¬
bus, Fallopius, and Euftachius in Italy, who were all
in high anatomical reputation about the middle of this
16th century, endeavoured to defend Galen at the ex¬
pence of Vefalius. In their difputes they made their
appeals to the human body t and thus in a few years
the art was greatly improved. And Vefalius being de-
tefted in the very fault which he condemns in Galen,
to wit, defcribing, from the diffeftions of brutes, and
not of the human body, it expofed fo fully that blun¬
der of the older anatomifts, that in fucceeding times
there has been little reafon for fuch complaint.—Be-
fides the above, he publiftied feveral other anatomical
treatifes. He has been particularly ferviceable by inv
poling
66$
o
A N A T
pofing names on the mufcles, moft of which are retain¬
ed to this day. Formerly they were diftinguiflied by
numbers, which were differently applied by almoft e-
very author.
In 1561, Gabriel Fallopius, profeffor of anatomy
at Padua, publiihed a treatife of anatomy under the
title of Obfervationes Anatomicx. This was defigned as
a fupplement to Vefalius ; many of whofe defcriptions
he correfts, though he always makes mention of him
in an honourable manner. Fallopius made many great
difcoveries, and his book is well worth the perufal of
every anatomift.
In 1563, Bartholomseus Eullachius publifhedhis 0-
pufcula Anatomica at Venice, which have ever fince been
prltly admired for the exa&nefs of the defcriptions, and
the difcoveries contained in them. He publifhed after¬
wards fome other pieces, in which there is little of ana¬
tomy; but never publilhed the great work he had pro-
mifed, which was to be adorned with copperplates
reprefenting all the parts of the human body. Thefe
plates, after lying buried in an old cabinet for upwards
of 150 years, were at laft difcovered and publifhed in
the year 1714, by Lancifi the pope’s phylician ; who
-added a fhort explicatory text, becaufe Eilftachius’s
own writing could not be found.
From this time the ftudy of anatomy gradually dif-
fufed itfelf over Europe; infomuch that for the laft
hundred years it has been daily improving by the la¬
bour of a number of profeffed anatomifts almoft in
every country of Europe.
We may form a judgment about the ftate of anatomy
even in Italy, in the beginning of the 17th century,
from the information of Cortefius. He had been profeffor
of anatomy at Bologna, and was then profeffor of medi¬
cine at Maffana ; where, though he had a great defire
to improve himfelf in the art, and to finifh a treatife
which he had begun on practical anatomy, in 24 years
he could twice only procure an opportunity of differ¬
ing a human body, and then it was with difficulties and
in hurry; whereas he had expefted to have done fo,
he fays, once every year, according to the cuftom in the
famous academies of Italy.
In the very end of the 16th century, our great Har¬
vey, as was the cuftom of the times, went to Italy to
ftudy medicine ; for Italy was ftill the favourite feat of
the arts: And in the very beginning of the 17 th cen¬
tury, foon after Harvey’s return to England, his ma¬
iler in anatomy, Fabricius ab Aquapendente, publiffi-
ed an account of the valvesffn the veins, which he had
difcovered many years before, and no doubt taught in
his lectures when Harvey attended them.
This difeovery evidently affefted the eftablifhed doc¬
trine of all ages, that the veins carried the blood from
the liver to all parts of the body for nouriffiment. It
fet Harvey to work upon the ufe of the heart and vaf-
cular fyftems in animals ; and in the courfe of fome
years he was fo happy as to difeover, and to prove be¬
yond all poffibility of doubt, the circulation of the blood.
He taught his new dodtrine in his leftures about the
year 1616, and printed it in 1628.
It was by far the moft important ftep that has been
made in the knowledge of animal bodies in any age.
It not only reflefted ufeful lights upon what had been
already found out in anatomy, but akb pointed out the
paeans of further inveftigation. And accordingly we
O M Y. Hiftom
fee, that from Harvey to the prefent time, anatomy
has been fo much improved, that we may reafonably ■
queftion if the ancients have been further outdone by
the moderns in any other branch of knowledge. From
one day to another there has been a conftant fucceffion 1
of difcoveries, relating either to the ftru&ure or func¬
tions of our body ; and new anatomical proceffes, both
of inveftigation and demonftration, have been daily in¬
vented. Many parts of the body which were not
known in Harvey’s time have fince then been brought A
to light: and of thofe w'hich were known, the inter- jfn
nal compofition and functions remained unexplained ; it
and indeed muft have remained unexplicable without
the knowledge of the circulation.
Harvey’s doftrine at firft met with confiderable op- j
pofition; but in the fpaee of about lo years it was fo
generally and fo warmly embraced, that it was imagi¬
ned every thing in phyfic would be explained. But m
time and experience have taught us, that we ftill are, Jj
and probably muft long continue to be, very ignorant; ji
and that in the ftudy of the human body, and of its
difeafes, there will always be an extenfive field for the
exercife of fagacity.
After the difeovery and knowledge of the circula- fl
tion of the blood, the next queftion would naturally ;;
have been about the'paffage and route of the nutritious
part of the food or chyle from the bowels to the blood- *||
veffels: And, by good fortune, in a few years after
Harvey had made his difeovery, Afellius, an Italian
phyfician, found out the la&eals, or veffels which car¬
ry the chyle from the inteftines; and printed his ac¬
count of them, with coloured prints, in the year 1627,
the very year before Harvey’s book came out.
For a number of years after thefe two publications,
the anatomifts in all parts of Europe were daily open¬
ing living dogs, either to fee the lafteals or to obferve
the phenomena of the circulation. In making an ex- ||
periment of this kind, Pecquet in France was fortu¬
nate enough to difeover the thoracic du&, or common ;||
trunk of all the ladteals, which conveys the chyle into
the fubclavian vein. He printed his difeovery in the
year 165;. And now the lafteals having been traced
from the inteftines to the thoracic dutft, and that du£t
having been traced to its termination in a blood-veffel,
the paffage of the chyle was completely made out.
The fame pra&ice of opening living animals furniffi-
ed occafions of difeovering the lymphatic veffels. This
good fortune fell to the lot of Rudbec firft, a young
Swedifti anatomift; and then to Thomas Bartholine, a •
Danilh anatomift, who was the firft who appeared in
print upon the lymphatics. His book came out in the
year 1653, that is two years after that of Pecquet. iH
And then it wTas very evident that they had been feen
before by Dr Higmore and others, who had miftaken
them for lafiteals. But none of the anatoinifts of thofe
times could make out the origin of the lymphatics, and
none of the phyfiologitts could give a fatisfactory ac* |
count of their ufe.
The circulation of the blood and the paffage of the
-chyle having been fatisfa&orily traced out in full grown H
animals, the anatomifts were naturally led next to con-
fider how thefe animal proceffes were carried or, in the
child while in the womb of the mother Accordingly
the male and female organs, the appearances and con¬
tents of the pregnant uterus, the incubated egg, and
every
Hiflory. ANATOMY.
every phenomenon which could illuftrate generation,
became the favourite fubjeft for about 30 years with
the principal anatomiils of Europe.
Thus it would appear to have been in theory : but
Dr Hunter believes, that in faft, as Harvey’s mailer
Fabricius laid the foundation for the difcovery of the
circulation of the blood by teaching him the valves of
the veins, and thereby inviting him to confider that
fubjeft; fo Fabricius, by his ledtures, and by his ele¬
gant work De formato fostu, et d: formations ovt et pulli,
probably made that likevvife a favourite fubject with
Dr Harvey. But whether he took up the fubjedl of
generation in confeqnence of his difcovery of the cir¬
culation, or was led to it by his honoured mailer Fa-
bricious, he fpent a great deal of his time in the in¬
quiry ; and publilhed his obfervations in a book De ge¬
nerations animalium, in the year 1651, that is fix
years before his death.
In a few years after this, Swammerdam, Van Horn,
Steno, and De Graaf, excited great attention to the
fubjedt of generation, by their fuppofed difcovery that
the females of viviparous animals have ovaria, that is,
clufters of eggs in their loins, like oviparous animals;
which, when impregnated.by the male, are conveyed
into the uterus: fo that a child is produced from an
egg as well as a chick ; with this difference, that one
is hatched within, and the other without, the body of
the mother.
Malpighi, a great Italian genius, feme time after,
made conliderable advances upon the fubjedt of gene¬
ration. He had the good fortune to be the firll who
ufed magnifying glaffes with addrefs in tracing the firll
appearances in the formation of animals. He likewife
made many other obfervations and improvements in
the minutice of anatomy by his microfcopical labours,
and by cultivating comparative anatomy.
This dillinguilhed anatomift gave the firlt public
fpecimen of his abilities by printing a differtation on
the lungs anno 1661 ; a period fo remarkable for the
ftudy of nature, that it would be injullice to pafs it
without particular notice.
At the fame time flourifhed Laurentius Bellinus at
Florence, and was the firll who introduced mathemati¬
cal reafoning ia phyfic. In 1662, Simon Pauli pub¬
lilhed a treatife De albandis ofibus. He had long been
admired for the white fkeletons he prepared; and at fall
difeovered his method, which was by expofing the bones
all winter to the weather.
Johannes Swammerdam of Amllerdam alfo publilh¬
ed fame anatomical treatifes; but was moll remarkable
for his knowledge of preferring the parts of bodies en¬
tire for many years, by injefting their veffels. He-
alfo publilhed a treatife on refpiration; wherein he men¬
tioned his having figures of all the parts of the body, as
big as the life, cut in copper, which he defigned to pub-
li'lh, with a complete fyllem of anatomy. Thefe, how¬
ever, were never made public by Swammerdam ; but,
in ^683, Gothofridus Bidloo, profeffor of anatomy at
Leyden, publilhed a work intitled Anatomia corporis
kurnant, where all the parts were delineated in very
large plates almoll as big as the life. Mr Cowper, an
Englilh furgeon, bought 300 copies of thefe figures; and
in 1698, publilhed them, with am Englilh text, quite
different from Bidloo’s Latin one; to which were ad¬
ded letters in Bidloo’s figures, and fome few figures
3.-
of Mr Cowper’s own. To this work Cowper’s name
was prefixed, without the leall mention of Bidloo, ex¬
cept on purpofe to confute him. Bidloo immediately
pubiilhed a very ill-natured pamphlet, called Gulielmus
(■ eauperils citatus coram tribunali; appealing to the
Royal Society, how far Cowper ought to be punilhed as
a plagiary of the worll kind, and endeavouring toprgve
him an ignorant deceitful fellow. Cowper anfwered
him in his own llyle, in a pamphlet called his Vindicia;
endeavouring to prove, either that Bidloo did not un-
derlland his own tables, or that they were none of his.
It was even alleged that thofe were the tables promi-
fed by Swammerdam, and which Bidloo had got from
his wfidovv. This, however, appears to have been only
an invidious furmife, there being unqueftionable evi¬
dence that they were really the performance of Bidloo.
Soon after, Ilbrandus Diembroeck, profeffor of ana¬
tomy at Utrecht, began to appear as an author. His
w'ork contained very little original; but he was at great
pains to collect from others whatever was valuable in
their writings, and his fyllem was the common flandard
among anatomical lludents for many years.
About the fame time, Antonius Liewenhoeck of
Delft improved confiderably on Malpighi’s ufe of mi-
crofcopes. Thefe two authors took up anatomy where
others had dropt it; and, by this new art, they brought
a number of amazing things to light. They difeover¬
ed the red globules of the blood; they were enabled to
fee the adlual circulation of the blood in the tranfpa-
rent parts of living animals, and could meafure the ve¬
locity of its motion ; they difeovered that the arteries,
and veins had no intermediate cells or fpungy fubllance,
as Harvey and all the preceding anatomiils had fuppo¬
fed, but communicated one wfith the other by a conti¬
nuation of the fame tube..
Liewenhoeck was in great.fame likewife for his dif¬
covery of the animalcula in the femen. Indeed there
was fcarcely a part of the body, folid or fluid, which :
efcaped his examination;, and he almoll every where
found,,that, what appeared to the naked eye to be rude
undigelled matter, was in reality a beautiful and regu-•
lar compound.
After this period, Nuck added to our knowledge of
the abforbent fyllem already mentioned, by his injec¬
tions of the lymphatic glands;. Ruyfch, by his deferip-
tion of the valves of the lymphatic vellels; and Dr
Meckel, by his accurate account of the whole fyllem,.
and by tracing thofe vclfels in many parts where they -
had not before been deferibed. *
Befides .thefe authors, Drs Hunter and Monro have
called the attention of the public to this part of anato- -
my, in their controverfy concerning the difcovery of
the office of the lymphatics.
When the lymphatic veffels were firit feen and tra¬
ced into the thoracic du£t, it was natural for anato¬
miils to fufpefl, that as the lafleals abforbed from the
cavity of the intellines, the lymphatics, which are fi-
milar in figure and ilrufture, might poffibly do the
fame office with refpeft to other parts of the body: and
accordingly, Dr Gliffon, who wrote in 1654, fuppofes
thefe veffels arofe from cavities, and that their ufe was
to abforb; and Frederic Hoffman has veiy explicitly
laid down the doftrine of the lymphatic veffels being a
fyllem of abforbents. But anatomiils in general have
been of a contrary opinion; for from experiments, par¬
ticularly;
A N A T
ticularjy fuch as were made by injections, they have
• been perfuaded that the lymphatic veffels did not arife
from cavities, and did not abforb, but were merely
• continuations from fmall arteries. The doCtrine, there¬
fore, that the lymphatics, like the la&eals, were ab-
forbents, as had been fuggefted by Gliffon and by
Hoffman, has been revived by Dr Hunter and Dr
Monro, who have controverted the experiments of
• their predeceffors in anatomy, and have endeavoured
•to prove that the lymphatic veffels are not continued
from arteries, but are abforbents.
To this doCtrine, however, feveral objections have
been ftarted, particularly by Haller (Elem. Phyf. 1. 24.
$ 2, 3.); and it has been found, that before the doc¬
trine of the lymphatics being a fyftcm of abforbents
can be eftablilhed, it muff firft be determined whether
this fyftem is to be found in other animals befides man
and quadrupeds. Mr Hewfon claims the merit of ha¬
ving proved the affirmative of this queftion, by difco-
vering the lymphatic fyftem in birds, fifh, and amphi¬
bious animals. See Phil. Tranf. vol. Iviii. and Ixix.—
And latterly, Mr Cruikftrank has traced the ramifica¬
tions of that fyftem in almoft every part of the body;
and from his diffe&ions, figures have been made and
lately publifhed to the world. To Mr Sheldon alfo
we are much indebted for his illuftration of this fyftem,
•which promifes to give great fatisfaCUon, but of which
only a part has been yet publiffied.
The gravid uterus is a fubjeCt likewife which has
received confiderable improvements, particularly rela¬
ting to one very important difcovery; viz. that the in¬
ternal membrane of the uterus, which Dr Hunter has
named decidua, conftitutes the exterior part of the fecun-
dines or after-birth, and feparates from the reft of the
uterus every time that a woman either bears a child or
fuffers a mifcarriage. This difcovery includes another,
to wit, that the placenta is partly made up of an ex-
crefcence or efflorefcence from the uterus itfelf.
Thefe difcoveries are of the utmoft confequence,
both in the phyfiological queftion about the connexion
between the mother and child, and likewife in explain¬
ing the phenomena of births and abortions, as well as
in regulating obftetrical practice.
The anatomifts of this century have improved ana¬
tomy, and have made the ftudy of it much more eafy,
by giving us more correCt as well as more numerous
.figures. It is amazing to think of what has been done
in that time. We have had four large folio books of
figures of the bones, viz. Chefelden’s, Albinus’s, Sue’s,
and Trew’s. Of the mufcles, we have had two large
folios ; one from CowTper, which is elegant; and one
from Albinus, which, from the accuracy and labour of
the work, we may fuppofe will never be outdone. Of
the blood-veffels we have a large folio from Dr Hal¬
ler. We have had one upon the nerves from Dr
Meckel, and another by Dr Monro junior. We have
had Albinus’s, Roederer’s^Jenty’s, and Hunter’^ works
upon the pregnant uterus; Weitbrecht and Leber on
the joints and frelh bones ; Soemerring on the brain ;
Zinn on the eye; Cotunnius, Mekel junior, &c. on the
ear ; Walter on the nerves of the thorax and abdo¬
men ; Dr Monro on the burfse mucofas, &c'.
It would be endlefs to mention the anatomical figures
that have been publilhed in this century, of particular and
.N° 17.
O M Y. v Hiftoi
fmaller parts of the body, by Morgagni, Ruyfch, Val-
falva, Sanftorini, Heifter, Vater, Cant, Zimmerman,
Walterus, and others.
Thofe elegant plates of the brain, however, juft pu¬
bliffied by M. Vicq. d’Azyr, muft not pafs without no¬
tice, efpecially as they form part of an univerfal fyftem
of anatomy and phyfiology, both human and compara¬
tive, propofed to be executed in the fame fplendid ftyle.
Upon the brain alone 19 folio plates are employ¬
ed ; of which feveral are coloured. The figures are
delineated with accuracy and clearnefs ; but the colour¬
ing is rather beautiful than correct. Such parts of this
work as may be publiffied, cannot fail to be equally ac¬
ceptable to the anatomift and the philofopher ; but
the entire defign is apparently too extenfive to be ac-
compliffied within the period of a fingle life. In our
own country, alfo, a very great anatomical work is
carrying on by Andrew Bell, F. S. A. S. engraver to
his Royal Highnefs the Prince of Wales, with the ap¬
probation of Dr Monro, and under the infpedtion of
his very ingenious affiftant Mr Fyfe. It is to compofe
a complete illuftration, both general and particular, of
the human body, by a feleftion from the bell plates of
all the greateft anatomifts, as well foreign as of this
country, exhibiting the lateft difcoveries in the fcience,
and accompanied with copious explanations. The
whole number of plates mentioned in the Profpedhis is
240, of which 152 are already done ; all in royal fo¬
lio.
To the foreign treatifes already mentioned may be
added thofe recently publiffied by Sabbatier and Plenck
on anatomy in general. Among ourfelves, the wri¬
tings of Keil, Douglas, Chefelden, the firft Monro,
Window, &c. are too well known to need defcription.
The laft of thefe ufed to be recommended as a ftandard
for the ftudents of anatomy : but it has of late given
place to a more accurate and comprehenfive fyftem, in
three volumes, publiffied by Mr Elliot of Edinburgh,
upon a plan approved of by Dr Monro, and executed
by Mr Fyfe. Dr Simmons of London has alfo obliged
the world with an excellent fyftem of anatomy; and
another work, under the title of “ Elements of Ana¬
tomy and the Animal (Economy in which the
fubje&s are treated with uncommon elegance and per-
fpicuity.
In the latter part of the laft century, anatomy made
two great fteps, by the invention of injedlions, and the
method of making what we commonly call
Thefe two modern arts have really been of-infinite ufe
to anatomy ; and befides have introduced an elegance
into our adminiftrations, which in former times could
not have been fuppofed to be poffible. They arofe in
Holland under Swammerdam and Ruyfch, and’ after¬
wards in England under Cowper, St. Andre, and o-
thers, where they have been greatly improved.
The anatomifts of former ages had no other know¬
ledge of the blood-veffels, than what they were able to
colleft from laborious diffe&ions, and from examining
the fmaller branches of them, upon fome lucky occa-
fion, when they were founds more than commonly load¬
ed with red blood. But filling the vafcular fyftem with
a bright coloured wax, enables us to trace the large
veffels with great eafe, renders the fmaller much more
confpicuous, and makes thoufands of the very minute
ones
Introd
A N A 1
ones vifible, which from their delicacy, and the tranfpa-
rency of their natural contents, are otherwife imper¬
ceptible.
The modern art of corroding the flefhy parts with a
menftruum, and of leaving the moulded wax entire, is
fo exceedingly ufeful, and at the fame time fo orna¬
mental, that it does great honour to the ingenious in¬
ventor Dr Nicholls.
The wax-work art of the moderns might deferye no¬
tice in any hiftory of anatomy, if the mailers in that
way had not been fo carelefs in their imitation. Many
of the wax-figures are fo tawdry, with a ihow of unna¬
tural colours, and fo very incorrect in the circumftances
of figure, fituation, and the like, that though they
ftrike a vulgar eye writh admiration, they muft appear
ridiculous to an anatomift. But thofe figures which
are call in wax, plafter, or lead, from the real fubjeft,
and which of late years have been frequently made
here, are, of courfe, very correct in all the principal
parts, and may be confidered as no infignificant acqui-
fition.to modern anatomy. The proper,, or principal
life of this art is, to preferve a very perfect likenefs of
fuch fubjedts as we but feldom can meet with, or can¬
not well preferve in a natural ftate ; a fubject in preg¬
nancy, for example.
The modern improved methods of preferving animal
bodies, or parts of them, has been of the greateft fer-
vice to anatomy ; efpecially in faving the time and la¬
bour of the anatomift in the nicer diffeftions of the
fmall parts of the body. For now, whatever he has
prepared with care, he can preferve ; and the object is
ready to be feen at any time. And in the fame man¬
ner he can preferve anatomical curiofities, or rarities of
every kind ; fuch as, parts that are, uncommonly form¬
ed ; parts that are difeafed ; the parts of the pregnant
uterus and its contents. Targe colledlions of fuch cu¬
riofities, which modern anatomifts are ftriving almoft
everywhere to procure, are of infinite fervice to the
art, efpecially in the hands of teachers. They give
Undents clear ideas about many things which it is very
eifential to know, and yet which it is impoffible that a
teacher (hould be able to (how otherwife, were he ever
lb well fupplied with frefh fubjects.
§ 2. View of the Subjett in general, and Plan of
the following Preatife.
The etymology of the word anatomy, as above gi¬
ven, implies- Amply dijjeftion; but by this term fome-
thing more is ufually underflood.
It is every day made ufe of to exprefs a knowledge
©f the human body ; and a perfon who is faid to un¬
derhand anatomy, is fuppofed to be converfant with the'
iiru&ure and arrangement of the different folid parts of
the body.
It is commonly divided into Anatomy, properly fo
called; and Comparative Anatomy: the firft of thefe is
confined folely to the human body; the latter includes
all animals, fo far as a knowledge of their ftrudture
may tend to perfedf our ideas of the human body. See
Comparative Anatomy.
The term anatomy may alfo have another and more
extenfive fignification : it may be employed to exprefs
not only a knowledge of the ftrufture and difpofition of
the parts, but likewife of their oeconomy and ufe. Con¬
fidered in this light, it will feldom fail to excite the cu-
Vol. I. Part II.
1 O M Y.
riofity of people of tafle, as a branch of philofophy;
fince, if it is pleafingto be acquainted with the flrufture
of the body, it is certainly more fo to difeover all the
fprings which give life and motion to the machine; and
to obferve the admirable mechanifm by which fo many
different functions are executed.
Aflronomy and anatomy, as Dr Hunter, after Fon*
tenelle, obferves, are the ftudies which prefent us with
the mofl ftriking view of the two greateft attributes of
the Supreme Being. The firft of thefe fills the mind
with the idea of his immenfity, in the largenefs, dif-
tances, and number of the heavenly bodies; the laft,
aftonifhes with his intelligence and art in the variety
and delicacy of animal mechanifm.
The human body has been commonly enough known
by the name of microcofmus, or the little world; as if it
did not differ fo much from the univerfal fyftem of na¬
ture in the fymmetry and number of its parts as in
their fize.
Galen’s excellent treatife De ufu partium, was com-
pofed as a profe hymn to the Creator; and abounds
with as irrefiftible proofs of afupreme Caufe and go¬
verning Providence, as we find in modern phyfico-
theology. And Cicero dwells more on the ftrufture
and ceconomy of animals than on all the productions of
nature befides, when he wants to prove the exiftence of
the gods from the order and beauty of the univerfe.
He there takes a furvey of the body of man in a moft
elegant fynopfis of anatomy, and concludes thus:
“ Quibus rebus expofitis, fatis docuiffe videor, homi-
nis natura, quanto omnes anteiret animantes. Ex quo
debet intelligi, nec figuram fitumque membrorum, nec
ingenii mentifque vim talem effici potuiffe fortuna.”
The fatisfadlion of mind which arifes from the ftudy
of anatomy, and the influence which it muft naturally
have upon our minds as philofophers, cannot be better
conveyed than by the following paffage from the fame
author: “ Quas contuens animus, accepit ab his cog-
nitionem deorum, ex qua oritur pietas: cui conjunfta
juftitia eft, reliquasque virtutes: ex quibus vita beata
exfiftit, par et fimilis deorum, nulla alia re nifi immor-
talitate, quas nihil ad bene vivendum pertinet, cedens
coeleftibus.”
It would be endlefs to quote the animated paflages
of this fort which are to be found in the phyficians,
philofophers, and theologifts, who have confidered the
ftructure and functions of animals with a view towards
the Creator. It is a view which muft ftrike one with
a moft awful conviftion. Who can know and confider
the thoufand evident proofs of the aftoniftiing art of
the Creator, in forming and fuftaining an animal body
fuch as ours, without feeling the moft pleafant enthu-
fiafm? Can we ferioufly reflect upon this awful fub-
je£t, without being almoft loft in adoration ? without
longing for another life after this, in which we may be
gratified with the higheft enjoyment, which our facul¬
ties and nature feem capable of, the feeing and com¬
prehending the whole plan of the Creator, in forming
the univerfe, and in dire&ing all its operations?
But the more immediate purpofes of anatomy con¬
cern thofe who are to be the guardians of health, as
this ftudy is neceflary to lay a foundation for all the
branches of medicine.—-The more we know of our
fabric, the more reafon we have to believe, that if our
fenfes were more acute, and our judgment more enlar-
4 ged»
675
674
A N A T
ged, we fhould be able to trace many fprings of life
which are now hidden from us: by the fame fagacity
we fhould difcover the true caufes and nature of dif-
eafes ; and thereby be enabled to reftore the health of
many, who are now, from our more confined know¬
ledge, faid to labour under incurable diforders. By
fuch an intimate acquaintance with the oeconomy of
our bodies, we fhould difcover even the feeds of dif-
eafes, and deltroy them before they had taken root in
the conftitution.
That anatomy is the very bafis of fitrgery every body
allows. It is difle&ion alone that can teach us, where
we may cut the living body with freedom and difpatch;
and where we may venture with great circumfpettion
and delicacy ; and where we muft not, upon any ac¬
count, attempt it. This informs the head, gives dex¬
terity to the hand, and familiarizes the heart with a
fort of neceffary inhumanity, the ufe of cutting-inftru-
ments upon our fellow-creatures.
Befides the knowledge of our body, through all the
variety of its flrutture and operations in a found ftate,
it is by anatomy only that we can arrive at the know¬
ledge of the true nature of moft of the difeafes which
afflift humanity. The fymptoms of many diforders
are often equivocal; and difeafes themfelves are thence
frequently miflaken, even by fenfible, experienced, and
attentive phyficians. But by anatomical examination
after death, we can with certainty find out the mif-
take, and learn to avoid it in any fimilar cafe.
This ufe of anatomy has been fo generally adopted
by the moderns, that the cafes already publifiied are
almofl: innumerable: Mangetus, Morgagni, indeed many
of the beft modern writings in phyfic, are full of them.
And if we look among the phyficians of the bell cha-
rafter, and obferve thofe who have the art itfelf, ra¬
ther than the craft of the profeffion at heart; we lhall
find them conftantly taking pains to procure leave to
examine the bodies of their patients after death.
After having confidered the rife and progrefs of ana¬
tomy ; the various difeoveries that have been made in
it, from time to time; the great number of diligent
obfervers who have applied themfelves to this art; and
the importance of the ftudy, not only for the preven¬
tion and cure of difeafes, but in furnilhing the liveliell
proofs of divine wifdom ; the following queftions feem
naturally to arife: For what purpofe is there fuch a
variety of parts in the human body ? Why fuch a com¬
plication of nice and tender machinery? Why was
there not rather a more Ample, lefs delicate, and lefs
expenfive frame ( a ) ?
In order to acquire a fatisfaftory general idea of this
fubjeft, and find a folution of all fuch quellions, let
us, in our imagination, make a man : in other words,
let us fuppofie that the mind, or immaterial part, is to be
placed in a corporeal fabric, in order to hold a corre-
Ipondence with other material beings by the intervention
of the body; and then confider, a priori, what will
be wanted for her accommodation. In this inquiry, we
fhall plainly fee the neceffity or advantage, and there¬
fore the final caufe, of moft of the parts which we ac-
O M Y. Introd,
tually find in the human body. And if we confider
that, in order to anfwer fome of the requifites, human
wit and invention would be very infufficient; we need
not be furprifed if we meet with fome parts of the bo¬
dy whofe ufe we cannot yet perceive, and with fome
operations or functions which we cannot explain. We
can fee that the whole bears the moft ftriking charac¬
ters of excelling wifdom and ingenuity: but the im-
perfeft fenfes and capacity of man cannot pretend to
reach every part of a machine, which nothing lefs than
the intelligence and power of the Supreme Being could
contrive and exeente.
Firft, then, the mind, the thinking, immaterial a-
gent, muft be provided with a place of immediate re-
fidence, which fhall have all the requifites for the union
of fpirit and body; accordingly {he is provided with
the brain, where fhe dwells as governor and fuperin-
tendant of the whole fabric.
In the next place, as (he is to hold a correfpondence
with all the material beings around her, (he muft be
fupplied with organs fitted to receive the different
kinds of impreffions which they will make. In fail,
therefore, we fee that fhe is provided with the organs
of fenfe, as we call them : the eye is adapted to light;
the ear to found; the nofe to fmell; the mouth to
tafte ; and the {kin to touch.
Further: She muft be furnifhed with organs of
communication between herfelf in the brain and thofe
organs of fenfe, to give her information of all the im¬
preffions that are made upon them : and {he muft have
organs between herfelf in the brain and every other
part of the body, fitted to convey her commands and
influence over the whole. For thefe purpofes the nerves
are aftually given. They are chords, which rife from
the brain, the immediate refidence of the mind, and
difperfe themfelves in branches through all parts of the
body. They convey all the different kinds of fenfa-
tions to the mind, in the brain ; and likewife carry
out from thence all her commands or influence to the
other parts of the body. They are intended to be oc-
cafional monitors againft all fuch impreffions as might
endanger the well-being of the whole, or of any par¬
ticular part; which vindicates the Creator of all things,
in having actually fubjected us to thofe many difagree-
able and painful fenfations which we are expofed tO'
from a thoufand accidents in life.
Moreover, the mind, in this corporeal fyftem, muft
be endued with the power of moving from place to
place, that {he njay have intercourfe with a variety of
objefts ; that fhe may fly from fuch as are difagreeable,
dangerous, or hurtful, and purfue fuch as are pleafant
or ufeful to her. And accordingly ffie is furnifhed.
with limbs, and with mufcles and tendons, the inftru-
ments of motion, which are found in every part of the
fabric where motion is neceffary.
But to fupport, to give firmnefs and fliape to the
fabric ; to keep the fofter parts in their proper places;
to give fixed points for, and the proper direction to
its motions, as well as to proteft fome of the more
important and tender organs from external injuries;
there
(a) The following beautiful reprefentation is taken from the late Dr Hunter’s Introdufary Letture in Anr,-
temp.
Introd, A N A T
there muil be fome firm prop-work interwoven through
the whole. And in fadt, for fuch purpofes the bones
are given.
The prop-work mu ft not be made into one rigid fa¬
bric, for that would prevent motion. Therefore there
are a number of bones.
Thefe, pieces muft all be firmly bound together, to
prevent their diflocation. And this end is perfedtly
well anfwered by the ligaments.
The extremities of thefe bony pieces, where they
move and rub upon one another, muft have fmooth
and flippery furfaces for eafy motion. This is moil
happily provided for, by the cartilages and mucus of
the joints.
The interftices of all thefe parts muft be filled up
with fome foft and duftile matter, which ihall keep
them in their places, unite them, and at the fame time
allow them to move a little uporf one another. i^.nd
thefe purpofes are anfwered by the cellular membrane
or adipofe fubftance.
There muft be an outward covering over the whole
apparatus, both to give it compadlnefs and to defend
it from a thoufand injuries; which, in fadt, are the very
purpofes of the Ikin and other integuments-
Laftly, The mind being formed for fociety and in-
tercourfe with beings of her own kind, ihe muft be en¬
dued with powers of exprefling and communicating her
thoughts by fome fertfible marks or figns ; which flrall
be both eafy to herfelf, and admit of great variety : and
accordingly (he is provided with the organs and faculty
of fpeech, by which {he can throw out figns with ama¬
zing facility, and vary them without end.
Thus we have built up an animal body which would
feem to be pretty complete : but as it is the nature of
matter to be altered and worked upon by matter; fo
in a very little time fuch a living creature muft be de-
ftroyed, if there is no provifion for repairing the inju¬
ries which {he muft commit upon herfelf, and thofe
which ftie muft be expofed to from without. There¬
fore a treafure of bipod is adtually provided in the heart
and vafcular fyftem, full of nutritious and healing par¬
ticles, fluid enough to penetrate into the minuteft parts
of the animal; impelled by the heart, and conveyed
by the arteries, it v. aflies eveiy part, builds up what
was broken down, and fweeps away the old and ufelefs
materials. Hence we fee the neceflity or advantage of
the heart and arterial fyftem.
What more there was of this blood than enough to
repair the prefent damages of the machine, muft not be
loft, but ftiould be returned again to the heart; and for
this purpofe the venous fyftem is adtually provided.
Thefe requifites in the animal explain, a priori, the
circulation of the blood.
The old materials which were become ufelefs, and are
fwept off by the current of blood, muft be feparated
and thrown out of the fyftem. Therefore glands, the
organs of Secretion, are given for {training whatever is
redundant, vapid, or noxious, from the mafs of blood ;
and when {trained, they are thrown out by emundto-
ries, called organs of Excretion.
But now, as the machine muft be conftantly wrear-
ing, the reparation muft be carried on without inter-
miflion, and the {trainers muft always be employed.
Therefore there is adtually a perpetual circulation of
the blood, and the fecretions are always going on.
o m ¥.
Even all this provifion, however, would not be fuffi-
cient; for that {tore of blood would foon be confumed,
and the fabric would break down, if there were not a
provifion made for frefti fupplies. Thefe we obferve,
in fadt, are profufely fcattered round her in the ani¬
mal and vegetable kingdoms; and file is furnifhed with
hands, the ficteft inftruments that could have been con-'
trived, for gathering them, and for preparing them in
a variety of ways for the mouth.
But thefe fupplies, which we call food, muft be con-
fiderably changed ; they muft be converted into blood.
Therefore Ihe is provided with teeth for cutting and
bruifing the food, and with a ftomach for melting it
down : In Ihort, with all the organs fubfervient to di-
geftion.— The finer parts of the aliments only can be
ufeful in the conftitution : thefe muft be taken up and
conveyed into the blood, and the dregs muft be thrown
off. With this view the inteftinal canal is adtually gi¬
ven. It feparates the nutritious part, which we call
chyle, to be conveyed into the blood by the fyftem of
abforbent veffels ; and the feces pafs downwards, to
be condudted out of the body.
Now,we have got our animal not only furniftied with
what is wanted for its immediate exiftence, but alfo
with the powers of protracting that exiftence to an in¬
definite length of time. But its duration, we may pre¬
fume, muft neceffarily be limited : for as it is nourifti-
ed, grows, and is raifed up to its full ftfength and ut-
moft perfection; fo it muft in time, in common with
all material beings, begin to decay, and then hurry oh
to final ruin. Hence we fee the neceflity of a fcheme
for renovation. Accordingly wife Providence, to per¬
petuate, as well as preferve his work, befides giving a
ftrong appetite for life and felf-prefervation, has made
animals male and female, and given them fiich organs
and paflions as will fecure the propagation of the fpe-
cies to the end-of time.
Thus we fee, that by the very imperfect furvey
which human reafon is able to take of this fubjedt, the
animal man muft neceffarily be complex in his corpo¬
real fyftem, and in its operations.
He muft have one great and general fyftem, the vaf¬
cular, branching through the whole for circulation :
Another, the nervous, with its appendages the organs
of fenfe, for every kind of feeling : And a third, for
the union and connexion of all thofe parts.
Befides thefe primary and general fyftems, he re
quires others which may be more local or confined t
One for ftrength, fupport, and protedtion ; the bony
compages: Another for the requifite motions of the
parts among themfelves, as well as for moving from
place to place ; the mufcular part of the body : An¬
other to prepare nouriftiment for the daily recruit of
the body; the digeftive organs: And one for propa¬
gating the fpecies; the organs of generation.
And in taking this general furvey of what would
appear, a priori, to be neceffary for adapting an animal
to the fituations of life, we obferve, with great ftatisfac-
tion, that man is accordingly made of fuch fyftems,
and for fuch purpofes. He has them all; and he has
nothing more except the organs of refpiration. Brea¬
thing it feemed difficult to account for a priori: we
only knew it to be in fadt effentially and neceffary to
life. Notwithftanding this, when we faw all the other
parts of the body, and their fundtions, fo well ac-
4 Q^2 counted
Sy6
A N A T
counted for, and fo wifely adapted to their feveral pur-
pofes, there could be no doubt that refpiration was fo
likewife: And accordingly, the difcoveries of Dr
Prieftley have lately thrown light upon this function
alfo, as will be fhown in its proper place.
Of all the different fyftems in the human body, the
ufe and neceffity are not more apparent, than the wif-
dom and contrivance which has been exerted in putting
-them all into the moft compact and convenient form : in
difpofing them fo, that they fliall mutually receive, and
give helps to one another; and that all, or many of the
parts, (hall not only anfwer their principal end or pur-
pofe, but operate fuccefsfully and ufefully in a. variety
of fecondary ways.
If we confider, the whole animal machine in this
light, and compare it with any machine in which hu¬
man art has exerted its utmoft ; fuppofe the beft con-
rtrufted (hip that ever was built, we (hall be convinced
beyond the poffibility of doubt, that there are intelli¬
gence and power far furpaffing what humanity can
boaft of.
One fuperiority in the natural machine is peculiarly
ftriking.—In machines of human contrivance or art,
there is no internal power, no principle in the machine
itfelf, by which it can alter and accommodate itfelf to
any injury which it may fuffer, or make up any injury
which admits of repair. But in the natural machine,
the animal body, this is moft wonderfully provided for,
by internal powers in the machine itfelf; many of
which are not more certain and obvious in their ef
fefts, than they are above all human comprehenfion as
to the manner and means of their operation. Thus, a
wound heals up of itfelf; a broken bone is made firm
again by a callus; a dead part is feparated and thrown
off; noxious juices are driven out by fome of the
emunctories ; a redundancy is removed by fome fpon-
taneous bleeding ; a bleeding naturally flops of itfelf;
and a great lofs of blood, from any caufe, is in fome
meafure compenfated, by a contrafting power in the
vafcular fyflem, which accommodates the capacity of
the veffels to the quantity contained. The ftomach
gives information when the fupplies have been expend¬
ed; reprefents, with great exaftnefs,' the quantity and
the quality of what is wanted in the prefent date of
the machine ; and in proportion as (he meets with ne-
glecft, rifes in her demand, urges her petition in a loud¬
er tone, and with more forcible arguments. For its
proteftion, an animal body refifts heat and cold in a
very wonderful manner, and preferves an equal tempe¬
rature in a burning and in a freezing atmofphere.
A farther excellence or fuperiority in the natural
machine, if pofilble, dill more aftonifhing, more beyond
all human comprehenfion, than what we have been
{peaking of, is the following. Befides thofe internal
powers of felf-prefervation in each individual,when two
of them co-operate, or a£t in concert, they are endued
with powers of making other animals or machines like
themfelves, which again are poffeffed of the fame powers
of producing others, and fo of multiplying the fpecies
without end.
Thefe are powers which mock all human invention
or imitation. They are charafteriftics of the divine
Architect.
Having premifed this general account of the fubjeft,
O M Y. Introd.
we (hall next confider the method to be obferved in
treating it.
The ftudy of the human body, as already noticed, is
commonly divided into two parts. The firft, which is
called Anatomy, relates to the matter and ftru&ure of its
parts; the fecond, called Phyjiology and Animal (econo¬
my, relates to the principles and laws of its internal ope¬
rations and fumStions.
As the body is a compound of folids and fluids,
tomy is divided into,
1. The Anatomy of the folids, and
2. The Anatomy of the fluids.
I. The solids, by which we mean 'all parts of our
body, which are not fluid, are generally divided into
two claffes, viz.
1. The hard folids or bones. This part of anatomy
is called OJleology; which fignifies the dodtrine of the
bones.
2. The fofter folids ; which part is called Sarcology,
viz, the dodtrine of flefh.
This divifion of the folids, we may obferve, has pro¬
bably taken its origin from the vulgar obfervation, that
the body is made of bone and flefti. And as there are
many different kinds of what are called foft or fleftiy
parts, Sarcology is fubdivided into,
(i.) Angeiology, or the dodtrine of veffels ; by which
is commonly underftood blood-vejjels :
(2.) Adenology, of glands :
(3.) Neurology, of nerves:
(4.) Myology, of mufcles : and,
(5.) Splanchnology, of the vifcera or bowels. There
is, befides, that part which treats of the organs of
fenfe and of the integuments.
This divifion of the folids has been here mentioned,
rather for the fake of explaining fo many words, which
are conftantly ufed by anatomifts, than for its import¬
ance or accuracy. For befides many other objedtions
that might be urged, there are in the body three fpe¬
cies of folids, viz. griftle or cartilage, hair, and nails;
which are of an intermediate nature between bone and
fle(h ; and therefore cannot fo properly be brought into
the ofteology or the farcology. The cartilages were
claffed with the bones; becaufe the greateft number of
them are appendages to bones : and for the like reafon
the hair and the nails were claffed with the integu¬
ments.
II. The fluids of the human body may be divided
into three kinds, which Dr Hunter calls the crude, the
general or perfeft, and the local or fecreted fluid.
1. By the crude fluid is meant the chyle, and what¬
ever is abforbed at the furfaces of the body; in other
words, what is recently taken into the body, and is not
yet mixed with or converted into blood.
2. The general or perfett fluid is the blood itfelf;
to wit, what is contained in the heart, arteries, and
veins, and is going on in the round of the circulation.
3. The local or fecreted, are thofe fluids peculiar to
particular parts of the body, which are drained off from
the blood, and yet are very different in their properties
from the blood. They are commonly called fecretions;
and fome are ufeful, others excrementitious.
In treating of the Phyfiology, it is very difficult to fay
what plan (hould be followed ; for every method which
has been yet propofed, is attended with manifeft in-
5 convenience^
I Introd. A N A T
convenience. The powers and operations of the ma¬
chine have fuch a dependence upon one another, fuch
connexions and reciprocal influence, that they cannot
well be underftood or explained feparately. In this fenfe
our body may be compared to a circular chain of
powers, in which nothing is firfl: or lafl:, nothing foli-
tary or independent; fo that wherever we begin, we
find that there is fomething preceding which we ought
to have known. If we begin with the brain and the
nerves, for example, we fhall find that thefe cannot ex-
PARTI. O
‘'ITT'E begin with the bones, which may be confider-
^ ^ ed as the great fupport of the body, tending
to give it fhape and firmnefs.—But before we enter in¬
to the detail of each particular bone, it will be ne-
ceflary to defcribe their compofition and connexions,
and to explain the nature of the different parts which
have an immediate relation to them ; as the cartilages,
ligaments, periofleum, marrow, and fynovial glands.
Sect. I. Of the Bones in general, 'with their Ap¬
pendages, &c.
j Of the com- The bones are of a- firm and hard (b) fub fiance,
I a white colour, and perfeXly infenfible. They are
: ‘ the mofl compaX and folid parts of the body, and
ferve for the attachment or fupport of all the other
parts.
Three different fubflances are ufually diflinguifhed
in them ; their exterior or bony part, properly fo call¬
ed ; their fpongy cells ; and their reticular fubflance.
The firlt of thefe is formed of many laminae or plates,
compofing a firm hard fubflance—The fpongy or cel¬
lular part is fo called on account of its refemblance to
a fponge, from the little cells which compofe it. This
fubflance forms almofl the whole of the extremities of
cylindrical bones. The retjcular part is compofed of
fibres, which crofs each other in different direXions.
This net-work forms the internal furface of thofe bones
which have cavities.
The flat bones, as thofe of the head, are compofed
only of the laminae and the cellular fubftance. This
lafl is ufually found in the middle of the bone dividing
it into two plates, and is there called diploe.
Gagliardi, who pretended to have difeovered an in¬
finite number of claviculi (c), or bony proceffes, which
he deferibes as traverfing the laminae to unite them to¬
gether, has endeavoured to fupport this pretended dif-
covery by the analogy of bones to the bark of trees,
in which certain woody nails have been remarked; but
this opinion feems to be altogether fanciful.
Some writers have fuppofed, that the bones are
formed by layers of the periofleum, which gradually
offify, in the fame manner as the timber is formed in
trees by the hardening of the white fubflance that is
found between the i&ner bark and the wood. M. Du-
O M Y. 677
ill, even in idea, without the heart: if we fet out with
the heart and vafcular fyflem, we fhall prefently be fen-
fible, that the brain and nerves mufl be fuppofed: or,
fhould we take up the mouth, and follow the couffe of
the aliment, we fhould fee that the very firfl organ
which prefented itfelf, fuppofed the exiflence both of
the heart and brain : Wherefore we fhall incorporate
the Fhyfiology with the Anatomy, by attempting to
explain the funXions after we have demonflrated the
organs,
STEOLOGY.
hamel, who has adopted this opinion, fed different
animals with madder and their ordinary food alternate¬
ly during a certain time; and he afferts, that in dif-
feXing their bones, he conflantly obferved diflinX lay¬
ers of red and white, which correfponded with the
length of time they had lived on madder or their
ufual aliment. But it has fince been proved by Det-
leff, that M. Duhamel’s experiments were inaccurate,
and that neither the periofleum nor the cartilages are
tinged by the ufe of madder, which is known to af-
feX the bones only.
We ufually confider in a bone, its body and its ex¬
tremities. The ancients gave the name of diaphyfis
to the body or middle, part, and divided the extremi¬
ties into apophyfis and epiphyfis. An apophyfis, or
procefs, as it is more commonly called, is an eminence
continued from the body of the bone, whereas an epi¬
phyfis is at firfl a fort of an appendage to the bone,
by means of an intermediate cartilage. Many epiphyfes,
which appear as diflinX bones in the foetus, afterwards
become apophyfes; for they are at length fo complete¬
ly united to the body’’ of the bone as not to be diftin-
guifhable from it in the adult Hate. It is not unufual,
however, at the age of 18 and even 2® years, to find
the extremities of bones flill in the flate of epiphyfis.
The names given to the proceffes of bones are ex-
preffive of their fhape, fize, or ufe ; thus if a procefs
is large and of a fpherical form, it is called caput,
or head; if the head is flatted, it is termed condyle.
Some proceffes, from their refemblance to a fliletto,
a breafl, or the beak of a crow, are called Jlylotd, maf-
toid, or coracoid: others are fly led ridges or Jpines.
The two procefles of the os femoris derive their name
of trochanters from their ufe.
A bone has its cavities as well as proceffes. Thefe
cavities either extend quite through its fubflance, or
appear only as depreffions. The former are called fo¬
ramina or holes, and thefe foramina are fbmetimes term¬
ed canals or conduits, according to their form and ex¬
tent. Of the depreffions, fome are ufeful in articula¬
tion. Thefe are called cotyloid when they are deep,
as is the cafe with the os innominatum, where it re¬
ceives the head of the os femoris ; or glenoid when they
are fuperficial, as in the fcapula, where it receives the
os humeri. Of the depreffions that are not defigned
for
(b) Mr Scheele has lately difeovered that bones contain the phofphoric acid united with calcareous earth j
and that to this combination they owe their firmnefs.
(c) In his Anat. ofium nov. invent. UlujiraU he deferibes four kinds of thefe claviculi or nails, viz. the per¬
pendicular, oblique, headed, and crooked.
6y%
NAT
M Y.
Connection
■of the
iones.
Oftcol 'gy. faf. articulation, thofe which have fmall apertures are
'~J” V 1 called Jinufes; others that are large, and not equally
furrounded by high brims, are ftyled fojftt; fuch as are
long and. narrow, furrows ; or if broad and fuperfi-
cial without brims, fnuef ties. Some are called digital
impreforts, from their refemblance to the traces of a
finger on foft bodies.
We {hall abridge this article, which is exceedingly
diffufe in the generality of anatomical books, and will
endeavour to defcribe it with all the clearnefs it will
allow.
The bones compofing the fkeleton are fo conftrufted,
that the end of every bone is perfedlly adapted to the;
extremity of that with which it is connefted, and this
conneftion forms what is called their articulation.
Articulation is divided into diarthrofu, fynarthrofs,
and amphiarthrrfts, or moveable, immoveable, and mix¬
ed articulation. Each ef the two firft has its fubdivi-
fions. Thus the Diartbrofs, or moveable articulation,
includes, i. the enarthrofis, as it is called, when a large
head is admitted into a deep cavity, as in the articula¬
tion of the os femoris with the os innominatum. 2.
Arthrodia, when a round head is articulated with a
fuperficial cavity, as is the cafe of the os humeri and
fcapula, 3. Ginglimus, or hinge-like articulation, as
in the connection of the thigh-bone with the tibia.
The enarthrolis and arthrodia allow of motion to all
fides; the ginglimus only of flexion and extenfion.
The JynarthroJis, or immoveable articulation, in-
•cludes, 1. The future, when the two bones are indent¬
ed into each other, as is the cafe with the parietal
bones. 2. Gomphofis, when one bone is fixed into
another, in the manner the teeth are placed in their
fockets.
The term amphiarthrofis is applied to thofe articula¬
tions which partake both of the fynarthrofis and diar-
throfis, as is the cafe with the bones of the vertebrae,
which are capable of motion in a certain degree, al-
^ ^ J a „ ™* T   1 - 1.     „
courfe there are fewer bones in the old than In the Ofteologjft
young fubjedf. ^ v~—d‘
Of the fecond clafs of cartilages, or thofe belong¬
ing to the foft parts, we have inftances in the larynx,
v/here we find them ufeful in the formation of the
voice, and for the attachment of mufcles. 4 !
The periofteum is a fine membrane of a Compaft cel- Of the P« I
hilar texture, reflected from one joint to another, and nufteum. p
ferving as a common covering to the bones. It has
fimguiferous and lymphatic veflels, and is fupplied with
nerves from the neighbouring parts. It adheres very
firmly to their furface, and by its fmoothnefs facilitates
the motion of mufcles. It likewife fupports the vef- fffl
fels that go' to be diftributed through the fubftance of
the bones, and may ferve to ftrengthen the articula- jff
tions. At the extremities of bones, where it is found
covering a cartilage, it has by fome .been improperly 'll
confidered as a diftindt membrane, and named peri- l|
chondrium. This, in its ufe and ftructure, refembles
the periofteum. Where it covers the bones of the L
Ikull, it has gotten the name of pericranium.
The periofteum is not a production of the dura ma- II
ter, as the ancients, and after them Havers, imagined ; jl'
nor are the bones formed by the offification of this
membrane, at leaft when it is in a found ftate, as
fome late writers have fuppofed.
The periofteum is deficient in the teeth above the ||
fockets, and in thofe parts of bones to which ligaments
or tendons are attached. ^
The marrow is a fat oily fubftance, filling the cavi-of the |s
ties of bones. In the great cavities of long bones it MarrowJ|c
is of a much -firmer confiftence than in the cells of
their fpongy part. In the former it inclines fomewhat
to a yellowifli tinge, and is of the confiftence of fat;
in the latter it is more fluid, and of a red colour.
This difference in colour and confiftence is owing to
accidental caufes ; both kinds are of the fame nature,
and may both be defcribed under the common name of
though they are firmly connedted together by interme- marrow, though fome writers give this name only to
diate cartilages. the fat-like fubftance, and call the other the medullary
What is called fymphyfs is the union of two bones juice.
into one ; as in the lower jaw, for inftance, which in
the foetus confifts of two diftindt bones, but becomes
one in a more advanced age, by the offification of the
uniting cartilage.
When bones are thus joined by the means of car¬
tilages, the union is ftyled fynchondrofis ; when by li¬
gaments, fyneurojis.
r- Cartilages are white, folid, fmooth, and elaftic fub-
ftances, between the hardnefs of bones and ligaments,
and feemingly of a fibrous texture. We are not able
to trace any veffels into their fubftance by injedtion,
nor are they ever found tinged in animals that have-
been fed with madder.
They may be diftinguiflied into, ill, Thofe which
are connedled with the bones ; and, 2dly, Thofe which
belong to other parts of the body. The firft ferve ei¬
ther to cover the ends and cavities of bones intended
for motion, as in the articulations, where by their
fmoothnefs they facilitate motions, which the bones
alone could not execute with fo much freedom ; or
they ferve to unite bones together, as in the fymphy-
fis pubis, or to lengthen them as in the ribs.
Many of them offifying as we advance in life, their
•Taumber is lefs in the adult than in the foetus, and of
3
The marrow is contained in a very fine and tranfpa-
rent membrane, which is fupplied with a great num¬
ber of blood-veffels, chiefly from the periofteum. This
membrana medullaris adheres to the inner furface of
the bones, and furniflies an infinite number of minute
bags or veficles for inclofing the marrow, which is like¬
wife fupported in the cavities of the bones by the long
filaments of their reticular fubftance.
Befides the veffels from the periofteum, the mem¬
brana medullaris is furniflred with others, which in the
long bones may be feen paffing in near the extremities
of the bone, and fending off numerous branches that
ramify through all the veficles of this membrane.
The bones, and the cells containing the marrow,
are likewife furniflred with lymphatics. By their
means, the marrow, like the fat, may be taken up in
a greater quantity than it is fecreted; and hence it is
that fo little is found in the bones of thofe who die of
lingering difeafes.
It is ftill a matter of controverfy. Whether the mar¬
row is fenfible or not ? We are certainly not able to
trace any nerves to it; and from this circumftance,
and its analogy to fat, Haller has ventured to confider
it as infenfible. On the other hand, Duverney afferts,
that
Part I. A N A T
Ofteology. that an Injury done to this fubftance in a living animal
was attended with great pain. In this difpute phyfi-
ologifts do not feem to have fufficiently difcriminated
between the marrow itfelf and the membranous cells
in which it is contained. The former, like the fat,
being nothing more than a fecreted, and of courfe an
ittorganized matter, may with propriety be ranked a-
mong the infenfible parts, as much as infpiffated mu¬
cus or any other fecreted matter in the body ; where¬
as the membrana medullaris being vafcular, though it
poffeffes but an obfcure degree of feeling in a found
ftate, is not perfe&ly infenfible.
The marrow was {formerly fuppofed to be intended
for the nourilhment and renewal of the bones; but
this do&rine is now pretty generally and defervedly
exploded. It feems probable that the marrow is to
the bones what fat is to the foft parts. They both
ferve for fome important purpofes in the animal ceco-
nomy ; but their particular ufe has never yet been
clearly afcertained. The marrow, from the tranfuda-
tion of the oil through the bones of a Ikeleton, is fup¬
pofed to diminifh their brittlenefs ; and Havers, who
has written profeffedly on the bones, defcribes the ca¬
nals by which the marrow is conveyed through every
part of their fubftance, and divides them into longi¬
tudinal and tranfverfe ones. He fpeaks of the firft
as extending through the whole length of the bone ;
and of the latter, as the paffages by which the longi¬
tudinal ones communicate with each other. The fimi-
larity of thefe to the large cancelli in burnt bones, and
the tranfudation of the oil through the bones of the
fkeleton, feems to prove that fome fuch paffages do
g aftually exift.
Synovial The fynovial glands are fmall bodies (d), fuppofed
Stands. to be of a glandular ftrudlure, and exceedingly vafcu-
H lar, fecreting a fluid of a clear mucilaginous nature,
which ferves to lubricate the joints. They are placed
in fmall cavities in the articulations, fo as to be ca¬
pable of being gently compreffed by the motion of
the joint, which exprefles their juice in proportion to
the degree of fri&ion. When the fynovia is wanting,
or is of too thick a confiftence, the joint becomes ftiff
and incapable of flexion or extenfion. This is what
i 7 is termed anchylojis.
If the Li Ligaments are white, gliftening, inelaftic bands,
Ittnents, of a compact fubftance, more or lefs broad or thick,
H and ferving to conned! the bones together. They are
diftinguifhed by different names adapted to their diffe¬
rent forms and ufes. Thofe of the joints are called
either round or burfal. The round ligaments are white,
tendinous, and inelaftic. They are ftrong and flexible,
and are found only in the joint of the knee, and in
the articulation of the os femoris with the os innomi-
natum. The burfal, or capfular ligaments, furround
the whole joint like a purfe, and are to be found in
the articulations which allow motion every way, as in
8 the articulation of the arm with the fcapula.
:: the Of thofe facs called Bur fa mucofa, a few were
. die mu- known t0 former anatomifts, but by much the greater
mT number have been fince difcovered by Dr. Monro (e),
who obferves, that they are to be met with in the ex-
O M Y.
679
tremities of the body only; that many of them are Ofteology.
placed entirely on the inner fides of the tendons, be-—v~—-'
tween thefe and the bones. Many others cover not
only the inner, but the outer fides of the tendons, or
are interpofed between the tendons and external parts,
as well as between thofe and the bones.
Some are fituated between the tendons and external
parts only or chiefly, fome between contiguous ten¬
dons, or between the tendons or the ligaments and the
joints. A few fuch facs are obferved where the procef-
fes of bones play upon the ligaments, or where one bone
plays upon another. Where two or more tendons arer
contiguous, and afterwards feparate from each other,
we generally find a common burfa divided into branch¬
es, with w'hich it communicates ; and a few burfas of
contiguous tendons communicate with each other.—
Some, in healthy children, communicate with the ca¬
vities of the joints; and in many old people he has-
feen fuch communications formed by ufe or worn by
fri&ion, independent of difeafe.
Their proper membrane is thin and tranfparent, but
very denfe, and capable of confining air or any other
fluid. It is joined to the neighbouring parts by the
common cellular fubftance. Between the burfa and the
hard fubftance of bone a thin layer of cartilage or of
tough membrane is very generally interpofed. To the
cellular fubftance on the outfide of the burfa, the adi-
pofe fubftance is conne&ed ; except where the burfa
covers a tendon, cartilage, or bone, much expofed to
preffure or friftion.
In feveral places a mafs of fat, covered with the con¬
tinuation of the membrane of the burfa, projects into,
its cavity. The edges of this are divided into fringes.
The inner fide of the membrane is fmooth, and is
extremely flippery from the liquor fecreted in it. g
The ftnnfture of the burfae bears a ftrong refemblance Theirftruc,
to the capfular ligaments of the joints. 1. The inner turecom-
layer of the ligament, like that of the burfse, is thinofthe1
and denfe. 2. It is connefted to the external ligaments capfll0jar £
by the'eommon cellular fubftance. 3. Between it and the gaments of
bones, layers of cartilage, or the articular cartilages, the joints,,
are interpofed. 4. At the fides of the joints, where it is
not fubjefted to violent preffure and fri&ion, the adi-
pofe fubftance is connected with the cellular membrane.
5. Within the cavities of the joints we obferve maffes
of fat projecting, covered with fimila'r blood-veffels, and
with fimilar fimbriae hanging from their edges. 6. In
the knee the upper part of fueh a mafs of fat forms
what has been called the mucilaginous gland ofthe joint,.
and the under part proje&s into the burfa behind the
ligament which ties the patella to the tibia. 7. The
liquor which lubricates the burfae has the fame colour,,
confiftence, and properties as that of the joints, and
both are affeCted in the fame manner by heat, mineral
acids, and ardent fpirits. 8. In fome places the burfae
conftantly communicate with the cavities of the joints,,
in others they generally do foj.from which we may in*
fer a famenefs of ftrufture.
When we examine the fimbriae common to the fatty
bodies of the joints and bm-fas, and which have been
fuppofed to be the dufts of glands lodged within the
mafles
(d) It is now much doubted, however, whether the appearances in the joints, which are ufually called.
glands, are any thing more than affemblages of fat.
(e) See Defcription of th* Burfa Mucofa^ &c..
6So A N A T
Oftcology. niafles of fat, wc are not able to difcover any glandular
appearance within them. And although we obferve
many veflels difperfed upon the membranes of the fatty
bodies and fimbrije; and that we cannot doubt that
thefe fimbria: confift of dufts which contain a lubrica¬
ting liquor, and can even prefs fuch a liquor from
them ; yet their cavities and orifices are fo minute,
that they are not difcoverable even by the affiftance of
magnifying-glafies. Thefe fimbriae appear, therefore,
to be du6ts like thofe of the urethra, which prepare a
mucilaginous liquor without the affiftance of any knotty
or glandular organ.
Upon the whole, the fynovia feems to be furnifhed
by invifible exhalent arteries by the du£ts of the fim¬
briae, and by oil exfuding from the adipofe follicles by
io paffages not yet difcovered.
Of the Ske- The word Jkeleton, which by its etymology implies
Icton. fimply a dry preparation, is ufually applied to an af-
femblage of all the bones of an animal united toge¬
ther in their natural order. It is faid to be a natural
Ikeleton, when the bones are connected together by
their own proper ligaments ; and an artificial one, when
they are joined by any other fnbftance, as wire, &c.
The fkeleton is generally divided into the head,
trunk, and extremities. The firft divifion includes
the bones of the cranium and face. The bones of the
trunk are the fpine, ribs, fternum, and bones of the
pelvis.
The upper extremity on each fide confifts of the
two bones of the fhoulder, viz. the fcapula and cla¬
vicle ; the bone of the arm or os humeri ; the bones
of the fore-arm, and thofe of the hand.
The lower extremity on each fide of the trunk con¬
fifts of the thigh-bone and the bones of the leg and
foot.
Sect. II. Of the Bones of the Head.
The head is of a roundiih figure, and fomewhat
oval (F). Its greateft diameter is from the forehead
to the occiput; its upper part is called vertex, or
crown of the head ; its anterior or fore-part the face ;
and the upper part of this fnciput, or forehead; its
fides the temples; its pofterior, or hind-part, the oc¬
ciput ; and its inferior part the lefts.
The bones of the head may be divided into thofe
of the cranium and face.
i. Bones of the Cranium and Face.
There are eight bone's of the cranium, viz. the co¬
ronal bone, or os frontis ; the two parietal bones, or
ofla bregmatis; the os occipitis ; the two temporal
bones; the fphenoid bone ; and the os ethmoides, or
cribriforme.
Of thefe, only the os occipitis and ofla bregmatis
are confidered as proper to the cranium ; the reft be¬
ing common both to the cranium and face.
N° 17.
O M Y. Part
Thefe bones are all harder at their furface than in Ofteolog’
their middle ; and on this account they are divided  v—
into two tables, and a middle fpongy fubftance called
diploe. 'll
In this, as in all the other bones, we ffiall confider the O
its figure, ftrutture, procefles, depreffions, and cavi- Fr0!;t‘s‘
ties ; and the manner in which it is articulated with
the other bones.
The os frontis has feme refemblance in fhape to the
ftiell of the cockle. Externally it is convex, its con¬
cave fide being turned towards the brain. This bone,
in the places where it is united to the temporal bones,
is very thin, and has there no diplbe. It is likewife
exceedingly thin in that part of the orbit of the eye
which is neareft to the nofe. Hence it is, that a
wound in the eye, by a fword or any other pointed i
inftrument, is fometimes productive of immediate death. j
In thefe cafes, the fword paffing through the weak
part of the bone, penetrates the brain, and divides the I
nerves at their origin ; or perhaps opens fome blood-
veflel, the confequences of which are foon fatal.
We obferve on the exterior furface of this bone five j
apophyfes or proceffes, which are eafily to be diftin- j
guiflred. One of thefe is placed at the bottom and
narroweft part of the bone, and is called the nafal
procefs, from its fupporting the upper end of the
bones of the nofe. The four others are called angu- |
lar or orbitar procefles. They affift to form the orbits,
which are the cavities on which the eyes are placed.
In each of thefe orbits there are two procefles, one at
the interior or great angle, and the other at the exte- ||
rior or little angle of the orbit. They are called the
angular procefles. Between thefe a ridge is extended
-in form of an arch, and on this the eye-brows are
placed. It is called the orbitar or fuperciliary ridge,
and in fome meafure covers and defends the globe of
the eye. There is a hole in this for the paflage of the
frontal veflels and nerves. This arch is interrupted If
near the nofe by a fmall pit, in which the tendon of
the mufculus obliquus major of the eye is fixed. From
the under part of each fuperciliary ridge a thin plate
runs a confiderable way backwards, and has the name
of orbitar ; the external and fore-part of this plate
forms a finuofity for lodging the lacrymal gland. Be¬
tween the orbitar plates there is a large difeontinuation
of the bone, which is filled up by the cribriform part
of the os ethmoides.
On examining the inner furface of this bone at its
under and middle part, we obferve an elevation in form
of a ridge, which has been called the fpinous procefs ;
it afeends for fome way, dividing the bone into two
confiderable foflse, in which the anterior lobes of the
brain are placed. To a narrow furrow in this ridge
is attached the extremity of the falx, as the membrane
is called, which divides the brain into two hemifpheres.
The furrow becoming gradually wider, is continued to
the upper and back part of the bone. It has the falx
fixed
(f) The bones of the foetus being perfeftly diftinft, and the mufcles in young perfons not aifting much, the
fhape of the head has been fuppofed to depend much on the management of children when very young. Ve-
falius, who has remarked the difference in people of different nations, obferves for inftance, that the head of
a Turk is conical, from the early ufe of the turban ; whilft that of an Englifhman is flattened by the chin-ftay.
Some of the lateft phyfiologifts fuppofe, with good reafon, that this difference is chiefly owing to certain na¬
tural caufes with which we are as yet unacquainted.
©fteology. fixed to it, and part of the longitudinal fin us lodged
]'n it. Befides the two foflae, there are many depreffions,
which appear like digital impreflions, and owe their for¬
mation to the prominent circumvolutions of the brain.
In the foetus, the forehead is compofed of two di-
ftindt bones ; fo that in them the fagittal future reach¬
es from the os occipitis to the nofe. This bone is al-
moft every where compofed of two tables and a diplbe.
Thefe two tables feparating from each other under
the eyes, form two cavities, one on each fide of the
face, called the frontal finufes. Thefe finufes are lined
with a foft membrane, called mentbrana pituitaria. In
thefe finufes a mucus is fecreted, which is conftantly
palTing through two fmall holes into the noftrils, which
it ferves to moillen.
The os frontis is joined by future to many of the
bones of the head, viz. to the parietal, maxillary, and
temporal bones •, to the os ethmoides ; os fphenoides ;
os unguis ; and olfa nafi. The future which conne&s
1 I3 it with the parietal bones is called the coronal future,
p Of the pa- The parietal bones are two in number ; they are
Jjrietalhones. very thin, and even tranfparent in fome places. The
particular figure of each of thefe bones is that of an
irregular fquare, bordered with indentations through
its whole circumference, except at its lower part. It
will be eafily conceived, that thefe bones which com-
pofe the fuperior and lateral parts of the cranium, and
cover the greateft part of the brain, form a kind of
■■ vault. On their inner furface we obferve the marks
of the veffels of the dura mater; and at their upper
edge the groove for the fuperior longitudinal finus.
The offa parietalia are joined to each other by the
fagittal future ; to the os fphenoides and ofla tempo-
rum by the fquamous future $ to the os occipitis by
the lambdoidal future (g), fo called from its refem-
blance to the Greek letter lambda ; and to the os fron¬
tis by the coronal future.
In the fcetus, the parietal bones are feparated from
the middle of the divided os frontis by a portion of
i the cranium then unofiified.
i| Of the occi-j The occipital bone forms the poilerior and inferior
Bpitalboue. parts of the Ikull; it approaches nearly to the fhape of
a lozenge, and is indented throughout three parts of
its circumference.
There is a confiderable hole in the inferior portion
of this bone, called the foramen magnum, through
which the medulla oblongata paffes into the fpine.—
The nervi acceflbrii, and vertebral arteries, likewife pafs
through it. Behind the condyles are two holes for the
pafiage of cervical veins into the lateral finufes ; and
above them are two others for the paffage of the eighth
pair and accefibry nerves out of the head. At the
fides, and a little on the anterior part of the foramen
magnum, are two procelfes, called the condyles, one on
each fide ; they are of an oval figure, and are covered
with cartilage.
The external furface of this bone has a large tranf-
verfe arched ridge, under which the bone is very irre¬
gular, where it affords attachment to feveral mufcles.
On examining its inner furface, we may obferve two
ridges in form of a crofs; one afcending from near the
foramen magnum to the top of the bone; the upper
Vol.I. Part II.
end of this in which the falx is fixed, is boliow, for Ofteology,
lodging the fuperior longitudinal finus, and the under
end has the third procefs of the dura mater fixed to it.
The other ridge, which runs horizontally, is likewife
hollow for containing the lateral finufes. Four fofiae
are formed by the crofs, two above and two below. In
the former are placed the pofterior lobes of the brain,
and in the latter the lobes of the cerebellum.
At the bafis of the cranium, we obferve the cunei¬
form procefs (which is the name given to the great
apophyfis at the fore part of this bode); it ferves for
the reception of the medulla oblongata.
The os occipitis is of greater ftrength and thicknefs
than either of the other bones of the head, though ir¬
regularly fo ; at its inferior part, where it is thinneft,
it is covered by a great number of mufcles.
This bone, from its fituation, being more liable to
be injured by falls than any other bone of the head,
nature has wifely given it the greateft ftrength at its
upper part, where it is moft expofed to danger.
It is joined to the parietal bones by the lambdoidal
future, and to the offa temporum, by the additamen-
tum of the temporal future. It is likewife connected
to the os fphenoides by the cuneiform procefs. It is
by means of the os occipitis that the head is united to
the trunk,' the two condyles of this bone being con-
nefted to the fuperior oblique procefles of the firft ver¬
tebra of the neck.
There are two temporal bones, one on each fide.— Of the tern-
We may diftinguifh in them two parts ; one of which poral bones.
Is called the fquamous or fcaly part, and the other pars
petrofa from its hardnefs. This laft is fhaped like a
pyramid.
Each of thefe divifions affords proceffes and cavities:
externally there are three proceffes; one anterior, call¬
ed the zygomatic procefs; one pofterior, called the
mafoid or mamillary procefs, from its refemblance to a
nipple ; and one inferior, called the ftylaid procefs, bc-
caufe it is fhaped like a ftiletto, or dagger.
The cavities are, i. The meatus auditorius exter-
nus. 2. A large foffa which ferves for the articulation
of the lower jaw; it is before the meatus auditorius,
and immediately under the zygomatic procefs. 3. The
ftylo-maftoid hole, fo called from its fituation between
the ftyloid and maftoid proceffes ; it is likewife ftyled
the aquas duct of Fallopius, and affords a paflage to the
portio dura of the auditory, or feventh pair of nerves.
4. Below, and on the fore-part of the laft foramen, we
obferve part of the jugular foffa, in which the begin¬
ning of the internal jugular vein is lodged. Anterior
and fuperior to this foffa is the orifice of a foramen,
through which paffes the carotid artery. This foramen
runs firft upwards and then forwards, forming a kind
of elbow, and terminates at the end of the os petro-
fum.—At this part of each temporal bone, we may ob¬
ferve the opening of the Euftachian tube, a canal which
paffes from the ear to the back part of the nofe.
In examining the internal furface of thefe bones, we
may remark the triangular figure of their petrous part
which feparates two foffas; one fuperior and anterior ;
the other inferior and pofterior: the latter of thefe
compofes part of the foffa, in which the cerebellum is
4 R placed;
(o) The lambdoidal future is fometimes very irregular, being compofed of many fmall futures, which furround
fo many little bones called offa triquetra, though perhaps improperly, as they are not always triangular.
682
ANATOMY.
Part I
Ofteo!ogy. placed ; and the former, a portion of the leaft fofla for
the bafis of the brain. On the pofterior fide of the
pars petrofa, we obferve the meatus auditorus internus,
into which enters the double nerve of the feventh pair.
On the under fide of this procefs, part of a hole ap¬
pears, which is common to the temporal and occipital
bones; through it the lateral finus, the eighth pair, and
acceffory nerves, pafs out of the head.
The pars petrofa contains feveral little bones called
the bones of the ear; which, as they do not enter into
the formation of the cranium, {hall be defcribed when
•we are treating of the organs of hearing.
The ofla temporum are joined to the ofla malarum,
by the zygomatic futures ; to the parietal bones, by the
fquamous futures ; to the os occipitis, by the lambdoi-
dal future ; and to the fphenoid bone, by the future of
that name.
Of the os This bone, from its fituation amidft the other bones
fphenoides. 0f the head, has been fometimes called cuneiforme. It
is of a very irregular figure, and has been compared to
a bat with its wings extended.
It is commonly divided into its middle part or body,
and its fides or wings.
The fore part of the body has a fpine or ridge, which
makes part of the feptum narium. The upper part of
each wing forms a {hare of the temple. The fore part
of this belongs to the orbit; while the under and back
part, termed fpinous procefs, is lodged in the bafe of the
fkull at the point of the pars petrofa. But two of the
moft remarkable proceffes are the pterygoid or aliform,
one on each fide of the body of the bone, and at no great
diftance from it. Each ©f thefe proceffes is divided into
two wings, and of thefe the exterior one is the wideft.
The other terminates in a hook-like procefs.
The internal furface of this bone affords three foffse.
Two of thefe are formed by the wings of the bone,
and make part of the leffer foffse of the bafis of the
cranium. The third, which is fmaller, is bn the top
of the body of the bone ; and is called fella turcica,
from its refemblance to a Turkifli faddle. This foffa,
in which the pituitary gland is placed, has pofteriorly
and anteriorly proceffes called the clinoid proceffes.
There are twelve holes in this bone, viz. fix on each
fide. The firft is the paffage of the optic nerve and
ocular artery ; the fecond, or large flit, tranfmits the
third, fourth, fixth, and firft part of the fifth pair of
nerves with the ocular vein ; the third hole gives paf-
fage to the fecond branch of the fifth pair; and the
fourth hole to the third branch of the fifth pair of
nerves. The fifth hole is the paffage of the artery of
the dura mater. The fixth hole is fituated above the
pterygoid procefs of the fphenoid bone : through it a re-
flefted branch of the fecond part of the fifth pair paffes.
Within the fubftance of the os fphenoides there are
two finufes feparated by a bony plate. They are lined
with the pituitary membrane ; and, like the frontal fi¬
nufes, feparate a mucus which paffes into the noftrils.
The os fphenoides is joined to all the bones of the
cranium ; and likewife to the offa maxillaria, offa ma¬
larum, offa palati, and vomer.
This bone makes part of the bafis of the Ikull, afiifts
in forming the orbits, and affords attachment to feve¬
ral mufcles.
The os ethmoides is fituated at the fore part of the
bafis of the cranium, and is of a very irregular figure.
From the great number of holes with which it is pierced, Ofleologj(jte
it is fometimes called os cribriforme or fieve-like bone. ^ "j
It confifts of a middle part and two fides. The of the os so
middle part is formed of a thin bony plate, in which ethmoid e®
are an infinite number of holes that afford a paffage toor cnbr^;JS'1
filaments of the olfaftory nerve. From the middle of‘°‘me* j
this plate, both on the outfide and from within, there
rifes up a procefs, which may be eafily diftinguiftied.
The inner one is called crijla galls, from its fuppofed
refemblance to a cock’s comb. To this procefs the f)
falx of the dura mater is attached. The exterior pro¬
cefs, which has the fame common bafis as the critta
galli, is a fine lamella which is united to the vomer;
and divides the cavity of the noftrils, though unequally,
it being generally a little inclined to one fide.
The lateral parts of this bone are compofed of a
cellular fubftance; and thefe cells are fo very intricate,
that their figure or number cannot be defcribed. Ma¬
ny waiters have on this account called this part of the
bone the labyrinth. Thefe cells are externally covered
with a very thin bony lamella. This part of the bone
is called the os planum, and forms part of the orbit.
The different cells of this bone, which are numerous, .
and which are every where lined with the pituitary
membrane, evidently ferve to enlarge the cavity of the |f
nofe, in which the organ of fmelling refides.
This bone is joined to the os fphenoides,osfrontis, offa
maxillaiia, offa palati, offa nafi, offa unguis, and vomer.
The ancients, who confidered the brain as the feat
of all the humours, imagined that this vifcus difchar-
ged its redundant moifture through the holes of the
ethmoid bone. And the vulgar ftill think, that ab-
fceffes of the brain difcharge themfelves through the
mouth and ears, and that fnuff is liable to get into the |j
head ; but neither fnuff nor the matter of an abfcefs
are more capable of palling through the cribriform bone,
than the ferofity which they fuppofed was difcharged
through it in a common cold.—All the holes of the
ethmoid bone are filled up with the branches of the ol- |l
faftory nerve. Its inner part is likewife covered with 4
the dura mater, and its cells are every where lined with
the pituitary membrane; fo that neither matter nor
any other fluid can poflibly pafs through this bone ei¬
ther externally or internally. Matter is indeed fome¬
times difcharged through the noftrils; but the feat of
the difeafe is in the finufes of the nofe, and not in the
brain ; and impofthumations are obferved to take place
in the ear, which fuppurate and difcharge themfelves
externally.
Before we leave the bones of the head, we wifti to
make fome general obfervations on its ftrufture and fi¬
gure.—As the cranium might have been compofed
of a Angle bone, the articulation of its feveral bones
being abfolutely without motion, it may be allied per- 11
haps, Why fuch a multiplicity of bones, and fo great
number of futures ? Many advantages may poflibly
arife from this plurality of bones and futures, which ji
may not yet have been obferved. We are able, how¬
ever, to point out many ufeful ends, which could only
be accomplifhed by this peculiarity of ftructure.—In
this, as in all the other works of nature, the great
wifdom of the Creator is evinced, and cannot fail to
excite our admiration and gratitude.
The cranium, by being divided into feveral bones,. |j |
grows much fafter and with greater facility, than if it
was |]
Part I. ANA
Ofteology. was compofed of one piece only. In the foetus, the
' v' 1 ' bones, as we have before obferved, are perfeftly diilinft
from each other. The offification begins in the middle
of each bone, and proceeds gradually to the circumfe¬
rence. Hence the offification, and of courfe the in-
creafe of the head, is carried on from an infinite num¬
ber of points at the fame time, and the bones confe-
quently approach each other in the fame proportion.
To illuftrate this doftrine more clearly, if it can want
further illuftration, fuppofe it neceffary for the parietal
bones which compofe the upper part of the head, to
extend their offification, and form the fore part of the
head likewife.—Is it not evident, that this procefs would
be much more tedious than it is now, when the os fron-
tis and the parietal bones are both growing at the fame
time ? Hence it happens, that the heads of young
people, in which the bones begin to touch each other,
increafe flowly; and that the proportionate incfeafe
of the volume of the head is greater in three months
in the foetus, than it is perhaps in twenty-four months
at the age of fourteen or fifteen years.
The futures, exclufive of their advantages in fu-
fpending the proceffes of the dura mater, are evidently
of great utility in preventing the too great extent of
fraftures of the Ikull.— Suppofe, for inftance, that by
a fall or blow, one of the bones of the cranium be¬
comes fradfured. The fiffure, which in a head compo¬
fed of only one bone, would be liable to extend itfelf
'^through the whole of it, is checked, and fometimes
perhaps flopped by the firfl future it meets, and the
effedis of the injury are confined to the bone on which
the blow was received. Ruyfch indeed, and fome
others, will not allow the futures to be of any fuch
ufe ; but cafes have been met with where they feemed
to have had this effedt, and in young fubje&s their uti¬
lity in this refpedl mufl be ftill more obvious.
The fpherical fhape of the head feems likewife to
render it more capable of refitting external violence
than any other fhape would do. In a vault, the parts
mutually fupport and ftrengthen each other, and this
happens in the cranium.
§ 2. Proper Bones of the Face.
Of the The face, which confifts of a great number of bones,
bones of the Js commonly divided into the upper and lower jaws,
ace. The upper jaw confifts of thirteen bones, exclufive of
the teeth. Of thefe, fix are placed on each fide of
the maxilla fuperior, and one in the riiiddle.
The bones, which are in pairs, are the offa mala-
rum, offia maxillaria, offa nafi, offa unguis, ofla palati,
and offa fpongiofa inferiora. The fingle bone is the
19 vomer.
Of the offa Thefe are the prominent fquare bones which are
malarum. pjaced under the eyes, forming part of the orbits and
the upper part of the cheeks. Each of them affords
three furfaces; one exterior and a little convex ; a fe-
cond fuperior and concave, forming the inferior part
and fides of the orbit; and a third pofterior, irregular,
and hollowed for the lodgement of the lower part of
the temporal mufcle.
The angles of each bone form four proceffes, two
of which may be called orhitar proceff 'es; of thefe the
upper one is joined by future to the os frontis, and
that below to the maxillary bone. The third is con-
ne&ed with the os fphenoides by means of the tranf-
r O M Y. 683
verfe future; and the fourth is joined to the zygoma- Ofteology.
tic procefs of the temporal bone, with which it forms '—sr—J
the zygoma. ^ 20
Thefe bones, which are of a very irregular figure, Of the offa,
are fo called becaufe they form the moft confiderable maxillaria
portion of the upper jaw. They are two in number, fuPenora’
and generally remain.dillinft through life.
Of the many proceffes which are to be feen on thefe
bones, and which are connedted with the bones of the
face and Ikull, we fhall defcribe only the moft remark¬
able.
One of thefe proceffes is at the upper and fore part
of the bone, making part of the fide of the nofe, and
called the nafalprocefs. Another forms a kind-of cir¬
cular fweep at the inferior part of the bone, in which
are the alveoli or fockets for the teeth: this is called
the alveolar procefs. A third procefs is united to the
os make on each fide. Between this and the nafal pro¬
cefs there is a thin plate, which forms a ffiare of the
orbit, and lies over a paffage for the fuperior maxillary
veffels and nerves.—The alveolar procefs has pofteriorly
a confiderable tuberolity on its internal furface, called
the maxillary tuberofty.
Behind the alveolar procefs we obferve two horizon¬
tal lamellae, which uniting together, form part of the
roof of the mouth, and divide it from the nofe. The
hollownefs of the roof of the mouth is owing to this
partition’s being feated fomewhat higher than the al¬
veolar procefs.—At the fore part of the horizonfal la¬
mellae there is a hole called foramen incifvum, through
which fmall blood-veffels and nerves go between the
mouth and nofe.
In viewing thefe bones internally, we obferve a foffa
in the inferior portion of the nafal procefs, which,
with the os unguis and os fpongiofum inferius, forms
a paffage for the lachrymal duct.
Where thefe two bones are united to each other,
they projeft fomewhat upwards and forwards, leaving
between them a furrow, into which the lower portion
of the feptum nafi is admitted.
Each of thefe bones being hollow, a confiderable fi-
nus is formed under its orbitar part. This cavity,
which is ufually named after Highmore, though it was
defcribed by Fallopius and others before his time, is
lined with the pituitary membrane. It is intended for
the fame purpofes as the other finufes of the nofe, and
opens into the nollrils.
The offa maxillaria are connerited with the greater
part of the bones of the face and cranium, and affift in
forming not only the cheeks, but likewife the palate,
nofe, and orbits. 2I
The offa nafi form two irregular fquares. They are Of the offa
thicker and narrower above than below.. Externally nafi.
they are fomewhat convex, and internally flightly con¬
cave. Thefe bones conftitute the upper part of the
nofe. At their fore part they are united to each o-
ther, above to the os frontis, by their fides to the offa
maxillaria fuperiora, pofteriorly and interiorly to the
feptum narium, and below to the cartilages that com¬
pofe the reft of the noftrils.
Thefe little tranfparent bones owe their name to of the offa
their fuppofed refemblance to a finger-nail. Sometimes unguis,
they are called ojja lachrymalia, from their concurring
with the nafal procefs of each maxillary bone in form¬
ing a lodgement for the lachrymal fac and dudt.
4 R 2
The
684 A N A T
Ofteology. Tlie ofla tmguis are of an irregular figure. Their
' ",\r—external furface confifis of two fmooth parts, divided
by a middle ridge. One of thefe parts, which is con¬
cave and neareil to the nofe, ferves to fupport the la¬
chrymal fac and part of the lachrymal du£t. The o-
ther, which is flat, forms a fmall part of the orbit.
Each of thefe bones is connefted with the os fron-
2^ tis, o,s ethmoides, and os maxillare fuperius.
Of the ofla Thefe bones, which are fituated at the back part of
jalati. the roof of the mouth, between the os fphenoides and
the ofla maxillaria fuperiora, are of a very irregular
lhape, and ferve to form the nafal and maxillary fofla,
and a fmall portion of the orbit. Where they are uni¬
ted to each other,. they rife up into a fpine on their
internal furface. This fpine appears to be a continua¬
tion of that of the fuperior maxillary bones, and helps
to form the feptum narium.
Thefe bones are joined to the ofla maxillaria fuperi-
. 24 oraJ 03 ethmoides, os fphenoides, and vomer.
Of the vo- This bone derives its name from its refemblance to
mer' a ploughfhare. It is a long and flat bone, fomewhat
thicker at its back than at its fore part. At its upper
part we obferve a furrow extending through its whole
length. The pofterior and largeft part of this furrow
receives a procefs of the fphenoid bone. From this
the furrow advances forwards, and becoming narrower
and fhallowcr, receives fome part of the nafal lamella
ethmoidea ; the reft ferves to fupport the middle car¬
tilage of the nofe.
The inferior portion of this bone is placed on the
nafal fpine of the maxillary and palate bones, which
we mentioned in our defeription of the ofla palati.
The vomer is united to the os fphenoides, os eth¬
moides, offa maxillaria fuperiora, and ofla palati. It
forms part of the feptum narium, by dividing the back
part of the nofe into two noftrils.
Of the ofla The parts which are ufually deferibed by this name,
fpongiofa do not feem to deferve to be diftinguiflied as diftinft
inferiora. bones, except in young fubjects. They confift of a
fpongy lamella in each noftril, which is united to the
fpongy lamina of the ethmoid bone, of which they are
by fome confidered as a part.
Each of thefe lamellae is longefi from behind for¬
wards ; with its convex furface turned towards the
feptum narium, and -its concave part towards the max¬
illary bone, covering the opening of the lachrymal du£l
into the nofe.
Thefe bones are covered with the pituitary mem¬
brane j and, befides their connexion with the ethmoid
bone, are joined to the ofla maxillaria fuperiora, offa
26 palati, and ofla unguis.
Of the max- The-maxilla inferior, or lower jaw, which in its fhape
illainfenor. refembles a horfe-ftioe, confifts of two diftinift bones
in the foetus; but thefe unite together foon after birth,
fo as to form only one bone. The upper edge of this
bone, like the os maxillare fuperius, has an alveolar
procefs, furniflied with fockets for the teeth.
On each fide, the pofterior part of the bone rifes al-
moft perpendicularly into two procefles. The higheft
of thefe, called, the coronoid procefs, is pointed and
thin, and ferves for the infertion of the temporal muf-
cle. The other, or condyloid procefs as it is called,
is fhorter and thicker, and ends in an oblong rounded
bead,, which is received into a fofla of the temporal
bone,, and is formed for a moyeable articulation, with
O M Y. Part I.
the cranium. This joint is furniihed with a moveable Ofteology.
cartilage. At the bottom of each coronoid procefs, '-"'V—■‘i
on its inner part, we obferve a foramen extending un¬
der the roots of all the teeth, and terminating at
the outer furface of the bone near the chin. Each of
thefe canals tranfmits an artery, vein, and nerve, from
which branches are fent off to the teeth.
The lower jaw is capable of a great variety of mo¬
tion. By Aiding the condyles from the cavity towards-
the eminences on each fide, we bring it horizontally
forwards, as in biting ; or we may bring the condyles
only forward, and tilt the reft of the jaw backward,
as in opening the mouth. We are likewife able to
Hide the condyles alternately backwards and forwards
from the cavity to the eminence, and vice ver/a, as in
grinding the teeth. The cartilages, by adapting them-
felves to the different inequalities in thefe feveral mo¬
tions of the jaw, ferve to fecurq the articulation, and
to prevent any injuries from friction.
The alveolar procefles are eompofed of an outer and
inner bony plate, united together by thin partitions,
which at the fore part of the jaw divide the procefles
into as may fockets as there are teeth. But at the
•back part of the jaw, where the teeth have more than
one root, we find a diftindl cell for each root. In
both jaws thefe procefles begin to be formed with the
teeth; they likewife accompany them in their growth,
and gradually difappear when the teeth are removed,
§ J. Of the Teeth, ' ”4, ||
The teeth are bones of a particular ftrufture, form-of the j
ed for the purpofes of maftication and the articulation teeth,
of the voice. It will be neceflary to confider their
compofition and figure, their number and arrangement,
and the time and order in which they appear.
In each .tooth we may diftinguiih a body, a neck, and 1 ||
a root or fangs. i ■
The body of the tooth is that part which appears
above the gums. The root is fixed into the focket,.
and the neck is the middle part between the two.
The teeth are compofed of two iubftances,'viz, ena
mel and bone. The enamel, or the vitreous or corti¬
cal part of the tooth, is a white and very hard and
compadl fubftance peculiar to the teeth, and appears
fibrous or ftriated when broken. This fubftance is'
thickeft on the grinding furface, and becoming gradu¬
ally thinner, terminates infenfibly at the neck of the
tooth. Ruyfeh * affirmed, that he could trace the * Thefaur. jls
arteries into the hardeft part of the teeth; Liewen-io.no. 27. jF
hoeck f fufpefted the fibres of the enamel to be fo t I4
many veffels ; and Monro J fays, he has frequently in- unuatEfii if*
jefted the veffels of the teeth in children, fo as to makey?,/. ijj
the infide of the cortex appear perfectly red. But it f Anat. of ; ly
is certain, that it is not tinged by a madder diet, andthe •.ip
that no ’injeftion will ever reach it, fo that it has no
appearance of being vafcular ||. II Hunter tt* I •<
The bony part, which compofes the inner fubftance ^ Teeth.
of the body, neck, and root of the tooth, refembles
other bones in its ftruiture, but it is much harder than
the moft compaft part of bones in general. As a
tooth when once formed receives no tinge from a mad¬
der diet, and as the minuteft injections do not pene¬
trate into its fubftance,. this part of a tooth has, like
the enamel, been fuppofed not to be vafcular. But
when we confider that the fangs of a-tooth are inyefted
Pan L A N A T O M Y. 685
©fteology. by a periofteum, and that the fwellings of thefe fangs
P'",’V are analogous to the fwellings of other bones, we may
reafonably conclude, that there is a fimilarity of ftruc-
ture; and that this bony part has a circulation through
its fubftance, although from its hardnefs we are unable
to demonllrate its veffels.
In each tooth we find an inner cavity, into which
enter an artery, vein, and nerve. This cavity begins
by a fmall opening, and becoming larger, terminates
in the body of the tooth. In advanced life this hole
• fometiraes clofes, and the tooth is of courfe rendered
infenfible.
The periofteum furrounds the teeth from their fangs
to a little beyond their bony fockets, where we find it
adhering to the gums. This membrane, while it in-
clofes the teeth, ferves at the fqme time to line the
fbckets,' fo that it may be confidered as common to
both.
The teeth are likewife fecured in their fockets by
means of the gums; a red, vafcular, firm, and elaftic
fubltance, that pofleffes but little fenfibility. In the
gums of infants we find a hard ridge extending through
their whole length, hut no fuch ridge is to be feen in
old people who have loft their teeth.
The number of the teeth in both jaws at full matu¬
rity, ufually varies from twenty-eight to thirty-two.
They are commonly divided into three claffes, viz. in-
cifores,,eanini, and grinders or molares (h). The in-
eifores are the four teeth in the fore part of each jaw.
They have each of them two furfaces; one anterior and
convex, the other pofterior and flightly concave, both
of which terminate in a ftiarp edge. They are called
incifores from their ufe in dividing the food. They
are ufually broader and thicker in the upper than in the
under jaw ; and, by being placed fomewhat obliquely,
generally fall over the latter.
The canini derive their name from their refemblance
to a dog’s tufks, being the longeft of all the teeth.
We find one on each fide of the incifores, fo that there
are two canini in each jaw. Their fang refembles that
B of the incifores, but.is much larger; and in their lhape
they appear like an incifor with its edge worn off, fo
as to terminate in a narrow point.
Thefe teeth not being calculated for cutting and di¬
viding the food like the incifores, or for grinding it
like the molares, feem to be intended for laying hold
of fubftances (i).
The molares or grinders, of which there are ten in
each jaw, are fo called', becaufe from their fhape and
fize they are fitted for grinding the food. Each of
H. the incifores and canini is furnifhed only with one
fang; but in the molares of the under jaw we conftant-
ly find two fangs, and in thofe of the upper jaw three
fangs. Thefe fangs are fometimes feparated into two
points, and each of thefe points has fometimes been
defcribed as a diftindf fang.
The two firft of the molares, or thofe neareft to the Ofteology.
canine teeth on each fide, differ from the other three,
and are with great propriety named bicufpidss by Mr
Hunter. They have fometimes only one root, and
feem to be of a middle nature between the incifores
and the larger molares. The two next are much lar¬
ger. The fifth or laft grinder on each fide is fmaller
and Ihorter than the reft ; and from its not cutting the
gum till after the age of twenty, and fometimes not till
much later in life, is called dens fapient 'ue.
There is in the ftrufture and arrangement of all
thefe teeth an art which cannot be fufficiently admired.
To underftand it properly, it will be neceffary to con--
fider the .under jaw as a kind of lever, with' its fixed.;
points at its articulations with the temporal bonesit
wall be right to obferve, too, that its powers arife from.
its different mufcles,. but in elevation chiefly from the
temporalis and maffeter; and that, the aliment confti-
tutes the objeft of refiflance. It will appear, then,
that the molares, by being placed neareft the centre of
motion, are calculated to prefs with a much greater
force than the other teeth, independent of their grind-
ing powers which they poffefs by means of the ptery¬
goid mufcles; and that it is for this reafon we put be¬
tween them any hard body we wilh to break.
The canini and incifores are placed farther from this,
point, and of courfe cannot exert fo much force but
they are made for cutting and tearing the food, and
this form feems to make amends for their deficiency in
ftrength.
There are examples of children who have come into
the world with two, three, and even four teeth: but
thefe examples are very rare ; and it is feldom before
the feventh, eighth, or ninth month afterbirth, that
the incifores, which are the firft formed, begin to pafs
through the gum. The fymptoms of dentition, how¬
ever, in confequence of irritation from the teeth, fre¬
quently take place in the fourth or fifth month.—A-
bout the twentieth or twenty-fourth month, the canini
and two molares make their appearance.
The dangerous fymptoms that fometimes accompany
dentition, are owing to the preffure of the teeth on
the gum, which they irritate fo as to excite pain and .
inflammation. This irritation feems to occafion a gra¬
dual wafting of the gum at the part, till at length the
tooth makes its appearance.
The fymptoms are more or lefs alarming, in proper- -
tion to the refiftance which the gum affords to the -
teeth, and according to the number of teeth which ;
may chance to feek a paffage at the fame time. Were
they all to appear at once, children would fall vidtims ;
to the pain and exceffive irritation ; but Nature has fa
very wifely difpofed them, that they ufually appear ■
one after the other, with fome diftance of time be- -
tween each. The firft incifor that appears is generally ,
in the lower jaw, and is followed by one in the up-
per.
(h) Mr Hunter has thought proper to vary this divifion. He retains the old name of incifores to the four
fore teeth, but he diftinguifhes the canine teeth by the name of the cufpidati. The two teeth which are next:
to thefe, and which have been ufually ranked with the molares, he calls thz bicufpides; and he gives the- name -
of grinders only to the three laft teeth on each fide.
(1) Mr Hunter remarks of thefe teeth, that we may trace in them a fimilarity in ftiape, fituation, and life* .,
from the moft imperfedtly carnivorous animal, which we believe to be the human fpecies, to the lion, which, is ,
the moft, perfectly carnivorous.
686
ANATOMY.
Parti
Ofteology. per jaw. Sometimes the canini, but more commonly
'—~v one of the molares, begins to pafs through the gum
firft.
Thefe 20 teeth, viz. eight incifores, four cahini, and
eight molares, are called temporary or milk teeth, be-
caufe they are all fhed between the age of feven and
14, and are fucceeded by what are called the permanent
or adult teeth. The latter are of a firmer texture, and
have larger fangs.
Thefe adult teeth being placed in a diftinft fet of
alveoli, the upper fockets gradually difappear, as the
under ones increafe in fize, till at length the tempora¬
ry, or upper teeth, having no longer any fupport, con-
fequently fall out.
To thefe 20 teeth which fucceed the temporary
ones, 12 others are afterwards added, viz. three mo¬
lares on each fide in both jaws : and in order to make ■
room for this addition, we find that the jaws gradually
lengthen in proportion to the growth of the teeth ; fo
that with 20 teeth, they feem to be as completely fill¬
ed as they are afterwards with 32. This is the reafon
why the face is rounder and flatter in children than in
adults.
With regard to the formation of the teeth, we may
obferve, that in a foetus of four months, the alveolar
procefs appears only as a fhallow longitudinal groove,
divided by minute ridges into a number of intermediate
deprefiions ; in each of which we find a fmall pulpy
fubltance, furrounded by a vafcular membrane. This
pulp gradually offxfies, and its lower part is lengthened
out to form the fang. When the bony part of the
tooth is formed, its furface begins to be incrufted with
the enamel. How the latter is formed and depofited,
we are not yet able to determine.
The rudiments of fome of the adult teeth begin to
be formed at a very early period, for the pulp of one of
the incifores may generally be perceived in a foetus of
eight months, and the dffifieation begins in it foon af¬
ter birth. The firfl: bieufpis begins to offifiy about the
fifth or fixth, and the fecond about the feventh year.
The firft adult grinder cuts the gum about the 12th,
the fecond about the 18th, and the third, or dens fa-
pisntiee, ufually between the 20th and 3.0th year.
The teeth, like other bones, are liable to be affected
by difeafe. Their removal is likewife the natural con-
fequence of old age ; for as we advance in life, the al¬
veoli fill up, and the teeth, efpecially the incifores, fall
out. When this happens, the chin proje&s forward,
and the face is much fliortened.
§ Of the Os Hyoides ( k).
a8. The os hyoides, which is placed at the root of the
tongue, was fo called by the ancients on account of its
fuppofed refemblance to the Greek letter v.
It will be neceffary to diftinguifli in it, its body,
horns, and appendices.
The body, which is the middle and broadeft part of
the bone, is fo placed that it may be eafily felt at the
fore part of the throat. Anteriorly it is irregularly
convex, and its inner furface is unequally concave. Its Ofteolotl,
cornua, or horns, which are flat and a little bent, be-
ing much longer than the body part, may be deferibed
as forming the fides of the °. The appendices, or little
horns, as they are called by M. Winflow, and fome o-
ther writers, are two proceffes which rife up from the 11
articulations of the cornua with the body, and are u- 11
fually connected with the ftyloid procefs on each fide if
by means of a ligament.
The ufes of this bone are to fupport the tongue, and
afford attachment to a great number of mufcles; fome
of which perform the motions of the tongue, while o- f|
thers aft on the larynx and fauces.
Sect. III. Of the Bones of the Trunk.
The trunk of the Ikeleton confifts of the fpirie, the 29* hf1
thorax, and the pelvis.
$ 1. Of the Spine.
The fpine is compofed of a great number of bones 30. Ji
called vertebrae, forming a long bony column, in figure
not much unlike the letter f. This column, which ex- fj
tends from the head to the lower part of the body, may
be faid to confift of two irregular and unequal pyra¬
mids, united to each other in that part of the loins
where the laft lumbar vertebra joins the os facrum.
The vertebras of the upper and longeft pyramid are
called true vertebra, in contradiftinftion to thofe of |
the lowermoft pyramid, which, from their being im¬
moveable in the adult, are ftyled falfe vertebra. It is
upon the bones of the fpine that the body turns; and
it is to this circumftance they owe their name, which is A
derived from the Latin verb vertere, to turn.
The true vertebrae are divided into three claffes of
cervical, dorfal, and lumbar vertebrae.^—The falfe ver¬
tebrae confift of the os facrum and os coccygis.
In each vertebra, as in other bones, it will be necef- .
fary to remark the body of the bone, its proceffes, and
cavities.
The body, which is convex before, and concave be¬
hind, where it affifts in forming the cavity of the
fpine, may be compared to part of a cylinder cut off
tranfverfely.
Each vertebra affords feven proceffes. The firft is
at the back part of the vertebra, and from its ihape and |j
direftion is named the fpinous procefs. On each fide of
this are two others, which, from their fituation with
refpeft to the fpine, are called tranfverfe procejfes. The
four others are ftyled oblique or articular procejfes. They
are much fmaller than the fpinous or tranfverfe ones.
Two of them are placed on the upper, and two on the If
lower part of each vertebra, rifing from near the bafis
of each tranfverfe procefs. They have gotten the name 'It
of oblique proceffes, from their fituation with refpeft to
the proceffes with which they are articulated ; and they H
are fometimes ftyled articular proceffes, from the man- j» .
ner in which they are articulated with each other; the 1.
two fuperior proceffes of one vertebra being articulated
with |
(k) This bone is very feldom preferred with the fkeleton, and cannot be included amongft the bones of the
head or in any other divifion of the flceleton. Thomas Bartholin has perhaps very properly delcribed it among
the parts contained in the mouth ; but the generality of anatomical writers have placed it, as it is here, after
the bones of the face.
Part I.
pifteology.
ANATOMY.
ith the two inferior proceffes of the vertebra above it. ties which admit the condyles of the
Each of thefe proceffes is covered with cartilage at its with which it is articulated.
articulation, and their articulations with each other are
by a fpecies of ginglimus.
In each vertebra, between its body and its proceffes,
we find a hole large enough to admit a finger. Thefe
holes or foramina, correfpond with each other through
all the vertebne, and form the long bony channel in
which the fpinal marrow is placed. We may likewife
obferve four notches in each vertebra. Two of thefe
687
•ipital bone Ofteology.
This vertebra, which is
notches are at the upper, and two at the Iqwer part of other dire&ion.
called atlas from its fupporting the head, cannot well
be defcribed as having either body or fpinous proeefs,
being a kind of bony ring. Anteriorly, where it is ar¬
ticulated to the odontoid procefs of the feeond verte¬
bra, it is very thin. On its upper furface it has two
cavities which admit the condyles of the occipital bone.
By this connexion the head is allowed to move for¬
wards and backwards, but has very little motion in any
the bone, between the oblique proceffes and the body
of the vertebra. Each of thefe notches,meeting with
a fimilar opening in the vertebra above or below it,
The fecond vertebra has gotten the name of dent at a t.
from its having, at its upper and anterior part, a pro¬
cefs called the odontoid or tooth-like procefs, which is ar-
forms a foramen for the paffage of blood-veffels, and of ticulated with the atlas, to which this fecond vertebra
the nerves out of the fpine.
The bones of the fpi
of a fubftance, which
may be faid to ferve as an axis. This odontoid procefs
are united together by means is of a cylindrical fhape, fomewhat flattened, however,
young fubjects appears to be anteriorly and pofteriorly. At its fore-part where it is
of a ligamentous, but in adults more of a cartilaginous received^ by the atlas, we may obferve a fmooth, con-
nature. This intervertebral fubftance, which forms
kind of partition between the feveral vertebrae, is thick¬
er and more flexible between the lumbar vertebrae than
in the other parts of the fpine, the moft confiderable
motions of the 'trunk being performed on thofe ver¬
tebrae. This fubftance being very elaftic, the extenfion
and flexion of the body, and its motion backwards and
forwards, or to either fide, are performed with great
facility. This elafticity feems to be the reafon why
people who have been long Handing, or have carried a
confiderable weight, are found to be fhorter than when
they have been long in bed. In the two ftrft inftances
the intervertebral cartilages (as they are ufually called)
are evidently more expofed to compreffion than when
we are in bed in an horizontal pofture.
In advanced life thefe cartilages become ftirivelled,
and of courfe lofe much of their elafticity. This may
ferve to account for the decreafe in ftature and the
ftooping forward which are ufually to be obferved in
old people.
Befides the connection of the feveral vertebrae by
means of this intervertebral fubftance, there are likewife rofity of the ribs.
articulating furface. It is by means of this arti¬
culation that the head performs its rotatory motion,
the atlas in that cafe moving upon this odontoid pro¬
cefs as upon a pivot. But when this motion is in any
confiderable degree, or, in other words, when the head
moves much either to the right or left, all the cervical
vertebra feem to aflift, othenvife the fpinal marrow
would be in danger of being divided tranfverfely by the
firft vertebra. ^
The fpinous procefs of each of the cervical vertebra Vertebra
is ftiorter, and their articular proceffes more oblique, than of the back,
in the other bones of the fpine.
Thefe 12 vertebra are of a middle fize between thofe
of the neck and loins. At their fides we may obferve
two deprefiiqns, one at the upper and the other at the
lower part of the body of each vertebra; which uniting
with fimilar depreffions in the vertebra above and be¬
low, form articulating furfaces, covered with.cartilages,
for receiving the heads of the ribs ; and at the fore¬
part of their tranfverfe procefs (excepting the twolaft)
we find an articulating furface for receiving the tube-
many ftrong ligaments, both external and internal,
which unite the bones of the fpine to each other. Their
33
Thefe five vertebra; differ only from thofe of the back Lumbar
in their being larger, and in having their fpinous pro- verce*jrx’
union is alfo ftrengthened by a variety of ftrong mufcles ceffes at a greater diftance from each other. The moft
that cover and furuound the fpine.
The bones of the fpine are found to diminifti in den-
fity, and to be lefs firm in their texture in proportion
as they increafe in bulk ; fo that the lowermoft verte¬
brae, though the largeft, are not fo heavy in proportion
as the upper ones. By this means the fize of thefe
bones is increafed without adding to their weight; a
circumftance of no little importance in a part like the
fpine., which, befides flexibility and fupplenefs, feems
to require lightnefs as one of its effential properties.
confiderable motions of the trunk are made on thefe
vertebrae; and thefe motiofis could not be performed
with fo much eafe, were the proceffes placed nearer to
each other. 34
The os facrum, which is compofed of five or fix Os facrum.
pieces in young fubjefts, becomes one bone in more ad¬
vanced age.
It is nearly of a triangular figure, its inferior portion
being bent a little forwards. Its fuperior part has two
oblique proceffes which are articulated with the laft of
31
tebra
fie neck.
In very young children, each vertebra confifts of the lumbar vertebras;. and it has likewife commonly
three bony pieces united by cartilages which afterwards three fmall fpinous proceffes, which gradually become
fliorter, fo that the lowermoft is not fo long as the fe¬
cond, nor the fecond as the uppermoft. Its tranfverfe
proceffes are formed into one oblong procefs, which be-
tranfverfe proceffes are forked for the lodgement of comes gradually fmaller as it defeends. Its concave or
offify.
There are feven vertebra of the neck— they are of a
firmer texture than the other bones of the fpine. Their
mufeles, and at the bottom of each we obferve a fora¬
men, through which pafs the cervical artery and vein.
The firft and fecond of thefe vertebrse muft be defcri¬
bed more particularly. The firft approaches almoft to which are filled up and covered with the mufcular and
an oval ihape—On its fuperior furface it has two cavi- tendinous parts behind.
anterior fide is ufually fmooth, but its pofterior convex
fide/ has many prominences (the moft remarkable of
which are the fpinous proceffes juft now mentioned).
This,
N
633
• Ofteology. This bone has five pair off holes, which afford a paf-
v'—- fage to blood-veffels, and likewife to the nerves that are
’ derived from the fpinal marrow, which is continued
even here, being lodged in a triangular cavity, that be¬
comes fmaller as it defcends, and at length terminates
T O M Y. Part
turns itfelf in every dire&ion, as if all its bones were Oftaol^
feparated from each other.
In a part of the body, like the fpine, that is made
up of fo great a number of bones, and intended for
fuch a variety of motion, there muft be a greater dan-
obliquely at the lower part of this bone. Below the ger of diflocation than fra&ure ; but we fhall find, that
third divifion of the os facrum, this canal is not com¬
pletely bony as in the reft of the fpine, being fecured
at its back part only by a very ftrong membrane, fo
that a wound at this part muft be extremely dange
this is very wifely guarded againft in every direction
by the proceffes belonging to each vertebra, and by
the ligaments, cartilages. See. by which thefe bones are
connedted with each other.
35
Os coccyx.
The os facrum is united laterally to the offa innomi-
nata or hip-bones, and below to the coccyx.
The coccyx, which, like the os facrum, is in young
people made up of three or four diftindl parts, ufually
becomes one bone in the adult ftate.
§2. Of tht Bones of the Thorax.
The thorax, or cheft, is compofed of many bones,
viz. the fternum which is placed at its anterior part,
twelve ribs on each fide which make up its lateral parts,
and the dorfal vertebrae which conftitute its pofterior
It ferves to fupport the inteftinum reftum ; and, by part. Thefe laft have been already deferibed.
its being capable of fome degree of motion at its arti¬
culation with the facrum,' and being like that bone
bent forwards, we are enabled to fit with eafe.
This bone is nearly of a triangular fhape, being
broadeft at its. upper part, and from thence growing
narrower to its apex, where it is not bigger' than the
little finger.
It has got its name from its fuppofed refemblance to
a cuckow’s beak. It differs greatly from the vertebras,
being commonly without any proceffes, and having no
cavity for the fpinal marrow, or foramina for the tranf#1
million of nerves.
The fpine, of which we have now finilhed the ana¬
tomical defeription, is deftined for many great and im-
The fternum is the long bone which extends itfelf O'"'he |i
from the upper to the lower part of the breaft ante-1
riorly, and to which the ribs and the clavicles are arti¬
culated.
In children it is compoled of feveral bones united by
cartilages ; but as we advance in life, moft of thefe
cartilages oflify, and the fternum in the adult ftate is
found to confift only of three pieces, and fometimes
becomes one bone. It is however generally deferibed
as being compofed of three parts—one fuperior, which
is broad, thick, and Ihort; and one in the middle,
which is thinner, narrower, and Ipnger than the o-
ther.
It terminates at its lower part by a third piece, which
portant ufes. The medulla fpinalis is lodged in its is called the xyphoid, or Jnuord-ltke cartilage, from its
bony canal fecure from external injury. It ferves as a
defence to the abdominal and thoracic j^feera, and at
the fame time fupports the head, and gives a general
firmnefs to the whole trunk.
fuppofed refemblance to the blade of a fword, and be-
caufe in young fubjedts it is commonly in a cartilagi¬
nous ftate.
We have already obferved, that this bone is articu-
We have before compared .it to the letter f and its lated with the clavicle on each fide. It is likewife joined
different turns will be found to render it not very unlike
the figure of that letter.—In the neck we feeitprojefting
fomewhat forward to fupport the head, which without
this afliftance would require a greater number of muf-
to the fourteen true ribs, viz., feven on its right and
feven on its left fide. " 3g L
The ribs are bones ffiaped like a bow, forming the Of thewj
fides of the cheft. There are twelve on each fide.
cles—Lower down, in the thorax, we find it taking a They are diftinguiftied into true and falfe ribs: The
curved direction backwards, and of courfe increafing
the cavity of the cheft. After this, in the loins, it a-
gain projects forwards in a diredrion with the centre
of gravity, by which means we are eafily enabled to falfe ribs.
feven upper ribs which are articulated to the fter¬
num are called true ribs, and the five lower ones that
are not immediately attached to that bone are called
On the inferior and interior furface of each rib, we
artery, vein.
keep the body in an eredf pofture, for otherwife we
Ihould be liable to fall forward. Towards its inferior obferve a finuofity for the lodgement of
extremity, however, it again recedes backward, and and nerve,
thus affifts in forming the pelvis, the name given to the
cavity in which the urinary bladder, inteftinum rectum,
and other yifeera are placed.
If this bony column had been formed only of one
The ribs are not bony through their whole length,
their anterior part being cartilaginous. They are ar¬
ticulated with the vertebras and fternum. Every rib
(or at leaft the greater number of them) has at its pofte-
piece, it would have been much more eafily fradtured rior part two proceffes; one at its extremity, called the
than it is how: and by confining the trunk to a ftiff fi-
tuation, a variety of motions would have been altoge¬
ther prevented, which are now performed with eafe by
the great number of bones of which it is compofed.
head of the rib, by means of which it is articulated
with the body of two vertebras; and another, called its
tuberofity, by which it is articulated with the tranfverfe
procefs of the loweft of thefe two vertebras. The firft
It is firm, and yet to this firmnefs there is added a rib is not articulated by its extremity to two vertebras,
perfect flexibility. If it be required to carry a load
upon the head, the neck becomes ftiff with the aflift¬
ance of its mufcles, and accommodates itfelf to the
load, as if it was compofed only of one bone^—In
ftooping likewife, or in turning to either fide, the fpine
N°x8
being Amply attached to the upper part of the firft ver¬
tebra of the back. The feven fuperior or true ribs are
articulated anteriorly with the fternum by their carti¬
lages ; but the falfe ribs are fupported in a different
manner—the eighth, which is the firft of thefe ribs,
being
N
O M Y.
689
• being attached by its cartilage to the feventh; the ninth from the os facrum to the lharp-pointed procefs of the Ofteology.
' to the eighth, &c. ifchium. This hole affords a paffage to the great fci- -v”—*
The two lowermoft ribs differ likewife from all the atic nerve, and to the pofterior crural veffels under the
reft in the following particulars: They are articulated pyriform mufcle, part of which likewife paffes out
only with the body of a vertebra, and not with a here.
tranfverfe procefs ; and anteriorly, their cartilage is The os ifchium, or hip-bone, which is of a very ir- Os ifchiuas,
loofe, not being attached to the cartilages of the other regular figure, conftitutes the lower lateral parts of the
ribs; and this feems to be, becaufe the moft confider- pelvis, and is commonly divided into its body, tubero-
able motions of the trunk are not performed on the fity, and ramus. The body forms the lower and moft
lumbar vertebrae alone, but likewife on the two laft confiderable portion of the acetabulum, and fends a
vertebrae of the back: fo that if thefe two ribs had been fharp-pointed procefs backwards, called the fpine of
confined at the fore part like the other ribs, and had the ifchium. To this procefs the ligament adheres,
been likewife articulated with the bodies of two ver- which was juft now fpoken of, as forming a foramen for
tebras, and with the tranfverfe procefles, the motion of . the paffage of the fciatic nerve.—The tuberofity, which
the two laft vertebras, and confequently of the whole is the loweft part of the trunk, and fupports us when
trunk, would have been impeded. we fit, is large and irregular, affording origin to feve-
The ribs help to form the cavity of the thorax; ral mufcles. From this tuberofity we find the bone
they afford attachment to different mufcles; they are becoming thinner and narrower. This part, which has
nfeful in refpiration ; and they ferve as a fecurity to the name of ramus or branch, paffes forwards and up-
the heart and lungs. wards, and concurs with the ramus of the os pubis, to
r /-i . r 7, ^ ,, 7,,. form a large hole called the foramen magnum ifchiu or
$ 3* f e ones °f e e vts‘ thyroideum, as it is fometimes named from its refem-
The pelvis is compofed of the os facrum, os coccy- blance to a «door or ftiield. This hole, which in the
gis, and two offa innominata. The two firft of thefe recent fubject is clofed by a ftrong membrane called
bones were included in the account of the fpine, to the obturator ligament, affords through its whole cir«
which they more properly belong. ciimference attachment to mufcles. At its upper part
In children, each os innominatum is compofed of where we obferve a niche in the bone, it gives paffage
three diftinft bones; but as we advance in life the in- to the obturator veffels and nerves, which go to the in¬
termediate cartilages gradually offify, and the marks ner part of the thigh. Nature feems every where to
of the original feparation difappear, fo that they be- avoid an unneceffary weight of bone, and this foramen,
come one irregular bone ; ftill however continuing to no doubt, ferves to lighten the bones of the pelvis.
retain the names of ilium, ifchium, and pubis, by which The os pubis or (hare-bone, which with its fellow q. pUbis,
their divifions were originally diftinguiftied, and to be forms the fore-part of the pelvis, is the fmalleft divifion
defcribed as three different bones by the generality of of the os innominatum. It is united to its fellow by
anatomifts. The os ilium forms the upper and moft means of a ftrong cartilage, which forms what is cal-
confiderable part of the bone, the os ifchium its lower led the fymphyfis pubis.
In each os pubis we may diftingu-ifh the body of
the bone, its angle, and ramus. The body or outer
part is united to the os ilium. The angle comes for¬
wards to form the fymphyfis, and the ramus is a thin
and pofterior portion, and the os pubis its fore part.
The os ilium or haunch bone, is articulated pofte-
riorly to the os facrum by a firm cartilaginous fubftance,
and is united to the os pubis before and to the os ifchi¬
um below. Its fuperior portion is thin, and terminates procefs which unites with the ramus of the ifchium, to
in a ridge called the crifta or fpine of the ilium, and form the foramen thyroideum.
more commonly known by the name of the haunch.
This crifta rifes up like an arch, being turned fome-
what outwards, fo as to refemble the wings of a
phaeton.
Externally this bone is unequally prominent and hol¬
lowed for the lodgement of mufcles; internally we find
k fmooth and concave. At its lower part there is a
confiderable ridge on its inner furface. This ridge
extends from the os facrum, and-correfponds with a
fimilar prominence both on that bone and the ifchium ;
forms with the inner part of the offa pubis what in latter in the focket.
The three bones we have defcribed as compofing
each os innominatum, all affift in forming the acetabu¬
lum, in which the head of the os femoris is received.
This cavity is every where lined with a fmaoth car¬
tilage, excepting at its inner part, where we may ob¬
ferve a little foffa, in which are lodged the mucilagi¬
nous glands of the joint. We may likewife notice the
pit or depreffion made by the round ligament, as it is
improperly called, which, by adhering to this cavity
and to the head of the thigh-bone, helps to fecure the
midwifery is termed the brim of the pelvis.
The crifta, or fpine, which at firft is an epiphyfis,
Thefe bones, which are united to each other and ta
the fpine by many very ftrong ligaments, ferve to fup-»
has two confiderable tuberofities; one anteriorly, and port the trunk, and to conned! it with the lower extre-
the other pofteriofly, which is the largeft of the two: mities; and at the fame time to form the pelvis or ba-
Thefe, from their proje&ing more than the parts of fon, in which are lodged the inteftines and urinary
the bone below' them, have gotten the name of fpinal bladder, and in women the uterus; fo that the ftudy of
proceffes. From the anterior fpinous procefs, the far- this part of ofteology is of the utmoft importance in
torious and tenfor vaginae femoris mufcles have their midwifery.
origin; and below-the pofterior procefs we obferve a
confiderable niche in the bone, w hich, in the recent
fubjeft, is formed into a large foramen, by means of a
ftrong ligament that is ftretched over its lower part of the pelvis larger than in men.
Vol. I. Part II. 4 S
It is worthy of obfervation, that in women the os
facrum is ufually fhorter, broader, and more hollowed,-
the offa ilia more expanded, and the inferior opening
6go ANATOMY.
Qfteology. ter fide of this coracoid procefs, a ftrong ligament paf-
'-—v-—* Sect. IV. Of the Extremities. fea to the proceflus acromion, which prevents a luxa¬
tion of the os humeri upwards. A third procefs be-
43- The parts of the fkeleton confill of the upper ex- gins by a narrow neck, and ends in a cavity called
treinity and the lower. glenoid, for the connexion of the os humeri.
„ f i t r t- The fcapula is articulated with the clavicle and os
o i. Of the Upper Extremity. , . ri-iinVr ri ji
J J humeri, to which lait it ierves as a tulcrum; and by
44- This confifts of the fhoulder, the arm, and the varying its pofition it affords a greater fcope to the
hand. bones of the arm in their different motions. It like-
wife gives origin to feveral mufcles, and pofteriorly
ferves as a defence to the trunk.
i Of the Shoulder.
45* The fhoulder confifts of two bones, the clavicula and
46 the fcapula.
Of the da- 'The former, which is fo named from its refemblance
vicula. to t^e key ;n ufe amongft the ancients, is a little cur¬
ved at both its extremities like an italic f. It is like-
wife called jugulum, or collar-bone, from its fituation.
It is about the fize of the little finger, but longer, and
being of a very fpongy fubftance, is very liable to be
fractured. In this, as in other long bones, we may
diftinguifh a body and two extremities. The body is
rather flattened than rounded. The anterior extremi¬
ty is formed into a flightly convex head, which Is
nearly of a triangular fhape. The inferior furface of
the head is articulated with the fternum. The pofte-
rior extremity, which is flatter and broader than the
ether, is connected to a procefs of the fcapula, called
acromion. Both thefe articulations are fecured by li¬
gaments, and in that with the fternum we meet with
a moveable cartilage, to prevent any injury from fric¬
tion.
The clavicle ferves to regulate the motions of the
fcapula/by preventing it from being brought too much
forwards, or carried too far backwards. It affords o-
rigin to feveral mufcles, and helps to cover and protect
the fubclavian veffels, which derive their name from
their fituation under this bone.
47 The fcapula, or fhoulder-blade, which is nearly of
Of the fca- a triangular fhape, is fixed to the pofterior part of the
^ ’ true ribs, fomewhat in the manner of a buckler. It
is of a very unequal thicknefs, and like all other broad,
flat bones, is fomewhat cellular. Exteriorly it is con¬
vex, and interiorly coficave, to accommodate itfelf to
the convexity of the ribs. We obferve in this bone
three unequal fides, which are thicker and ftronger than
the body of the bone, and are therefore termed its
cojhs. The largeft of the three, called alfo the bafis,
is turned towards the vertebrse. Another, which is
fefs than the former, is below this; and the third,
which is the leaft of the three, is at the upper part of
the bone. Externally the bone is elevated into a con-
fiderable fpine, which rifing fmall at the bafis of the
fcapula, becomes gradually higher and broader, and
divides the outer furface of the bone into two foffe.
The fuperior of thefe, which is the fmalleft,. ferves to
lodge the fupra fpinatus mufcle ; and the inferior fof-
fa, which is much larger than the othei;, gives origin
to the infra fpinatus. This fpine terminates in a broad
and flat procefs at the top of the fhoulder, called the
procefus acromion, to which the clavicle is articulated.
This procefs is hollowed at its lower part to allow a
paffage to the fupra and infra fpinati mufcles. The
fcapula has likewife another confiderable procefs at its
upper part, which, from its refemblance to the beak
©f a bird, is called the coracoid procefs. From the ou-
3
2. Bones of the Arm*
The arm is commonly divided into two parts, which 4<k
are articulated to each other at the elbow. The up¬
per part retains the name of arm, properly fo called,
and the lower part is ufually called the fore-arm.
The arm is compofed of a Angle bone called os hu- §
inert. This bone, which is almoft of a cylindrical
fhape, may be divided into its body and its extremi¬
ties.
The upper extremity begins by a large, round
fmooth head, which is admitted into the glenoid ca¬
vity of the fcapula. On the upper and fore part of the
bone there is a groove for lodging the long head of the
biceps mufcle of the arm; and on each fide of the
groove, at the upper end of the bone, there is a tu¬
bercle to which the fpinati mufcles are fixed*
The lower extremity has feveral proceffes and cavi¬
ties. The principal proceffes are its two condyles, one
exterior and the other interior, and of thefe the laft is
the largeft. Between .thefe two we obferve two late¬
ral protuberances, which, together with a middle ca¬
vity, form as it were a kind of pully upon which the
motions of the fore-arm are chiefly performed. At
each fide of the condyles, as well exteriorly as interior¬
ly, there is another eminence winch gives origin to fe¬
veral mufcles of the hand and fingers, Pofteriorly and
fuperiorly, fpeaking with refpe£t to the condyles, we
obferve a deep fofia which receives a confiderable pro¬
cefs of the ulna •, and anteriorly and oppofite to this
fofia, we obferve another, wdiich is much lefs, and re¬
ceives another procefs of the fame bone.
The body of the bone has at its upper and anterior
part a furrow which begins from behind the head of
the bone, and ferves to lodge the tendon of a mufcle*
The body of the os humeri is hollow through its whole
length, and like all other long bones has its marrow.
This bone is articulated at its upper part to the fca¬
pula. This articulation, which allows motion every¬
way, is furrounded by a capfular ligament/that is fome-
times torn in luxation, and becomes an obftacle to the
eafy redu&ion of the bone. Its lower extremity is.
articulated with the bones of the fore-arm. H
The fore-arm is compofcd of two bones, the ulna Of the foreh¬
and radius. arnl ■
The ulna or elbow-bone is much left than the os 0f h,
humeri, and becomes gradually fmaller as it defeends na.
to the wrift. At its upper part it has two procefles
and two cavities. Of the two procefles, the largeft,
which is 'fituated pofteriorly, and called the olecranon,
is admitted into the pofterior fofla of the os humeri.
The other procefs is placed anteriorly, and is called
the coronoid procefs. In bending the arm it enters in¬
to the anterior foffa ©f the es humeri. This proceft
being ff
f Of the I
. iius.
Of the car-
f. A N A T
Y- being much fmaller than the other, permits the fore-
arm to bend inwards; whereas the olecranon, which
is lhaped like a hook, reaches the bottom of its folia
in the os humeri as foon as the arm becomes ftraight,
and will not permit the fore-arm to be bent backwards.
The ligaments likewife oppofe this motion.
Between the two procefles we have defcribed, there
is a confiderable cavity called the fygmoid cavity, di¬
vided into two fcffie by a fmall eminence, which pafles
from one procefs to the other; it is by means of this
cavity and the two procelfes, that the ulna is articu¬
lated with the os humeri by ginglimus.
At the bottom of the coronoid procefs interiorly,
there is a fin all fygmoid cavity, which ferves for the
articulation of the ulna with the radius.
The body of the ulna is of a triangular lhape : Its
lower extremity terminates by a fmall head and a little
ftyloid procefs. The ulna is articulated above to the
os humeri—both above and below to the radius, and to
the wrift at its lower extremity. All thefe articula¬
tions are fecured by means of ligaments. The chief
ufe of this bone feems to be to fupport and regulate
the motions of the radius.
The radius, which is fo named from its fuppofed re-
femblance to the fpoke of a wheel, is placed at the in-
fide of the fore-arm. It is fomewhat larger than the
ulna, but not quite fo long as that bone. Its upper
part is cylindrical, hollowed fuperiorly to receive the
outer condyle of the os humeri. Laterally it is ad¬
mitted into the little fygmoid cavity of the ulna, and
the cylindrical part of the bone turns in this cavity in
the motions of pronation and fupination (l). This
bone follows the ulna in flexion and extenfion, and may
likewife be moved round its axis in any dire&ion. The
lower extremity of the radius is much larger and
ftronger than its upper part; the ulna, on the contrary,
is fmaller and weaker below than hove ; fo that they
ferve to fupply each others deficiencies in both thofe
parts.
On the external fide of this bone, we obferve a fmall
cavity which is deftined to receive the lower end of the
ulna; and its lower extremity is formed into a large
cavity, by means of which it is articulated with the
bones of the wrift, and on this account it is fometimes
called manubrium manus. It fupports the two firft
bones of the wrift on the fide of the thumb, whereas
the ulna is articulated with that bone of the wrift
which correfponds with the little finger.
Through the whole length both of this bone and the
ulna, a ridge is obferved which affords attachment to an
interoffeous ligament. This ligament fills up the fpace
between the two bones.
3. Bones of the Hand.
The carpus or wrift confifts of eight fmall bones of an
irregular fhape, and difpofed in two unequal rows.
Thofe of the upper row are articulated with the bones
of the fore-arm, and thofe of the lower one with the
metacarpus.
The ancient anatomifts defcribed thefe bones nume¬
rically ; Lyferus feems to have been the firft who gave
O M Y. 691
to each of them a particular name. The names he adopt- Ofleology*
ed are found on the figure of the bones, and are now 1
prettygenerally received, except thefirft, which inftead of
y.o7v\ouSc; (the name given to it by Lyferus, on account
of its finus, that admits a part of the os magnum), has
by later writers been named Scapboides or Naviculare.
This, which is the outermoft of the upper row (con-
f dering the thumb as the outer fide of the hand), is ar¬
ticulated with the radius ; on its inner fide it is con-
nefted with the os lunare, and below to the trapezium
and trapezoides. Next to this is a fmaller bone, called
the ©/ lunare; becaufe its outer fide, which is connedt-
ed with the fcaphoides, is flraped like acrefcent. This
is likewife articulated with the radius. On its inner
fide it joins the os cuneiforme, and anteriorly, the os
magnum and os unciforme.
The os cuneiforme, which is the third bone in the
upper row, is compared to a wedge, from its being
broader above, at the back of the hand, than it is be¬
low. Pofteriorly it is articulated with the ulna, and
anteriorly with the os unciforme.
Thefe three bones form an oblong articulating fur-
face, covered by cartilage, by which the hand is con-
nedled with the fore-arm.
T.he os pififorme, or pea-like bone, which is fmaller
than the three juft now defcribed, though generally
claffed with the bones of the upper row, does not pro¬
perly belong to either feries, being placed on the un¬
der furface of the os cuneiforme, fo as to projedl into
the palm of the hand. The four bones of the fecond
row correfpond with the bones of the thumb and fin¬
gers; the firft, fecond, and fourth, are from their ftiapes
named trapezium, trapezoides, and unciforme; the third
from its being the largeft bone of the carpus, is ftyled
os magnum.
All thefe bones are convex towards the back, and
flightly concave towards the palm of the hand ; their
articulating furfaces are covered with cartilages, and
fecured by many ftrong ligaments, particularly by two
ligamentous expanfions, called the external and inter¬
nal annular ligaments of the wrift. The former ex¬
tends in an oblique diredlion from the os pififorme to
the ftyloid procefs of the radius, and is an inch and a
half in breadth 5 the latter or internal annular ligament
is ftretched from the os pififorme and os unciforme, to
the os fcaphoides and trapezium. Thefe annular liga¬
ments likewife ferve to bind down the tendons of the
wrift and fingers.
The metacarpus confifts of four bones, which fupport0f die me-
the fingers ; externally they are a little convex, and in- tacarPus“
ternally fomewhat concave, where they form the palm
of the hand. They are hollow, and of a cylindrical
ftiape.
At each extremity they are a little hollowed for
their articulation ; fuperioriy with the bones of the car¬
pus, and inferiorly with the firft phalanx of the fingers,
in the fame manner as the feveraf phalanges of the fin¬
gers are articulated with each other.
The five fingers of each hand are compofed of fifteen Of the fin-
bones, difpofed in three ranks called phalanges: The ^ts.
bones of the firft phalanx, which are articulated with
4 S 2 the
(l) The motions of pronation and fupination may be eafily defcribed. If the palm of the hand, for in-
Itance, is placed on the furface of a table, the hand may be faid to be in a ftate of pronation; but if the back
part of the hand is turned towards the table, the hand will be then in a ftate of fupination.
692 A N A T
Oiteolojry. the metacarpus, are the largeft, and thofe of the laft
phalanx the fmalleft. All thefe bones are larger at
their extremities than in their middle part.
We obferve at the extremities of the bones of the
carpus, metacarpus, and fingers, feveral inequalities that
Iferve for their articulation with each other; and thefe
articulations are ftrengthened by means of the liga¬
ments which furround them.
It will be eafily underftood that this multiplicity of
bones in the hand (for there are 27 in each hand) is
elfential to the different motions we wifh to perform.
If each finger was compofed only of one bone inftead
of three, it would be impoffible for us to grafp any
thing.
O M Y. Part T
At the fide of each condyle externally, there is a Ofteology
tuberofity, frost whence th« lateral ligaments originate, ' tf-—
which are extended down to the tibia.
A ligament likewife arifes from each condyle pofle-
riorly. One of thefe ligaments paffes from the right
to the left, and the other from the left to the right, fo
that they interfe& each other, and for that reafon are
called the crofs ligaments.
The lateral ligaments prevent the motion of the leg
upon the thigh to the right or left; and. the crofs liga¬
ments, which are alfo attached to the tibia, prevent the
latter from being brought forwards.
In new-born children all the procefies of this bone
are cartilaginous.
57, $2. Lower Extremities.
Each lower extremity is divided into four parts, viz.
the os femoris, or thigh bone ; the rotula, or knee-
pan ; the leg j and the foot.
1. Of the Thigh.
©f the^os *s compofed only of this bone, which is
femoris. the largeft and ftrongeft we have. It will be neceflary
to diftinguifh its body and extremities: Its body, which
is of a cylindrical ftiape, is convex before and con¬
cave behind, where it ferves to lodge feveral mufcles.
Throughout two-thirds of its length we obferve a ridge
called line a afpera, which originates from the trochan¬
ters, and after running for fome way downwards, di¬
vides into two branches, that terminate in the tubero-
fities at the lower extremity of the bone.
At its upper extremity we muft deferibe the neck
and fmooth head of the bone, and likewife two conli-
derable proceffes : The head, which "forms the greater
portion of a fphere unequally divided, is turned in¬
wards, and received into the great cotyloid cavity of
the os innominatum. At this part of the bone there
is a little fofla to be obferved, to which the round liga¬
ment is attached, and which vve have already, defcribed
as tending to fecare the head of this bone in the great
acetabulum. The neck is almoft horizontal consider¬
ed with r dp eft to its fituation with the body of the
bone. Of the two procefles, the external one, which
is the largeft, is called trochanter major; and the other,
which is placed on the infide of the bone, trochanter
minor. They both afford attachment to mufcles. The
articulation of the os femoris with the trunk is ftrength¬
ened by means of a capfular ligament, which adheres
everywhere round the edge of thegreatcotyloid cavity of
the os innominatum, and furrounds the head of the bone.
The os femoris moves upon the trunk in every di-
reftion.
At the lower extremity of the bone are two procef¬
fes called the condyles, and an intermediate fmooth ca¬
vity, by means of which, it if articulated with the leg
by ginglimus.
All round the under end of the bone there is an ir¬
regular furface where the capfular ligament of the joint
has its origin,, and where blood-veffels go into the fub-
ftance of the bone.
Between the condyles there is a cavity pofteriorly,
in which the blood-veffels and nerves are placed, fecure
from the compreffion to which they would otherwife
be expofed in the aftion of bending the leg, and which
would not fail to be hurtful.
2. The Rotula, or Knee-pan.
The rotula, patella, or knee-pan, as it is differently Of the re¬
called, is a flat bone about four or five inches in cir-
cumference, and is placed at the fore-part of the joint
of the knee. In its ftiape it is fomewhat like the com¬
mon figure of the heart, with its point downwards.
It is thinner at its edge than in its middle part; at
its fore-part it is fmooth and fomewhat convex ; its
pofterior furface, which is more unequal, affords an ele¬
vation in the middle which is admitted between the
two condyles of the os femoris.
This bone is retained in its proper fituation by a
ftrong ligament which every where furrounds it, and
adheres both to the tibia and os femoris; it is likewife
firmly connefted with the tibia fay means of a ftrong
tendinous ligament of an inch in breadth, and upwards
of two inches in length, which adheres to the lower
part of the patella, and to tire tuberofity at the upper
end of the tibia. On account of this conneftion, it is
very properly confidered as an appendage to the tibia,,
which it follows in all its motions, fo as to be to it
what the olecranon is to the ulna. There is this dif¬
ference, however, that the olecranon is a fixed procefs ;
whereas the patella is moveable, being capable of Aiding
from above downwards and from below upwards. This
mobility is effential to the rotatory motion of the leg.
In very young children this bone is entirely cartila¬
ginous.
The principal ufe of the patella feems to he to de¬
fend the articulation of the knee from external injury ;
it likewife tends to increafe the power of the extenfor
muicles of the leg, by removing their direftion farther
from the centre of motion in the manner of a pulley.
3. Of the Leg. 60,
The leg is compofed of two bones : Of thefe the
inner one, which is the largeft, is called tibia ;. the
other is much fmaller, and named fibula. ^
The tibia, which is fo called from its refemblance to of the ti¬
the mufical pipe of the ancients, has three furfaces, and bia.
is not very unlike a triangular prifm. Its pofterior
furface is the broadeft ; anteriorly it has a confiderable
ridge called the Ihin, between which and the fkin there
are no mufcles. At the upper extremity of this bone
are two furfaces, a little concave, and feparated from
each other by nn intermediate elevation. The two
Ijttle cavities receive the condyles of the os femoris, and
the eminence between them is admitted into the cavity
which we fpoke of as being between the two condyles;
fo that this articulation affords a fpecimen of the com-
x plete
Part I. A N A T
Bofteology. plete ginglimus. Under the external edge of the up-
K   per end of this bone is a circular flat ftirface, which re¬
ceives the head of the fibula.
At the lower and inner portion of the tibia, we ob-
ferve a confiderable procefs called malleolus interims.
The bafis of the bone terminates in a large tranfverfe
cavity, by which it is articulated with the uppermoft
bone of the foot. It has likewife another cavity at its
lower end and outer fide, which is fomev/hat oblong,
and receives the lower end of the fibula.
The tibia is hollow through its whole length.
I Of the fi- The fibula is a fmall long bone fituated on the out-
■ tala. fide of the tibia. Its fuperior extremity does not reach
quite fo high as the upper part of the tibia, but its
lower end defcends fomewhat lower. Both above and
below, it is articulated with the tibia by means of the
lateral cavities we noticed in our defcrrption of that
bone.
Its lower extremity is ftretched out into a coronoid
procefs, which is flattened at its infide, and is convex
externally, forming what is called the malleolus exter-
nus, or outer ancle. This is rather lower than the mal¬
leolus internus of the tibia.
The body of this bone, which is irregularly triangu¬
lar, is a little hollow at its internal furface, which is
turned towards the tibia; and it affords like that bone,
through its whole length, attachment to a ligament,
which from its fituation is called the interoffeous liga¬
ment.
<53.
64
V Of theta
O M Y,
*>93
65
Of the a-
[■ ftragalus.
4. Of the Foot.
The foot confiffs of the tarfus, metatarfus, and toes.
The tarfus is compofed of feven bones, viz. the a-
ffragalus, os calcis, os naviculare, os cuboides, and three
others called cuneiform bones.
The aftragalus is a large bone with which both the
tibia and fibula are articulated. It is the uppermoft
bone of the foot; it has feveral furfaces to be confider-
ed; its upper, and fomewhat pofterior part, which is
fmooth and convex, is admitted into the cavity of the
tibia. Its lateral parts are connefted with the malleoli
of the two bones of the Teg ; below, it is articulated
with the os calcis, and its anterior furface is received
by the os naviculare. All thefe articulations are fecu-
red by means of ligaments.
Of the os ^ie 08 ca^c^s> or calcaneum, which is of a very irre-
eakis. gular figure, is the largeft bone of the foot. Behind,
it is formed into a confiderable tuberofity called the
heel ; without this tuberofity, which fupports us in an
eredl poll tire, and when we walk, we ihould be liable
to fall backwards.
On the internal furface of this bone, we obferve a
confiderable finuofity, which affords a paffage to the
tendon of a mufcle 1 and to the pofterior part of the
©S calcis, a ftrong tendinous cord called tenclo achillis
(m) is attached, which is formed by the tendons of fe¬
veral mufcles united together. The articulation of this
^ with the other bones is fecured by means of ligaments,
©f the os The os naviculare, or fcaphoides,(for thefe two terms
naviculare have the fame fignification), is fo called on account of
its refemblance to a little bark. At its p&fterior part,
which is concave, it receives the aftragalusanteriorly
it is articulated with the cuneiform bones, and laterally Oftcology.
it is connefted with the os cuboides.
The os cuboides forms an irregular cube. Pofteri- 0f the 03
orly it is articulated with the os calcis ; anteriorly it cuboides.
fupports the two laft bones of the metatarfus, and la¬
terally it joins the third cuneifosm bone and the os na¬
viculare. 9 (,g
Each of the offa cuneiformia, which are three in Of the offa
number, refembles a wedge, and from this fimilitude cuneifor-
their name is derived. They are placed next to themia*
metatarfus by the fides of each other, and are ufually
diftinguifhed into os cuneiforme externum, medium or
minimum, and internum or maximum. The fuperior
furface of thefe bones, from their wedge-like ihape, is
broader than that w'hich is below, where they help to
form the foie of the foot; pofteriorly they are united
to the os naviculare, and anteriorly they fupport the
three firft metatarfal bones.
When thefe feven bones compofing the tarfus are
viewed together in the fkeleton, they appear convex
above, where they help to form the upper part of the
foot; and concave underneath, where they form the
hollow of the foot, in which the veffels, tendons, and
nerves of the foot are placed fecure from preffure.
They are united to each other by very ftrong liga¬
ments, and their articulation with the foot is fecured
by a capfular and two lateral ligaments ; each of the
latter is covered by an annular ligament of confiderable
breadth and thicknefs, which ferves to bind down the
tendons of the foot, and at the fame time to ftrength-
en the articulation.
The os cuneiforme externum is joined-laterally to the
os cuboides. ♦
Thefe bones complete our account of the tarfus.
Though what we have faid of this part of the ofteology
has been very fimple and concife, yet many readers
may not clearly underftand it: but if they will be plea-
fed to view thefe bones in their proper fituation in the
fkeleton, all that we have faid of them will be eafily
underftood. ^0:
The metatarfus is made up. of five bones, whereas of the mej
the metacarpus confifts only of four. The caufe oftatarfus*
this difference is, that in the hand the laft bone of the
thumb is not included among the metacarpal bones;
whereas in the foot the great toe has only two bones.
The firft of thefe bones fupports the great toe and is
much larger than the reft, w'hich nearly refemble each
other in fize.
Thefe bones are articulated by one extremity with
the cuneiform bones and the os cuboides, and by their
other end with the toes.
Each of the toes, like the fingers, confifts of three of the toe*}-
bones, except the great toe, which is formed of two
bones. Thofe of the other four are diftinguifhed'into
three phalanges. Although the toes are more con¬
fined in their motion than the fingers, yet they appear
to be perfectly fitted for the purpofes they are defign-
ed for. In walking, the toes bring the centre of gra¬
vity perpendicular to the advanced foot ; and as the
foies of the foot are naturally concave, we can at plea-
fur e increafe this concavity, and form a kind of vault,
which adjufts itfelf to the different inequalities that oc-
( m.) This tendon is fometimes ruptured by jumping, dancing, or other violent efforts.
694 A N A T
Ofteology. Cll1. to us In walking ; and which, without this mode
' ' of arrangement, would incommode us exceedingly,
efpecially when bare-footed.
•}%. § 4. Of the OJfa Sesamoidea.
Besides the bones we have already defcribed, there
are feveral fmall ones that are met with only in the
adult /keleton, and in perfons who are advanced in
life ; which, from their fuppofed general refemblance
to the feeds of the fefamum, are called ojfa fefamoidea.
They are commonly to be feen at the firft. joint of the
great toe, and fometimes at the joints of the thumb ;
they are likewife now and then to be found at the
lower extremity of the fibula, upon the condyles of
the thigh-bone, under the os cuboides of the tarfus,
O M Y. Part I.
and in other parts of the body. Their fize and num- Ofteology.
ber feem conftantly to be increafed by age and hard »
labour; and as they are generally found in fituations
where tendons and ligaments are moft expofed to the
aftion of mufcles, they are now generally confidered
as offified portions of ligaments or tendons.
The upper furface of thefe bones is ufually convex,
and adherent to the tendon that covers it; the fide
which is next to the joint is fmooth and flat. Though
their formation is accidental, yet they feem to be of
fome ufe, by raifing the tendons farther from the centre
of motion, and confequently increafing the power of the
mufcles. In the great toe and thumb they are like¬
wife ufeful, by forming a groove for the flexor ten¬
dons.
EXPLANATION of the PLATES of OSTEOLOGY.
Plate XVII.
Fig. i. A Front-view of the Male Skeleton.
A, The os frontis. B, The os parietale. C, The
coronal future. D, The fquamous part of the tempo-
Tal bones. E, The fquamous future. F, The zygoma.
G, The maftoid procefs. H, The temporal procefs of
thefphenoid bone. I, The orbit. K, The os make. L,
The os maxillare fuperius. M, Its nafal procefs. N,
The offa naii. O, The 03 unguis. P, The maxilla in¬
ferior. The teeth, which are fixteen in number in
each jaw. R, The feven cervical vertebrse, with their
intermediate cartilages. S, Their tranfverfe proceffes.
T, The twelve dorfal vertebrse, with their intermedi¬
ate cartilages. U, The five lumbar vertebrae. V,
Their tranfverfe proceffes. W, The upper part of the
os facrum. X, Its lateral parts. The holes feen on
its fore part are the paflages of the undermoft fpinal
nerves and fmall veffels. Oppofite to the holes, the
marks of the original diviiions of the bone are feen.
Y, The os ilium. Z, Its creft or fpine. a, The an¬
terior fpinous proceffes. b, The brim of the pelvis,
c, The ifchiatic niche, d, The os ifchium. e, Its
tuberofity. f, Its fpinous procefs. g, Its crus, h, The
foramen thyroideum. i, The os pubis, k, The fym-
phyfis pubis. 1, The crus pubis, m, The acetabulum,
n, The feventh or laft true rib. o, The twelfth or laft
falfe rib. p. The upper end of the fternum. q, The
middle piece, r, The under end, or cartilage enfi-
formis. s, The clavicle, t, The internal furface of
the fcapula. u. Its acromion, v, Its coracoid pro¬
cefs. w, Its cervix, x, The glenoid cavity y, The
os humeri, z, Its head, which is cohnefted to the
glenoid cavity, x, Its external tubercle. 2, Its in¬
ternal tubercle. 3, The groove for lodging the long
head of the biceps mufcle of the arm. 4, The inter¬
nal condyle. 5, The external condyle. Between 4
and 5, the trochlea. 6, The radius. 7, Its head.
8, Its tubercle. 9, The ulna. 10, Its coronoid pro¬
cefs. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, The carpus;
compofed of os naviculare, os lunare, os cuneiforme,
os piliforme, os trapezium, os trapezoides, os magnum,
os unciforme. 19, The five bones of the metacarpus.
20, The two bones of the thumb. 21, The three
bones of each of the fingers. 22, The os femoris.
23, Its head. 24, Its cervix. 25, The trochanter
major. 2d, The trochanter minor. 27, The inter¬
nal condyle. 28, The external condyle. 29, The
rotula. 30, The tibia. 31, Its head. 32, Its tu¬
bercle. 33, Its fpine. 34, The malleolus internus,
35, The fibula. 36, Its head. 37, The malleolus
externus. The tarfus is compofed of, 38, Theaftraga-
lus; 39, The os calcis; 40, ;The os naviculare;
41, Three ofla cuneiformia, and the os cuboides, which
is not feen in this figure. 42, The five bones of the
metatarfus. 43, The two bones of the great toe.
44, The three bones of each of the fmall toes.
Fig. 2. A Front-view of the Skull.
A, The os frontis. B, The lateral part of the oa
frontis, which gives origin to part of the temporal
mufeje. C, The fuperciliary ridge. D, The fuper-
ciliary hole through which the frontal veffels and nerves
pafs. EE, The orbitar proceffes. F, The middle of
the tranfverfe future. G, The upper part of the or¬
bit. H, The foramen opticum. I, The foramen
lacerum. K, The inferior orbitar fiffure. L, The os
unguis. M, The ofla nafi. N, The os maxillare fu¬
perius. O, Its nafal procefs. P, The external orbi¬
tar hole through which the fuperior maxillary veffels
and nerves pafs. The os maize. R, A paffage for
fmall veffels into, or out of, the orbit. S, The under
part of the left noftril. T, The feptum narium.
U, The os fpongiofum fuperius. V, The os fpongio-
fum inferius. W, The edge of the alveoli, or fpongy
fockets, for the teeth. X, The maxilla inferior. Y,
The paffage for the inferior maxillary veffels and nerves.
Fig. 3. A Side-view of the Skull.
A, The os frontis. B, The coronal future. C, The
os parietale. D, An arched ridge which gives origin
to the temporal mufcle. E, The fquamous future.
F, The fquamous part of the temporal bone; and,
farther forwards, the temporal procefs of the fphenoid
bone. G, The zygomatic procefs of the temporal
bone. H, The zygomatic future. I, The maftoid
procefs of the temporal bone. K, The meatus audi-
torius externus. L, The orbitar plate of the frontal
bone, under which is feen the tranfverfe future.
M, The pars plana of the ethmoid bone. N, The os
unguis. O, The right os nafi. P, The fuperior max¬
illary bone. Qj Its nafal procefs. R, Tire two den¬
tes incifores. S, The dens caninus. T, The two
fmall molares. U, The three large molares. V, The
os make. W, The lower jaw. X, Its angle. Y, The
coronoid
Plate XVII.
Plate XVIII.
J /W/.cAv n./faZ'.
fart I. ANATOMY. 695
lOfteology. coronoid procefs. Z, The condyloid procefs, by
  which the jaw is articulated with the temporal bone.
Fig. 4. The pofterior and right Side of the Skull.
A, The os frontis. B B, The offa parietalia.
C, The fagittal future. D, The parietal hole, through
which a fmall vein runs to the fuperior longitudinal
finus. E, The lambdoid future. F F, Offa triquetra.
G, The os occipitis. H, The fquamous part of the
temporal bone. I, The maftoid procefs. K, The
zygoma. L, The os malae. M, The temporal part
of the fphenoid bone. N, The fuperior maxillary
bone and teeth.
Fig. 5. The external Surface of the Os Frontis.
A, The convex part. B, Part of the temporal
foffa. C, The external angular procefs. D, The in¬
ternal angular procefs. E, The nafal procefs. F, The
fuperciliary arch. G, The fuperciliary hole. H, The
orbitar plate.
Fig. 6. The Internal Surface of the Os Frontis.
A A, The ferrated edge which aflifts to form the
coronal future. B, The external angular procefs.
C, The internal angular procefs. D, The nafal pro¬
cefs. E, The orbitar plate. F, The cells which
correfpond with thofe of the ethmoid bone. G, The
paflage from the frontal finus. H, The opening which
receives the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone.
I, The cavity which lodges the fore part of the brain.
K, The fpine to which the falx is fixed. L, The
groove which lodges the fuperior longitudinal finus.
Plate XVIII.
Fig. 1. A Back-view of the Skeleton.
A A, The offa parietalia. B, The fagittal future.
C, The lambdoid future. D, The occipital bone.
E, The fquamous future. F, The maftoid procefs of
the temporal bone. G, The os malas. H, The pa¬
late plates of the fuperior maxillary bones. I, The
maxilla inferior. K, The teeth of both jaws. L, The
feven cervical vertebrae. M, Their fpinous proceftes.
N, Their tranfverfe and oblique procefles. O, The
laft of the twelve dorfal vertebrae. P, The fifth or laft
dumb a r vertebra. Q^, The tranfverfe proceffes. R, The
oblique proceffes. S, The fpinous proceffes. T, The
upper part of the os facrum. U, The pofterior holes
which tranfinit fmall blood-veffels and nerves. V, The
under part of the os facrum which is covered by a
membrane. W, The os coccygis. X, The os ilium.
Y, Its fpine or creft. Z, The ifchiatic niche, a, The
os ifchium. b. Its tuberofity. c, Its fpine. d, The
ds pubis, e, The foramen hydroideum. f. The fe-
venth or laft true rib. g. The twelfth or laft falfe rib.
h, The clavicle, i, The fcapula. k, Its fpine. 1, Its
acromion, m, Its cervix, n. Its fuperior cofta. o, Its
pofterior cofta. p. Its inferior cofta. q. The os hu-
mer:. r, The radius, s. The ulna, t. Its oleclanon.
u, All the bones of the carpus, excepting the os pifi-
forme, which is feen in Plate XVII. fig. i. v. The
five bones of the metacarpus, w, The two bones of
the thumb, x, The three bones of each of the fin¬
gers. y, The two fifamoid bones at the root of the
left thumb, z. The os femoris. i, The trochanter
major. 2, The trochanter minor. 3, The linea af-
pera. 4, The internal condyle. 5, The external
condyle. 6 6, The fimilunar cartilages. 7, The ti- Ofteology.
bia. 8, The malleolus internus. 9, The fibula. '—"“V"*
10, The malleolus externus. 11, The tarfus. 12, The
metatarfus. 13, The toes.
Fig. 2. The External Surface of the Left Os Pa-
RIETALE.
A, The convex fmooth furface. B, The parietal
hole. C, An arch made by the beginning of the tem¬
poral mufcle.
Fig. 3. The Internal Surface of the fame bone.
A, Its fuperior edge, which, joined with the other,
forms the fagittal future. B, The anterior edge, which,
affifts in the formation of the coronal future. C, The
inferior edge for the fquamous future. I), The pofte¬
rior edge for the lambdoid future. E, A depreffion .
made by the lateral finus. F F, The prints of the arte¬
ries of the dura mater.
Fig. 4. The External Surface of the Left Os Tem-
porum.
A, The fquamous part. B, The maftoid procefs.
C, The zygomatic procefs. D, The ftyloid procefs.
E, The petrofal procefs. F, The meatus auditorius
externus. G, The glenoid cavity for the articulation
of the lower ja w. H, The foramen ftylo-maftoideura
for the portio dura of the feventh pair of nerves*
I, Paffages for blood-veffels into the bone. K, The
foramen maftoideum through which a vein goes to the
lateral finus.
Fig. 5. The Internal Surface of the Left Os Tem-
porum.
A, The fquamouR part; the upper edge of which
afiifts in forming the fquamous future. B, The ma¬
ftoid procefs. C, The ftyloid procefs. D, The pars
petrofa. E, The entry of the feventh pair, or audi¬
tory nerve. F, The foffa, which lodges a part of the
lateral finus. G, The foramen maftoideum.
Fig. 6. The External Surface of the Osseous Circle
which terminates the meatus auditorius externus.
A, The anterior part. B, A fmall part of the
groove in wdiich the membrana tympani is fixed.
N. B. This, with the fubfequent bones of the ear,
are here delineated as large as the life.
Fig. 7. The Internal Surface of the Osseous Circle.
A, The anterior part. B, The groove in which
the membrana tympani is fixed.
Fig. 8. The Situation and Connexion of the Small
Bones of the Ear.
Aj, The malleus. B, The incus. C, The os or-
biculafe. D, The ftapes.
Fig. 9. The Malleus, with its Head, Handle, and
Small Proceffes.
Fig. 10. The Incus, with its Body, Superior and In¬
ferior Branches.
Fig. II. The Os Orbiculare.
Fig. 12. The Stapes, with its Head, Bafe, and two
Crura.
Fig. 13. An Internal View of the Labyrinth of
the Ear.
A, The hollow part of the cochlea, which forms a
fbar«
O M Y.
49<S A N A T
Ofteology. {hare of the meatus auditorius internus. B, The veftx-
bulum. C C C, The femicircular canals.
Fig. 14. An External View of the Labyrinth.
A, the femicircular canals. B, The feneftra ovalis
which leads into the vdtibulum. G, The feneftra ro¬
tunda which opens into the cochlea. D, The different
turns of the cochlea.
Fig. 15. The Internal Surface of the Os Sphenoides.
A A, The temporal proceffes. B B, The ptery¬
goid proceffes. C C, The fpinous proceffes. DD, The
anterior clinoid proceffes. E, The pofterior clinoid
procefs. F, The anterior procefs which joins the eth¬
moid bone. G, The fella turcica for lodging the
glandula pituitaria. H, The foramen opticum.
K, The foramen lacerum. L, The foramen rotun-
dum, M, The foramen ovale. N, The foramen fpi-
nale.
Fig. 16. The External Surface of the Os Sphenoideb.
A A, The temporal proceffes. B B, The ptery¬
goid proceffes. CC, The fpinous proceffes.' D, The
proceffus azygos. E, The fmall triangular proceffes
which grow from the body of the bone. F F, The
orifices of the fphenoidal finufes. G, The foramen la¬
cerum. H, The foramen rotundum. I, The fora¬
men ovale. K, The foramen pterygoideum.
Fig. 17. The External View of the Os Ethmoides.
A, The nafal lamella. B B, The grooves between
the nafal lamella and offa fpongiofa fuperiora. C C, The
offa fpongiofa fuperiora. D D, The fphenoidal cor¬
nua. See Fig. 16. E.
Fig. 18. The Internal View of the Os Ethmoides.
A, The crifta galli., B, The cribriform plate, with
the different paffages of the olfaftory nerves. C C,
Some of the ethmoidal cells. D, The right os planum.
E E, The fphendidal cornua.
Fig. 19. The right Sphenoidal Cornu.
Fig. 20. The left Sphenoidal Cornu.
Fig. 21. The External Surface of the Os Occipitjs.
A, The upper part of the bone. B, The fuperior
arched ridge. C, The inferior arched ridge. Under
the arches are prints made by mufcles of the neck,
X) D, The two condyloid proceffes which articulate the
head with the fpine. E, The cuneiform procefs.
F, The foramen magnum through which the fpinal
marrow paffes. G G, The pofterior condyloid fora¬
mina which tranfmit veins into the lateral finufes.
H H, The foramina lingualia for the paffage of the
ninth pair of nerves;.
Fig. 22. The Internal Surface of the Os Occipitis.
A A, The two fides which aflift to form the lamb-
doid future. B, The point of the cuneiform procefs
where it joins the fphenoid bone. C C, The prints
made by the pofterior lobes of the brain. D D, Prints
made by the lobes of the cerebellum. E, The cruci¬
form ridge for the attachment of the proceffes of the
diiya mater. F, The courfe of the fuperior longitudi¬
nal finufes. G G, The courfe of the two lateral fi¬
nufes. H, The foramen magnumu 11, The pofterior
condyloid foramina.
18.
Part r :
Plate XIX.
Fig. t. A Side-view of the Skeleton.
A A, The offa parietalia. B, The fagittal future.
C, The os occipitis. D D, The lambdoid future.
E, The fquamous part ofthe temporal bone. F, The
maftoid prpcefs. G, The meatus auditorius externus.
H, The osfrontis. . I, The os malse. K, The os max-
illare fuperius. L, The maxilla inferior. * M, The
teeth of both jaws. N, The feventh, or laft cervical
vertebra. O, The fpinous proceffes. P, Their tranf-
verfe and oblique prpceffes. Q^The twelfth or laft
dorfal vertebra. R, The fifth, or laft lumbar vertebra.
S, The fpinous proceffes. T, Openings between the
vertebras for the paffage of the fpinal nerves. U, The
under end of the os facrum. |V, The os coccygis.
W, The os ilium. X, The anterior fpinous proceffes. l!
Y, The pofterior fpinous proceffes. Z, The ifchiatic
niche, a. The right os ilium, b, The offa pubis,
c, The tuberofity of the left os ifchium. d, The fca-
pula. e. Its fpine. f. The os humeri, g, The ra¬
dius. h. The ulna, i, The carpus, k, The meta¬
carpal bone of the thumb. 1, The metacarpal bones
of the ftngers. m, The two bones of the thumb,
n. The three bones of each of the fingers, o, The os
femoris. p, Its head, q, The trochanter major, r, The
external condyle. • s, The rotula. t, The tibia, u, The
fibula, v, The malleolus externus. w, The aftraga-
lus. x. The os calcis. y, The o's naviculare. z, The
three offa cuneiformia. 1, The os cuboides. 2, The
five metatarfal bones. 3, The two bones of the great
toe. 4, The three bones of each of the fmall toes.
Fig. 2. A View of the Internal Surface of the feafe of
the Skull.
AAA, The two tables of the ftcull with the diploe.
B B, The orbitar plates of the frontal bone. C, The
crifta galli, with cribriform-plate of the sethmoidal
bone on each fide of it, through which the firft pair
of nerves pafs. D, The cuneiform procefs of the oc¬
cipital bone. E, The cruciform ridge. F, The fo¬
ramen magnum for the paffage of the fpinal marrow.
G, The zygoma, made by the joining of the zygo¬
matic procefles of the os temporum and os make.
H, The pars fquamofa of the os temporum. I, The
pars mammillaris. K, The pars petrofa. L, The
temporal procefs of the fphenoid bone. M M, The
anterior clinoid proceffes. N, The pofterior clinoid
procefs. O, The fella turcica. P, The foramen op¬
ticum, for the paffage of the optic nerve and ocular
artery of the left fide. Q^The foramen lacerurfi, for
the third, fourth, fixth, and firft of the fifth pair of
nerves and ocular vein. R, The foramen rotundum,
for the fecond of the fifth pair. S, The foramen o-
vale, for the third of the fifth pair. T, The foramen
fpinale, for the principal artery of the dura mater.
U, The entry of the auditory nerve. V, The paffage
for the lateral finus. W, The paffage of the eighth
pair of nerves. X, The paffage of the ninth pair.
Fig. 3. A View of the External Surface of the Bafe of
the Skull.
A, The two dentes incifores of the right fide. B,
The dens caninus. C, The two fmall molares. D, The
three large molares. E, The foramen incifivum, which
gives paffage to fmall blood-veffels and nerves. F, The
Plate XIX .
?art T.
pfteology.
A N A 1
palate-plates of the offa maxillarla and palati, joined
by the longitudinal and tranfverfe palate futures. G,
The foramen palatinum pofterius, for the palatine vef-
fels and nerves. H,The os maxillare fuperius of the right
fide. I, The os make. R, The zygomatic procefs of the
temporal bone. L, The pofterior extremity of the offa
fpongiofa. M, The pofterior extremity of the vomer,
which forms the back-part of the feptum nafi. N, The
pterygoid procefs of the right fide of the fphenoid bone,
O O, The foramina ovalia. P P, The foramina fpi-
nalia. Q^Q, The paflages of the internal carotid ar¬
teries. R, A hole between the point of each pars pe-
trofa and cuneiform procefs of the occipital bone, which
is filled up with a ligamentous fubftance in the recent
fubjeft. S, The paflage of the left lateral finus. T,
The pofterior condyloid foramen of the left fide. U,
The foramen maftoideum. V. The foramen magnum.
W, The inferior orbitar fiffure. X, The glenoid ca¬
vity, for the articulation of the lower jaw. Y, The
fquamous part of the temporal bone. Z, The maftoid
procefs, at the inner fide of which is a fofla for the
pofterior belly of the digaftric mufcle. a, The ftyloid
procefs. b, The meatus auditorius ex'ternus. c, The
left condyle of the occipital bone, d, The perpendi¬
cular occipital fpine. e e, The inferior horizontal ridge
of the occipital bone, f f, The fuperior horizontal
ridge, which is oppofite to the crucial ridge where the
longitudinal finus divides to form the lateral finufes.
g g g, The lambdoid future, h. The left fquamous
future, i, The parietal bone.
Fig. 4. The anterior furface of tl^e Ossa Nasi.
A, The upper part, which joins the os frontis. B,
The under end, which joins the cartilage of the nofe.
C, Their inner edge, where they join each other.
Fig. 5. The pofterior furface of the Ossa Nasi.
A A, Their cavity, which forms part of the arch of
the nofe. B B, Their ridge or fpine, which projects
a little to be fixed to the fore-part of the feptum na-
rium.
Fig. 6. The external furface of the Os Maxillare
Superius of the left fide.
A, The nafal procefs. B, The orbitar plate. C,
The unequal furface which joins the os malae. D, The
external orbitar hole. E, The opening into the noftril.
F, The palate-plate. G, The maxillary tuberofity.
H, Part of the os palati. I, The two dentes incifores.
K, The dens caninus. L, The two fmall dentes mo-
lares. M, The three large dentes molares.
Fig. 7. The internal furface of the Os Maxillare
Superius and Os Palati.
A, The nafal procefs. B B, Eminences for the con¬
nexion of the os fpongiofum inferius. D, The under
end of the lacrymal groove. E, The antrum maxillare.
F, The nafal fpine, between which and B is the cavity
«f the noftril. G, The palate-plate. H, The orbitar
part of the os palati. I, The nafal plate. K, The
future which unites the maxillary and palate bones.
L, The pterygoid procefs of the palate bone.
Fig. 8. The external furface of the right Os Unguis.
A, The orbitar part. B, The lacrymal part. C,
The ridge between them.
Vol. I. Part II.
’ O M Y. 69
Fig. 9. The internal furface of the right Os Unguis. Ofteology
This fide of the bone has a furrow oppofite to the ' y—
external ridge ; all behind this is irregular, where it
covers part of the ethmoidal cells.
Fig. 10. The external furface of the left Os MALiC.
A, The fuperior orbitar procefs. B, The inferior
orbitar procefs. C, The malar procefs. D, The zy¬
gomatic procefs. E, The orbitar plate. F, A paf-
fage for fmall veflcls into or out of the orbit.
Fig. 11. The internal furface of the left Os Mala:. .
A, The fuperior orbitar procefs. B, The inferior
orbitar procefs. C, The malar procefs. D, The zy¬
gomatic procefs; E, The internal orbitar plate or pro¬
cefs.
Fig. 12. The external furface of the right Os Spon¬
giosum Inferius.
A, The anterior part. B, The hook-like procefs
for covering part of the antrum maxillare. C-, A
fmall procefs which covers part of the under end of
the lacrymal groove, D, The inferior edge turned a
little outwards. . ,
Fig. 13. The internal furface of the Os Spongiosum
Inferius.
A, The anterior extremity. B, The upper edge
which joins the fuperior maxillary and palate bones.
Fig. 14. The pofterior and external furface of the
right Os Palati.
A, The orbitar procefs. B, The nafal lamella. C,
The pterygoid procefs. D> The palate procefs.
Fig. 15, The anterior and external furface of the right
Os Palati.
A, The prbitar procefs. B, An opening through
which the lateral nafal veflels and nerves pafs. C, The
nafal lamella. D, The pterygoid procefs. E, The
pofterior edge of the palate procefs for the connexion
of the velum palati. F, The inner edge by which the
two offa palati are conneXed.
Fig. 16. The right fide of the Vomer.
A, The upper edge which joins the nafal lamella of
the ethmoid bone and the middle cartilage of the nofe.
B, The inferior edge which is conneXed to the fupe¬
rior maxillary and palate bones. C, The fuperior and
pofterior part which receives the procefius azygos'of
the fphenoid bone.
Fig. 17. The Maxilla Inferior.
A, The chin. B, The bafe and left fide. C, The
angle. D, The coronoid procefs. E, The condyloid
procefs. F, The beginning of the inferior maxillary
canal of the right fide, for the entry of the nerve and
blood-vefleJs. G, The termination of the left canal.
H, The two dentes incifores. I, The dens caninus.
K, The two fmall molares. L, The three large mo¬
lares.
Fig. 18. The different claffes of the Teeth.
I, 2, A fore and back view of the two anterior
dentes incifores of the lower jaw. 3, 4, Similar teeth
of the upper jaw. 5, 6, A fore and back view of the
dentes canini. 7, 8, The anterior dentes molares.
9, 10, 11, The pofterior dentes molares. 12, 13, 14,
4 T 15,
69B
Ofteology.
A N A T
15, 16, Unufual appearances in the fhape and fize of
the teeth.
Fig. 19. The external furface of the Os Hyoides.
A, The body. B B, The cornua. C C, The ap¬
pendices.
Plate XX.
Fig. 1. A Poflerior View of the Sternum and Cla¬
vicles, with the ligament connefting the clavicles
to each other.
a,. The pofterior furface of the fternum. b b. The
' broken ends of the clavicles, c c c c, The tubercles
near the extremity of each clavicle, d, The ligament
conne&ing the clavicles.
Fig. 2. A Fore-view of the Left Scapula, and of
a half of the Clavicle, with their Ligaments,
a,' The fpine of the fcapula. b, The acromion,
c, The inferior angle, d, Inferior cofta. e, Cervix,
f, Glenoid cavity, covered with cartilage for the arm-
bone. g g. The capfular ligament of the joint,
h, Coracoid procefs. i, The broken end of the clavicle,
k, Its extremity joined to the acromion. 1, A liga¬
ment coming out Angle from the acromion to the co¬
racoid procefs. m, A ligament coming out Angle from
the acromion, and dividing into two, which are Axed
to the coracoid procefs.
Fig. 3. The Joint of theElbow of the Left Arm, with
the Ligaments.
a, The os humeri, b, Its internal condyle, c c, The
two prominent parts of its trochlea appearing through
the capfular ligament, d, The ulna, e, The radius,
f, The part of the ligament including the head of the
radius.
Fig. 4..The Bones of the Right-hand,with the Palm
in view.
a, The radius, b, The ulna, c, The fcaphoid bone
of the carpus, d, The 03 lunare. e, The os cunei-
forme. f, The os piAforme. g, TrapeAum, h, Tra-
pefoides. i, Capitatum. k, Unciforme. 1, The four
metacarpal bones of the Angers. m,The Arft phalanx,
n, The fecond phalanx, o, The third phalanx, p, The
metacarpal bone of the thumb, q, The Arft joint,
r, the fecond joint.
Fig. 5. The Pofterior View of the Bones of the Left
Hand.
The explication of Fig. 4. ferves for this figure ; the
fame letters pointing out the fame bones, though in a
different view.
O M Y. Part I.
e, The fuperior extremity of the fibula, f, The edge Ofteology.!
of the internal femilunar cartilage, g. An oblique li-  '
gament. h, A larger perpendicular ligament, i, A
ligament conne&ing the femur and ftbula.
Fig. 8. The Anterior View of the Joint of the Right
Knee.
b, The internal condyle, c, Its external condyle,
d, The part of the os femoris, on which the patella
moves, e, A perpendicular ligament, f f, The two
parts of the crucial ligaments,, g g', The edges of the
two moveable femilunar cartilages. h, The tibia,
i, The ftrong ligament of the patella, k. The back part
of it where the fat has been diffefted away. 1, The
external depreffion. m,~ The internal one. n, The
Cut tibia.
Fig. 9. A View of the Inferior Part of the Bones of
the Right Foot.
a, The great knob of the os calcis. b, A promi¬
nence on its outAde. c, The hollow for the tendons*
nerves, and blood-veffels. d. The anterior extremity
of the os calcis. e, Part of the aftragalus. f. Its
head covered with cartilage, g. The internal promi¬
nence of the os naviculare. h. The os cuboides.
L The os cuneiforme internum ; k,—Medium ; 1,—
Externum, m, The metatarfal bones of the four lef-
fer toes, n, The Arft—o, The fecond—p, The third
phalanx of the four leffer toes, q. The metatarfal
bones of the great toe. r, Its Arft—s, Its fecond
joint.
Fig. 10. The, Inferior Surface of the twa large Sesa¬
moid Bones, at the ftrft Joint of the Great Toe.
Fig. 11. The Superior Viewof the Bones of the Righ"1"
Foot.
a, b, as in Fig. 9. c, The fuperior head of the aftra¬
galus. d, £sV. as in Fig. 9.
Fig. 12. The View of the Sole of the Foot, with
its Ligaments.
a, The great knob of tile os calcis. b. The hollow
for the tendons, nerves, and blood-veftels. c, The"
(heaths of the flexores pollicis and digitorum longi
opened, d, The ftrong cartilaginous ligament fupport-
ing the head of the aftragalus. e, h, Two ligaments
which unite into one, and are Axed to the metatarfal
bone of the great toe. f, A ligament from the knob
of the os Calcis to the metatarfal bone of the little toe.
g, A ftrong triangular ligament, which fupports the
bones of the tarfus. i. The ligaments ofithe joints of
the Ave metatarfal bones.
Fig. 6. The Upper Extremity of the Tibia, with the
Semilunar Cartilages of the Joint of the Knee, and
fome Ligaments.
a, The ftfong ligament which connects the rotula to
the tubercle of the tibia. b*b, The parts of the extre¬
mity of the tibia, covered with cartilage, which appear
within the femilunar cartilages, c c, The femilunar
cartilages, d, The two parts of what is called the
crofs, ligament.
Fig. 7. The Pofterior View of the Joint of the Right
Knee.
a, The os femoris cut. b, Its internal condyle.
£,: Its external condyle, d, The back-part of the tibia.
Fig. 13. a, The. head of the thigh bone of a child,
b, The ligamentum rotundum conne£ting it to the ace¬
tabulum, c, The capfular ligament of the joint with
its arteries injefted. d, The numerous veflels of. the
mucilaginous gland injected.
Fig, 14. The Back-view of- the Cartilages of the
Larynx, with the Os. Hyoides.
a, The pofterior part of the bafe of the os hyoides.
b b. Its cornua, c, The appendix of-the right Ade.
d, A ligament lent out . from the appendix of the left
Ade, to the ftyloid procefs. of the temporal bone,
e, The union of the bafe with the left cornu, f f, The
pofterior . Tides of (g) the thyroid cartilage, h h, It§
fuperior
TlateXSI,
Part IT, ANA
Ofteo^ry. fuperior Cornua. {i, Its inferior cornua, k, The cri-
v coid cartilage. 11, The arytenoid cartilages, m, The
entry into the lungs, flamed gfptth. n, The epiglottis,
o o, The fuperior cartilages of the trachea, p* Its li¬
gamentous back-part.
T' O M Y. 699
Fig. 15. The Superior Concave Surface of the SfisA- Ofteology.
moid Bones at the firft joint of the Great Toe,' v—-'
with their Ligaments.
a, Tnree fefamoid bones, b, The ligamentous fub-
ilance in which they are formed.
PART II. Of the SOFT PARTS in General;
Of the COMMON INTEGUMENTS, w,th their Appendages;
And of the MUSCLES.
A NATO MI CAL Writers ufually proceed to a de-
defcription of the mufcles after having finifhed the
ofteology ; but we fhall deviate a little from the com¬
mon method, with a view to defcribe every thing clear¬
ly and diftinAly, and to-avoid a tautology which would
otherwife be unavoidable. All the parts of the body
are fo intimately connected with each other, that it
feems impoffible to convey a juft idea of any one of
them, without being in fome meafure obliged to fay
fomething of. others ; and on this account we wifti to
mention in this place the names and fituation of the
principal vifcera of the body, that when mention is here¬
after made of any one of them in the courfe of the work,
the reader may at leaft know where they are placed.
After this little digreffion, the common integuments,
and after them the mufcles, will be defcribed j We then
propofe to enter into an examination of the feveral vif¬
cera and their different functions. In defcribing the
brain, occafion will be taken to fpeak of the nerves and
animal fpirits. .The circulation of the blood will fol¬
low the anatomy of the heart, and the fecretions and
other matters will be introduced in their proper places.
The body is divided into three great cavities. Of
thefe the uppermoft is formed by the bones of the cra¬
nium, and inclofes the brain and cerebellum.
The fecond is compofed of the vertebra; of the back,
the fternum, and true ribs, with the additional affiftance
of mufcles, membranes, and common integuments, and
is called the thorax—It contains the heart and lungs.
.The third, and inferior cavity, is the abdomen. ° It
is feparated from the thorax by means of the diaphragm,
and is formed by the lumbar vertebra;, the os facrum,
the offa innominata, and the falfe ribs, to which we may
add .the. peritonaeum, and a variety of mufcles. This
cavity inclofes the ftomach, inteftines, omentum or
cawl, liver, pancreas, fpleen, kidneys, urinary bladder,
and parts of generation.
Under the divifion of common integuments, are ufu¬
ally included the epidermis, or fcarf-lkin, the reticulum
mucofum of Malpighi, the cutis or true tkin, and the
membrana adipofa The hair and nails, as well as the
febaceous glands, may be confidered as appendages to
the Ikin. 0
Sect. I. Of the Skin.
$ 1. Of the ScARry/bw.
74 The epidermis, cuticula, or fcaf-lkin, is a fine, tranf-
Cnticula. Parent, and infenfible pellicle, deftitiite of nerves and
blood-veffels, which inverts the body, and everywhere
covers the true Ikin. This fcarf-lkin, which feems to be
very limple, appears, when examined with a microfcope*
to be compofed of feveral laminae or feales which are in-
creafed by preffure, as we may obferve in the.hands and
feet, where it is frequently much thickened, and be¬
comes perfectly callous. It feems to adhere to the cu¬
tis by a number of very minute filaments, but may ea-
fily be feparated from it by heat, or by maceration in
water. Some anatomical writers have fuppofed that it
is formed by a moifture exhaled from the whole furface
of the body, which gradually hardens when it comes
into contaft with the air. They, were perhaps induced
to adopt this opinion, by obferving the fpeedy regene¬
ration of this part of the body when it has been by
any means deftroyed, it appearing to be renewed on all
parts of the furface at the fame time; whereas other
parts which have been injured, are found to dired their
growth from their circumference only towards their
centre. But a demonftrative proof that the epidermis
is not a fluid hardened by means of the external air, is,
that the foetus in utero is found to have this covering.
Leeuwenhoeck fuppofed its formation to be owing to
the expanfion of the extremities of the excretory vef-
fels, which are found everywhere upon the furface of
the true Ikin. Ruyfch attributed its origin to the ner¬
vous papillae, of the Ikin ; and Heifter thinks it pro¬
bable, that it may be owfng both to the papillje and
the excretory veffels. The celebrated Morgagni, on
the other hand, contends *, that it is nothing more * Advcrfar,
than the furface of the cutis, hardened and renderedII-
infenfible by the liquor amnii in utero, and by the pref-Anim3d-
fure of the air. This is a fubjedt, however, on which ^ **
we can advance nothing with certainty.
The cuticle is pierced with an infinite number of
pores, or little holes, which afford a paffage to the
hairs, fweat, and infenfible perfpiration; and likewife
to warm water,, mercury, and whatever elfe is capable
of being taken in by the abforbents of the tkin. The
lines which we obferve on the epidermis belong to the
true tkin. The cuticle adjufts itfelf to them, but does
not form them.
§ 2. Of the Rete Mucofum
Between the epidermis and cutis we meet with an p ^
appearance to which Malpighi, who firft defcribed it, rofum?U°
gave the name of rete mucofum, fuppofing it to be of a
membranous ftruaure, and pierced with an infinite
number of pores ; but the fad! is, that it Teems t&Le
nothing more than a mucous fubftance which may Ire
diffolved by macerating it in water, while the cuticle
and cutis preferve their texture.
4 T 2
The
A N
The colour of the body is found to depend on the
colour of this rete mucofum ; for in negroes it is ob-
j ferved to be perfe&ly black, whilft the true /kin is of
the ordinary colour.
The blifters which raife the {kin when burnt or fcald-
ed, have been fuppofed by fome to be owing to a i-are-
faclion of this mucus ; but they are .more probably oc-
eafioned by an increafed action of the veffels of the
part, together with an afflux and effufxon of the thinner
parts of the blood.
§ 3. Of the Cutis, cr True Skin.
The cutis is compofed of fibres clofely compared
together, as we may obferve in leather which is the pre¬
pared {kin of animals. Thefe fibres form a thick net¬
work, which everywhere admits the filaments of nerves,
and an infinite number of blood-veflels and lymphatics.
The cutis, when the epidermis is taken off, is found
to have, throughout its whole furface, innumerable pa¬
pillae, which appear like very minute granulations, and
feem to be calculated to receive the impreffions of the_
touch, being the moft eafily obferved where the fenfe
of feeling is the moft delicate, as in the palms of the
hands and on the fingers.
Thefe papillae are fuppofed by many anatomical wri¬
ters to be continuations of the pulpy fubftance of
T O M Y. Part II.
Ruyfch, Verheyen, Winflow, and others, who have Of the
adopted his opinions on this fubjeft, fpeak of them as Inte^u'
having excretory dudts, that open on the furface of the ment3’ &c,i
cuticle, and diftil the fweat and matter of infenfible per-
fpiration ; and yet, notwithftanding the pofitive man¬
ner in which thefe pretended glands have been fpoken
of, we are now fufficiently convinced that their exift-
ence is altogether imaginary.
78
$ 5. Of the Insensible Perfpiration and Sweat.
The matter of infenfible perfpiration, or in other InfenfiMe
words, the fubtile vapour that is continually exhaling Pe:'fpira-
from the furface of the body, is not fecreted by any tl0n*
particular glands, but feems to die derived wholly from
the extremities of the minute arteries that are every¬
where difperfed through the {kin. Thefe exhaling vef¬
fels are eafily demonftrated in the dead fubjedf, by
throwing water into the arteries 5 for then fmall drops
exfude from all parts of the {kin, and raife up the cu¬
ticle, the pores of which are clofed by death ; and in
the living fubjeft, a looking-glafs placed againft the
{kin, is foon obfcured by the vapour. Bidloo fancied
he had difcovered dinffcs leading from the cutis to the
cuticle, and tranfmitting this fluid ; but in this he was.
miftaken.
When the perfpiration is by any means increafed,.
nerves, whofe coats have terminated in the cellular tex- and feveral drops that were infenfible when feparate.
ture of the fkin. The great fenfibility of thefe papillas
evidently proves them to be exceedingly nervous ; But
are united together and condenfed by the external air,
they form upon the {kin fmall but vifible drops called
furely the nervous fibrillse of the {kin are of themfelves fweat (n). This particularly happens after much ’exer-
77
Th« feba-
ceons
glands.
fcarcely equal to the formation of thefe pap'lice, and it
feems to be more probable that they are formed like
the reft of the cutis.
Thefe papillse being defcribed, the ufes of the epi¬
dermis and the reticulum mucofum will be more eafily
underftood ; the latter ferving to keep them conftantly
moift, while the former protects them from the exter¬
nal air, and modifies their too great fenfibility.
$ 4. Of the Glands of the Skin.
In different parts of the body we meet, within the
fubftance of the {kin, with certain glands or follicles,
which difcharge a fat and oily humour that ferves to
lubricate and foften the {kin. When the fluid they
fecrete has acquired a certain degree of thicknefs, it
approaches to the colour and confiftence of fuet; and
from this appearance they have derived their name of
febaceous glands. They are found in the greateft num¬
ber in the nofe, ear, nipple, axilla, groin, fcrotum, va¬
gina, and prepuce.
Befides thefe febaceous glands, we read, in anatomi¬
cal books, of others that are defcribed as fmall fpheri-
cal bodies placed in all parts of the Ikin, in much great¬
er abundance than thofe juft now mentioned, and named
miliary, from their fuppofed refemblance to millet-feed.
Steno, who firft defcribed thefe glands, and Malpighi,
cife, or whatever occafions an increafed determination
of fluids to the furface of the body ; a greater quantity
of perfpirable matter being in fuch cafes carried thro*’
the paffages that are deftined to convey it off. ^
It has been difputed, indeed, whether the infenfible Whether
perfpiration and fweat are to be confidered as one and theft are
the fame excretion, differing only in degree; or whether (^e
they are two diftindt excretions derived from different ferent ex«, *
fources. In fupport of the latter opinion, it has been cmions.
alleged, that the infenfible perfpiration is agreeable to
nature and effential to health, whereas fweat may be
confidered as a fpecies of difeafe. But this argument
proves nothing ; and it feems probable, that both the
infenfible vapour and the fweat are exhaled in a fimilar
manner, though they differ in quantity, and probably
in their qualities; the former being more limpid, and
feemingly lefs impregnated with falts than the latter :
at any rate we may confider the {kin as an ^unftoryrpjjg^.”^
through which the redundant water, and fometimes the
other more faline parts of the blood, are carried off.
But the infenfible perfpiration is not confined to the
Ikin' only—a great part of what we are conftantly
throwing off in this way is from the lungs. The quan¬
tity of fluid exhaled from the human body by this in¬
fenfible perfpiration is very confiderable. Sanftorius (o)
an Italian phyfician, who indefatigably paffed a great
many
( n ) Leeuwenhoeck afferts, that one drop of fweat is formed by the conflux of 15 drops of perfpirable va¬
pour.
(o) The infenfible perfpiration is fometimes diftinguiffled by the name of this phyfician, who was born in
--the territories of Venice, and was afterwards a profeffor ih the univerfity of Padua. After eftimating the ali¬
ment he took in, and the fenfible fecretions and difeharges, he was enabled to afeertain with great accuracy the
weight or quantity of infenfible perfpiration by means of a ftatical chair which he contrived for this purpofe ;
and
art If.
N
O M Y.
if the many years in a feries of ftatical experiments, demon-
mtms'scc ^ra^e(^ l°ng ag° what has been confirmed by later ob-
fervations, that the quantity of vapour exhaled from
the /kin and from the furface of the lungs, amounts
nearly to j-Sths of the aliment we take in. So that if
in the warm climate of Italy a perfon eats and drinks
the quantity of eight pounds in the courfe of a day,
five pounds of it will pafs off by infenfible perfpiration,
while three pounds only will be evacuated by /tool, u-
rine, faliva, &c. But in countries where the degree of
cold is greater than in Italy, the quantity of perfpired
matter is lefs ; in fome of the more nortbern climates,
it being found not to equal the difcharge by urine. It
is likewife obferved to vary according to the feafon of
the year, and according to the conftitution, age, fex,
difeafes, diet, exercife, paffions, &c. of different peo-
i pk-
■ From what has been faid on this fubjeft, it will be
eafily conceived, that this evacuation cannot be either
much increafed or diminifhed in quantity without af¬
fecting the health.
The perfpirable matter and the fweat are in fome
- meafure analogous to the urine, as appears from their
tafte apd faline nature (p). And it is worthy of ob-
fervation, that when either of thefe fecretions is in¬
creafed in quantity, the other is dimini/hed ; fo that
they who perfpire the leaft, ufually pal’s the greatell
quantity of urine, and vice verfa.
gr § 6. Of Nails.
he nails. Tne nails are of a compaft texture, hard and tran-
fparent like horn. Their origin is Hill a fubjeCt 'of dif-
pute. Malpighi fuppofed them to be formed by a con¬
tinuation of the papilke of the Ikia : Ludwig, on the
other hand, maintained, that they were compofed of
the extremities of blood-veffels and nerves; both thefe
opinions are now defervedly rejected.
They feem to poffefs' many properties in common
with the cuticle ; like it they are neither vafcular nor
fenfible, and when the cuticle is feparated from the true
/kin by maceration or other means, the nails come away
with it.
701
llrongly to this part; the body of the nail Is broader, Of the
redder, and thicker, and the extremity is of Hill great-Inte&u*„
er firmnefs. ment^ &c-.
The najls increafe from their roots, and not from
their upper extremity.
Their principal ufe is to cover and defend the ends
of the fingers and toes from external injury.
§ I* Of the Hair.
The hairs, which from their being generally known The hair,
do not leem to require any definition, arife from di-
llinCt capfules or bulbs feated in the cellular membrane
under the /kin (qJ. Some of thefe bulbs inclofe feve-
ral hairs. They may be obferved at the roots of the
hairs which form the beard or \v hi fleers of a cat.
The hairs, like the nails, grow only from below by
a regular propullion from their root, where they re¬
ceive their nourifhment. Their bulbs, when viewed
with a microfcope, are found to be of various /hapes.
In the head and ferotum they are roundifh ; in the eye¬
brows they are oval; in the other parts of the body
they are nearly of a cylindrical /hape. Each bulb feems
to confift of two membranes, between which there is a
certain quantity of moillure. Within the bulb the
hair feparates into three or four fibrillas; the bodies of
the hairs, which are the parts without the Hein, vary in
foftnefs and colour according to- the difference of cli¬
mate, age, of temperament of body (r).
Their general ufe in the body does not feem to be
abfolutely determined ; but hairs in particular parts, as-
on the eye-brows and eye-lids, are deftined for parti¬
cular ufes, which will be mentioned when thofe parts
are deferibed.
£ 8. Of the Ce llular Membrane and Fat,
The cellular membrane is found to inveft the molt Cellular
minute fibres we are able to trace ; fo that by modern membrane,
phyfiologifts," it is very properly confidered as the uni-
verfal connecting medium of every part of the-body.
It is compofed of an infinite number of minute cells
united together, and communicating with each other.
The two difeafes peculiar to this membrane are proofs -
They appear to be compofed of different layers, of of fuch a communication ; for in the empbyfema all its
unequal fize, applied one over the other. Each layer cells are filled with air, and in the anafarca they are
feems to be formed of longitudinal fibres. univerfally diftended with water. Befides thefe proofs
In each nail we may diftingui/h three parts, viz. the of communication from difeafe, a familiar inftance of it
root, the body or middle, and the extremity. The may be obferved amongft butchers, who ufually punm-
root is afoft, thin, and white fubftance, terminating in ture this membrane, and by inflating it with air add
the form of a crefcent; the epidermis adheres very to the good appearance of their meat.
4 T 3 The
and from his experiments which were conduced with great induftry and patience, he was led to determine what
kinds of folid or liquid aliment increafed or dimini/hed it. From thefe experiments he formed a fyftem, which
he publi/hed at Venice'in 1614, in the form of aphorifms, under the title of “ Ars de Medicina Statica.”
(p) Minute cryftals have been obferved to /hoot upon the cloaths of'men who work in glafs-houfes. Haller.
Elem. Pbyf
(q^) Malpighi, and after him the celebrated Ruyfch, fuppofed the hairs to be continuations of nerves, being
of opinion that they originated from the papilla of the /kin, which they confidered as nervous ; and as a corro¬
borating proof of what they advanced, they argued the pain we feel in plucking them out; but later anatomifts
feem to have reje&ed this doftrine, and confider the hairs as particular bodies, not arifing from the papillae (for
in the parts where the papillae abound moil there are no hairs), but from bulbs or capfules, which are peculiar
to them.
( r ) The hairs likewife differ from each other, and may not be improperly divided into two claffes ; one of
which may include the hair of the head, chin, pubes, and axillae 5 and the other, the fofter hairs, which are to
be obferved almoll everywhere on the furface of the body.
702 A N A T
Of the The cells of tins membrane ferve as refervoirs to the
menfs &c Part t^e hlood or Fat, which feems to be depo-
t J filed in them, either by tranfudation through the coats
g4 of the arteries that ramify through thefe cells, or by
Fat. particular veflels, continued from the end of arteries.
Thefe cells are not of a glandular ftrutture, as Malpighi
and others after him have fuppofed. The fat is ab-
forbed and carried back into the fyftem by the lympha¬
tics. The great wafte of it in many difeafes, particu¬
larly in the copfuniption, is a fufficient proof that fuch
an abforption takes place.
The fulnefs and fize of the body are in a great mea-
fure proportioned to the quantity of fat contained in
the cells of this membrane.
In the living body it feems to be a fluid oil, which
concretes after death. In graminivorous animals, it is
found to be of a firmer confidence than in man.
The fat is not confined to the Ikih alone, being met
with every where in the interftices of mufcles, in the
omentum, about the kidneys, at the bafis of the heart,
in the orbits, See.
The chief ufes of the fat feem to be to afford moi-
fture to all th^ parts with which it is connected ; to
facilitate the adtion of the mufcels ; and to add to the
beauty of the body, by making it every where fmooth
and equal.
Sect. II. Of the Muscles.
Sj. The mufcles are the organs of motion. The parts
that are ufually included under this name confiil of di-
ftinft portions of flefli, fufceptible of contraftion and
relaxation; the motions of which, in a natural and
healthy Hate, are fubjedt to the will, and for thi& rea-
fon they are called voluntary mufcles. But befides
thefe, there are other parts of the body that owe their
power of contradtion to their mufcular fibres; thus the
heart is of a mufcular texture, forming what is called
a hollow mufcle ; and the urinary bladder, ftomach,
Inteftines, 8tc, are enabled to adt upon their contents,
merely becaufe they are provided with mufcular fibres.
Thefe are called involuntary mufcles, becaufe their mo¬
tions are not dependent on the will. The mufcles of
refpiration, being in fome meafure influenced by the
will, are faid to have a mixed motion.
The names by which the voluntary mufcles are di-
ftinguiflied, are founded on their fize, figure, fituation,
life, or the arrangement of their fibres, or their origin
and infertion. But befides thefe particular dillindtions,
there are certain general ones that require to be noti¬
ced. Thus, if the fibres of a mufcle are placed paral¬
lel to each other in a ftraight diredtion, they form
what is ftyled a reftilinear mufcle ; if the fibres crofs
and interfedl each other, they conllitute a compound
mufcle ; a radiated one, if the fibres are difpofed in
the manner of rays ; or a pennifonn mufcle, if, like
the plume of a pen, they are placed obliquely with re-
fpedt to the tendon.
Mufcles that adt in oppofition to each other, are
called antagonifia:; thus every extenfor or mufcle
has a flexor for its antagonift, and vice verfa. Mufcles
that concur in the fame adtion are llyled congeneres.
The mufcles being attached to the bones, the latter
may be confidered as levers that are moved in different
cliredtions by the contradtion of thofe organs,
O M Y. Part IF.
That end of a mufcle which adheres to the molt Of the ,
fixed part iS ufually called the origin, and that which Integu-
adheres to the more moveable part the infertion, of the mcn~j c\
mufcle.
In every mufcle we may diftinguifli two kinds of
fibres; the one foft, of a red colour, Xenlible, and irri¬
table, called flefloy fibres ; the other of a firmer tex¬
ture, of a white gliffening colour, infenfible, without
irritability or the power of contradling, and named ten¬
dinous fibres. They are occafionally intermixed ; but
the flefhy fibres generally prevail in the belly or middle
part of a mufcle, and the tendinous ones in the extremi¬
ties. If thefe tendinous fibres are formed into a round
llender chord, they form what is called the tendon of
the mufcle ; on the other hand, if they are fpread into
a broad flat furface, the extremity of the mufcle is ftyled
aponeuorofs
The tendons of many mufcles, efpecially when they
are long and expofed to preffure or fridftion in the
grooves formed for them in the bones, are furrounded
by a tendinous (heath or fafeia, in which we fometimes
find a fmall mucous fac or bur fa mucofa, which obviates
any inconvenience from fridtion. Sometimes we find
whole mufcles, and even feveral mufcles, covered by a
fafeia of the fame kind, that affords origin to many of
their fibres, dipping down between them, adhering to
the ridges of bones, and thus preventing them from
fwelling too much when in adtion. The moft remark¬
able inftance of fuch a covering is the fafeia lata of the
thigh.
Each mufcle is inclofed by a thin covering of cellular
membrane, which has been fometimes improperly con¬
fidered as peculiar to the mufcles, and deferibed under
the name of propria memh ana mulculofa. This cellu¬
lar covering dips down into the fubffance of the muf¬
cle, connedting and furrounding the moft minute fibres .
we are able to demonftrate, and affording a fupport to
their veffels and nerves.
Leeuwenhoek fancied he had difeovered, by means
of his microfeope, the ultimate divifion of ,a mufcle,
and that he could point out the fimple fibre, which ap¬
peared to him to be an hundred times lefs than a hair;
but he was afterwards convinced how much he was
miftaken on this fubjedt, and candidly acknowledged,
that what he had taken for a fimple fibre was in fadt a
bundle of fibres.
It is eafy to obferve feveral of thefe fafciculi or bun¬
dles in a piece of beef, in which, from the coarfenefs
of its texture, they are very evident.
The red colour which fo particularly diftinguilhes
the mhfcular or fleftiy parts of animals, is owing to an
infifiite number of blood-veffels that are difperfed
through their fubftance. When we macerate the fi¬
bres of a mufcle in water, it becomes of a white co¬
lour like all other part& of the body divefted of their
blood. The blood-veffels are accompanied by nerves,
and they ai-e both diftributed in fuch abundance to
thefe parts, that in endeavouring to trace the courfe
of the blood-veffels in a mufcle, it would appear to be
formed altogether by their ramifications; and in an at¬
tempt to follow the branches of its nerves, they would
be found to be equal in proportion.
If a mufcle is pricked or irritated, it immediately
contradts. This is called its irritable principle; and
this
Part II,
[ Of, the
'Mufdes.
86
1 Of the vis
1| infua.
,
.
A N A T
this irritability is to be confidered as the characteriftic
of mufcular fibres, and may ferve to prove their exift-
ence in parts that are too ntinute to be examined by the
eye. This power, which difpofes the mufcles to con-
tratf when Simulated, independent of the will, is fup-
pofed to be inherent in them ; and is therefore named
vis injita. This property is not to be confounded with
elaft icity, which the membranes and other parts of the
body poffefs in a greater or lefs degree in common with
the mufcles; nor with fenfibility, for the heart, though
the molt irritable, feems to be the lead fenlible. of any
of the mufcular parts of the body.
After a mufcular fibre has contra&ed, it foon returns
to a flate of relaxation, till it is excited afrefh, and
then it contrafts and relaxes again. We may likewife
produce, fuch a contraction, by irritating the nerve
leading to a mufcle, although the nerve itfelf is not af-
fedfred.
This principle is found to be greater in finall than in
large, and in young than in old, animals.
In the voluntary mufcles thefe effedts of contradtion
and relaxation of the fiefhy fibres are produced in obe¬
dience to the will, by what may be called the vis ner-
vofa, a property that is not to be confounded with the
vis infita. As the exiftence of a vis injita different from
a vis nervea, was the dodtrine taught by Dodtor Hal¬
ler in his Elan. Phyf, but is at prefent called in que
ftion by feveral, particularly Dodtor Monro, we think
it neceffary to give a few objedtions, as ftated in his
Obfervations on the Nervous Syftem :
“ The chief experiment (fays the Dodtor) which
feems to have led Dr Haller to this opinion, is the well-
known one, that the heart and other mufcles, after be¬
ing detached from the brain, continue to adt fponta-
neoufly, or by ftimuli may be roufed into adtion for a
confiderable length of time ; and when it cannot be al-
ledged, fays Dr Haller, that the nervous fluid is by
the mind, or otherwife, impelled into the mufcle.
“ That in this inflance, we cannot comprehend by
what power the nervous fluid or energy' can be put in
motion, muff perhaps be granted : But has Dr Haller
given a better explanation of the manner in which his
iuppofed vis infita becomes active ?
“ If it be as difficult to point out the caufe of the
adtion of the vis infita as that of the adtxon of the vis
nerv.ea, the adfniffion of that new- power, in He ad of re¬
lieving, would add to our perplexity.
“ We fhould then have admitted, that two caufes of
a different nature were capable of producing exadtly the
fame effect; which is not in general agreeable to the
laws of nature.
, “ Wedhoiild find other confequences afffe from fuch
an hypothefis, which tend to weaken the credibility of
it. For inltance, if in a found animal the vis nervea
alone produces the contradtion of the mufcles, we will
afk whatpurpofe the vis infita fferves ? If both operate,
are we to fuppofe that the vis nervea, impelled by the
mind or living principle, gives the order, which the
vis infita executes, and that the nerves are the inter-
nuntii; and -fo admit two wife agents employed in
every the moft fimple adtion i But inftead of fpecula-
ting farther, let us learn the effedt of experiments, and
endeavour from thefe to draw plain conduiions.
O M Y.
i. When I poured a folution of opium in water
under the (kin of the leg of a frog, the mufcles, to the
furface of which it was applied, were very fbon deprived
of the power of contradtion. In like manner, when I
poured this folution into the cavity of the heart, by
opening the vena cava, the heart was almoft inftantly
deprived of its power of motion, whether the experi¬
ment was performed on it fixed in its place, or cut out
of the body.
“ 2. I opened the thorax of a living frog ; and then
tied or cut its aorta, fo as to put a flop to the circula¬
tion of its blood.
“ I then opened the vena cava, and poured the folu¬
tion of opium into the heart; and found, not only that
this organ was inftantly deprived of its powers of ac¬
tion, but that in a few minutes the moft diftant muf-
cles of the limbs were extremely weakened. Yet this
weaknefs was not owing to the want of circulation, for
the frog could jump about for more than an hour after
the heart was cut out.
“ In the firft of thefe two experiments, we obferve
the fuppofed vis infita deftroyed by the opium ; in the
latter, the vis nervea ; for it is evident that the limbs
were affedfed by the fympathy of the brain, and of
the nervous fyftem in general, with the nerves of the
heart.
“ 3. When the nerve of any mufcle is firft divid¬
ed by a tranfverfe fedtion, and then burnt with a
Hot iron, or pundtured with a needle, the mufcle in
which it terminates contradts violently, exadtly in the
fame manner as when the irritation is applied to the
fibres of the mufcle. But when the hot iron, or
needle, is confined to the nerve, Dr Haller himfelf
muft have admitted, that the vis nervea, and not the
vis infita, was excited. But here I would afk two que-
ftions.
“ Firft, Whether we do not as well underftand how
the vis nervea is excited when irritation is applied to
the mufcle as when it is applied to the trunk of the
nerve, the impelling power of the mind feeming to be
equally wanting in both cafes ?
“ Secondly, If it appears that irritation applied to
the trunk of a nerve excites the vis nervea, why ffiould
we doubt that it can equally wTell excite it when ap¬
plied to the fm’all and very fenfible branches and termi¬
nations of the nerve in the mufcle ?
“ As, therefore, it appears that the fuppofed vis
infita is deftroyed or excited by the fame means as the
vis nervea; nay, that when, by the application of 0-
pium to the heart of a frog, after the aorta is cut and
the circulation interrupted, we have deftroyed the vis
infita, the vis nervea is fo much extinguished, that the
animal cannot affi with the diftant mufcles of the
limb ; and that thefe afterward grow very torpid, or
lofe much of their fuppofed vis infita; it feems clearly
to follow, that there is no juft ground for fuppofing
that any other principle produces the contraction of a
mufcle.”
The vis nervofa, or operation of the mind, if we
may fo call it, by which a mufcle is brought into con-
traClion, is not inherent in the mufcle like the vis in¬
jita; neither is it perpetual, like this latter property.
After long continued or violent exereife, for example,
the
7°3
Of the.
Mufc!e».
704
Of the the voluntary mufcles become painful, and at length.in-
mentir" &c caPa^e further aftion ; whereas the heart and other
■ f ’ ' involuntary mufcles, the motions of which depend fole-
ly on the vis infita, continue through life in a cpnftant
ftate of aftion, without any inconvenience or wafte of
this inherent principle.
The a&ion of the vis nervofa on the voluntary muf¬
cles, Conftitutes what is called mufcular motion; a'fub-
jeft that has.giyen rife, to a variety of hypothefes, many
of them ingenious, but none of them fatisfaftory.
Borelli and fome others have undertaken to explain
the caufe of contra&ion, by fuppoiing that every muf¬
cular fibre forms as it were a chain of very minute blad¬
ders, while the nerves which are diflributed through
the mufcle, bring with them a fupply of animal fpirits,
which at our will fill thefe bladders, and by increafing
their diameter in width, fhorten them, and of courfe
the whole fibre.
Borelli fuppofes thefe bladders to be of a rhomboidal^
fiiape ; Bernouilli qn the other hand contends that they
are oval. Our coiintryman, Cowper, fancied he had
filled them with mercury; the caufe of this miftake
was probably owing to the mercury’s infinuating itfelf
into fdine of the. lymphatic veffels. The late ingenious
Mr Elliot undertook to account for the phenomena of
mufcular motion on principles very different from thofe
juft now mentioned. He fuppofed that a dephlogifti-
cated ftate of the blood is requifite for mufcular aftion.
Part
and that a communication of phlogifton to the blood Of the
is a neceffary effedf of fuch aftion. - Integu-
We know that the mufcular fibre is fhortened, and me!its’
that the mufcle itfelf fwells when in aftion ; but how ^
thefe phenomena are produced, we are unable to de¬
termine. We likewife know that the nerves are effen-
tial to mufcular motion ; for Upon dividing or making
a ligature round the nerve leading to a mufcle, the lat¬
ter becomes incapable of motion. A ligature made on
the artery of a mufcle produces a fimilar effeft: a proof
this, that a regular fupply of blood is alfo equally ne-
ceffary to mufcular motionT The caufe of palfy is
ufually not to be fought for in the mufcle affected, but
in the nerve leading to that mufcle, or in that part of
the brain or fpinal marrow from which the nerve de¬
rives its origin.
Of the particular Mufcles.
As the enumeration and defeription of the particular
mufcles muft be dry and unentertaining to the genera¬
lity of readers, yet cannot be altogether omitted in a
Work of this nature, it appeared eligible to throw this-
part of the fubjeft into the form of a table ; in which
the hame, origin, infertion, and principal ufe of each
mufcle, will be found deferibed in few words, and oc-
cafionally its etymology when it is of Greek derivation*
or difficult to be underftood.
ANATOMY.
A TABLE of the MUSCLES, arranged according to their SiTUATfON.
[At. B. This table does not include all the mufcles of the body ; thofe belonyimr to the eyes, internal ear, inteftinum redum,
and the'ma'e and female organs of generation, being deferibed in other parts of the work. The read' r will be pleafed to ob-
ferve likewife, that although all the mufeks (a few only excepted) are in pairs, mention is here made only of the mafcles
of one fide.
Muscles fituated
under the integu¬
ments of the cra¬
nium
       of the
eye-lids
Muscles of the ex¬
ternal ear
Name.
1. Occipito frontalis.
2. Corrugator fuper-
cilii.
1. Orbicularis palpe¬
brarum.
2. Levator palpebrse
fuperioris.
1. Attolens auri-
culam.
3. Anterior auricula.
Origin.
From the tranfverfe
ridge of the os oc-
cipitis.
From above the join¬
ing of the os fron-
tis, 6s nafi, and os
maxillare.
From aroundtheedge
of the orbit.
From the bottom of
the orbit, near the
optic foramen.
From the tendon of
the occipito fron¬
talis near the os
temporis.
From near the back
part uf the zygoma.
Infertion.
Into the Ikin of the
eye-brows.
Into the inner part
of the occipito¬
frontalis.
Into the nafal pro-
cefs of the os
maxillare.
Into the cartilage of
the upper eye-lid.
Into the upper part
of the ear.
Into an eminence be¬
hind the helix.
Ufe.
To pull the fir in of
the head back¬
wards, and to raife
the eye-brows and.
fkin of the fore¬
head.
To draw the eye¬
brows towards each
other, and to wrin¬
kle the forehead'.
To fhut the eye.
To open the eye.
To raife the ear.
To raife this emi¬
nence, and to pull
it forwards.
IN018.
Part II.
Muscles of the car¬
tilages of the ear i. Tragicus.
2. Anti-tragicus.
ANATOMY. 7os
Name. Origin. Jnfertion. Ufe. Of the
3.Retrahentes(s) au- From the outer and Into the convex part To ftretch the con- Mul~cle3- <
riculs. back part of the of the concha. cha, and pull the' 'r“~*
root of the maftoid ear backwards,
procefs.
From the outer and
middle part of the
concha, near the
tragus.
From the »oot of the
. inner part of the
helix.
From the upper part Into the inner part
of the concha. of the helix.
Into the upper part To deprefs the con-
of the tragus. cha, and pull the
point of the tragus
a little outwards.
Into the upper part To dilate the mouth
of the anti-tragus. of the concha.
3. T ranfverfus-auricu-
lae.
4. Helicis major.
5. Helicis minor.
-efthenofe, 1. Comprefibr (t)
naris.
From the upper, an¬
terior, and acute
part of the helix.
From the lower and
fore part of the he¬
lix.
From the outer part
of the root of the
ala nafi.
   of the
mouth and lips, 1. Levator labii fupe-
rioris, alaeque nail.
2. Levator anguli oris.
Into the cartilage of
the helix, a little
above the tragus.
Into the helix, near
the fiifure in its
cartilage.*.
Into the nafal pro¬
cefs of the os max-
illare, and anterior
extremity of the os
nafi.
To ftretch the concha
and fcapha, and
like wife to pull the
parts it is connect¬
ed with towards
each other.
To deprefs the upper
part of the helix.
To contradt the fif-
fure.
T o ftraighten the nof-
trils, and likewife
to corrugate the
fkin of the nofe*
3. Zygomaticus 1
jor- .
4. Zygomaticus mi-
5. Buccinator.
6. Depreflbr labii fu-
perioris, alasque
nafi.
Vol. I. Partll.
From the outer part
of the orbitar pro¬
cefs of the os max-
illare, and from the
nafal procefs of
that bone, where
it joins the os fron-
tis.
From the os maxil-
lare fuperius, be¬
tween the orbitar
foramen and the
firit dens molaris.
From the os malae,
near the zygoma¬
tic future.
Immediately above
the origin of the
zyg. major.
From the alveoli of
the dentes molares
in the upper and
lower jaws.
From the os maxiil.
fuper. immediately
above the gums of
the dentes incifores.
Into the upper lip To draw the upper lip
and ala of the nofe. and Ikin of the nofe
upwards and out¬
wards.
Into the orbicularis To raife the corner of
oris at the angle of the mouth,
the mouth.
Into the angle of the To raife the angle of
mouth. the mouth, and
make the cheek
prominent as in
laughing.
Into the angle of the To raife the angle of
mouth. the mouth oblique¬
ly outwards.
Into'the angle of the To contraft the mouth,
mouth. and draw the angle
of it outwards and
backwards.
Into the root of the To draw the ala nafi
ala nafi and upper and upper lip down-
lip. wards.
4 U
7. Depreffor-
(s) Thefe are three fmall {lender mufcles. The inferior one is fometimes wanting.
(t) The nofe is affeCted by fibres of the occipito frontalis, and by feveral mufcles of the.face ; but this pair,
the comprdTores, is the only one that is proper to it.
A N A T O
Name. Origin.
7. Depreflbr anguli At the fide of the
oris. chin from the low¬
er edge of the max¬
illa inferior.
8. Depreflbr labii in- From the lower and Into the under lip.
ferioris. anterior part of
the maxilla infe-
M Y. Part II
Infertion. Vfe. Of the
Into the angle of the To 'draw the corner Mufcles‘ ,
mouth. of the mouth down- '
wards.
To draw the under
lip downwards and
fomewhat outwards
9. Levator labii infe- From near the gums Into the under lip and To raife the under
fkin of the chin. lip and Ikin of the
chin.
MusCLESofthe lowe r
jaw, -
0. Orbicularis O-
ris (u).
1 Temporalis.
of the incifores and
caninus of the max¬
illa inferior.
- fituated at
From part of the os
bregmatis and os
frontis; fquamous
part of the os tem-
poris; back part of
the os malae, and
the temporal pro-
. cefs of the os fphe-
noides(v).
2. Mafleter (w). From the malar pro-
cefs of the os max-
illare, and the low¬
er edges of the os
malae, and of the
zygomatic procefs
of the os temporis.
3. Pterygoideus in- From the inner furface
ternus. of the outer wing of
the pterygoid pro¬
cefs of the os fphe-
noides, and from
the procefs of the
os palati that helps
to form the ptery¬
goid fofia.
4. Pterygoideus ex- From the external ala
ternus. of the pterygoid
procefs, a fmall part
of the adjacent os
maxillare, and a
ridge in the tempo¬
ral procefs of the os
fphenoides.
To Ihut the mouth by
conftringingthe lips.
Into the coronold pro- To move the lower
cefs of the lower jaw upwards,
jaw.
Into the bafis of the To raife and like wife
coronoid procefs, to move the jaw a
and that part of the little forwards and
jaw which fupports backwards,
that and the con¬
dyloid procefs.
Into the lower jaw on Toraife thelower jaw*
its inner fide and and draw it a Uttle
near its angle. to one fide.
Into the fore part of To move the jaw fer¬
tile condyloid pro- wards and to the
cefs of the lower
jaw, and likewife
of the capfular li¬
gament.
oppofite fide(x) |
and at the fame time
to prevent the liga¬
ment of the joint
from being pinch¬
ed.
the fore part of the
neck.
1. Latiflimuscolli(Y). From the cellular
membrane covering
Into the fide of the To draw the cheeks
chin and integu- and Ikin of the face
(u) This mufcle is in a great meafure, if not wholly, formed by the buccinator, zygomatici, deprefibres,,
and other mufcles that move the lips. Its fibres furround the mouth like a ring.
(v) Some of its fibres likewife have their origin from a ftrong fafeia that covers the mufcle and adheres to
the bone round the whole circumference of its origin. When we remove this covering, we find the mufcle of
a femicircular fhape with its radiated fibres, converging and forming a ftrong middle tendon.
(w) So called from its ufe in chewing, its derivation being from n-a-a-10-0.0^0.1, manduco, “ to eat.”
!x) This happens when the mufcle afts fingly. When both aA, the jaw is brought horizontally forwards.
y ) This broad and thin mufcular expanfion, which is fituated immediately under the common integuments,
is by Winflow named mufculus cutaneus. Galen gave it the name of ■axoTvo^a f*.vuSit (Platyfma-7nyaides) ; the
etymology of which ie from twwrtveywfy dilataiio, and mufculus,, vakuhs, forma.
Partll,
A N
Name.
2. Maftoideus(z).
Muscles fituated be¬
tween the trunk
ATOMY.
Origin. Inferlion.
the pe&oral, del- raents of the cheek,
toid, and trapezius
mufcles.
From the upper part Into the maftoid pro¬
of the fternum, and cefs, and as farback
from the upper and as the lambdoidal
fore part of the future,
clavicle.
7®7
Vft. Of the
downwards ; and Mu<~cle3,,,
when the mouth is v
fhut, to draw all
that part of the fliin
to which it is con-
netted below the
lower jaw upwards.
To move the head to
one fide, or when
both mufcles aftj
tobend it forwards.
and the os hyoides, i, Omo-hyoideus (A). From the upper cofta Into the bafis of the To draw the os hyoi-
of the fcapula near os hyoides. des in an oblique di-
its niche; from part region downwards,
of a ligament that
extends acrofs this
niche, and fome-
times by a few fi¬
bres, from the co¬
racoid procefs.
2. Sterno-hyoideus. From the cartilage of Into the bafis of the To draw the os hyoi-
the firft rib, the in- os hyoides. des downwards,
ner and upper part
of the fternum, and
a fmall part of the
clavicle
3. Hyo-thyroideus. From part of the ba- Into a rough oblique To raife the thyroid
fis and horn of the line at the fide of cartilage, ordeprefs
os hyoides. the thyroid carti- the os hyoides.
lage.
4. Sterno-thyroideus. From between the Immediately under To pull the thyroid
cartilages of the 1 ft the hyo-thyroideus, cartilage down-
and 2d ribs, at the wards,
upper and inner
part of the fternum.
5. Cricothyroideus. From the anterior Into the lower part To pull the cricoid
part and fide of the and inferior horn of cartilage upwards
cricoid cartilage. the thyroid carti- and backwards, or
lage* the thyroid for¬
wards and down¬
wards.
 fituatedbe-
tween the os hyoi-
des and lower jaw, 1. Diagaftricus (b). From a foffa at the Into the lower and To draw the lower jaw
root of the maftoid anterior part of the downwards,
procefs, and like- chin,
wife from the os
hyoides.
2.Stylo-hyoideus(c). From the bafis of the Into the fide and fore To draw the os hyoi-
ftyloid procefs. part of the os hy- des obliquely up-
oides near its bafe. wards.
4 U 2 3. Mylo-
(z) This, on account of its two origins, is by Albinus deferibed as two diftinft mufcles, which he names
Herno-mafioideus and cleido-majioideus.
(a) As this mufcle does not always arife from the coracoid procefs, it feems to have been improperly named
:oraco-hyaides by Douglas and Albinus. Winflow calls it omo-hyoideus, on account of its general origin from
the tcapula.
(b) From and [biventer), becaufe it has two fleihy bellies with a midddle tendon. This tendon
paffes through the ftylo-hyoideus.
(c) In fome fubje&s we meet with another mufcle, which from its having nearly the fame origin, infertion,
and ufed as this, has been named Jlylo-hoideus alter. 5
Muscles fituated a
bout the fauces.
A N
Name.
3. Mylo-byoideus
(9).
tom Y. Part II}
Origin Infertkn.' Ufe. Of the T
From the infide of Into the bafis of the To move the os hyoi- Mufrlc£i||
des to either fide, ‘' 1 *
forwards or up-
os hyoides.
the lower jaw, be¬
tween the laft dens
molaris and the
chin.
4. (e) Geno-hyoidc- From the infide of the Into the bafe of the To move the os hy-
”e chin. — 1—:j— -•J-- c ,
wards.
os hyoides.
oides forwards or
upwards.
From the infide of the Into the tongue and To move the tongue
chin. bafis of the os hy- in various direc-
oides. tions.
6. Hyo-gloflus (f). From the horn, bafis, Into the tongue late- To draw the tongue
and appendix of the rally. downwards and in-
os hyoides. wards.
Laterally from the Into the extremity of To fliorten the tongue
root of the tongue. the tongue. and draw it back¬
wards.
From the ilyloid pro- Into the fide of the To move, the tongue
cefs, and fometimes tongue from the backwards and to
root to near its tip. one fide.
5. Genio-gloflus.
7. Lingualis.
8. Stylo-gloflus.
alfo from a liga¬
ment that extends
from thence to the
angle of the lower
jaw.
9. Stylo-pharyngseus. From the bafis of the Into the fide of the To raife the thyroid
ftyloid procefs. pharynx and pofte- cartilage and pha-
rior part of the thy- rynx, and likewife
roid cartilage. to dilate the latter.
10. Circumflexus-pa- From near the bony Into the femilunar To dilate and draw
lati.
11. Levator palati.
1. Palato-pharyn-
gasus.
part of the Eufta- edge of the os palati the velum obliquely
chian tube, and and the velum pen- downwards,
from the fpinous dulum palati (g).
procefs of the os
fphenoides.
From the membra- Into the velum pen- To pull the velum
nous part of the dulum palati. backwards.
Euflachian tube, '
and the extremity
of the os petrofum.
From the lower and Into the upper and To raife the pharynx
anterior part of the pofterior part of the and thyroid carti-
thyroid cartilage.
cartilaginous extre¬
mity of the Eufta-
chian tube ( h ); the
tendinous expan-
fion of the circum-
flexus palati; and
the velum pendu¬
lum palati near the
bafis and back part
of the uvula.
lage, or to pull the
velum and uvula,
backwards and
downwards.
*») So named from its arifing near the dentes molares and its being inferted into the os hyoides.
(e) From T-tviwv, mentum, “ the chin.”
(f) From *fp«r, cornu, and lingua, “ the tongue.”
(g) This mufcle in its courfe forms a round tendon, which, after paffing over a kind of hook formed by the
inner plate of the pterygoid procefs of the fphenoid bone, expands into a tendinous membrane.
( h ) The few fibres that arife from the Euftachian tube are defcribed as a diftindt mufcle by Albinus, under
the name offalpingo-pharyngeus. They ferve to dilate the mouth of the tube.
Part II.
N
O M
70$
Xamc. Origin. Infertion. Vfe. Of the
2. Conftri&or ifthmi From near the bafis Into the velum pen- To raife the tongue 'Muf^®v
faucium. of the tongue late- dulum palati, near and draw the velum 'r ^ f
rally. the bafis and fore towards it (i)>
part of the uvula.
3- Azygos uvulae. .From the end of the Into .the extremity of To fhorten the uvula,
future that unites the uvula. and bring it for-
the offa palati. wards and upwards.
Mus-cles at the back
part of the pharynx i. Conftri&or pharyn-
gis fuperior.
2. Conftri&or pjiaryn-
gis medius (l).
3. Conftri &or pharyn-
gis inferior (m).
 about the
glottis - - - i. Crico-arytaenoide-
us lateralis.
2. Crico-arytaenoide-
us pofticus.
3. Arytenoideus ob-
liquus.
4. Arytenoideus
tranfverfus.
5. Tbyreo-arytaenoi-
deus.
6. Arytseno-epiglot-
tideus.
7. Thyreo-epiglotti-
deus.
From the cuneiform
procefs of the oc¬
cipital bone; the
pterygoid procefs
of the os fphenoi-
des, and from each
jaw near the laft
dens molaris(K).
From the horn and
appendix of the os
hyoides, and from
the ligament that
unites it with the
thyroid cartilage.
From the cricoid and
thyroid cartilages.
From the fide of the
cricoid cartilagdl
From the cricoid car¬
tilage pofteriorly.
From the bafis of one
of the arytsenoid
cartilages.
From one of the ary-
tasnoid cartilages
laterally.
From the pofterior
and under part of
the thyroid carti¬
lage.
From the upper part
of the arytaenoid
cartilage laterally..
From the thyroid car¬
tilage.
Into the middle of To move the pharynx
the pharynx. upwards and for¬
wards, and to com-
prefs its upper part.
Into the middle of To draw the os hyoi-
theprocefluscunei- des and pharynx
upwards, and to
comprefs the latter.
fox-mis of the occi¬
pital bone, about
its middle and be¬
fore the great fo¬
ramen.
Into the middle of To comprefs part of
the pharynx. the pharynx.
Into the bafis of the To open the glottis,
arytsenoid carti¬
lage laterally.
Into the bafis of the
arytaenoid cartilage
pofteriorly.
Near the extremity of
the other arytae¬
noid cai'tilage.
Into the other arytae-
noid cartilage late¬
x-ally.
Into the arytaenoid
cartilage.
: To open the glottis.
To draw the parts it
is conne&ed with
towards each other/
To ftmt the glottis.
To draw the arytae¬
noid cartilage for-
wax-ds.
Into the fide of the To move the epiglot-
epiglottis. tis outwards.
Into the fide of the To pull the epiglot-
epiglottis. tis obliquely down¬
wards (n.)
Mufcles
(1) This mufcle, and the palato-pharyngaeus, likewife ferve to clofe the paftage into the fauces, and to
carry the f ood into the pharynx.
(k) The three orders of fibres here mentioned, with a few others derived from the tongue, have given occa-
fion to Douglas to dcfcribe them as four diftin& mufcles, under the names of cephaio-pbaryngaus, niyio-pharyn-
gnus ptery-pbaryngaus, and glojjb-pbarytigxus.
(l) Douglas makes two mufcles of this, the kyo-pharyngaus andfyndejino-pharyngxus.
( m ) The crico-pharyngaeus and thyro-pharyngaeus of Douglas.
(n) When either this or the preceding mufcle a&s with its fellow,, the epiglottis is drawn dire&ly down¬
wards upon the glottis.
yio
Of the
Mufcles.
A N
Muscles at the fore
part of the neck,
clofe to the verte- Name.
brae - - - - j. Re&us capitis in-
ternus major.
2. Re&us capitis in-
ternus minor.
3. Reftus capitis la¬
teralis.
4. Longus colli.
——— at the fore
part of the abdo¬
men - - - . 1. Obliquus externus.
A T O
Origin.
From the anterior ex¬
tremities of the
tranfverfe procefles
of the five lower-
moft cervical ver¬
tebrae.
From the anterior
and upper part of
the firft cervical
vertebra.
From the anterior
and upper part of
the tranfverfe pro-
cefs of the firft cer¬
vical vertebra.
Within the thorax,
laterally from the
bodies of the three
uppermoft dorfal
vertebrae; from the
bafis and fore part
of the tranfverfe
procefles of the firft
and fecond dorfal
vertebrae, and of
the laft cervical ver¬
tebra ; and laftly,
from the anterior
extremities of the
tranfverfe procefles
of the 6th, 5 th, 4th,
and 3d cervical ver¬
tebrae.
From the lower edges
of the eight infe¬
rior ribs, near their
cartilages.
1. Obliquus internus. From thefpinous pro-
cefs of the three
lowermoft lumbar
M Y.
Infertion. Vfe.
Into the fore part of To bend the
the cuneiform pro- forwards,
cefs of the os occi-
pitis.
Near the bafis of the To aflift the laft de-
condyloid procefs fcribed mufcle.,
of the os occipitis.
Into the os occipi- To move the head t®
tis, oppofite to the one fide,
ftylo-maftoid fora¬
men.
Into the fecond cer- To pull the neck t»
vical vertebra ante- one fide (o).
teriorly.
Part I]
Of the-
Mulclesj
head
Into the lineaalba( p),
ofla pubis (oj, and
fpine of the ilium
(r).
Into the cartilages of
all the falfe ribs,
linea alba (s), and
To comprefs and fup-
port the vifcera, af-
fift in evacuating
the feces and urine,
drawdown the ribs,
and bend the trunk
forwards, or ob¬
liquely to one fide.
To aflift the obliquus
externus.
(o) When both mufcles aft, the neck is drawn direftly forwards.
(p) The linea alba is that tendinous expanfion which reaches from the cartilago enfiformia to the os pubis.
It is formed by the interlacement of the tendinous fibres of the oblique and tranfverfe mufcles, and on this ac¬
count feme anatomifts have confidered thefe as three digaftric mufcles.
(oj A little above the pubis the tendinous fibres of this mufcle feparate from each other, fo as to form an
opening called the ring of the obliquus externus, and commonly, though improperly, the ring of the abdomi¬
nal mufcles, there being no fuch aperture either in the tranfverfalis or obliquus internus. This ring in the male
fubjeft affords a paffage to the fpermatic veffels, and in the female to the round ligament of the uterus.
(r) From the anterior and upper fpinous procefs of the ilium, this mufcle is ftretched tendinous to the os
pubis, and thus, forms what is called by fome Fallopius's, and by others Ponpait's ligament. The blood-vet.
fels pafs under it to the thigh.
(s) The tendon formed by the upper part of this mufcle in its way to the linea alba is divided into two lay¬
ers. The pofterior layer runs under, and the anterior one over, the reftus mufcle.
art II.
I Of the
lAufcles.
—v '
3. Tranfverfalis.
A N A T O
Name. Origin.
vertebrae, the baek
part of the os fa-
crum, the fpine of
the ilium, and back
part of Fallopius’s
ligament (t)
From the cartilages
of the feven inferi¬
or ribs; the tranf-
verfe proceffes of
the laft dorfal, and
four upper lumbar
vertebrae; the in¬
ner part of Fallo¬
pius’s ligament and
the fpine of the i-
lium.
4. Re£us abdominis. From the upper edge
of the pubis and
the fymphyfis pu¬
bis.
5. Pyramidalis ( v ). From the anterior and
upper part of the
pubis.
M Y.
Inferlion.
fore part of the
pubis.
Vfe.
Into the linea alba To comprefs the ab-
and cartilago enlx- dominal vifcera-
formis.
'Muscles at the fore
partof the thorax - I. Peftoralis Major. From the cartilagi¬
nous ends of the
5th and 6th ribs;
the fternum, and
anterior part of the
clavicle.
2-. Subelavius. From the cartilage of
the firft rib.
3. Feftoralis minor
(x).
4. Serratus Magnus.
From the upper edges
of the 3d, 4tli,and
5th ribs.
From the eight fupe-
rior ribs.
Into the cartilages of To comprefs the fore
the 5th, 6th, and part of the abdo- •
7th ribs, and the men, and to bend
edge of the carti- the trunk forwards.-
lago enfiformis( u).
Into the linea alba To affift the lower
and inner edge of portion of the redlus.
the reft us, com¬
monly about two
inches above the’
pubis.
Into the upper and To draw the arm for^
inner part of the wards, or oblique-
os humeri (w). ly forwards.
Into the under fur- To move the clavicle:
face of the cla- forwardsand down-
vicle. wards, and to affift
v in raifing the lirft
rib.
Into the coracoid pro- To move the fcapula*
cefs of the fca- forwards and down-
pula. wards, or to elevate
• the ribs.
Into the bafis of the To bring the fcapula .
fcapula. forwards.
Muscles;
(t) From this part it detaches fome fibres which extend downwards upon the fpermatic chord,. and form
what is defcribed as the cremafter mufcle.
(u) The fibres of the reftua are generally divided by three tendinous interfeftions. The two upper thirds
of this mufcle palling between the tendinous layers of the obliquus internus, are inclofed as it were in a Iheath
but at its lower part we find it immediately contiguous-to the peritonaeum, the inferior portion of the tendon of
the tranfverfalis palling over the reftus, and adhering to the anterior layer of the obliquus internus.
(v) This mufcle is fometimes wanting.
(w) The fibres of this mufcle pafs towards the axilla in a folding manner, and with thofe of the latiffimus-
dorfi form the arm-pit.
(x) This and fome other mufcles derive their name of/err at us, from their ariling by a number.of tendinous
or flelhy digitations, refembling the teeth of a faw {ferra).
Nanis.
Muscles that con¬
cur in forming the
thorax,
1. Diaphragma (y).
2. Levatores cofta-
rum.
3. Intercodales exter-
ni.
Origin.
Infertion.
Ufe.
From the tranfverfe Into the upper fide of To move the ribs up-
proceffes of the laft each rib, near its wards and outwards,
cervical, and the tuberofity.
eleven upper dor-
fal vertebrae.
From the lower edge Into the fuperior edge To elevate the ribs,
of each upper rib. of each lower rib.
4. Intercoftales in¬
tend (a).
5. Sterno-coftales (b).
— at the back
part of the neck
and trunk, - 1. Trapezius (c), or
cucullaris.
2. Rhomboideus (e).
3. Latiffimus dorfi.
N° 18
From thecartilagoen- Into the cartilages of To deprefs the carti-
fiformis, and lower the 2d, 3d, 4th, lages of the ribs,
and middle part of 5th, and 6th ribs,
the iternum.
From the middle of
the os occipitis,
and thefpinouspro-
cefies of the two
inferior cervical,
and of all the dor-
fal vertebrae (d).
From the fpinous pro-
ceffes of the three
lowermoft cervical,
and of all the dor-
fal vertebras.
From part of the
fpine of the os i-
lium, the fpinous
proceffes of the, os
facrum and lumbar
vertebrae, and of fix
or eight of the dor-
Into the poflerior
half of the clavicle,
part of the acro¬
mion, and the fpine
of the fcapula.
Into the bafis of the
fcapula.
Into the os humeri,
at the inner edge of
the groove for lod¬
ging the long head
of the biceps mufcle.
To move the fcapula*
To move the fcapula
upwards and back¬
wards.
To draw the os hu¬
meri downwards
and backwards, and
to roll it upon its
axis.
(y) For a defcription of the diaphragm, fee Part IV. Se£l. IV.
(a) The origin, infertion, and ufe of the internal intercoflals, are fimilar to thofe of the external. The
reader, however, will be pleafed to obferve, that the intercoilales externi occupy the fpaces between the ribs
only from the fpine to their cartilages; from thence to the fternum, their being only a thin membrane, which
is fpread over the intercoftales interni; and that the latter, on the contrary, extend only from the fternum to
the angles of each rib.
The fibres of the external mufcles run obliquely forwards; thofe of the internal obliquely backwards. This
difference in the diredtion of their fibres induced Galen to fuppofe that they were intended for different ufes;
that the external intercoftals, for inftance, ferve to elevate, and the internal ones to deprefs the ribs. Fallopius
feems to have been the firft who ventured to difpute the truth of this dodlrine, which has fince been revived by
Hoyle, and more lately ftill by Hamberger, whofe theoretical arguments on this fubjeft have been clearly re¬
futed by the experiments of Haller.
(b) Thefe confift of fpur, and fometimes five diftindt mufcles on each fide. Vefalius, and after him Dou¬
glas and Albinus, confider them as forming a fingle mufcle, which, on account of its flrape, they name trian¬
gularis. Verheyen, Winflow, and Haller, more properly defcribe them as fo many feparate mufcles, which,
on account of their origin and infertion, they name Jlerno-coflales.
(c) So named by Riolanus, from rpccv^a, 0n account of its quadrilateral fliape. Columbus and others give
it the name of cucullaris, from its refemblance to a monk’s hood.
(d) The tendinous fibres of this mufcle, united with thofe of its fellow in the nape of the neck, from what
is1 called the ligamentuin colli.
(e) This mufcle confiftsof two diftindt portions, which are defcribed as feparate mufcles by Albinus, under
the names of rhombcideus miner and rbamboideus major-
Part II,
A N
Name.
4. Serratns inferior
pofticus.
5. Levator fcapulae.
6. Serratus fuperior
Pofticus.
7. Splenius (f).
S. Complexus (g).
9. Trachelo-maftoi-
deus (h).
10. Reftus capitis po¬
fticus major.
11. Redtus capitis
pofticus minor.
12. Obliquus fuperior
capitis.
13. Obliquus inferior
capitis.
A T o
Origin.
fal vertebrae; alfo
from the four in¬
ferior falfe ribs near
their cartilages.
From the fpinouspro-
cefles of the two
lowermoft dorfal,
and of three of the
lumbar vertebrae.
From the tranfverfe
proceflesof thefour
uppermoft verte¬
brae colli.
From the lower part
of the ligamentum
colli, the fpinous
procefs of the low¬
ermoft cervical ver¬
tebra, and of the
two fuperior dorfal
vertebrae.
From the fpinouspro-
ceftbs of the four
or five uppermoft
vertebrae of the
back, and of the
lowermoft cervical
vertebra.
From the tranfverfe
procefles of the
four or five upper¬
moft dorfal, and
of the fix lower¬
moft cervical verte¬
brae.
Frofn the tranfverfe
proceffes of the
firft dorfal vertebra,
and four or five of
the lowermoft cer¬
vical vertebrae.
From the fpinous pro¬
cefs of the fecond
cervical vertebra.
From the firft verte¬
bra of the neck.
From the tranfverfe
procefs of the firft
cervical vertebra.
From the fpinous pro¬
cefs of the fecond
cervical vertebra.
m y;
Infertion.
U/e
Into the lower edges To draw the ribs out-
of the three or four wards, downwards,
lowermoft ribs near and backwards.,
their cartilages.
Into the upper angle To move the fcapula
of the fcapula. forwards and up¬
wards.
Into the 2d, 3d, and To expand the tho*
4th ribs. rax.
Into the tranfverfe To move the
procefles of the backwards,
two firft cervical
vertebrae, the upper
and back part of
the maftoid procefs,
and a ridge on the
os occipitis.
Into the os occipitis. To draw the
backwards.
Into the maftoid pro- To draw the head
cefs. backwards.
Into the os occipitis. To extend the head
and draw it back¬
wards.
Into the os occiptis. To aflift the reft us
major.
Into the os occipitis. To draw the head
backwards.
Into the tranfverfe To draw the face to-
procefs of the firft wards the (boulder,
cervical vertebra. and to move the
firft vertebra upon
the fecond.
Vot.I. Part II.
4 X
14. Sa-
(f) According to fome writers, this mufcle has gotten its name from its refemblance to the fpleen ; others
derive it from fplsnium fplint.
(g) So named on account of its complicated ftrifture.
(h) So named from its origin from the neck (rfaixx^c) and its infertion into the maftoid procefs.
A N
Name.
14. Sacro-lumbalis
(0-
1 c. Longiffimus dor-
fi(K).
16. Spinalis dorfi,
A T O
Origin.
From the back part
of the os facrum,
fpine of the ilium,
fpinous procelfes,
and roots of the
tranfverfe procefles
of the vertebrae of
the loins.
The fame as that of
the facro-lumbalis.
17. Semi-fpinalis dor¬
fi.
18. Multifidus Spi-
nae (l).
19. Semi-fpinalis col¬
li.
20. Scalenus (m).
From the fpinous pro¬
cefles of the upper-
moft lumbar and
lowermoft dorfal
vertebrae.
From the tranfverfe
procefles of the 7 th,
8th, 9th, and 10th
vertebrae of the
back.
From the os facrum,
ilium, oblique and
tranfverfe procefles
of the lumbar ver¬
tebrae, tranfverfe
procefles of the dor¬
fal, and four of the
cervical vertebrae.
From the tranfverfe
procefles of the five
or fix uppermoft
dorfal vertebrae.
From the tranfverfe
procefles of the five
inferiorcervical ver¬
tebrae.
M Y.
Infertion.
Into the lower edge
of each rib.
Into the tranfverfe
procefles of the dor¬
fal vertebrae.
Into the fpinous pro¬
cefles of the nine
fuperior dorfal ver¬
tebrae.
Part II.
Ufe.
To draw the ribs Mu^cle3- ,
downwards, move ' ' '
the body upon its
axis, aflift in erect¬
ing the trunk, and
turn the neck back¬
wards, or to one
fide.
To ftretch the verte¬
brae of the back,
and keep the trunk
ereCt.
To extend the verte¬
brae.
Into the fpinous pro- To extend the fpine
cefles of the four obliquely back-
uppermoft dorfal, wards,
and lowermeft of
the cervical verte¬
bra.
Into the fpinous pro- To extend the bade
cefles of the lum- and draw it back-
bar, dorfal, and fix wards, or to one
of the cervical ver- fide,
tebrae.
Into the fpinous pro- To ftretch the neck
cefles of the 2d, obliquely backwards.
3d, 4th, 5th, and
6th cervical verte¬
bra.
Into the upper and To move the neck
outer part of the forwards, or to one
firftandfecondribs. fide.
21. Inter-
(1) Several thin fafciculi of flefhy fibres arife from the lower ribs, and terminate in the inner fide of this
mufcle. Steno names them mufcidi ad facto lumbalem accejforii. The facro InmbaKs likewife fends off a flefliy.
flip from its upper part, which by Douglas and Albinus is deferibed as a diftinCt mufcle, under the name of cer-
vicaiis defeendens. Morgagni has very properly confidered it as a part of the facro-lumbalis.
( k) At the upper part of this mufcle a broad thin layer of fldhy fibres is found crolfing, and intimately ad¬
hering to it. This portion, which is deferibed by Albinus, under the name of tranfverfahs cervicis, may very
properly be confidered as an appendage to the longiflimus dorfi.. It arifes from the tranfyerfe proceffes of the
five or fix fuperior dorfal vertebra, and is inferted into the tranfverfe proceffes of the fix inferior cervical verte-.
bra. By means of this appendage the longifiimus dorfi. may ferye to move the neck to one fide,, or obliquely
backwards.
(l) Anatomifts in general have unneceflarily multiplied the mufcles of the fphje. Albinus has the merit of
having introduced greater fimplicity into this part of myology. Under the name of multifidus Jpina,_ he has
very properly included thofe• portions of mufcular flefh intermixed with tendinous fibres, fituated clofe to the
back part of the fpine, and which are deferibed by. Douglas under the names of tranfverfales colli, dorji, id1 lum-
iorum
( m.) The ancients gave it this name from its refemblance to an irregular triangle ("xsauvo;). It confifts of
three flefliy portions. The anterior one affords a paffage to the axillary artery, and betvveen this and the middle •
portion we find the nerves going to the upper extremities. The middle is in part covered by the pofterior por-
lion, which is the longeft and thinneft of the three..
Part II.
Muscles within the
cavity of the abdo¬
men, on the ante¬
rior and lateral
parts of the fpine,
——— on the fcapu-
la and upper part
bf the os humeri,
ANATOMY. 71
Name. Origin. Infertion. Ufe. Of the
2i,Inter-fpinales(N). From the upper part Into the under part of To draw the fpinous Mufcleg;
of each of the fpi- each of the fpinous procefles towards v
nous proceffes of proceffes of the ver- each other,
the fix inferior cer- tebrae above,
vical vertebrae.
22. Inter-tranfverfa- From the upper part Into the under part of To draw the tranf-
les(o). „ ofeach of thetranf- each of the tranf- verfe procefies to-
verfe procefles of verfe procefles of wards each other*
the vertebras. the vertebrae above.
1. Pfoas parvus (p).
2. Pfoas magnus.
3. Iliacus internus.
4. Quadratus lumbo-
rum (o^).
5. Coccygasus.
From the Tides and Into the brim of the To bend the loins for-
tranfverfe procefles pelvis, at the June- wards,
of the uppermoft tion of the os pubis
lumbar vertebra, with the ilium,
and fometimes of
the lowermoft dor-
fal vertebra. •
From the bodies and Into the os femoris, a To bend the thigh
trartfverfe procefles little below the tro- forwards,
of the laft dorfal, chanter minor,
and all the lumbar
vertebras.
From the inner lip, In common with the To aflift the pfoaS
hollow part, and pfoas maghus. magnus.
edge of the os
ilium.
From the pofterior Into the tranfverfe To fupport the fpine,
part of the fpine of procefles of the four or to draw it to one
the ilium. uppermoft. lumbar fide7
vertebras, the infe¬
rior edge of the laft
rib, and the fide of
the lowermoft dor¬
fal vertebra.
From the pofterior Into the lower part To draw the os coccy-
and inner edge of of the os facrum, gis forwards and in-
the fpine of the if- and almoft the wards (r).
thium. whole length of the
08 coccygis latte-
rally.
1. Deltoides (s). From the clavicle, Into the anterior and To raife the arm.
proceflus acromion, middle part of the
and fpine of the os humeri,
fcapula.
2. Supra-fpinatus. From the bafis, fpine. Into a large tuberofi- To raife the arm.
and upper cofta of ty at the head of
the fcapula. the OS humeri.
4X2 3. Infra*
( n ) In the generality of anatomical books we find thefe mufcles divided into inter-fpinales cervicis, dorji, and
tumborum, but we do not find any fuch mufcles either in the loins or backi
(0) Thefe mufcles are to be found only*$n the neck and loins; what have been defcribed as the inter-tranf-
verfales dorji being rather fmall tendons than mufcles.
• ( p ) This and the following pair of mufoles derive their name of pfoas from 'I'oct, iumbus, on account of their
fituation at the anterior part of the loins.
(O So called from its ftiape, which is that of an irregular fquare.
(r) Some of the fibres of this mufcle are united v/ith thofe of the levator ani, fo that it affifts ill clofing the
hiwer part of the pelvis.
(s) So named from its fuppofed refemblance to the Greek A reverfed.
A N
Name.
3. Infra-fpinatus.
4. Teres minor(T)..
5. Teres major.
6. Subfcapularis.
7. Coraco-brachia-
lis (u).
Muscles on the os
humeri, - - 1. Biceps flexor cubi-
ti.
2. Brachialis internus.
3. Triceps extenfor
cubiti.
  on the fore¬
arm,
l. Supinator longus.
2. Extenfor carpi ra¬
dial! s longus..
3. Extenfor carpi ra-
dialis brevis.
4. Extenfor digitomm
communis.
ATOMY. Part II.
Origin. Infertion. Ufe. Of the
From the bafis and Into the upper and To roll the os humeri Mufcles.
fpine of the fcapu- middle part of the outwards.
la. tuberofity.
From the inferior co- Into the lower part of To affift the infra fpi-
fta of the fcapula. the tuberofity. natus.
From the inferior Into the ridge at the To affiit in the rota-
angle, and inferior inner fide of the tory motion of the
cofta of the fcapu- groove formed for arm.
la. the long head of
the biceps.
From the bafis, fupe- Into the upper part To roll the arm in-
rior and inferior co- of a fmall tubero- wards.
Has of the fcapula. fity at the head of
the os humeri.
From the coracoid Into the middle and To roll the arm for-
procefs of the lea- inner fide of the os wards and upwards,
pula. humeri.
By two heads, one Into the tuberexfity at To bend the fore-arm.
from the coracoid the upper end of
procefs, and the o- the radius,
ther, or long head,
from the upper and
outer edge of the
glenoid cavity of
the fcapula.
From the os bumeri, Into a fmall tubero- To affift: in bending
below, and at each fity at the fore part the fore-arm.
fide of the tendon of the coronoid
of the deltoides. procefs of the ulna.
By three heads: the Into the upper and To extend the fore-
firft, from the infe- outer part of the arm.
rior cofta of the olecranon,
fcapula ; the fe-
cond, from the up¬
per and outer part
of the os humeri;
and the third, fro: 1
the back part of
that bone.
From the outer ridge Into the radius near To afiift in turning
and anterior fur- its ftyloid procefs. the palm of the
face of the os hu- hand upwards,
meri, a little above
its outer condyle.
Immediately below Into the upper part To extend the wrift'.
the origin of the of the metacarpal
fupinator longus. bone ©f the fore¬
finger.
From the outer and Into the upper part To affift the extenfor
lower part of the of the metacarpal longus.
outer condyle of bone of the middle
the os humeri, and finger,
the upper part of
the radius.
From the outer con- Into the back part of To extend the fingers
dyle of the os hu- all the bones of the
meri. four fingers.
( t) This and the following pair are called teres, from their being of a long and round ftiape.
(v) This mufcle affords a paffageto the mufculo-cutaneous nerves
5. Extenfor
art IT.
N A T O M' Y.
717
Of Ihe
Name. Origin. Infert'm. Ufe.
f. Extenfcr minimi From the outer con- Into the bones of the To extend the little,MtlMes'
digiti. dyle of the os hu- little finger. finger,
meri.
6. Extenfor carpi ul- From the outer con- Into the metacarpal To afiiii in extending
naris. dyle of the os hu- bone of the little the wrift.
meri. finger.
7. Anconxus (v). From the outer con- Into the outer edge To extend the fore
dyle of the os hu- of the ulna. arm.
8. Flexor carpi ulna-
9. Palmaris longus.
10. Flexor carpi ra-
dialis.
a 1. Pronator radii
teres.
2. Flexor fublimis
perforatus (y).
13. Supinator radii
brevis.
34. Abdu&or polli-
cis longus.
35. Extenfor minor
pollicis.
16. Extenfor major
pollicis.
17. Indicator.
From the inner con¬
dyle of the os hu¬
meri, and anterior
edge of the olecra¬
non (w).
From the inner con¬
dyle of the os hu¬
meri.
From the inner con¬
dyle of the os hu¬
meri.
From the outer cOn-
dyle of the os hu¬
meri, and coronoid
procefs of the ulna.
From the inner con¬
dyle of the os hu¬
meri, inner edge of
the coronoid pro¬
cefs of the ulna,
and upper and an¬
terior part of the
radius.
From the outer con¬
dyle of the os hu¬
meri, and pofterior
furface and outer
edge of the ulna.
From the middle and
back part of the
ulna, interofleous
ligament, and ra¬
dius.
From the back part
of the ulna, and in-
terofieous ligament
and radius.
From the back of the
ulna and interofie-
ous ligament.
From the middle of
the ulna.
Into the os pififorme. To aflift in bending
the hand.
Into the internal an- To bend the hand,
nular ligament, and
aponeurofis palma¬
ris (x).
Into the metacarpal To bend the hand,
bone of the fore
finger.
Into the anterior and To roll the hand in*-
convex edge of the wards,
radius, near its
middle.
Into the fecond bone To bend the feeond-
of each finger. joint of the fingers.
Into the anterior, in- To roll the radius
ner, and upper part outwards,
of the radius.
By two tendons into To ftretch the firft
the os trapezium, bone of the thumb,
and firft bone of outwards,
the thumb.
Into the convex pai-t To extend the fecond
of the fecond bone bone of the thumb-
of the thumb. obliquely outwards^
Into the third and To ftretch the thumb-
laft bone of the obliquely back-
thumb. wards.
Into the metacarpal To extend the fore¬
bone of the fore- finger,
finger.
18 Flexor-
(V) So called from cubitus.
(w) Between the two origins of this mufcle we find the ulnor-nerve going to the fore arm.
(x) The aponeurofis palmaris is a tendinous membrane that extends over the palm of the hand. Some ana-
tomifts have fuppofed it to be a produ&ion of the tendon of this mufcle, but without fufficient grounds ; for in
fome fubje&s we find the palmaris longus inferted wholly into the annular ligament, fa as to be perfedtly di-
ftindt from this aponeurofis; and it now and then happens, that no palmaris longus is to be found, whereas this
expanfion is never deficient. ,. ,t
(y) This mufcle is named perforatus, on account of the four tendons in which it terminates, being perfo¬
rated by thofe of another mufcle, the perforans.
A N
Name.
18. Flexor profundus
perforans.
19. Flexor longus
pollicis.
20. Pronator radii
quadratus.
A T o
Origin.
From the upper and
fore part of the
ulna, and interof-
feous ligament.
From the upper and
fore part of the
radius.
From the inner and
lower part of the
ulna.
M Y* Fart I
Insertion. XJfe. Of that
Into the fore part of To bend the laft joint, Mafelej
the laft bone of of the fingers.
each of the fingers.
Into the laft joint of To bend the laft joint
the thumb. of the thumb.
Muscles on the hand 1. Lumbricales (z). From the tendons of
the perforans.
2. Abdudtor brevis
pollicis.
From the fore part
of the internal jan-
nular ligament, os
fcaphoides, and one
of the tendons of
the abdudtor lon¬
gus pollicis.
3. Opponens polliciss From the inner and
anterior part of the
internal annular li¬
gament, and from
the qs fcaphoides.
Brom the os trapezoi-
des, internal annu¬
lar ligament, os
magnum, and os
unciforme.
From the metacarpal
bone of the middle
, finger.
From the inner fide
of the firft bone of
the thumb, and
from the os trape¬
zium.
From the internal an¬
nular ligament, and
aponeurofis palma-
Into the radius, op-
pofite to its origin.
Into the tendons of
the extenfor digi-
torum communis.
Into the outer fide of
the 2d bone of the
thumb, near its
root.
To roll the radius in¬
wards, and of courfe
to affift in the pro¬
nation of the hand.
To bend the firft, and
to extend the two
laft joints of the
fingers (a).
To move the thumb
from the fingers.
4. Flexor brevis pol¬
licis.
5. Addudtor pollicis.
6. Abdudtor indicis.
7. Palmaris breVis
8. Abdudtor minimi
digiti.
From the internal an¬
nular ligament and
os pififorme.
From the os uncifor¬
me and internal an¬
nular ligament.
From the os uncifor¬
me and internal an¬
nular ligament.
1. Interoffei iriterni. Situated between the
metacarpal bones.
9. Flexor parvus mi¬
nimi digiti.
1 o. Addudtor meta¬
carpi minimi digiti.
Into the firft bone of To move the thumb
the thumb. inwards, and to turn
it upon its axis.
Into the ofla fefamoi- To bend the fecond
dea and feCond joint of the thumbs
bone of the thumb.
Into the bafis of the To move the thumb
fecoud bone of the towards thefingerss
thumb.
Into the firft bone of To move the fore fin-
the fore finger po- ger towards the
fteriorly. thumb;
Into the os pififorme, To contradt the paint
and the Ikin cover- of the hand,
ing the abdudtor
minimi digiti.
Into the fide of the To draw the little
firft bone of the fingerfrom the reft,
little finger.
Into the firit bone of To bend the little fin
the little finger. ger.
Into the metacarpal To move that bone
bone of the little towards the reft,
finger.
Into the roots of the To extend the fingers
fingers; and move them to¬
wards the thumb
Interoflei
(z) So named from their being lhaped fomewhat like the lumbricus or earth-worm.
(a) Fallopius was the firft who remarked the two oppofite ufes of this mufcle. Their extending power is
iwing to^ their connedtion with the extenfor communis.
(®/ The third interoffeus internus (for there are four of the externi and three of the interni) differs from the
reft in drawing the middle finger from the thumb.
ANATOMY.
Name. _ Origin. ' Infertion. Vfe.
Interoffei extemi. Situated between the Into the roots of the To extend the fin-
metacarpal bones
on the back of the
hand.
Muscles at theback-
part of the pelvis,
and upper part of
the thigh, - -
fingers. gers ; but the firlt "
draws the middle
finger inwards, the
fecond draws it out¬
wards, and the third
draws the ring fin¬
ger inwards.
1. Gluteus (c) max- From thefpineof the Into the upper part To extend the thigh
inius. ilium, pofterior fa- of the line a afpera and draw it out-
cro-ifchiatic liga- of the os femoris. wards,
ments, os facrum,
and os coccygis.
2. Gluteus medius. From the fpine and Into the outer and To draw the thigh
fuperior furface of back part of the outwards and a
the ilium. great trochanter of little backwards,
the os femoris. and when it is
bended, to roll it.
3. Gluteus minimus. From the outer fur- Into the upper and To a ffift the former..
face of the ilium anterior part of the
and the border of great trochanter,
its great niche.
4. Pyriformis (d). From the anterior Into a cavity at the To roll the thigh out-
part of the os fa- root of the tro- wards,
crum. chanter major.
5. Gemini (e). By two portions, one Into the fame cavity To roll the thigh out-
from the outer fur- as the pyriformis. wards, and likewife
face of the fpine to confine' the ten-
of the ifchium-; don of the obtura-
the other from the tor internus, whem
tuberofity of the the latter is in ac-
ifchium and pofte- tion.
rior facro-ifchiatic
ligament.
6. Obturator inter- From the fuperior Into the fame cavity To roll the thigh out-
nus. half of the inner with the former. wards.
border of the fo¬
ramen thyroideum.
7. Quadratus (f) fe- From the tuberofity Into a ridge between To move the thigh
of the ifchium. +—1—.—■— — 1
the. trochanter ma¬
jor and trochanter
outwards.
• on the thigh
(G); - -
. Biceps flexor era- By two heads; one Into the upper and To bend the leg.
ris. from the tuberofi- back part of the fi-
ty.of the ifchium, bula(H)..
'
(c) From y^rot, nates. (u) So named from its pear-like fhake.
(e) The two portions of this mufcle having been deferibed as two diftinft mufcles by fome anatomifts,.
have occafioned it to be named gemini. The tendon of the obturator internus. runs between thefe two por-
tions..
(f) This mufcle is not of the fquare (hape its name would feem to indicate.',
(g) The mufcles of the leg and thigh are covered by a broad tendinous membrane called fajeia lata, that
furrounds them in the manner of a flieath. It is fent off from the tendons of the gluts i and other mufcles, and4
dipping down between the mufcles it covers, adheres to the linea afpera, and fpreading over the joint of-the-
knee, gradually difappears on the leg. It is thickeft on the infxde of the thigh.
(h) The tendon of this mufcle forms the outer bam firings
4
7 20
Of the
Mufcles,
N° 18.
A N
JSrame.
2. Semi-tendinofus.
3. Semi-membrano-
fus'(i).
4. Tenfor vaginae fe-
Bioris.
Sartorius.
7. Gracilis.
8. Va{lusexternu3(L).
9. Vaftus internus.
10. Cruraeus (m).
A T O
Origin,
the other from the
linea afpera near
the infertion of the
gluteus maximus.
From the tuberofity
of the ifchium.
From the tuberofity
of the ifchium.
From the fuperior
and anterior fpi-
nous procefs of the
ilium.
From the fuperior
and anterior fpi-
nous procefs'of the
ilium.
By two tendons; one
from the anterior
and inferior fpi-
nous procefs of the
ilium j the other
from the pofterior
edge of the coty¬
loid cavity.
From the fore-part pf
the ifchium and
pubis.
From the anterior
and lower part of
the great trochan¬
ter, and the outer
edge of the linea
afpera.
From tfie inner edge
of the linea afpera,
beginning between
the fore-part of the
os femoris and the
root of the lelfer
trochanter.
From the outer and
anterior parrt of
the lefler trochan¬
ter.
From the anterior
edge of the os pu¬
bis, or pedlinis, as
it is fometimes call¬
ed.
M Y.
Infertion.
Part Tl!
Ufe. Of thei i
MufcleaJ
Into the upper and To bend and draw
inner part of the the leg inwards,
tibia.
Into the upper and To bend the leg.
back part of the
head of the tibia.
Into the inner fide of
the fafcia lata,
which covers the
outfide of the
thigh.
Into the upper and
inner part of the.
tibia.
To ftretch the faf¬
cia.
To bend the leg in¬
wards (k).
Into the upper and To extend the leg.
fore-part of the pa¬
tella.
Into the upper and
inner part of the
tibia.
To the upper and
outer part of the
patella.
To bend the leg.
To extend the leg.
Into the upper and To extend the leg.
inner part of the
patella.
Into the upper part To extend the legv
of the patella.
Into the upper and
fore-part of the li¬
nea afpera.
To draw the thigh
inwards, upwards,
and to roll it a
little outwards.
12. Addu&or
(i) So named on account of its origin, which is by a broad flat tendon three inches long.
(K) Spigelius was the firft who gave this the name of fartorius, or the taylor’s mufcle, from its ufe in
crofling the legs.
(l) The vaftus externus, vaftus internus, and cruraeus, arefo intimately connefted with each other, that fome
anatomifts have been induced to confider them as a triceps, or Angle mufcle with three heads.
(m) Under the cruraeus we fometimes meet with two fmall mufcles, to wdiich Albinus has given the name of
fub-crurxi. They terminate on each fide of the patella, and prevent the capfular ligament from being pinched.
When they are wanting, which is very often the cafe, fome of the fibres of the cruraeus are found adhering to
the capfula.
A N
Name.
12. Addu&or longus
femoris (n).
13. Addu&or brevis
femoris.
14. Adduftor mag-
nus femoris.
15. Obturator exter-
nus.
MusCLESontheleg, 1. Gaftrocremius (0)
externus.
2. Gaftrocretnus (p)
internus.
3. Plantaris (cl).
4. Popliteus (r).
5. Flexor longus di-
gitorum pedis (s)
6. Flexor longus pol-
licis pedis.
A T O
Origin.
From the upper and
fore part of the os
pubis.
From the fore part of
the ramus of the os
pubis.
From the lower and
fore part of the ra¬
mus of the os pu¬
bis.
From part of the ob¬
turator ligament,
and the inner half
of the circumfe¬
rence of the fora¬
men thyroideum.
By two heads; one
from the inner con¬
dyle, theotherfrom
the outer condyle
of the os femoris.
By two heads; one
from the back part
of the head of the
fibula, the other
from the upper and
back part of the
tibia.
From the uppper and
pofteriorpart of the
outercondyleof the
os femoris.
From the outer con¬
dyle of the thigh.
From the upper and
inner part of the
tibia.
M Y.
Infertion.
Near the middle and'
back part of the li-
nea afpera.
Into the inner and
upper part of the
linea afpera.
Into the whole length
of the linea afpera.
Ufe,
To draw the thigh
inwards, upwards,
and to roll it a little
outwards.
Into the os femoris
near the root of
the great trochan-
. ter.
To move the thigh
outwards in an ob¬
lique dire&ion, and
likewife to bend
and draw it. in¬
wards.
By a great round ten- To extend the foot,
don, common to
this and the follow¬
ing mufcle.
By a large tendon To extend the foot,
(the tendo achillis')
commmon to this
andthe former muf¬
cle, into the lower
and back part of
the os calcis.
Into the infide of the
back part of the
os calcis.
To affift. in extending
the foot.
To affift in bending
the leg and rolling
it inwards.
To bend the laft joint
of the toe.
Vol. I. Part II.
From the back part,
and a little below
the head of the fi¬
bula.
Into the upper and
inner part of the
tibia.
By four tendons,
which, after paffing
through the perfo¬
rations in thofe of
the flexor digito-
rum brevis, are in-
ferted into the laft
bone of all the toes,
except the great
toe.
Into the laft bone of To bend the great
the great toe. toe.
4Y
7. Tibialis
( n ) This and the two following mufcles have been ufually, but improperly, confidered as forming a fingle
mufcle with three heads, and on that account named triceps femoris.
(o) Tarpoxvnfua, fur a, “ the calf of the leg.”
( p) This mufcle is by fome anatomifts named foleus, on account of its being ffiaped like the fole-fiffi.
(cl) This mufcle has gotten the name of plantaris, from its being fuppofed to furnifli the aponeurofis that
covers the foie of the foot; but it does not in the leaft contribute to the formation of that tendinous ex-
panfion.
(r) So called on account of its fituation at the ham (poples).
(s) This mufcle, about the middle of the foot, unites with a flelhy mafs, which, from its having firftbeen
■defcribed by Sylvius, is ufually called majja. carnea Jacobi Sylvu.
A N
Name.
7. Tibialis poflicus.
0 M
8. Peroneus longus.
o. Peroneus brevis.
to. Extenfor longus
digitorum pedis.
J 1. Peroneus tertius.
12. Tibralis anticus.
Origin.
From the back part
and outer edge of
the tibia, and like-
wife from the in-
teroffeous ligament
and adjacent part
of the fibula.
From the outer fide
of the head of the
tibia, and alfo from
the upper, anterior,
and outer part of
the perone or fibu-
bula, to which it
adheres for a con-
fiderable way do wn.
From the outer and
fore-part of the fi¬
bula.
From the upper, out¬
er, and fore part
of the tibia, inter-
ofieous ligament,
and inner edge of
the fibula.
From the fore-part
of the lower half
of the fibula, and
from the interof-
feous ligament.
From the upper and
fore part of the ti-
Part 11
Infertion. UJb. Of the
Into the inner and To move the foot In-^Iu c*e9'
upper part of the wards.
os naviculare and
fide of the os cU-
neiforme medium.
Into the metatarfal To move the foot out-
bone of the great wards,
toe.
Into the metatarfal To aflift the lafl de¬
bone of the little fcribed mufcle.
toe.
By four tendons into To extend the toes*
the firll joint of the
fmaller toes.
Into the metatarfal To bend the foot,
bone of the little
toe.
Into the os cufiei- To bend the foot,
forme internum.
13. Extenfor proprius From the upper and
pollicis pedis. fore part of the
tibia.
Muscles on the foot, I. Extenfor brevis di- From the upper and
gitorum pedis. anterior part of the
os calcis.
>. Flexor brevis di- From the lower part
gitorum pedis. of the os calcis.
3. Abdu&or pollicis From the inner and
pedis. lower part of the
os calcis.
Into the convex fur-
face of the bones
of the great toe.
By four tendons; one
of which joins the
tendon of the ex¬
tern us longus polli¬
cis, and the other
three the tendons
of the extenfor di¬
gitorum longus.
By four tendons,
which, after af¬
fording a pafiage
to thofe of the flex¬
or longus, are' in-
ferted into the fe-
cond phalanx of
each of the final!
toes.
Into the firft joint of
the great toe.
To extend the great
toe.
To extend the toes.
To bend the fecoqd
joint of the toes,.
. Abduftor minimj From the outer tu-
digiti.
bercle of the
calcis, the root of
the metatarfal bone
of the little toe,
and alfo from the
aponeurofis planta-
Inlio the outer fide
of the firft joint of
the little toe.
To move the great
toe from the other
toes.
To draw tire little toe
outwards.
5. Lumbncaies
V 1
'Jart IL
A N
Name.
5. Lumbricales pedis.
6. Flexor brevis poi-
licis pedis.
7. Adduftor pollicis
pedis.
8. Tranfverfales pe¬
dis.
g. Flexor brevis mi¬
nimi digiti pedis.
10. Interoffei pedis
interni (t).
 exter-
ni (u).
ATOMY. 723
Origin. Infertion. Ufe. Of the
From the tendons of Into the tendinous To draw the toes in- Mufcle3‘ ,
the flexor longus expanfion at the wards. *
digitorum pedis. upper part of the
toes.
From the inferior and By two tendons into To bend the firft joint
anterior part of the the firft joint of of-the great toc¬
os calcis, and alfo the great toe.
from the inferior
part of the os Cu¬
neiforms externum.
From near the roots Into the outer os fe- To draw the great toe
of the metatarfal famoideum, or firft nearer to the reft,
bones of the 2d, joint of the great and alfo to bend
3d, and 4th toes. toe. it.
From the outer and Into the inner os fe- To contraft the foot,
under part of the famoideum, andan-
anterior end of the terior end of the
metatarfal bone of metatarfal bone of
the little toe. the great toe.
From the bafis of the Into the firft joint of To bend the little
metatarfal bone of the little toe. toe.
the little toe.
Situated between the
metatarfal bones.
EXPLANATION of PLATES XXL and XXII.
Plate XXL
Fig. 1. The Muscles immediately under the com¬
mon teguments on the anterior part of the body are
reprefented on the right fide ; and on .the left fide the
Muscles are feen which come in view when the exte¬
rior ones are taken away.
A, The frontal mufcle. B, The tendinous aponeu-
rofis which joins it to the occipital; hence both named
occipito-frontahs. C, Attolens aurem. D, The ear.
E, Anterior auris. F F, Orbicularis palpebrarum.
G, Levator labii fuperioris alseque nafi. H, Levator
anguli oris. I, Zygomaticus minor. K, Zygomaticus
major. L, Maffeter. M, Orbicularis oris. N, De-
preffor labii inferioris. O, Depreflbr anguli oris.
P, Buccinator. Platyfma myoides. R R, Ster-
no-cleido-maftoidseus. S, Part of the trapezius. T,
Part of the fcaleni.
Superior Extremity.—U, Deltoides. V,Pe£k>ra-
lis major. W, Part of the latiffimus dorfi. X X, Bi¬
ceps flexor cubiti. Y Y, Part of the brachialis exter-
nus. Z Z, The beginning of the tendinous aponeu-
rofis (from the biceps), which is fpread over the muf-
cles of the fore-arm. a a, Its ftrong tendon inferted
into the tubercle of the radius, b b. Part of the bra¬
chialis internus. c, Pronator radii teres, d, Flexor
carpi radialis. e, Part of the flexor carpi ulnaris.
f, Palmans longus. g, Aponeurofis palmaris. 3, Pal-
maris brevis. 1, Ligamentum carpi annulare. 2 2, Ab¬
ductor minimi digiti. h. Supinator radii longus.
i, The tendons of the thumb, k, Abduftor pollicis.
1, Flexor pollicis longus. m m, The tendons of the
fluxor fublimis perforatus, profundus perforans, and
lumbricales.—The iheaths are entire in the right hand,
—in the left cut open, to fhow the tendons of the flexor
profundus perforating the fublimis.
Muscles not referred to—in the left fuperior extre¬
mity.—n, Peftoralis minor, feu ferratus anticus minor,
o. The two heads of {x x) the biceps, p, Coraco-
brachialis. q q. The long head of the triceps extenfor
cubiti. r r, Teres major, f f, Subfcapularis. tt, Ex-
tenfores radiales. u, Supinator brevis, v, The cut
extremity of the pronator teres. w. Flexor fubli¬
mis perforatus. x. Part of the flexor profundus,
y. Flexor pollicis longus. . z,.Part of the flexor pollicis
brevis. 4, Abduftor minimi digiti. 5, The four
lumbricales.
Trunk.— 6, Serrated extremities of the ferratus
anticus major. 77, Obliquus externus abdominis.
8 8, The linea alba. 9, The umbilicus. 10, Pyra-
midalis. 11 11, The fpermatic cord. On the left
fide it is covered by the cremafter. 12 12, Reft us
abdominis. 13, Obliquus'internus. 14 14, &c. In-
tercoftal mufcles.
Inferior Extremities.—n a. The gracilis, lb,
Parts of the triceps, c c, Peftialis. d d, Pfoas mag-
nus. e e, Iliacus internus. f Part of the gluteus
medins. g. Part of the gluteus minimus. />, Cut
extremity of the reftus cruris, i i, Vaftus externus.
kt Tendon of the reftus cruris. //, Vaftus internus.
4 Y 2 * Sartorius
(t) The interoffei interni are three in number; their ufe is to draw the fmaller toes towards the great toe. .
(u) The interoffei externi are four in number; the firft ferves to move the fore-toe towards the great toe,
the reft move the toes outwards. All the interoffei affift in extending the toes.
724
A N A T
* Sartorlus mufcle. * * Fleftiy origin of the tenfor
vaginae femoris or membranofus. Its tendinous aponeu-
rofis covers (/) the vaftus externus in the right fide.
m m. Patella, n n. Ligament or tendon from it to
the tibia, o, Reftus cruris, p, Cruraeus. q q. The
tibia, r r. Part of the gemellus or gaftrocnemius ex¬
ternus. fff. Part- of the foleus or gaftrocnemius
internus. /, Tibialis anticus. u. Tibialis pofticus.
v v, Peronaei mufcles. w w, Extenfor longus digi-
torum pedis, x x, Extenfor longus pollicis pedis.
y, Abdudfor pollicis pedis.
Fig. 2. The Muscles, Glands, &c. of the Left
Side of the Face and Neck, after the common Te¬
guments and Platyfma myoides have been taken off.
a. The frontal mufcle. b, Temporalis and tempo¬
ral artery, c, Orbicularis palpebrarum, d, Levator
labii fuperioris alaequi naii. e. Levator anguli oris,
f, Zygdmaticus. g, Depreffor labii inferioris. h, De-
preflbr anguli oris. i, Buccinator. k, Mafleter.
11, Parotid gland, m, Its dudt. n, Sterno-cleido-
maftoidasus. o, Part of the trapezius, p, Sterno-
hyoidaeus. q, Sterno-thyroidasus. r, Omo-hyoidaeus.
f, Levator fcapuke. 11, Scaleni. u. Part of the fple-
nius.
Fig. 3. The Muscles of the Face and Neck in view
after the exterior ones are taken away,
a a, Corrugator fupercilii. b, Temporalis, c, Ten¬
don of the levator palpebras fuperioris. d, Tendon
of the orbicularis palpebrarum, e, Mafleter. f. Buc¬
cinator. g, Levator anguli oris, h, Depreflbr labii
fuperioris alaeque nafi. i, Orbicularis oris, k, Depref¬
for anguli oris. 1, Mufcles of the os hyoides. m, Ster-
no-cleido-maftoidaeus.
Fig. 4. Some of the Muscles of the Os Hyoides
and Submaxillary Gland.
a, Part of the mafleter mufcle.' b, Pofterior head
of the digaftric. c, Its anterior head, d d, Sterno-
hyoidaeus. e, Omo-hyoidaeus. f, Stylo-hyoidasus.
g, Submaxillary gland in fitu.
Fig. 5. The Submaxillary Gland and Du£t.
a, Mufculus mylo-hyoidaeus. b, Hyo-gloffus. c, Sub¬
maxillary gland extra fitu. d, Its dudt,
Plate XXII.
Fig. 1. The Muscles immediately under the com¬
mon teguments on the pofterior part of the body are
reprefented in the right fide ; and on the left fide the
Muscles are feen which come in view when the exte¬
rior ones are taken away.
Head—A A, Occipito-frontalis. B, Attollens
aurem. C, Part of the orbicularis palpebrarum.
D, Mafleter. E, Pterygoidaeus internus.
Trunk.— Right fide. FFF, Trapezius feu cucul-
laris. G G G G, Latiflimus dorfi. H, Part of the
obliquus externus abdominis.
Trunk.—Left fide. I, Splenius. K, Part of the
complexus. L, Levator fcapulae. M, Rhomboides.
N N, Serratus pofticus inferior. O, Part of the lon-
giflimus dorfi. P, Part of the facro-lumbalis. Q^Part
of the femi-fpinalis dorfi. R, Part of the ferratus an-
O M Y.
Part IlJ
ticus major. Sf Part of the obliquus internus abdo- Of the
minis. M^fclcs.
Superior Extremity.— Rightfide. T, Deltoides. ', M
U, Triceps extenfor cubiti. V, Supinator longus.
W W, Extenfores carpi radialis longior and brevior.
X X, Extenfor carpi nlnaris. Y Y, Extenfor digito-
rum communis. Z, Abduftor indicis. 123, Ex¬
tenfores pollicis.
Superior Extremity.—Left fide, a, Supra fpi-
natus. b, Infra-fpinatus. c, Teres minor, d, Te¬
res major, e, Triceps extenfor cubiti. f f, Exten¬
fores carpi radiales. g, Supinator brevis, h, Indica¬
tor. 123, Extenfores pollicis. i, Abduftor minimi
digiti. k, Interoffei.
Inferior Extremity.—Right fide. 1, Glutasus
maximus. m, Part of the glutasus medius. n, Ten¬
for vaginae femoris. o, Gracilis, p p, Addudtor fe¬
moris magnus. q, Part of the vaftus internus. r, Se-
mimembranofus. s, Semitendinofus. t, Long head
of the biceps flexor cruris, uu, Gaftrocnemius ex¬
ternus feu gemellus, v, Tendo Achillis. w, Soleus
feu gaftrocnemius internus. x x, Peronaeus longus and
brevis, y, Tendons of the flexor longus digitorum
pedis;—and under them * flexor brevis digitorum
pedis, z, Abdu&or minimi digiti pedis.
Inferior Extremity.—Left fide, m, n, oy pp, q,
r, s, t, v, ww, x x, yy zy Point the fame parts as in
the right fide, a, Pyriformis. bb, Gemini, c c. Obtu¬
rator internus. d, Quadratus femoris. c, Coccygaeus.
f. The fhort head of the biceps flexor cruris. ggy Plan-
taris. h, Poplitaeus. i, Flexor longus pollicis pedis.
Fig. 2. The Palm of the Left Hand after the com¬
mon Teguments are removed, to flrow the Muscles
of the Fingers.
a, Tendon of the flexor carpi radialis. b, Tendon
of the flexor carpi ulnaris. c, Tendons of the flexor
fublimis perforatus, profundus perforans and lumbri-
cales. d, Abductor pollicis. e e, Flexor pollicis
longus. f, Flexor pollicis brevis, g, Palmaris bre¬
vis. h, Abductor minimi digiti. i, Ligamentum car-
piannulare. k, A probe put under the tendons of
the flexor digitorum fublimis; which are perforated by
1, the flexor digitorum profundus, m m m m, Lum-
bricales. n, Adduftor pollicis.
Fig. 3. A Fore-view of the Foot and Tendons of the
Flexores Digitorum.
a, Cut extremity of the tendo Achillis. b. Upper
part of the aftragalus. c. Os calcis. d, Tendon of
the tibialis anticus. e, Tendon of the extenfor pollicis
longus. f, Tendon of the peronaeus brevis, g, Ten¬
dons of the flexor digitorum longus, with the nonus
Vefalii. h h, The whole of the flexor digitorum
brevis.
Fig. 4. Muscles of the Anus,
a a, An outline of the buttocks, and upper part of
the thighs, b, The telles contained in the fcrotum.
c c, Sphinfter ani. d, Anus, e, Levator ani. f f, E-
reftor penis, g g. Accelerator urinae. h. Corpus ca-
vernofum urethrae.
Fig. 5. Muscles of the Penis,
a a, b, d, ee, ff, h, point the fame as it
c, Sphinfter ani. g g, Tranfverfalis penis.
%• 4*
PART
-*> v
ANATOMY.
Part III.
Of the
PART III.
Of the ABDOMEN, or LOWER BELLY.
88. nnHE abdomen, or lower belly, extends from the
lower extremity of the fternum, or the hollow,
ufually called the pit of the ftomach, and more pro¬
perly fcrobiculus cordis, to the lower part of the
trunk.
It is diftinguifhed into three divifions called regions;
of thefe the upper one, which is called the epigajiric
region, begins immediately under the fternum, and ex¬
tends to within two fingers .breadth of the navel, where
the middle or umbilical region begins, and reaches to
■ ' the fame diftance below the navel. The third, which
is called the hypogajlric, includes the reft of the abdo¬
men, as far as the os pubis.
Each of thefe regions is fubdivided into three others ;
two of which compofe the fides, and the other the
middle part of each region.
The middle part of the upper region is called epi-
gafirium, and its two fides hypochondria. The middle
part of the next region is the umbilical region, proper¬
ly fo called, and its two fides are the flanks, or iliac
regions. Laftly, the middle part of the lower region
retains the name of hypogaftrium, and its fides are
called inguina or groins. The back part of the abdo¬
men bears the name of lumbar region.
Thefe are the divifions of the lower belly, which
are neceflary to be held in remembrance, as they fre¬
quently occur in furgical and anatomical writing. We
will now proceed to examine the contents of the abdo¬
men ; and after having pointed out the names and ar¬
rangement of the feveral vifcera contained in it, de-
fcribe each of them feparately.
After having removed the flcin, adipofe membrane,
and abdominal mufcles, we difcover the peritonaeum or
membrane that envelopes all the vifcera of the lower
belly. This being opened, the firft part that prefents
itfelf is the omentum or cawl, floating on the furface
of the inteftines, which are likewife feen every where
loofe and moift, and making a great number of cir¬
cumvolutions through the whole cavity of the abdo¬
men.' The ftomach is placed in the epigaftrium, and
under the ftomach is the pancreas. The liver fills the
right hypochondrium, and the fpleen is fituated in the
left. The kidneys are feen about the middle of the
lumbar region, and the urinary bladder and parts of
generation are feated in the lower divifion of the
belly.
Sect. I. Of the Peritorueum.
g- The peritonaeum is a ftrong Ample membrane, by
which all the vifcera of the abdomen are furrounded,
and in feme meafure fupported. Many anatomical
writers, particularly Winflow, have deferibed it as be¬
ing compofed of two diftinft membranous laminae;
but their defeription feems to be erroneous. What
perhaps appeared to be a fecond lamina, being found
to be Amply a cellular coat, which fends off produc¬
tions to the blood-veffels palling out of the abdominal
cavity. The aorta and vena cava likewife derive a
covering from the fame membrane, which feems to be
a part of the cellular membrane we have already de¬
feribed.
The peritonaeum, by its productions and reduplica¬
tions, envelopes the greateft part of the abdominal
vifcera. It is foft, and capable of confiderable exten-
fion ; and is kept fmooth and moift by a vapour,
which is conftantly exhaling from its inner furface,
and is returned again into the circulation by the ab-
forbents.
This moifture not only contributes to the foftnefs
of the peritonaeum, but prevents the attrition, and o=
ther ill effects which would otherwife probably be oc-
cafioned, by the motion of the vifcera upon each o-
ther.
When this fluid is fupplied in too great a quantity,
or the abforbents become incapable of carrying it off,
it accumulates, and conftitutes an afeites or dropfy of
the belly; and when by any means the exhalation is
difeontinued, the peritonaeum thickens, becomes dif-
eafed, and the vifcera are fometimes found adhering to
each other.
The peritonaeum is not a very vafcular membrane.
In a found ftate it feems to be endued with little or no
feeling, and the nerves that pafs through it appear to-
belong to the abdominal mufcles.
Sect. II. Of the Omentum.
The omentum, epiploon, or cawl, is a double mem¬
brane, produced from the peritonaeum. It is inter¬
larded with fat, and adheres to the ftomach, fpleen^
duodenum, and, colon ; from thence hanging down
loofe and floating on the furface of the inteftines. Its
fize is different in different fubjeefts. In feme it de-
feends as low as the pelvis, and it is commonly longer
at the left fide than the right.
This part, the fituation of which we have juft now
deferibed, was the only one known to the ancients un¬
der the name of epiploon ; but at prefent we diftinguilh-
three omenta, viz. omentum magnum tolico gajlricum,
omentum parvum hepatico gaflricum, and omentum co~
HcUm. They all agree in being formed of two very
delicate laminae, feparated by a thin layer of cellular
membrane.
The omentum magnum eolico gaftricum, of which-
we have already fpoken, derives its arteries from the
fplenic and hepatic. Its veins terminate in the vena
portae. Its nerves, which are very few, come from the
fplenic and hepatic plexus.
The omentum parvum hepatico gaftricum, abounds
lefs with fat than the great epiploon. It begins at the
upper part of the duodenum, extends along the leffer
curvature of the ftomach as far as the cefophagus, and
terminates about the neck of the gall-bladder, and be¬
hind the left ligament of the liver, fo that it covers
the leffer lobe ; near the beginning of which we may
obferve a fmall opening, firft deferibed by Window,
through which the whole pouch may eafily be diftend-
A N A T
ed with air (x). The veffels of the omentum parvum
are derived chiefly from the coronary ftomachic arteries
and veins.
The omentum colicum begins at the fore part of the
coecum and right fide of the colon. It appears as a
hollow conical appendage to thefe inteftines, and ufu-
ally terminates at the back of the omentum magnum.
It feems to be nothing more than a membranous coat
of- the caecum and colon, affuming a conical fhape
vyhen diftended with air.
The ufes of the omentum are not yet fatisfaclorily
determined. Perhaps by its foftnefs and loofenefs it
may ferve to prevent thofe adhefions of tbe abdominal
vifcera, which have been found to take place when the
fat of the omentum has been much wailed. Some au¬
thors have fuppofed, that it aflifts in the preparation
of bile .; but this idea is founded merely on conjecture’.,
Sect. III. (P/ the Stomach.
The ilomach is a membranous and mufcular bag,
in ihape not unlike a bagpipe, lying acrofs the upper.
part of the abdomen, and inclining rather more to the
left than the right fide.
It has two orifices, one of which receives the end
-of the cefophagus, and is called the. cardia, and fome-
times the left and upper orifice of the.ftomach ; though
its fituation is not much higher than the other, which
is ftyled the right and inferior orifice, and more com¬
monly the pylorus : both thefe openings are more ele¬
vated than the body of the ftomach.
The aliment pafles down the oefophagus into the
ftomach through the cardia, and after having under¬
gone the neceffary digeftion, paffes out at the pylorus
where the inteftinal canal commences.
The ftomach is compofed of four tunics or coats,
which are fo intimately conne&ed together that it re¬
quires no little dexterity in the anatomill to demon-
ftrate them. The exterior one is membranous, being
derived from the peritonaeum.—The fecond Is a muf¬
cular tunic, compoled of flefliy fibres which are in the
greateft number about the two orifices.—The third is
called the nervous coat, and within this is the villous
or velvet-like coat which compofes the iniide of the
ftomach.
The two laft coats being more extenfive than the
two firft, form the folds, which are obferved every
where in the cavity of this vifeus, and more particu¬
larly about the pylorus; where they feem to impede
the too hafty exclufion of the aliment, making a con-
fiderable plait, called vahula pylori.
The inner coat is conftantly moiftened by a mucus,
which approaches to the nature of the faliva, and is
called the gaftric juice ; this liquor has been fuppofed
to be fecreted by certain minute glands (y) leated in
the nervous tunic, whofe excretory dudls open on the
furface of the villous coat.
o M Y. Part lit.1
The arteries of the ftomach called the gaftric arte-'Of the
ries are principally derived from the caeliac ; fome of Abdomen,
its veins pafs to the fplenic, and others to the vena r
porta; ; and its nerves are chiefly from the eighth pair
or par vagum.
Tire account given of the tunics of the ftomach
may be applied to the whole alimentary canal; for
both the oefophagus and inteftines are, like this vifeus,
compofed of four coats.
Before we deferibe the courfe of the aliment and
the ufes of the ftomach, it will be neceflary to fpeak
of other parts which alfift in the procefs of digeftion.
Sect. IV. Gf the Oefophagus.
The oefophagus or gullet is a membranous and muf- jj.
cular canal, extending from the bottom of the mouth
to the upper orifice of the ftomach—Its upper part
where the aliment is received is (liaped fomewhat like
a funnel, and is called the pharym.
From hence it runs down clofe to the bodies of the
vertebra; as far as tbe diaphragm, in which there is
an opening through which it pafles, and then termi¬
nates in the ftomach about the eleventh or twelfth ver¬
tebra of the back.
The oefophagus is plentifully fupplied with arteries
from the external carotid, bronchial, and fuperior in-
tercoftal arteries; its veins empty themfelves into the
vena azygos, internal jugular, and mammary veins,
&c.
Its nerves are derived chiefly from the eighth pair.
We likewife meet with a mucus in the oefophagus,
which every where lubricates its inner furface, and
tends to afiift in deglutition.—This mucus feems to be
fecreted by very minute glands, like the mucus in other
parts of the alimentary canal.
Sect. V. Of the Inteftines.
The inteftines form a canal, which is ufually fix 93,
times longer than the body to which it belongs. This
canal extends from the pylorus, or inferior orifice of the
ftomach, to the anus.
It will be eafily underftood, that a part of fuch great
length muft neceffarily make many circumvolutions, to
be confined with fo many other vifcera within the ca¬
vity of the lower belly.
Although' the inteftines are in fa<ft, as we have ob¬
ferved, only one long and extenfive canal, yet different
parts have been diftinguifhed by different names.
The inteftines are firft diftinguiflied into two parts,
one of which begins at the ftomach, and is called the
thin or f nall inteftines, from the fmall fize of the canal,
when compared with the other part, which is called the
large inteftines, and includes the lower portion of the
canal down to the anus.
Each of thefe parts has its fubdivifions.—The final!
in-
(x) This membranous bag, though exceedingly thin and tranfparent, is found capable of fupportiug mer¬
cury, thrown into it by the fame channel.
(Y) Heifter, fpeaking of thefe glands, very properly fays, “ in porcis facile, in homine raro obfervantur
for although many anatomical writers have deferibed their appearance and figure, yet they do not feem to have
been hitherto fatisfaftorily demonftrated in the human ftomach ; and the .gaftric juice is now more generally
believed to be derived from the exhalant arteries of the ftomach. *
III. A N A T
intefUnes being dillinguillied into duodenum, jejunum,
in' and ileum, and the larger portion into coecum, colon,
and rectum.
The {mall inteftines fill the middle and fore parts of
the belly, while the large inteftines fill the fides and
both the upper and lower parts of the cavity.
The duodeniim, which is the firft of the fmall iri-
teftines, is fo called, becaufe it is about 12 inches long.
It begins at the pylorus and terminates in the jejunum,
which is a part of the canal obferved to be ufually more
empty than the other inteftines.—This appearance
gives it its name, and likewife ferves to point out where
it begins.
The next divifion is the ileum, which of itfelf ex¬
ceeds the united length of the duodenum and jejunum,
and has received its name from its numerous circumvo¬
lutions. The large circumvolution of the ileum co¬
vers the firft; of the large inteftines called the aeciivi (x),
which feems properly to belong to the colon, being a
kind of pouch of about four fingers in width, and near¬
ly of the fame length, having exteriorly a little appen¬
dix, called appendix cceci.
The ccecum is placed in the cavity of the os ilium
on the right fide, and terminates in the colon, which
is the iargeft of all the inteftines.
This inteffiine afcends by the right kidney to which
it is attached, pafles under the hollow part of the liver,
and the bottom of the ftomach to the fpleen, to which,
it is likewife fecured, as it is alfo to the left kidney y
and from thence pafles down towards the os facrum,
where, from, its. ftraight courfe, the canal begins to
take the name of retium.
There are three ligamentous bands extending thro’
the whole length of the colon, which by being fliorter
than its two inner coats, ferve to increafe the plaits-on
the inner furface of this gut.
The anus, which terminates the inteftinum re&um,
is fivrnilhed with three mufcles ; one of thefe is Cofn-
pofed of circular fibres, and from its ufe in (hutting the
paftage of the anus is called fphinfier ani.
The other two are the levatores ani, fo called, be¬
caufe they elevate the anus after dejedlion. When thefe
By palfy, or any other difeafe, lofe the power of con¬
tracting, the anus prolapffes ; and when the fphinCter is
affected by fimilar caufes, the faeces are voided involun¬
tarily.
It has been already obferved,.that the inteftinal canal
is compofed of four tunics; but it remains to be re¬
marked, that here, as. in the ftomach,.the two inner tu¬
rtles being more extenfive than the other two, form the
plaits which are to be feen in the inner furface of the
inteftines, and are called valvula: ccnniventcs.
O M Y. 727
Some authors have confidcred thefe plaits as tending Oftflc
to retard the motion of the faeces, in order to afford Af»lonien.^
more time for the feparation of the chyle ; but there v
are others who attribute to them a different ufe : they
contend, that thefe valves, by being naturally inclined
downwards-,' cannot impede the defeent of the faeces,
but that they are intended to prevent their return up*
wards.
They are probably deftined for both thefe ufes ; for
although thefe folds incline to their lower fide, yet the
inequalities they occafion in the canal are fufficient to
retard in fome meafure the progreffive motion of the
feces, and to afford a greater furface for the abforp-
tion of chyle, and their natural pofition feems to oppofe
itfelf to the return of the aliment.
Befides thefe valvulte conniventes, there is one more
confiderable than the reft, called the valve of the colon;
which is found at that part of the canal where the in¬
teftinum ileum is joined to the colon. This valve per¬
mits the alimentary pulp to pafs downwards, but ferves
to prevent its return upwards y and it is by this valve,
that glyfters are prevented from palfing into the fmall
inteftines (y).
Of the little vermiform appendix of the ccecum, it
will be fufficient to- fay,, that its ufes have never yet been
afeertained. . In birds we meet with two of thefe ap¬
pendices.
The inteftines are lubricated by a cbnftant fupply of
mucus, which is probably feereted by very minute fol-
licfts (z j. This mucus promotes the defeent of the a-
limentary pulp, and in fome meafure defends the inner
furface of the inteftines from the irritation to which it
would, perhaps, otherwife be continually expofed from
the aliment; and which, when in a certain degree, ex¬
cites a painful diforder called Colic, a name given to the
difeafe,. becaufe its moft ufual feat is in the inteftintun-
Colon.
The inteftines are likewife frequently diftended with
air, and this diftenfion fometimes occafions pain, and
conftitutes the flatulent colic.
The arteries of the inteftines are continuations of the
mefenteric arteries,- which are derived in two confider¬
able branches from the aorta.—The redundant blood is
carried back into the vena portarum.
In the reftum the veins are called hemorrhoidal, and
are there diftinguifhed into internal and external: the
firft are branches of the inferior meferiteric vein, but
the latter pafs into other veins. Sometimes thefq veins
are diftended with blood from obftructions, from weak-
.nefs of their coats, or from other caufes, and what we
call the hamorrhoidi takes place. In this difeafe they
are fofrtetimes ruptured j and the difeharge of blood
which
( x) Anatomifts have differed with refpeft to this divifion of the inteftines.—The method here followed-is now
generally adopted ; but there are authors who allow the name of cacum only to the little appendix, which has
Kkewife been called the vermiform appendix, from its refemblance to a worm in fize and length.
(y) This is not invariably the cafe, for the contents of a glyfter have been found not only to reach the fmall
inteftines, but to be voided at the moUth. Such inftances, however, are not common.
(z) Some writers have diftinguiihed thefe glands into miliary, lenticular, &c.—Brunner and Peyer were the
firft anatomifts who deferibed the glands bf the inteftines, and their deferiptions were chiefly taken from animals, ■
thefe glandular appearances not feeming to have been hitherto fatisfaftorily pointed out in the human fubjeft. 
It is now pretty generally believed, that the mucus which everywhere lubricates the alimentary canal, is exhaled
from the minute nds of arteries; and that thefe extremities firft open into a hollow veficle, from whence the
depofited juice - feveral branches flows out through one common orifice.
728 A N A T
Of the which confequerrtly follows, has probably occafioned
Abdomen. tjiem to be called hemorrhoidal veins.
v The nerves of the inteilines are derived from the
eighth pair.
Sect. VI Of the Mefentery.
p4. The name of the mefentery implies its fituation a-
midll the inteftines. It is in fa£l a part of the perito¬
naeum, being a reduplication (a) of that membrane from
each fide of the lumbar vertebrae, to which it is firmly
attached, fo that it is formed of two laminte, connected
to each other by cellular membrane.
The inteilines, in their different circumvolutions,
form a great number of arches, and the mefentery ac¬
companies them through all thefe turns ; but by being
attached only to the hollow part of each arch, it is
found to have only a third of the extent of the intef¬
tines.
That part of this membrane which accompanies the
fmall inteftines is the mefentery, properly fo called ; but
thofe parts of it which are attached to the colon and
redlum are diftinguiftied by the names of mefo-colon and
mefo-rettum.
There are many conglobate glands difperfed through
this double membrane, through which the lacteals and
lymphatics pafs in their way to the thoracic du£t. The
blood-veflels of the mefentery were deferibed in fpeak-
ing of the inteftines.
This membrane, by its attachment to the vertebras,
ferves to keep the inteftines in their natural fituation.
The idea ufually formed of the colic called miferere, is
perfectly erroneous ; it being impoffible that the in¬
teftines can be twilled, as many fuppofe they are, in
that difeafe, their attachment to the mefentery effec¬
tually preventing fuch an accident—but a difarrange-
ment fometimes takes place in the inteftinal canal itfelf,
which is productive of difagreeable and fometimes fatal
confequences.—This is by an introfufpeftion of the in-
teftine, an idea of which may be eafily formed, by ta¬
king the finger of a glove, and involving one part of it
within the other.
If inflammation takes place, the ftriCture in this cafe
is increafed, and the periftaltic motion of the inteftines
(by which is .meant the progreffive motion of the fasces
downwards) is inverted, and what is called the iliac paf
Jion takes place. The fame effecls may be occafioned
by a defeent of the inteftine, or of the omentum either
with it or by itfelf, and thus conftituting what is call¬
ed an hernia or rupture; a term by which in general is
meant the falling down or protrufion of any part of the
inteftine, or omentum, which ought naturally to be con¬
tained within the cavity of the belly.
N° 19.
O M Y. Part III
To convey an idea of the manner in which fuch a Of the •;
defeent takes place, it will be neceffary to obferve, thatAbdomen*'
the lower edge of the tendon of the mufculus obliquUs ' '
externus, is ftretched from the fore-part of the os ilium
or haunch-bone of the os pubis, and conftitutes what is
called Poupart's or Fallopius's ligament, forming an
opening, through which pafs the great crural artery
and vein. Near the os pubis the fame tendinous fibres
are feparated from each other, and form an opening on
each fide, called the abdominal ring, through which the
fpermatic veffels pafs in men, and the ligamenta uterj
in women. In confequence of violent efforts, or per¬
haps of natural caufes, the inteftines are found fome¬
times to pafs through thefe openings; but the perito¬
naeum which inclofes them when in their natural cavity,
ftill continues to furround them even in their defeent.
This membrane does not become torn or lacerated by
the violence, as might be eafily imagined ; but its dila.-
tability enables it to pafs out with the vifeus, which it
inclofes as it were in a bag, and thus forms what is
called the hernialfac.
If the hernia be under Poupart’s ligament, it is call¬
ed femoral; if in the groin, inguinal (b) ; and fcrotal,
if in the ferotum. Different names are likewife given
to the hernia as the contents of the fac differ, whether
of omentum only or inteftine, or both :—but thefe de¬
finitions more properly belong to the province of fur-
gery.
Sect. VII. Of the Pancreas.
The pancreas is a conglomerate gland, placed be- 95.
hind the bottom of the ftomach, towards the firft ver¬
tebra of the loins; fliaped like a dog’s tongue, with
its point ftretched out towards the fpleen, and its other
end extending towards the duodenum. It is about
eight fingers breadth in length, two or three in width,
and one in thick nefs.
This vifeus, which is of a yellowiih colour, fome-
w'hat inclined to red, is covered- with a membrane
which it derives from the peritoneum. Its arteries,
which are rather numerous than large, are derived
chiefly from the fplenic and hepatic, and its veins pafs
into the veins of the fame name.—Its nerves are derived
from the intercoftal.
The many little glands of which it has been obferved
the pancreas is compofed, all ferve to fecrete a liquor
called the pancreatic juice, which in its colour confift-
ence, and other properties, does not feem to differ from
the faliva. Each of thefe glands fends out a little ex¬
cretory du£l, which uniting with others, help to form
larger drifts; and all thefe at laft terminate in one
common excretory duft (firft difeovered by Virtfungus
in
(a) He who only reads of the reduplication of membranes, will perhaps not eafily underftand how the peri-,
tonseum and pleura are feflefted over the vifeera in their feveral cavities; for one of thefe ferves the fame pur¬
poses in the thorax that the other does in the abdomen. This difpofition, for the difeovery of which we are
indebted to modern anatomifts, conftitutes a curious part of anatomical knowledge : but the ftudent, unaided
by experience, and affxfted only by what the limits of this work would permit us to fay on the occafion, would
probably imbibe only confufed ideas of the matter ; and it will perfeftly anfwer the prefent purpofe, if he con-
fiders the mefentery as a membrane attached by one of its fides to the lumbar vertebrae, and by the other to the
inteftines.
(b) The hernia congenita will be confidered with the male organs of generation, with which it is intimately
connefted. 5
Part III. A N A T
Of the irt 1642), which runs through the middle of the gland.
Aid' men ancj js now ufually called duel us pancreaticus Virtfungi.
‘ " This canal opens into the inteftinum duodenum, fome-
times by the fame orifice'with the biliary duft, and fome-
times by a diflindt opening. The liquor it difeharges
being of a mild and infipid nature, ferves to dilute the
alimentary pulp, and to incorporate it more eafily with
. the bile.
Sect. VIII. Of the Liver.
96. The liver is a vifeus of confiderable fize, and of a
reddifh colour; convex fupefiorly and anteriorly where
it is placed under the ribs and diaphragm, and of an
‘ unequal furface pofteriorly. It is chiefly fituated in
the right hypochondrium, and under the falfe ribs;
but it likewife extends into the epigaftric region,•'where
it borders upon the ftomach. It is covered by a pro-
daction of the peritoneum, which ferves to attach it
by three of its-reduplications to the falfe ribs. Thefe
reduplications are called liga?nents, though very differ¬
ent in their texture from what are called by the fame
name in other parts of the body. The umbilical cord,
too, which in the foetus is pervious, gradually becomes
a fimple ligament after birth; and by paffing to the
liver, ferves likewife to fecure it in its fituation.
At the pofterior part of this organ where the umbi¬
lical veffels enter, it is found divided into two lobes.
Of thefe, the large!! is placed in the right hypocon-
drium ; the other, which covers part of the fiomach,
x is called the little lobe. All the veffels which go to
the liver pafs in at the fiffure we have mentioned; and
the production of the peritoneum, which invefls the
liver, was deferibed by Gliffon, an Englifh anatomifl,
as accompanying them in their paffage, and furround¬
ing them like a glove ; hence this production has been
commonly known by the name of capfula of Glijfon:-
but it appears to be chiefly a continuation of the cel¬
lular membrane which covers the vena porta ventralis. ,
The liver was confidered by the ancients as an organ
deflined to prepare and perfeCt the blood; but later
difeoveries have proved, that this opinion was wrong,
and that the liver is a glandular fubflance formed for
the fecretion of the bile.
The blood is conveyed to the liver by the hepatic
artery and the vena portae. This is contrary to the
mode of circulation in other parts, where veins only
ferve to carrymfF the redundant blood; but in this vif¬
eus the hepatic artery, which is derived from the cae-
liac, is principally defliried for its nourifhment; and the
vena porta, which is formed by the union of the veins
from mofl of the abdominal vifeera, furnifhes the blood
from which the bile is chiefly to be feparated : fo that
thefe two feries of veffels ferve very diltind purpofes.
The vena porta, as it is ramified through the liver,
{rerforms the office both of a vein and an artery ; for
ike the former it returns the blood from the extremi¬
ties of arteries, while as the latter it prepares it for fe-
cretion.
The nerves of the liver are branches of the interco-
flal and par vagum. The bile, after being feparated
Von. I. Part II.
O M Y.
from the mafs of blood, in a manner of which mention Of the
will be made in another place, is conveyed out of this Ah !o;i:en.^
organ by very minute .excretory duCts, called port bi- s'—1-
liarii; thefe uniting together like the excretory duCla
in the pancreas, gradually form larger pnes, which at
length terminate in a confiderable channel called duttus
hepaticus.,
Sect. IX. Of the Gall-bladder.
The gall-bladder is a little.membranous bag, fhaped 97•
like a pear, and attached to the pofterior and almoft
inferior part of the great lobe of the liver.
It has two tunics; of which the exterior one is a
produftion of the peritonaeum. The interior, or villous
coat, is fupplied with a mucus that defends it from the
acrimony of the bile. Thefe two coverings are inti¬
mately connedled by means of cellular membrane,
which from its firm gliftening appearance has generally
been fpoken of as a mufcular tunic.
The gall-bladder is fupplied with blood-veffels from
the hepatic arteries. Thefe branches are called the
cyflic arteries, and the cyftic veins carry back the
blood.
Its nerves are derived from the fame origin as thofe
of the liver.
The neck of the gall-bladder is continued in the
form of a canal called duflus cyficus, which foon unites
with the dudlus hepaticus we deferibed as the excre¬
tory dud! of the liver ; and forming one common canal,
takes the name of duftus coledochus communis, through
which both the cyftic and hepatic bile are difeharged
into the duodenum. This canal opens into the inte-
ftine in an oblique direction, firfl paffing through the
exterior tunic, and then piefeing the other coats after
running between each of them a very little way. This
ceconomy ferves two ufeful purpofes;—to promote the
difeharge of bile and to prevent its return.
The bile may be defined to be a natural liquid foap. Of the bile,
fomewhat undtuous and bitter, and of a yellowifh co¬
lour, which eafily mixes with water, oil, and vinous
fpirits, and is capable of diffolving refinous fubftapees.
From fome late experiments made by M. Cadet*, it * Mem.Jt
appears to be formed of an animal oil, combined w\x\\t'Acad, des
the alkaline bafe of fea-falt, a fait of the nature 0fc,™ceii
milk, and a calcareous earth which is flightly ferrugi- ' 7‘ .
nous.
Its definition feems fufficiently to point.out the ufes
for which it is intended (c). It blends the alimentary
mafs, by dividing and attenuating it; corredls the too
great difpofition to acefcency, which the aliment ac¬
quires in the ftomach; and, finally, by its acrimony,
tends to excite the periftaltic motion. of the inte-
ftines. .
After what has been faid, it will be conceived that
there are two forts of bile; one of which is derived
immediately from the liver through the hepatic dud!,
and the other from the gall-bladder. Thefe two biles,
however, do not eftentially differ from each other.
The hepatic bile indeed is milder, and more liquid than
the cyftic, which is conftantly thicker and yellower;
4 Z and
(c) The ancients, who were not acquainted with the realufe of the liver, confidered the bile as an excre=
mentitious and ufelefs fluid.
A N A T
and by beinsr bitterer, feems to poffefs greater activity
than the other.
Every body knows the fource of the hepatic bile,
that it is fecreted from the mafs of blood by the liver;
but the origin of the cyftic bile has occafioned no little
controverfy amongil anatomical writers. There are
fome who contend, that it is feparatcd in the fubftance
of the liver, from whence it paffes into the gall-bladder
through particular veffels. In deer, and in fome other
quadrupeds, as well as in feveral birds and fifties, there
is an evident communication, by means of particular
veflels, between the liver and the gall-bladder. Bian-
chi, Winflow, and others, Have afferted the exiftence
of fuch veflels in the human fubject, and named them
hepaticyjlic duds; but it is certain that no fuch du6ts
exift.—In obftrudtions of the cyftic du<ft, the gall¬
bladder has been found fhrivelled and empty: fo that
we may confider the gall-bladder as a refervoir of he¬
patic bile ; and that it is an eftabliftied fact, that the
whole of the bile contained in the gall-bladder is de¬
rived from the liver; that it paffes from the hepatic to
the cyftic du£t, and from that to the gall-bladder.
The difference in the colour, confiftence, and tafte of
the bile, is merely the confequence of ftagnation and
abforption. When the ftomach is diftended with ali¬
ment, this refervoir undergoes a certain degree of com-
preflion, and the bile paffes out into the inteftinal ca¬
nal ; and in the efforts to vomit, the gall-bladder feems
to be conftantly affefted, and at fuch times difcharges
itfelf of its contents.
Sometimes the bile concretes in the gall-bladder, fo
as to form what are called gall-jlones [xs'). When
thefe concretions pafs into the cyftic dudft, they fome-
times occafion exquifite pain, by diftending the canal
in their way to the duodenum ; and by lodging in the
duftus choledochus communis, and obftrufting the
courfe of the bile, this fluid will be abforbed, and by
being carried back into the circulation oceafion a tem¬
porary jaundice.
SEcfr. X. Of the Spleen.
S9* The fpleen is a foft and fpongy vifcus, of a bluifh
colour, and about five or fix fingers breadth in length,
and three in width, fituated in the left hypochondrium,
between the ftomach and the falfe ribs. That fide of
it which is placed on the fide of the ribs is convex; and
the other, which is turned towards the ftomach, is
concave.
The fplenic artery, which is a branch from the caeliac,
fupplies this vifcus with blood, and a vein of the fame
name carries it back into the venae porta.
Its nerves are derived from a particular plexus called
the fplentCy which is formed by branches of the inter-
coftal nerve, and by the eighth pair, or par vagum.
The ancients, who fuppofed two forts of bile, confi-
deredthe fpleen as the receptacle of what they called atra
730
O M Y. Part III.
hilt 's. Havers, who wrote profeffedly on the bones, Of the
determined its ufe to be that of fecreting the fynovia; Abdomen,f
and the late Mr Hewfon imagined, that it concurred v
with the thymus and lymphatic glands of the body in
forming the red globules of the blood. All thefe opi¬
nions feem to be equally fanciful. The want of an
excretory duft has occafioned the real ufe of this vifcus
to be ftill doubtful. Perhaps the blood undergoes
fome change in it, which may affift in the preparation
of the bile. This is the opinion of the generality of
modern phyfiologifts ; and the great quantity of blood
with which it is fupplied, together with the courfe of
its veins into the vena portae, feem to render this no¬
tion probable.
Sect. XI. Of the Ghndula Renales, Kidneys,
and Ureters.
The glandulae renales, which were by the ancients 100.
fuppofed to fecrete the atra bill's, and by them'named
capfuls; atrahilares, are two flat bodies of an irregular
figure, one on each fide between the kidney and the
aorta.
In the foetus they are as large as the kidneys: but
they do not increafe afterwards in proportion to thofe
parts; and In adults and old people they are generally
found flirivelled, and much wafted. They have their
arteries and veins. Their arteries ufually arife from
the fplenic or the emulgent, and fometimes' from the
aorta; and their veins go to the neighbouring veins,
or to the vena cava. Their nerves are branches of
the intercoftal.
The ufe of thefe parts is not-yet perfedtly known.
In the foetus the fecretion of urine muft be in a very
fmall quantity, and a part of the blood may perhaps
then pafs through thefe channels, which in the adult
is carried to the kidneys to fupply the matter of urine. Tof
The kidneys are two in number, fituated one on the Kidnep.
right and the other on the left fide in the lumbar re¬
gion, between the laft falfe rib and the os ilium, by
the fides of the vertebrae. Each kidney in its figure
refembles a fort of bean, which from its ihape is called
kidney-bean. The concave part of each kidney is
turned towards the aorta and vena cava afcendens.
They are furrounded by a good deal of fat, and receive
a coat from the peritonaeum; and when this.is removed,
a very fine membrane is found inverting their fubltance
and the veffels which ramify through them.
Each kidney has a confiderable artery and vein;
which are called the emulgent. The artery is a branch
from the aorta, and the vein paffes into the vena cava.
Their nerves, which every where accompany the blood-
veffels, arife from a confiderable plexus, which is de¬
rived from the intercoftal.
In each kidney, which in the adult is of a pretty
firm texture, there are three fubftances to be diftin-
guiflied (e). The outer part is glandular or cortical,
beyond'
(d) Thefe concretions fometimes remain in the gall-bladder without caufing any uneafinefs. Dr Heberden
relates, that a gall-ftone weighing two drams was found in the gall-bladder of the late Lord Bath, though he
had never complained of the jaundice, nor of any diforder which he could attribute to that caufe. Med.
Tranf. Vol. ii.
(e) The kidneys in the fetus are diftiaftly lobulated j but in.the adult they become perfe&ly firm, fmooth,
and regular*
Part III. ANA"
Of the beyond this is the vafcular or tabular fubdance, and
Abdomen.^ the ;aner part is papillary or membranous.
v It is in the cortical part of the kidney that the fe-
cretion is carried on; the urine being here received
from the minute extremities of the capillary arteries,
is conveyed out of this cortical fubftance by an infinite
number of very fmall cylindrical canals or excretory
veffels, which conftitute the tubular part. Thefe
tubes, as they approach the inner fubftance of the kid¬
ney, gradually unite together; and thus forming lar¬
ger canals, at length terminate in ten or twelve little
protuberances called papilla, the orifices of which may
be feen without the aftiftance of glaffes. Thefe pa¬
pillae open into a fmall cavity or refervoir called the
pelvis of the kidney, and formed by a diitinft membra-
- nous bag which embraces the papillae. From this pel¬
vis the urine is conveyed through a membranous canal
which paffes out from the hollow fide of the kidney, a
I0T little below the blood veffels, and is called ureter.
T) reters. The ureters are each about as large as a common
writing-pen. They are fomewhat curved in their
courfe from the kidneys, like the letter f, and at length
terminate in the pofterior and alrnoft inferior part of
the bladder, at feme diftance from each other. They
pafs into the bladder in the fame manner as the duftus
choledochus communis paffes into the inteftinum duo¬
denum, not by a direft paffage, but by an oblique
courfe between the two coats ; fo that the difeharge
of urine into the bladder is promoted, whilft its return
is prevented. Nor does this mode of ftrncture prevent
the paffage of fluids only from the bladder into the
ureters, but likewife air:—for air thrown into the
bladder inflates it, and it continues to be diftended if
a ligature is paffed round its neck ; which feems to
prove fufficiently that it cannot pafs into the ureters.
Sect XII. Of the Urinary Bladder.
The urinary bladder is a membranous and mufcular
bag of an oblong roundilh fliape, fituated in the pelvis,
between the os pubis and inteftinum reftum in men,
and between the os pubis and uterus in women. Its
tipper and wideft part is ufually called the bottojn, its
narrower part the neck of the bladder; the former only
Is covered by the peritonaeum.
The bladder is formed of three coats, connefted to¬
gether by means of cellular membrane. The external
or peritonteal, is only a partial one, covering the up¬
per and back part of the bladder. The middle, or muf¬
cular coat, is compofed of irritable, and of courfe muf¬
cular fibres, which are moft colledded around the neck
of the bladder, but not fo as to form a diilindt mufcle,
or fphin&er, as the generality of anatomifts have hi¬
therto fuppofed.
The inner coat, though much fmoofher, has been
faid to refemble the villous tunic of the inteftines, and
like that is provided with a mucus, which defends it
103 againft the acrimony of the urine.
Of the It will be eafily conceived from what has been faid,
urine. that the kidneys are two glandular bodies, thro’ which
a faline and excrementitious fluid called urine is con-
ftantly filtering from the mafs of blood.
While only a fmall quantity of urine is colleflied in
the bladder, it excites no kind of uneafinefs; but when
a greater quantity is accumulated, fo that the bladder
3
r O M Y. * 731
is diftended in a certain degree, it excites in us a cer-Of t!ie
tain fenfation, which brings on as it were a voluntary Abdcmen..
contra&ion of the bladder to promote its difeharge.-r- v
But this contradb'on is not effe&ed by the mufcular
fibres of the bladder alone: for all the abdominal mufcles
contract in obedience to our will, and px-efs downwards
all the vifeera of the lower belly and thefe powers be¬
ing united, at length overcome the refiftance of the
fibres furrounding the neck of the bladder, which di¬
lates and affords a paffage to the urine tlirough the
urethra.
The frequency of this evacuation depends on the
quantity of urine fecreted ; on the degree of acx-imony
it poffeffes; on the fize of the bladder, and on its degree
of fenfibility.
The urine varies much in its colour and contents.
Thefe varieties depend, on age, fox, climate, diet, and
other circumftances. In infants it is generally a clear
watery fluid, without fmell or tafte. As we advance in
life, it acquires more colour and fmell, and becomes
more impregnated with falts. In old people it becomes
Hill more acrid and fetid.
In a healthy ftate it is neaily of a ftraw colour.—
After being kept for fome time, it depofites a tarta-
rous matter, which is found to be compofed chiefly of
earth and fait, and foon incrufts the fides of the veffel
in which it is contained. While this foparation is ta¬
king place, appearances like minute fibres or threads
of a whitilh colour, may be feen in the middle of the
urine, and an oily feum obforved floating on its furface.
So that the molt common appearances of the urine ■
are fufficient to afeertain that it is a watery fub¬
ftance, impregnated with earthy, faline, and oily par¬
ticles.
The uidne is not always voided of the fame colour
and confiftence ; for thefe are found to depend on the
proportion of its watery part to that of its other con-
fl-ituent principles.—Its colour and degree of fluidity
feem to depend on the quantity of faline and inflam¬
mable particles contained in it: fo that an inci-efN
fod proportion of thofe parts will conftantly give the
urine a higher colour, and add to the quantity of fodi-
ment.
The variety in the appearance of the urine, depends
on the nature and quantity of folid and fluid aliment
we take im ; and it is likewife occafioned by the differ
rent ftate of the urinary veffels, by which we mean the
channels through which it is feparated from the blood,
and conveyed through the pelvis into tl^e ureters. The
caufos of calculous concretions in the urinary paffages,
are to be looked for in the natural conftitution of the
body, mode of life, &c.
It having been obforved, that after drinking any
light wine or fpa water, it very foon paffed off by
urine, it has been fuppofed by fome, that the urine is
not altogether conveyed to the bladderhy the ordinary
courfe of circulation, but that there muft certainly ex-
lit fome other fliorter means of communication, per*-
haps by certain veffels between the ftomach and the
bladder, or by a retrograde motion in the lymphatics.
But it is certain, that if we open the belly of a dog,
prefs out the urine from the bladder, pafs a ligature
round the emulgent arteries, and then few up the ab¬
domen, and give him even the moft diuretic liquor to
drink, the ftomach and other channels will be diftend-
4 Z 2 ed
A N A T
ed with it, but not a drop of urine will be found to
have palTed into the bladder; or the fame thing hap¬
pens when a ligature is thrown round the two ureters.
This experiment then feems to be a fufficient proof,
that all the urine we evacuate, is conveyed to the kid¬
neys through the emulgent arteries, in the manner we
have defcribed.—It is true, that wine and .other liquors
promote a fpeedy evacuation of urine: but the dif-
charge feems to be merely the effect of the ftimulus
they occafion ; by which the bladder and urinary parts
are folicited to a more copious difcharge of the urine,
which was before in the body, and not immediately of
that which was laft drank ; and this increafed dif¬
charge, if the fupply is kept lip, will continue : nor
will this appear wonderful, if we confider the great
capacity of the veffels that go to the kidneys ; the con-
ftant fupply of frefh blood that is effential to health;
and the rapidity with which it is inceffantly circulated
through the heart to all parts of the body.
Sect. XIII. Of Digeflion.
We are now proceeding to fpeakof digejlion, which
feems to be introduced in this place with propriety,
after a defcription of the abdominal Vifcera, the greater
part of which contribute to this function. By dige-
Jlion is to be underftood, the changes the aliment un¬
dergoes for vthe formation of chyle :—thefe changes
are effected in the mouth, ftomach, and fmall in-
tellines.
The mouth,' of which every body has a general
knowledge, is the cavity between the two jaws, formed
anteriorly and laterally by the lips, teeth, and cheeks,
and terminating pofteriorly in the throat.
The lips and cheeks are made up of fat and mufcles,
covered by the cuticle, which is continued over the
whole inner furface of the mouth, like a fine and deli¬
cate membrane.—Befide this membrane, the infide of
the mouth is furniflied with a fpongy and very vafcu-
lar fubftance called the gums, by means of which the
teeth are fecured in their fockets. A fimilar fubftance
covers the roof of the mouth, and forms what is called
the velum pendulum palati, which is fixed to the ex¬
tremity of the arch formed by the ofla maxillana and
effa palati, and terminates in a foft, fmall, and coni¬
cal body, named uvula ; which appears, as it were,
fufpended from the middle of the arch over the bafis of
the tongue.
The velum pendulum palati performs the office of a
valve between the cavity of the mouth and the pha¬
rynx, being moved by feveral mufcles (f).
The tongue is compofed of feveral mufcles (g) which
enable it to perform a variety of motions for the arti¬
culation of the voice ; for the purpofes of maftication;
and for conveying the aliment into the pharynx. Its
upper part is covered with papillae, which conftitute
the organ of tafte, and are eafily to be diftinguifhed;
it is covered by the fame membrane that lines the in-
73*
Oftke
Abdomen.
O M Y.
Part III
fide of the mouth, and which makes at its inferior Of the
part towards its bafis a reduplication called frxnum. A'!'ioni
Pofteriorly, under the velum palati, and at the bafis *~v~
of the tongue, is the pharynx; which is the beginning
of the cefophagus, ftretched out every way, fo as to re-
femble the top of a funnel, through which the aliment
pafles into the ftomach. _
The mouth has a communication with the noftrils at
its pofterior and upper part; with the ears, by the Eu-
ftachian tubes; with the lungs, by means of the la-
rnyx; and with the ftomach, by means of the cefo-
phagus.
The pharynx is conftantly moift?ned by a fluid, fe-
creted by two confiderable glands called the tonfls, one
on each fide of the velum palati. Thefe glands, from
their fuppofed refemblance to almonds, have likewife
been called amygdalus
The mouth is moiftened by a confiderable quantity '
of faliva. This fluid is derived from the parotid glands;
a name which by its etymology points cut their fitua-
tiori to be near the ears. They are two in number, one
on each fide under the os make: and they are of the con¬
glomerate kind ; being formed of many fmaller glands,
each of which fends out a very fmall excretory dutt,
which unites with the reft, to form one common chan¬
nel, that runs over the cheek, and piercing the bucci¬
nator mufcle, opens into the mouth oh each fide, by
an orifice into which a briftle may . be eafily introduced.
—Befides thefe, the maxillary glands, which are placed
near the inner furface of the angle of the lower jaw on
each fide; the fublingual glands, which‘are fituated
at the root of the tongue ; the glands of the pa¬
late, which are feated in the velum palati; and thofe
of the cheeks, lips, &c. together wdth many other lefs
confiderable ones,—pour the faliva into the mouth
through their feveral excretory, dufts.
The faliva, like all the other humours of the body,
is found to be different in different people : but ip ge¬
neral, it is a limpid and infipid fluids without fmdl in
healthy fubjefts; and thefe properties would feem to
prove, that it contains very few faline or inflammable
particles.
The ufes of the faliva feem to be to moiften and
lubricate the mouth, and to affift in reducing the ali¬
ment into a foft pulp before it is conveyed into the fto¬
mach. _ ,03
The variety of functions which are conftantly peri Of hunger
formed by the living body, muft neceffarily occafion a and thirft.
continual wafte and diffipation of its feveral parts. A
great quantity is every day thrown off by the infen-
fible perfpiration and other difcharges; and were not
thefe Ioffes conftantly recruited by a frefh fupply of
chyle, the body would foon effedt its own diffolution.
But nature has very wifely favoured us with organs fit¬
ted to produce fuch a fupply; and has at the fame time
endued us with the fenfations of hunger and thirft, that
our attention may not be diverted from the neceffary
bufinefs of nutrition. The fenfation of hunger is uni-
verfally
(f) Thefe are the circumflexus palati, levator palati mollis, palato-pharyngams conftridtor ifthmi faucium,
and azygos uvula?. See page 708.
(g) Thefe are, the genio-gloffus, hyo-gloffus, lingualis, and ftylo-gloffus. See page 708.
m III. ANA
the. verfally known ; but it would perhaps be difficult to
Jomen'. defcribe it perfectly in words. It may, • however, be
defined to be a certain uneafy fenfation in theftomach,
which, induces us to wi(h for folid food ; and which
likewife ferves to point out the proper quantity, and
time for taking it. In defcribing the ftomach, men¬
tion was made of the gaftric juice, as every where lu¬
bricating its inner coat. This humour mixes itfelf
with the aliment in the ftomach, and helps to prepare
it for its padage into the intdtines ; but when the fto¬
mach is perfedtly empty, this fame fluid irritates the
coats of the ftomach itfelf, and produces the fenfation
of hunger.
A certain proportion of liquid aliment is required
to aflifl in the procefs of digeilion, and to afford that
moiftiire to the body, of which there is fuch a conftant
diffipation.-*—Thirft induces us to take this neceffary
fupply of drink ; and the feat of this fenfation is in the
tongue, fauces, and cefophagus, which from their
great feftfibility are required to be kept moift : for
though the fauces are naturally moiftened by the mu¬
cus and faliyal juices; yet the blood, when deprived of
its watery part or rendered acrimonious by any natural
caufes, never fails particularly to affeft thefe parts, and
the whole alimentary canal, and to occafion thirft.—
This is the common effe&of fevers and of hard labour,
by both which too much of the watery part of the blood
104 is diffipated.
maftica- It has been obferved, that the aliment undergoes
n a d f0me preparation in the mouth before it pafles into the
* " ftomach ; and this preparation is the effeft of maftica-
tion. In treating of the upper and lower jaws, men¬
tion was made of the number and arrangement of the
teeth. The upper jaw was defcribed as being immove¬
able ; but the lower jaw was fpoken of as being ca¬
pable of elevation and depreifion, and of a grinding
motion. The aliment, when firft carried into the
mouth, is pi-effe'd between the teeth of the two jaws
by a very ftrong and frequent motion of the lower
jaw ; and the tongue and the cheeks affiftirtg in this
procefs, continue to replace the food between the
teeth till it is perfectly divided, and reduced to the
confiftence of pulp. The incifores and canini divide
it firft into fmaller pieces, but it is between the fur-
faces of the dentes molares by the grinding motion of
the jaw that the maftication is completed.'
During this procefs, the falival glands being gently
compreffed by the contraction of the mufcles that
move the lower jaw, pour out their faliva : this helps
to divide and break down the food, which at length
becomes a kind of pulp, and is then carried over the
bafis of the tongue into the fauces. But to effe£t this
paffage into the osfophagu3,it is neceffary that the other
openings which were mentioned as having a commu¬
nication with the mouth as well as the pharynx, fhould
b.e clofed ; that none of the aliment, whether folid or
liquid, may pafs into them, whilftthe pharynx alone is
dilated to receive it:—And fuch a difpofitidn actually
takes place in a manner we will endeavour to defcribe.
The trachea arteria, or windpipe, through which
the air is conveyed to the lungs, is placed before the
cefophagus—in the ait of fwallowmg ; therefore, if
the larynx (for fo the upper part of the trachea is call¬
ed) is not clofed, the aliment will pafs into it in its
way to the. pefpphagus. But this is prevented by a
T O M Y.
fmall and very elaftic cartilage, called epiglottis, which(
is attached only to the fore-part of the larynx; fo that'
the food in its paffage to the oefophagus preffes down
this cartilage, which then covers the glottis or opening
of the larynx ; and at the fame time the velum palati
being capable of fome degree of motion, is drawn
backwards by its miffcles, and clofes the openings in.
to the nofe and the Euftachian tubes.—This, however,
is not all. The larynx, which being compofed of car¬
tilaginous rings cannot fail in its ordinary ftate to
comprefs the membranous canal of the cefophagus, is
in the aft of deglutition carried forwards and upwards
by mufcles deftinedfor that purpofe ; and confequent-
ly drawing the fore-part of the pharynx with it, that
opening is fully dilated. When the aliment has reach¬
ed the pharynx, its defeent is promoted ’ by its own
proper weight, and by the mufcular fibres of the cefo¬
phagus, which continue to contraft from above down¬
wards, until the aliment has reached the-ftomach. That
thefe fibres have no inconfiderable fnare in deglutition,
,any perfon may experience, by fwallowing with his
head downwards, when the defeent of the aliment can¬
not poffibly be effefted by its weight.
It is neceffary that the noftrils and the lungs fhould
communicate with the mouth, for the purpofes of fpeech
and refpiration: but if the moft minute part of our
food happens to be introduced into the trachea, it ne¬
ver fails to produce a violent cough, and fometimes the
moft alarming fymptoms. This 'is liable to happen
when we laugh or fpeak in the-aft of deglutition:
the food is then faid to have paffed the wrong way.
And indeed this is not improperly expreffed: for
death would foon follow, if the quantity of aliment
introduced into the trachea fhould be fufficient to ob-
ftruft the refpiration only during a very fhort time; or
if the irritating particles of food fhould not foon be
thrown up again by means of the cough, which in thefe
cafes very feafonably increafes -in proportion to the de¬
gree of irritation.-
If the velum palati did not clofe the paffage to the
noftrils, deglutition would be performed with difficulty,
and perhaps not at all; for the aliment would return
through the nofe, as is fometimes the cafe in drinking,.
Children, from a deficiency in this velum palati, have
been feen to die a few hours after birth ; and they who
from difeafe-or any other caufes have not this part per-
feft, fwallow with difficulty.
The aliment, after having been fuffiei.ently divided
by the aftion of the teeth, and attenuated by the fali¬
va, is received into the ftomach, where it is deftined .
to undergo a more confiderable change.
The properties of the aliment not being much alter¬
ed at its firft entrance into the ftomach, and before it
is thoroughly blended with the gaftric juice, is capable
of irritating the inner coat of the ftomach to a certain
degree, and occafions a contraftion'of its two orifices..
— In this membranous bag, furrounded by the abdo¬
minal vifeera, and with a certain degree of natural
heat, the aliment undergoes a conftant agitation by
means of the abdominal mufcles and of the diaphragm,
and likewife by a certain contraftion or expanfion of
the mufcular fibres .of the ftomach itfelf. By this mo¬
tion, every part of the food is expofed to the aftion of
the gaftric juice, which gradually divides and attenuates
it, and prepares it for its paffage into the inteftines, .
4. * Some
A N A T
Some observations lately publiflied by Mr Hun¬
ter i:i the'Philofophical Tranfactions, tend to throw
conhderablc light on the principles of digellion. There
are few dead bodks in which the ftomach, at its great
end, is not found to be in fome degree digelled (h).
Animals, or parts of animals, poffefled of the living
principle, when taken into the llomach, are not in the
leaft affefted by the atlion of tliat vifcus; but the mo-
«rent they lofe the living principle, they become fub-
jedl to its digeftive powers. This feems to be the cafe
with the ftomach, which is enabled to refill the aflion
of its juices in the living body: but whendeprived of
the living principle, it is then no longer able to refill the
powers of that menftruum, which it had itfelf formed
for the digeftio-n of its contents ; the procefs of dige¬
stion appearing to be continued after death. This is
•confirmed by what happens in the ftomachs of fifties:
They frequently fwallow, without maftication, fifti
which are larger than the digefting parts of their fto-
inach can contain ; and in fuch cafes, that part which
is taken into the ftomach is more orlefs diflblved, while
that part which remains in the cefophagus is perfectly
found ; and here, as well as in the human body, the
digefting part of the llomach is often reduced to the
fame Hate as the digefted part of the food. Thefe ap¬
pearances tend to prove, that digellion is not effedted
by a mechanical power, by contradtions of the ito-
mach, or by heat; but by a fluid fecreted in the coats
of the llomach, which is poured into its cavity, and
there animalizes the food, or afiimilates it to the na¬
ture of blood.
le From fome late experiments by M. Sage *, it ap¬
pears, that inflammable air has the property of deftroy-
ing and diffolving the animal texture: And as we fvval-
'low with the fubftances which ferve us for food a great
quantity of atmofpherical air, M. Sage thinks it pof-.
fible, that deplftogifticated, which is its principle, may
be converted in the llomach into inflammable air, or
may modify into inflammable air a portion of the oily
fubftance which is the principle of aliments. In
this cafe, would not the inflammable air (he a Iks),
by difiblving our food, facilitate its converfidn into
chyle ?
Be this as it may, the food, after having remained one,
two, or three hours in the llomach, is converted into a
greyilh pulp, which is ufually called chymus, a word of
Greek etymology, fignifying/K/Ve, and fome few milky or
chylous particles begin to appear.—But the term of its
refidence in this Bag is proportioned to the nature of the
aliment, and to the Hate of the llomach and its juices.
The thinner and more perfe&iy digelted parts of the
food pafs by a little at a time into the duodenum,
‘through the pylorus, the fibres of which relax to af¬
ford it a paflage ; and the grofler and lefs digelled par-
O M Y.
Pan
tides remain in the llomach, till they acquire a fuffi Of
cient fluidity to pafs into the intellines, where the na-
ture of the cbymus is perfedlly changed. The bile and
pancreatic juice which flow into the duodenum, and
the mucus, which is every where diftilled from the fur-
face of the inteftines, mix themMves with the alimen¬
tary pulp, which they Hill farther attenuate and diflblve,
and into which they feem to infufe new properties.
Two matters very different from, each other in their
nature and dellir.ation, are the refult of this combina¬
tion.—One of thefe, which is compofed of the liquid
parts of the aliment, and of fome of its more folid par¬
ticles, extremely divided and mixed with the juices we
have deferibed, conftitutes a very mild, fweet, and
whitifli fluid, refembling milk, and diftinguilhed by the
name of chyle. This fluid is abforbed by the lacteal
veins, which convey it into the circulation, where, by
being aflimilated into the nature of blood, it affords that
fupply of nutrition, which the continual wafte of the
body is found to require.—The other, is the remains
of the alimentary mafs deprived of all its nutritious
particles, and containing only fueh parts as were rejec¬
ted by the ahforbing mouths of the lacleals. This
grofier part, called the feces, pafies on through the
courfe of the inteftines, to be voided at the anus, as
will be explained hereafter; for this procefs in the ce-
conomy cannot be well underftood till the. motion of
refpiration has been explained. But the llrudlure of
the inteftines is a fubjecl which may be properly de¬
feribed in this place, and deferves to be attended to.
It has been already obfefved, that the inteftinal ca
nal is five or fix times as long as the body, and that it
forms many circumvolutions in the cavity of the abdo¬
men, which it traverfes from the right to the left, and
again from the left to the right; in one place defeend-
ing, and in another extending itfelf upwards. It was
noticed likewife, that the inner coat of the inteftines,
by being more capacious than their exterior tunics,
formed a multitude of plaits placed at a certain dif-
tance from each other, and called valvuU conniventes.
Now this drfpofition will be found to afford a farther
proof of that divine wifdom, which the anatomift and
phyfiologift cannot fail to difeover in all their purfuits.
—For if the inteftinal canal was much fhorter than it
naturally-is; if inftead of the prefent circumvolutions
it pa{Ted in a direft courfe from the ftomach ; and if
its inner furface was fmooth and deftitute of valves;
the aliment would confequently pafs with great rapidity
to the anus, and fufficient time would be wanting to
aflimilate the chyle, and for the neceflary abforption'
of it into the ladleals : fo that the body would be de¬
prived of the fupply of nutrition, which is fo effential
to life and health ; but the length and circumvolutions
of the inteflines, the inequality of their internal fur-
( h ) The Abb6 Spallanzani, who has lately written upon digeftion, finds, from a variety of experiments,
made upon quadrupeds, birds, and fifties, that digeftion goes on for lome time after death, though far lefs con-
fiderable than in living animals; but heat is neceflary in many animals, or at lead promotes it in a much great¬
er degree; He found alfo, that when the ftomach was cut out of the body, it had fomewhat of the power of
digeftion, though this was trifling when compared with that which took place when the ftomach was left in the
body. In not one of the animals was the great curvature of the ftomach difiblved, or much eroded after death.
There was often a little erofion, efpecially in different fifties; in which, when he had cleared the ftomach of
contents, the internal coat was wanting. In other atiimals there was only a flight excoriation ; and the in¬
jury
art III. A N A T
f the face, and the cotirfe of the aliment through them, all
Momen. ooncur to perfeft the feparation of the chyle from the
faeces, and to afford the neceffary nourilhment to the
body.
Sect. XIV. Of the Courfe of the Chyle) and of
the Lymphatic Sy/lem.
joj. An infinite number of very minute veflels, called the
latteal veins, arife like net-work fl*om the inner furface
of the inteftines, (but principally from the jejunum and
ileum), which are deftined to imbibe the nutritious
fluid or chyle. Thefe veflels, which were difcovered by
Afellius in 1622 (i), pafs obliquely through the coats
of the inteftine, and running along the myfentery, unite
as they advance, and form larger branches, all of which
pafs through the mefenteric or conglobate glands,
which are very numerous in the human fubjeft. As
they run between the inteftines and thefe glands, they
are ftyled vena latte a priini generis : but after leaving
thefe glands, they are found to be lefs numerous, and
being increafed in fize, are then called vena latteee fe-
cundi generis, which go to depofite their contents in
the thoracic dutt, through which the chyle is conveyed
into the blood.
This thoracic dutt begins about the lower part of the
firft vertebra lumborum, from whence it pafies up by
the fide of the aorta, between that and the vena azy¬
gos, clofe to the vertebras, being covered by the pleura.
Sometimes it is found divided into two branches ; but
they ufually unite again into one canal, which opens
into the left fubclavian vein, after having run a little
way in an oblique courfe between its coats. The fub¬
clavian vein communicates with the vena cava, which
paffes to the right auricle of the heart.
The lower part of this duft being ufually larger than
any other part of it, has been named receptaculum chy-
U, or Pecquet's receptacle, in honour of the anatomift
who firft difcovered it in 1651. In fome quadrupeds,
iHt-wfonfm turtle and in fifti, this enlargement * is more confi-
./>• Inq. derablein proportion to the fize of the duft, than it u-
O M Y.
735
fually is in the human fuhje&, where it is not com- Of die
monly found large enough to merit the name of recep- AMoint'R.,
taculum.
Opportunities of obferving the la&eals in the human
fubjedl do not often occur; but they may be eafily de-
monftrated in a dog or any other quadruped that is
killed two or three hours after feeding upon milk, for
then they appear filled with white chyle.
But thefe latte a Is which we have defcribed, as paf-
fing front the inteftines through the mefentery to the
thoracic du&, compofe only a part of a fyftem of vef-
fels which perform the office of ahforption, and which
conftitute, with their common trunk the thoracic dudt,
and the conglobate glands that are difperfed through
the body, what may be ftyled the lymphatic Jyftem. So
that what is faid of the ftrufture of one of thefe feries
of veffels-may very properly be applied to that of the
other.
The lymphatic veins (k) are minute pellucid tubes, 106
which, like the lacteals, direct their courfe towards the ^j^lia£ie
centre of the body, where they poUr a colourlefs fluid
into the thoraic dudt. The lymphatics from all the
lower parts of the body gradually unite as they ap¬
proach this duct, into which they enter by three or
four very large trunks, that feem to form the lower
extremity of this canal, on receptaculum chyli, which
may be confidered as the great trunk of the lymphatic
fyftem. The lahteals open into it near the fame place 5
and the lymphatics, from a large fnare of the upper
parts of the body, pour their lymph into different parts
of this dudt as it runs upwards, to terminate in the left
fubclavian vein. The lymphatics from the right fide
of the neck, thorax, and right arm, &c. terminate in
the right fubclavian vein.
As the lymphatics commonly lie clofe to the large
blood-veffels, a ligature paffed round the crural artery
in a living animal, by including the lymphatics, will,
occafion a diftenfion of thefe veffels below the ligature,,
fo as to demonftrate them with eafe; and a ligature
paffed round the thoracic dudl, inftantly after killing
an animal, will, by flopping the courfe of its contents
jury in all of them was at the inferior part, or great curvature. The coats of the ftomach fuffer lefs after death
than fleflr, or part of the ftomach of fimilar animals put into it: The author affigns. as-a reafon for this, that thefe
bodies are invefted on all fides by the gaftric fluid, whereas it only adls on the internal furface of the ftomach.
(1) We are informed by Galen, that the la&eals had been feen in kids by Erafiftratus, who confidered them
as arteries carrying a milky fluid but from the remote time in which he lived, they do not feem to have been
noticed till they were difcovered: in a living dog by Afellius, who denominated them latteals, and confidered;
them as ferving to convey the chyle from the inteftines to the liver; for before the difcovery of the thoracic
dudl, the ufe of the liver was univerfally fuppofed to be that of converting the chyle into blood. _ But the dif¬
covery of the thoracic du<ft by Pecquet, not long after, cor re died this error. Pecquet very candidly confeffes,.
that his difcovery accidentally arofe from his obferving a white fluid, mixed with the blood, flowing out of the
vena cava,, after he had cut off the heart of a living dog; which he fufpeeled to be chyle, and afterwards traced
to its fource from the thoracic dudt: This dudt: had been feen near an hundred years before in a horfe by
Euftachius, who fpeaks of it as a vein of a particular ftruaure, but without knowing any thing of its termi¬
nation or ufe. t .
( k) The arteries in their courfe through the body becoming gradually too minute to admit the red globules
of the blood, have then been ftyled capillary or lymphatic arteries. The veffels which are here defcribed as-
eonftituting the lymphatic fyftem, were at firft fuppofed to be continued from thofe arteries, and to convey
back the lymph, either into the red veins or the thoracic dudt; the office of abforption having been attributed
to the red veins. But we know that the lymphatic veins are not continuations of the lymphatic arteries, but
that they conftitute the abforkent fyftem. There are (till, however, fome veiy refpedtable names among the ana-
tomifts of the prefent age, who contend, that the red veins aft like wife as abfdrbents:—but itfeems to have
been clearly proved, that the red veins do abforb nowhere but in the cavernous cells of the penis, the eredtion
of which, is occafioned by a diftenfion of thofe cells with arterial blood.
73S A N A T
"Of ihe into the fabclavisn vein, diftend not only the lafteals,
A. domen. ^ut ajf0 lyrnpljatJcs in the abdomen and lower ex¬
tremities, with their natural fluids (l).
The coats of thefe veflels are too thin to be fepara-
ted from each other ; but the mercury they are capable
of fuftaining, proves them to be very ftrong ; and their
great power of contraftion, after undergoing confider-
able diftenfion, together with the irritability with which
* Surle Baron Haller found them to be endued*, feems to
— ^ render it probable, that, like the blood-veflels, they
have a mufcular coat.
The lymphatics are nourifhcd after the fame manner
as all the other parts of the body. For even the moil
minute of thefe veflels are probably fupplied with ftill
more minute arteries and veins. This feems to be pro¬
ved by the inflammation of which they are fufceptible;
tmd the painful fwellings which fometimes take place
in lymphatic veflels, prove thatv they have nerves as
well as blood-veflels.
Both the ladteals, lymphatics, and thoracic duft,
are furnifhed with valves, which are much more com¬
mon in thefe veflels than in the red veins. Thefe
valves are ufually in pairs, and ferve to promote the
courfe of the chyle and lymph towards the thoracic
dudl, and to prevent its return. Mention has been
• made of the glands, through which the lafteals pafs
in their, courfe through the mefentery ; and it is to be
obferved, that the lymphatics pafs through iimilar
glands in their way to the thoracic duft. Thefe glands
are all of the conglobate kind, but the changes which
the chyle and lymph undergo in their paflage through
them, have not yet been afcertained.
The lymphatic veJJ'els begin from furfaces and cavities
in all parts of the body as abforbents. This is a fa£t
now univerfally allowed ; but how the fluids they ab-
forb are poured into thofe cavities, is a fubjeft of con-
troverfy. The contents pf the abdomen, for inftance,
were defcribed as being conftantly moiftened by a very
thin watery fluid. The fame thing takes place in the
pericardium, pleura, and all the other cavities of the
body, and this watery fluid is the lymph. But whe¬
ther it is exhaled into thofe cavities through the minute
ends of arteries, or tranfuded through their coats, are
the points in difpute. We cannot here be permitted
to relate the many ingenious arguments that have been
advanced in favour of each of thefe opinions ; nor is it
perhaps of confequence to our prefent purpofe to enter;
into the difpute. It will be fufficient if the reader can
form an idea of what the lymph is, and of the manner
•in which it is abforbed.
The lymph, from its tranfparency and want of co¬
lour, would feem to be nothing but water; and hence
N° 19.
O M Par
the firfl: difcoverers of thefe veflels ilyled them duHvs Of
aquofi; but experiments prove, .that the lymph of an
healthy animal coagulates by being expofed to the air,
or a certain degree of heat,. and likewife by being fuf-
fered to yeft ; feeming to agree in this property with
that part of the blood called the coagulahle lymph,—**
This property of the lymph leads to determine its ufe,
in moiftening and lubricating the feveral cavities of the
body in which it is found ; and for which, by its gela¬
tinous principle, it feems to be much better calculated
than a pure and watery fluid would be, for fuch it has
been fuppofed to be by fome anatomifts.
The mouths of the lymphatics and lacleals, by adting
as capillary tubes, feem to abforb the lymph and chyle
fomewhat in the fame manner as a capillary tube of
glafs, when put into a bafon of water, is enabled to
attraft the water into it to a certain height: but it is
probable that they likewife pofiefs a living power,
which aflifts in performing this office. In the human
body the lymph, or the chyle, is probably conveyed up¬
on this principle as far as the firfl: pair of valves,
which feem to be placed not far from the orifice of the
abforbing veflel, whether lymphatic or lafteal; and the
fluid will then be propelled forwards, by a continuation
of the abforption at the orifice. But this does not
feem to be the only inducement to its progrefs towards
the thoracic dudt; thefe veflels have probably a muf¬
cular coat, which may ferve to prefs the fluid forwards
from one pair of valves to another; and' as the large
lymphatic veflels and the/thoracic du£t are placed clofe
to the large arteries, which have a confiderable pulia¬
tion, it is reafonable to fuppofe, that they derive fome
advantages from this fituation.
Sect. XV. Of the Generative Organs; of Con¬
ception, &c.
§ I. The Male Organs.
Th e male organs of generation have been ufually
divided into the parts which ferve to prepare the femen
from the blood, and thofe which are deftined to con¬
vey it into the womb.' But it feems to be more proper
to diftiuguifh them into the preparing, the containing,
and the expelling parts, which are the different offices
of the tefes, the vefculce feminales, and'the penis; and
this is the order in which we propofe to defcribe
them.
The teft.es are two glandular bodies, ferving to fe-
crete the femen from the blood. They are originally
formed and lodged within the cavity of the abdomen;
and it is-not till after the child is born, or very near
that time, that they begin to pafs into the groin, and
from thence into the fcrotum (m). By this difpofition
they
(l) In the dead body they may be eafily demonftrated by opening the arteiy ramifying through any vifcus,
as in the fpleen, for inftance, and then throwing in air; by which the lymphatics will be diftended. One of
them may then be punctured, and mercury introduced into it through a blow-pipe.
(m) It fometimes happens in difledting ruptures, that the inteftine is found in the fame fac, and in contadt
with the teftis. This appearance was at firft attributed to a fuppofed laceration of the peritoneum j but later
obfervations, by pointing out the fituation of the tefticles in the foetus, have led to prove, that the teftis, as it
defcends into the fcrotum, carries with it a portion or elongation of the peritoneum, which becomes its tunica
-vaginalis, or a kind of fac, in which the tefticle is lodged, as will be explained in the ccurfe of this fedtion.
The communication between this fac and the cavity of the abdomen, is ufually foon cut off; but in fome iub-
jedts
PartHI. A N A T
OF the they are Very wifely protefled from the injuries to
Abdomen. whJch they WOuld be liable to be expofed, from the dif-
"v ferent pofitions of the child at the time of parturition.
The cefticles in this ftate ar^ loofely attached to the
pfose mufcles, by means of the peritoneum by which
they are covered; and they are at this time of life
conne&ed in a very particular manner to the parietes
of the abdomen, and likewife to the fcrotum, by means
of a fubftance which Mr Hunter calls the ligament or
, gubernaculum tejlisy becaufe it connects the teftis with
the fcrotum, and direfts its courfe in its defcent. This
gubernaculum is of a pyramidal form, with its bulbous
head fixed to the lower end of the tellis and epididy¬
mis, and lofes its lower and flender extremity in the
cellular membrane of the fcrotum. It is difficult to
afcertain what the Itrufture and compofition of this
gubernaculum is, but it is certainly vafcular and fi¬
brous ; and from certain circumftances, it would feem
to be in part compofed of the cremafter mufcle, run¬
ning upwards to join the lower end of the teftis.
We are not to fuppofe that the tefticle, when de-
fcended into the fcrotum, is to be feen loofe as a piece
of gut or omentum would be in a common hernial fac.
We have already obferved, that during its refidence in
the cavity of the abdomen it is attached to the peri¬
toneum, which defcends with it; fo that when the fac
is completed in the fcrotum, the tefticle is at firft at¬
tached only to the pofterior part of it, while the fore
part of it lies loofe, and for fome time affords a com¬
munication with the abdomen. The fpermatic chord,
which is made up ,of the fpermatic artery and vein,
and of the vas deferens or excretory du£l of the teftis,
is clofely attached behind to the pofterior part of this
elongation of the peritoneum. But the fore part of
the peritoneal fac, which is at firft loofe and not at¬
tached to the tefticle, clofes after a certain time, and
becomes united to the pofterior part, and thus perfeffily
furrounds the tefticle as it were in a purl?.’
The tefticles of the foetus differ only in their fize
and fituation from thofe of the adult. In their paffagc
, from the abdomen they defcend through the abdomi¬
nal rings into the fcrotum, where they are fupported
and defended by various integuments.
What the immediate caule of this defcent is, has
not yet been fatisfacftorily determined. It has been
afcribed to the effe&s of refpiration, but the tefticles
have fometimes been found in the fcrotum before the
child has breathed ; and it does not feem to be occa-
fioned by the adlion of the cremafter mufcle, becaufc
the fame effeffi would be liable to happen in the hedge¬
hog, and fome other quadrupeds, whofe tefticles remain
in the abdomen during life.
Vox..!. Part II.
O M Y. 737
The fcrotum, which is the external or common co- the
vering of both tefticles, is a kind of fac formed by the All !omeni.
common integuments, and externally divided into two '
equal parts by a prominent line called raphe.
In the inner part of the fcrotum we meet with a
cellular coat called ckrAzr (n), which by its duplica-
ture divides the fcrotum into two equal parts, and
forms what is called feptum fcroli, which correfponds
with the raphe. The collapfion which is fo often ob¬
ferved to take place in the fcrotum of the healthy fub-
je&, when excited by cold or by the ftimulus of venery,
feems to be very properly attributed to the contraftile
motion of the Ikin, and not to any mufcular fibres, as
is the cafe in dogs and fome other quadrupeds.
The fcrotum, then, by means of its feptum, is
found to make two diftindft bags, in which the tefti¬
cles, invefted by their proper tunics, are fecurely
lodged and feparated from each other. Thefe coats
are the cremafter, the tunica vaginalis, and the tunica
albuginea. The firft of thefe is compofed of mufcular
fibres, and is to be confidered only as a partial cover¬
ing of the teftis ; for it furrounds only the fpermatic
chord, and terminates upon the upper and external
parts of the tunica vaginalis teftis, ferving to draw up
and fufpend the tefticle (o). The tunica vaginalis te¬
ftis has already been defcribed as being a thin produc¬
tion of the peritoneum, loofely adhering every where
to the tefticle, which it includes as it were in a bag.
The tunica albuginea is a firm, white, and very com¬
pact membrane of a gliftening appearance, which im¬
mediately invefts the body of the teftis and the epidi¬
dymis ; ferving in fome meafure to connect them to
each other, but without extending itfelf at all to the
fpermatic chord. This tunica albuginea ferves to con¬
fine the growth of the teftis and epididymis within
certain limits, and by giving them a due degree of
firmnefe, enables them to perform their proper func¬
tions.
Having removed this laft tunic, we difcover the fub¬
ftance of the tefticle itfelf, which appears to be made
up of an infinite number of very elaftic filaments,
which may be heft diftinguiffied after macerating the
tefticle in water. Each tefticle is made up of the fper¬
matic artery and vein, and the excretory veffels or tu-
buli fenuniferi. There are likewife a great number of
abforbent veffels, and fome branches of nerves to be
met with in the tefticles.
The fpermatic arteries arife one on each fide from
the aorta, generally about an inch below the emul-
gents. The right fpermatic vein commonly paffes into
the vena cava; but the left fpermatic vein ufually emp¬
ties itfelf into the emulgent on that fide; and it is fup-
5 A pofed
jefits it continues open during life ; and when an hernia or defcent of the inteftine takes place in fuch a fubjeft,
it does not puffi down a portion of the peritonseum before it, as it muft otherwife neceffarily do, but paffes at
once through this opening, and comes in contact with the naked tefticle, conftituting that particular fpecies of
rupture called hernia congenita.
(n) The dartos has ufually been confidered as a mufcle, and is defcribed as fuch both by Douglas and Win-
flow. But there being no part of the fcrotum of the human fubjeft which can be laid to confift of mufcular
fibres, Albinus and Haller have very properly omitted to deferibe the dartos as a mufcle, and confider it merely
as a cellular coat.
(o) The cremafter mufcle is compofed of a few fibres from the obliquus internus abdominis, which uniting
with a few from the tranfverfalis, defcend upon the fpermatic chord, and are infenfibly loft upon the tunica
vaginalis of the tefticle. It ferves to fufpend and draw up the tefticle.
733 A N A T
Of the pofed to take this courfe into tlie emulgent, that it
Abdomen. may avoid pafiing over the aorta, which it would be
* obliged to do in its way to the vena cava.
The blood is circulated very flowly through the
fpermatic artery, which makes an infinite number of
circumvolutions in the fubftance of the tefticle, where
it depofites the femen, which pafles through the tu-
buli feminiferi. Thefe tubuli feminiferi are feen running
in fiiort waves from the tunica albuginea to the axis
of the tefticle ; and are divided into diilinft portions by
certain thin membranous productions, which originate
from the tunica albuginea. They at length unite, and
by an infinite number of convolutions form a fort of
appendix to the teftis called epididymis (p), which is
a vafcular body of an oblong ihape, fituate upon the
fuperior part of each tefticle. Thefe tubuli of the
epididymis at length form an excretory duCt called vas
deferens, which afeends towards the abdominal rings,
with, the other parts that make up the fpermatic chord,
and then a fepartion takes place; the nerves and
blood-veffels palling on to their feveral terminations,
and the vas deferens going to depofite its femen in the
veficula: feminales, which are two foft bodies of a white
and convoluted appearance externally, fituaied ob¬
liquely between the re£tum and the lower part of the
bladder, and uniting together at the lower extremity.
From thefe refervoirs (cl)> which are plentifully fup-
plied with blood-veffels and nerves, the femen is occa-
iionally difeharged through two Ihort paffages, which
open into the urethra clofe to a little eminence called
verumontanum.
O M Y. Part III
Near this eminence we meet with the proftate, Of 'h®
which is fituated at the neck of the bladder, and is Abdtm'er
deferibed as being of a glandular ftiuCture. It is i
lhaped fomewhat like a heart with its fmall end fore-
moft, and invefts the origin of the urethra. Internally
it appears to be of a firm fubftance, and compofed of
feveral follicles, fecreting a whitiih vifeid fluid, that is
difeharged by ten or twelve excretory du&s into the
urethra, on each fide of the openings of the veficulai
feminales at the fame time, aud from the fame caufes
that the femen is expelled. As this latter fluid is
found to be exceedingly limpid in the veficulae femi¬
nales of the dead fubjeft, it probably owes its white-
nefs and vifeidity to this liquor of the proftate.
The penis, which is to be confidered as the vehicle
or active organ of procreation, is compofed of two co¬
lumns, the corpora cavernofa and corpus fpongiofutn.
The corpora cavernofa, which conftitute the greatefi:
part of the penis, may be deferibed as two cylindrical
ligamentous tubes, each of which is compofed of an
infinite number of minute cells of a fpongy texture,
which communicate with each other. Thefe two bo¬
dies are of a very pliant texture, and capable of con-
fiderable diftenfion ; and being united laterally to each
other, occafion by this union a fpace above and ano¬
ther below. The uppermoft of thefe fpaces is filled
by the blood-veffels, and the lower one, which is larger
than the other, by the urethra and its corpus fpongio*
fum. Thefe two cavernous bodies are at firft only fe-
parated by a partition of tendinous fibres, which allow
them to communicate with each other ; but they after¬
wards
(p) The tefticles were named didymi by the ancients, and the name of this part was given to it on account
©f its fituation upon the tefticle.
(qJ That the bags called veftcuhz feminales are refervoirs of femen, is a circumftance which has been by ana-
tomifts univerfally believed. Mr J. Hunter, however, from feveral circumftances, has been induced to think
this opinion erroneous.
He has examined thefe veficulae in people who have died fuddenly, and he found their contents to be differ¬
ent in their properties from the femen. In thofe who had loft one of the tefticles, or the ufe of one of them by
difeafe, both the veficulae were full, and their contents fimilar. And in a lufus nature, where there was no
communication between the vafa deferentia and veficulae, nor between the veficulae and penis, the fame thing
took place.
From thefe obfervations, he thinks we have a prefumptive proof, That the femen can be abforbed in the body
of the tefticle and in the epididymis, and that the veficulae fecrete a mucus which they are capable of abforb-
ing when it cannot be made ufe of: That the femen is not retained in refervoirs after it is fecreted, and kept
there till it is ufed ; but that it is fecreted at the time, in confequence of certain affedtions of the mind ftinm-
lating the tefticles to this aftion.
He corroborates his obfervations by the appearance on diffedtion in other animals; and here he finds, That
the fhape and contents of the veficulae vary much in different animals, while the femen in molt of them he has
examined is nearly the fame: That the vafa deferentia in many animals do not communicate with the veficulse:
That the contents of the veficulae of caftrated and perfedt animals are fimilar, and nearly equal in quantity, in
no way refembling the femen as emitted from the animal in coitu, or what is found in the vas deferens after
death. He obferves likewife, that the bulb of the urethra of perfedt males is'confiderably larger than in caftra¬
ted animals.
From the whole, he thinks the following inferences may be fairly drawn : That the bags called veficulte fe¬
minales are not feminal refervoirs, but glands fecreting a peculiar mucus ; and that the bulb of the urethra is
properly fpeaking the receptacle of the femen, in which it is accumulated previous to ejedtion.
But although he has endeavoured to prove that the veficulae do not contain the femen, he has not been able
to afeertain their particular ufe. He thinks, however, we may be allowed upon the whole to conclude, that
they are, together with other parts, fubfervient to the purpofes of generation.
Although the author has treated this fubjedt very ably, and made many ingenious obfervations, fome things
may be objedted to what he has advanced; of which the following are a few t That thofe animals who have
l bags
Part III.
A N A T
Of the wards devaricate from each other like the branches of
Abtiomen. t^e ietter y} an<j dirninifhiug gradually in fize, are at-
• v 11 tached, one on each lide, by means of the lig'amentum
fufpenforium penis to the ramus ilchii, and to the in¬
ferior portion of the os pubis.
The corpus fpongiofum penis, or corpus fpongiofum
urethrae, as it is llyled by lome authors, begins as boon
as the urethra has palled the proftate, with a thick
Origin almoll like a heart, firft under the urethra, and
afterwards above it, becoming gradually thinner, and
furrounding the whole canal of the urethra, till it ter¬
minates in a coniiderable expanfion, and conltitutes
what is called the glans penis> which is exceedingly
vafcular, and covered with papillae like the tongue.
The cuticle which lines the inner furface of the ure¬
thra, is continued over the glans in the fame manner
as it is fpread over the lips.
The penis is invefted by the common integuments,
but the cutis is reflected back every where from the
glans as it is in the eye-lids; fo that itcovers this part,
when the penis is in a relaxed ftate, as it were with a
hood, and from this life is called prepuce.
The prepuce is tied down to the under part of the
glans by a fmall ligament called frxnum, which is in
fadt only a continuation of the cuticle and cutis.
There are many limple febaceous follicles called glan¬
dule odorifera, placed I'ound the bafis of the glans;
and the fluid they fecrete ferves to preferve the exqui-
fite fenfibility of this part of the penis, and to prevent
the ill effefts of attrition from the prepuce.
The urethra may be defined to be a membranous
canal, palling from the bladder through the whole ex¬
tent of the penis. Several very fmall openings, called
lacuna^ communicate with this canal, through which
a mucus is difcharged into it; and befldes thefe, there
are two glands, firlt defcribed by Cowper, as fecreting
a fluid for lubricating the urethra, and called Convper’s
* 'Memdires&an^s ’ and Littre * fpeaks of a gland fituated
de l'Acad, near the prollate, as being deliined for the fame ufe.
MoyaU des The urethra being continued from the neck of the
Sciences, bladder, is to be conlidered as making part of the uri-
I?0°* nary paflage ; and it likewife affords a conveyence to
the femen, which we have obferved is occaflonally dif¬
charged into it from the veficulse feminales. The di¬
rection of this canal being firft under and then before
the pubis, occafion a winding in its courfe from the
bladder to the penis, not unlike'the turns of the let¬
ter S.
The penis has three pair of mufcles, the ereftores,
acceleratores, and tranfverfales. They pufli the blood
O M Y. 739
from the crura to the fore part of the corpora caver- the
nofa. The firft originate from the tuberofity of the A-ljdi)men.^
ifehium, and terminate in the corpora cavernofa. v”
The acceleratores arife from the fphimSfcer, and by
their infertion ferve to comprefs the bulbous part of
the urethra ; and the tranfverfales are deftined to afford
a paffage to the femen, by dilating the canal of the ure¬
thra.
The arteries of the penis are chiefly derived from
the internal iliacs. Some of them are fuppofed to ter¬
minate by pabulous orifices within the corpora caver¬
nofa and corpus fpongiofum ; and others terminate in
veins, which at laft make up the vena magna derli pe¬
nis, and other fmaller veins, which are in general di-
ftributed in like order with the arteries.
Its nerves are large and numerous. They arife from
the great fciatic nerve, and accompany the arteries in
their courfe through the penis.
We have now defcribed the anatomy of this organ;
and there only remains to be explained, how it is ena¬
bled to attain that degree of firmnefs and diftenfion
which is effential to the great work of generation.
The greateft part of the penis has been fpoken of
as being of a fpongy and cellular texture, plentifully
fupplied with blood-veffels and nerves, and as having
mufcles to move it in different directions.' Now, the
blood is conftantly palling into its cells through the
fmall branches of the arteries which open into them,
and is from thence as conftantly returned by the veins,
fo long as the corpora cavernofa and corpus fpongio¬
fum continue to be in a relaxed and pliant ftate. But
when, from any nervous influence, or other means,
which it is not neceffary here to define or explain, the
ereftores penis, ejaculatores feminis, levatores ani, &c.
are induced to contraCt, the veins undergo a certain
degree of compreffion, and the paffage of the blood
through them is fo much impeded, that it collefts in
them in a greater proportion than they are enabled to
carry off, fo that the penis gradually enlarges; and
being more and mftre forcibly drawn up againft the os
pubis, the vena magna itfelf is at length comprelled,
and the penis becomes fully diftended. But as the
caufes which firft occafioned this difiention fubfide, the
penis gradually returns to its ftate of relaxation.
§ 2. Female Organs of Generation, v
Anatomical writers ufually divide the female or- ioS
gans of generation into external and internal. In the
firft divilion they include the mans veneris, labia puden-
di, perineum, clitoris, nympho:, and caruncule myrtifor-
5 A 2 vies;
bags called veficula feminales perform copulation quickly; whereas others that want them, as in the dog kind,
are tedious in copulation : That in the human body, at leaft, there is a free communication between the vafa
deferentia and veliculas ; and in animals where the author has obferved no communication between the vafa de-
ferentia and veficula:, there may be a communication by veffels not yet difeovered, and which may be compa¬
red to the hepato-cyftic dudts in fowls and nlhes: That the fluid in the end of the vafa deferentia and the vefi-
culse feminales are fimilar, according to the author’s own obfervation : That the veficul® in fome animals in-
creafe and decreafe with the tefticle at particular feafons: That in birds and certain filhes, there is a dilatation
of the ends of the vafa deferentia, which the author himfelf allows to be a refervoir for the femen.
With refpedl to the circumftance of the bulb of the urethra anfwering the purpofe of a refervoir, the author
has mentioned no fadis which tend to eftablilh this opinion. See Obfervations on certain Farts of the Animal
Oeconomy.
(r) Both Reifter and Morgagni obferve, that they have fometimes not been able to find thefe glands; fo
that they do not feem to exift in all fubjedts.
A N A 1
Of the mes; and in the latter, the vagina, with the uterus and
,Ah<i°men- its appendages.
v The mens veneris, which is placed on the upper part
of the fymphyfis pubis, is internally compofed of adi-
pofe membranes, which makes it foft and prominent:
it divides into two parts called labia pudendi, which de¬
fending towards the redhim, from which they are di¬
vided by the perinseum, form what is called-the four-
chette. The perinseum is that fleihy fpace which ex¬
tends about an inch and an half from the fourchette to
the anus, and from thence about two inches to the
coccyx.
The labia pudendi being feparated, we obferve a ful-
cus called fof'a magna; in the upper part of which is
placed the clitoris, a fmall round fpongy body, in fome
meafure refembling the male penis, but impervious,
eompofed of two corpora cavernofa, ariling from the
tuberofities of the offa ifehii; furnilhed with two pair
of mufcles, the erectores clitoridis, and the fphin&er or
conftrifter oftii vaginae; and terminating in a glans,
which is covered with its prepuce. From the lower
part, on each fide of the foffa, pafs the nymphae, two
membranous and fpongy folds which feem deltined for
ufeful purpofes in parturition, by tending to enlarge
the volume of the vagina as the child’s head paffes
through it. Between thefe, about the middle of the
foffa magna, we perceive the orifice of the vagina or os
externum, clofed by folds and wrinkles ; and about
half an inch above this, and about an inch below the
clitoris, appears the meatus urinarius or orifice of the
urethra, much fhorter, though fomewhat larger, than
in men, with a little prominence at its -lower edge,
which facilitates the introduftion of the catheter.
The os externum is furrounded internally by feveral
membranous folds called caruncuLe myrtiformes, which
are partly the remains of a thin membrane called hymen,
that covers the vagina in children. In general the hy¬
men is fufficiently open to admit the paflage of the
menfes, if it exifts at the time of their appearance;
fometimes, however, it has been found perfectly clo¬
fed.
The vagina, fituated between the urethra and the
redtum, is a membranous cavity, furrounded efpecially
at its external extremity with a fpongy and vafcular
fubftance, which is covered by the fphincter oftii va¬
ginas. It terminates in the uterus, about half an inch
above the os tincae, and is wider and ftiorter in women
who have had children than in virgins.
All thefe parts are plentifully fupplied with blood-
vefiels and nerves. Around the nymphae there are fe-
baceous follicles, which pour out a fluid to lubricate
the inner furface of the vagina; and the meatus urina¬
rius, like the urethra in the male fubjeft, is conftantly
moiftened by a mucus, which defends it againft the a-
crimony of the urine.
The uterus is a hollow vifeus, fituated in the hypo-
gaftinc region, between the reftum and bladder. It is
deftined to receive the firft rudiments of the foetus, and
to affift in the developement of all its parts, till it ar¬
rives at a ftate of perfedlion, and is fitted to enter into
the world, at tire time appointed by the wife Author
of nature.
The uterus, in its unimpregnated ftate, refembles a
pear in ftiape, fomewhat flattened, with its fundus or
bottom part turned towards the abdomen,, and its cer-
1 O M Y. Part III
vix or neck furrounded by the vagina. The entrance Of the
into its cavity forms a little protuberance, which has A'1[ic'mea
been compared to the mouth of a tench, and is there¬
fore called os tinece.
The fubftance of the uterus, which is of a confider-
able thicknefsj appears to be compofed of mufcular and
fmall ligamentous fibres, fmall branches of nerves, fome
lymphatics, and with arteries and veins innumerable.
Its nerves are chiefly derived from the intercoftal, and
its arteries and veins from the hypogaftric and fperma-
tic. The membrane which lines its cervix, is a conti¬
nuation of the inner membrane of the vagina ; but the
outer furface of the body of the uterus is covered with
the peritonaeum, which is refle&ed over it, and defeends
from thence to the inteftinum redftum. This dupliea-
ture of the peritonaeum, by palling off from the fides of
the uterus to the fides of the pelvis, is there firmly con-
nedted, and forms what are called ligament a uteri lata;
which not only ferve to fupport the uterus, but to con¬
vey nerves and blood-veflels to it.
The ligamenta uteri rotunda arife from the fides of
the fundus uteri, and palling along within the fore-part
of the ligamenta lata, defeend through the abdominal
rings, and terminate in the fubftance of the mons vene¬
ris. The fubftance of thefe ligaments is vafcular, and
although both they and the ligamenta lata admit the
uterus in the virgin ftate, to move only about an inch
up and down, yet in the courfe of pregnancy they ad¬
mit of confiderable diftenfion, and after parturition re¬
turn nearly to their original ftate with furprifing quick-
nefs.
On each fide of the inner furface of the uterus, in
the angle near the fundus, a fmall orifice is to be dif-
covered, which is the beginning of one of the tubse fal-
lopianae. Each of thefe tubes, which are two in num¬
ber, palling through the fubftanee of the uterus, is ex¬
tended along the broad ligaments, till it reaches the
edge of the pelvis, from whence it refle&s back; and
turning over behind the ligaments, about an inch of its
extremity is feen hanging loofe in the pelvis, near the
ovarium. Thefe extremities, having a jagged appear¬
ance, are called fimbria, or morfus diaboli. Each tuba
Fallopiana is ufually about three or four inches long.
Their cavities are at firft very fmall, but becomes gra¬
dually larger, like a trumpet, as they approach the
fimbriae.
Near the fimbriae of each tuba Fallopiana, about
an inch from the uterus, is fituated an oval body
called ovarium, of about half the fize of the male tef-
ticle. Each of thefe ovaria is covered by a produ&iorr
of the peritonaeum, and hangs loofe in the pelvis.' They
are of a flat and angular form, and appear to be com¬
pofed of a w'hite and cellular fubftance, in which wre
are able to difeover feveral minute veficles filled with a
coagulable lymph, of an uncertain number, commonly
exceeding 12 in each ovary. In the female of riperyears,
thefe veficles become exceedingly turgid,, and a kind of
yeHow coagulum is -gradually formed within one of
them, which increafes for a certain time. In concep¬
tion, one of thefe mature ova is fuppofed to be impreg¬
nated with the male femen, and to be fqueezed out of
its nidus into the Fallopian tube ; after which the rup¬
tured part forms a fubftance which in fome animals is
of a yellow' colour, and is therefore called corpus luteum}
and it is obfervable, that the number of thefe fears or
5 fiffures
■Martin. ANA:
• Of the fiflures in the ovarium, conftantly correfponds with the
^ number of foetufes excluded by the mother.
§ 3. Of Conception.
,09 Man, being ever curious and inquifitive, has natu¬
rally been led to inquire after the origin of his exift-
ence; and the fubjeft of generation has employed the
philofophical world in all ages: but in following na¬
ture up to her minute recedes, the philofopher foon
finds himfelf bewildered, and his imagination often fup-
plies that which he fo eagerly widies to difcover, but
which is deftined perhaps never to be revealed to him.
Of the many theories which have been formed on this
fubjeft, that of the ancient philofophers feems to have
been the mod; fimple : they confidered the male femen
as alone capable of forming the foetus, and believed that
the female only afforded it a lodging in the womb, and
fupplied it with nourifhment after it was perfeftly for¬
med. This opinion, however, foon gave place to ano¬
ther, in which the female was allowed a more confidef-
able diare in conception.
This fecond fyftem confidered the foetus as being
formed by the mixture of the feminal liquor of both
fexes, by a certain arrangement of its feveral particles
in the uterus. But in the 16th century, vefieles or eggs
were difeovered in the ovaria or female tefticles; the
foetus had been found fometimes in the abdomen, and
fometimes in the Fallopian tubes; and the two former
opinions were exploded in favour of a new doftrine.
The ovaria were compared to a bunch of grapes, being
fuppofed to coniift of veficles, each of which had a
|| (talk; fo that it might be difengaged without hurting
the reft, or fpillrng the liquor it contained. Each ve-
|K fide was faid to include a little animal, almoft complete
in all its parts; and the vapour of the male femen be¬
ing conveyed to the ovarium, was fuppofed to produce
a fermentation in the vehicle, which approached the
neareft to maturity ; and thus inducing it to difengage
itfelf from the ovarium, it paffed into the tuba Fallo-
piana, thro’ which it was conveyed to the uterus. Here
it was fuppofed to take root like a vegetable feed,.and
to form, with the veffels originating from the uterus,
what is called the placenta; by means of which the
circulation is carried on between the mother, and the
foetus.
This opinion, with all its abfurdities, continued to
be almoft univerfally adopted till the clofe of the fame
century, when Leeuwenhoeck, by means of his glaffes,
difeovered certain opake particles, which he deferibed
as fo many animalcula, floating in the feminal fluid of
the male.
This difeovery introduced a new fchifm among the
philofophers of that time, and gave rife to a fyftem'
which is not yet entirely' exploded. According to
this theory, the male femen pafiing into the tub® Fal¬
lopian®, one of the animalcula penetrates into the fub-
ftance of the ovarium, and enters into one of its veficles-
or ova. This impregnated ovum is then fqueezed from
its hufk, through the coats of the ovarium, and being
feized by the fimbriae; is conduced through the tube
to the uterus, where it is nouriftied till it arrives at a
r O M Y. 74!
Hate of perfeftion. In this fyftem there is much inge- the
nuity; but there are certain circumftances fuppofed to Abdomen.^
take place, which have been hitherto inexplicable. A v ’ ' J
celebrated modern writer, M. Buffon, endeavours to re-
ftore, in fome meafure, the moft ancient opinion, by
allowing the female femen a /hare in this office; affert-
ing, that animalcula or organic particles are to be dif¬
eovered in the feminal liquor of both fexes: he derives
the female femen from the ovaria, and he contends that
no ovum exifts in thofe parts. But in this idea he is
evidently miftaken; and the opinion now moft gene¬
rally adopted is, that an impregnation of the ovum, by
the influence of the male femen, is effential to concep¬
tion. That the ovum is to be impregnated, there can
be no doubt; but as the manner in which fuch an im¬
pregnation is fuppofed to take place, and the means by
which the ovum afterwards gets into the Fallopian
tube, and from thence into the uterus, are ftill founded
chiefly on hypothelis, we will not attempt to extend
farther the inveftigation of a fubjeff concerning which
fo little can be advanced with certainty.
$ 4. Of the Foetus in Utero..
Opportunities of diffedfing the human gravid tr- ito
terns occurring but feldom, the ftate of the em¬
bryo (s) immediately after conception cannot be per¬
fectly known.
When the ovum defeends into the - uterus, it is fup¬
pofed to be very minute ; and it is not till a confider-
able time after conception that the rudiments of the
embryo begin to be afeertained.
About the third or fourth week the eye may difco¬
ver the firft lineaments of the foetus ; but thefe linea¬
ments are as yet very imperfedt, it being only about
the iize of a houfe-fly. Two little veficles appear in
an almoft tranfparent jelly ; the largeft of which is de-
/lined to become the head of the foetus, and the other
fmaller one is referved for the trunk. But at this pe¬
riod no extremities are to be feen ; the umbilical cord
appears only as a very minute thread, and the placenta
does not as yet abforb the red particles of the blood;
At fix weeks,, not only the head but the features of the
face begin to be developed. The nofe appears like a
fmall prominent line, and we ar£ able to difcover ano¬
ther line, under it, which is .deftined for the feparation
of the lips. Two black points appear in the place of
eyes, and two minute holes* mark the ears. At the
fides-of the trunk, both above and below, we fee four
minute protuberances, which are the rudiments of the
arms and legs. At the end of eight weeks the body
of the foetus is upwards of an inch in length, and both •
the hands and feet are to be diftinguiftted. The up¬
per extremities are found' to increafe fafter than the
lower ones, and the feparation of the fingers is accorn-
pli/hed fooner than that of the toes.
At this period the human form-may be decifivety
afeertained;—all the parts of the face may be diftin-
gui/hed, the ffiape of the body is clearly marked out,
the haunches and the abdomen are elevated, the fingers
and toes-are feparated from each other, and the intef-
tines appear like minute threads;
At.
(s) The rudiments of the child are ufually diftinguifhed by this name till the human figure can be diftindlly
afeertained, and then it has the appellation oifoetus.
742 A N A T
of Mie At the end of the third month, the foetus meafures
Abdomen. akout three inches ; at the end of the fourth month,
* *" five inches; in the fifth month, fix or feven inches ; in
the fixth month, eight or nine inches; in the feventh
month, eleven or twelve inches; in the eighth month,
fourteen or fifteen inches ; and at the end of the ninth
month, or full time, from eighteen to twenty-two
inches. But as we have not an opportunity of exa¬
mining the fame foetus at different periods of pregnancy,
and as their fize and length may be influenced by the
conftitution and mode of life of the mother, calcula¬
tions of this kind mult be very uncertain.
The foetus during all this time affumes an oval fi-
ure, which correfponds with the fhape of the uterus,
ts chin is found reclining on its breaft with its knees
drawn up towards its chin, and its arms folded over
them. But it feems likely, that the pofture of fome
of thefe parts is varied in the latter months of preg¬
nancy, fo as to caufe thofe painful twitches .which its
mother ufually feels from time to time. In natural
cafes, its head is probably placed towards the os tineas
from the time of conception to that of its birth ; tho’
formerly it was confidered as being placed towards the
fundus uteri till about the eighth or ninth month,
when the head, by becoming fpecifically heavier than
the other parts of the body, was fuppofed to be turned
downwards.
The capacity of the uterus increafes in proportion
to the growth of the foetus, but without becoming
thinner in its fubftance, as might naturally be expected.
The nourifhraent of the foetus, during all this time,
feems to be derived from the placenta, which appears
to be originally formed by that part of the ovum which
is next the fundus uteri. The remaining part of the
ovum is covered by a membrane called fpongy cho¬
rion ( t ) ; within which is another called true chorion,
which includes a third termed amnios (u) : this con¬
tains a watery fluid, which is the liquor amnii (v), in
which the foetus floats till the time of its birth. On
the fide next the foetus, the placenta is covered by the
amnios and true chorion; on the fide next the mother
it has a production continued from the fpongy cho¬
rion. The amnios and chorion are remarkably thin
and tranfparent, having no blood-veffels entering into
their compofition. The fpongy chorion is opake and
vafcular.
O M Y. Part
In the firft months of pregnancy, the involucra bear Of
a large proportion to their contents ; but this pro-
portion is afterwards reverfed, as the foetus increafes in
bulk.
The placenta, which is the medium through which
the blood is conveyed from the mother to the feetus,
and the manner in which this conveyance takes place,
deferve next to be conlidered.
The placenta is a broad, flat, and fpongy fubftance,
like a cake, clofely adhering to the inner furface of
the womb, ufually near the fundus, and appearing to
be chiefly made up of the ramifications of the umbili¬
cal arteries and vein, and partly of the extremities of
the uterine vefTels. The arteries of the uterus difeharge
their contents into the fubftance of this cake; and the
veins of the placenta, receiving the blood either by a
direft communication of veffels, or by abforption, at
length form the umbilical vein, which paffes on to the
finus of the vena porta, and from thence to the vena
qava, by means of the canalis venofus, a communica¬
tion that is clofed in the adult. But the circulation of
the blood through the heart is not conduced in the
foetus as in the adult: in the latter, the blood is carried
from the right auricle of the heart through the pulmo¬
nary artery, and is returned to the left auricle by the
pulmonary vein ; but a dilatation of the lungs is effen-
tial to the paffage of the blood through the pulmonary
veffels, and this dilatation cannot take place till after
the child is born and has refpired. This deficiency,
however, is fupplied in the feetus by an immediate
communication between the right and left auricle,
through an oval opening, in the feptum which divides
the two auricles, called foramen ovale. The blood is
likewife tranfmitted from the pulmonary artery to the
aorta, by means of a du£t called canalis arteriofus,
which, like the canalis venofus, and foramen ovalas,
gradually clofes after birth.
The blood is returned again from the feetus through
two arteries called the umbilical arteries, which arife
from the iliacs. Thefe two veffels taking a winding
courfe with the vein, form with that, and the mem¬
branes by which they are furrounded, what is called ■
the umbilical chord. Thefe arteries, after ramifying
through the fubftance of the placenta, difeharge their
blood into the veins of the uterus; in the fame manner
as the uterine arteries difeharged their blood into the
branches
(t) Dr Hunter has deferibed this as a lamella from the inner furface of the uterus. In the latter months
of pregnancy it becomes gradually thinner and more conne&ed with the chorion : he has named it membrana
.caduca, or decidua, as it is call off with the placenta. Signior Scarpa, with more probability, confiders it as
being compofed of an infpiffated coagulable lymph.
(u) In tome quadrupeds, the urine appears to be conveyed from the bladder through a canal called urachus,
to the allantois, which is a refervoir, refembling a long and blind gut, fituated between the chorion and am¬
nios. The human foetus feems to have no Inch refervoir, though fome writers have fuppofed that it does exift.
From the top of the bladder a few longitudinal fibres are extended to the umbilical chord; and thefe fibres have
been confidered as the urachus, though without having been ever found pervious.
(v) The liquor amnii coagulates like the lymph. It has been fuppofed to pafs into the oefophagus, and to
afford nourilhment to the foetus ; but this does not feem probable. Children have come into the world without
an eefophagus, or any communication between the ilomach and the mouth ; but there has been no well attefted
inftance of a child’s having been born without a placenta; and it does not feem likely, that any of the
fluid can be abforbed through the pores of the flein, the flein in the foetus being every where covered with a great
quantity of mucus.
745
art III. ANATOMY.
Of the branches of the umbilical vein. So that the blood is gets through the placenta is a point not yet deter- Of the
[Women. conftantly palling in at one fide of the placenta and mined. Abdomen,
out at the other 5 but in what particular manner it v
EXPLANATION of PLATES XXV. XXVIIL and XXVI.
Plate XXV.
Fig. i. Shows the Contents of the Thorax and Ab¬
domen in fitu.
i. Top of the trachea, or wind-pipe. 2 2, The in¬
ternal jugular veins. 3 3, The fubclavian veins. 4 The
vena cava defcendens. 5, The right auricle of- the
heart. 6, The right ventricle. 7, Part of the left
ventricle. 8, The aorta defcendens. 9, The pulmo¬
nary artery. 10, The right lung, part of which is
cut off to fhow the great blood-veffels. 11, The left
lung entire. 12 12, The anterior edge of the dia¬
phragm. 13 13* The two great lobes of the liver.
14, The ligamentum rotundum. 15, The gall-bladder.
16, The ftomach. 17 17, The jejunum and ilium.
18, The fpleen.
Fig. 2. Shows the Organs fubfervient to the Chy-
lopoietic Vifcera,—with thofe of Urine and Ge¬
neration.
II, The under fide of the two great lobes of the
liver, a, Lobulus Spigelii. 2, The ligamentum ro¬
tundum. 3, The gall-bladder. 4. The pancreas.
5, The fpleen. 6 6, The kidneys. 7, The aorta
defcendens. 8, Vena cava afcendens. 9 9, The renal
veins covering the arteries. 10, A probe under the
fpermatic veffels and a bit of the inferior mefente-
ric artery, and over the ureters. 11 11, The ureters.
1212, The iliac arteries and veins. 13, The reftum
inteftinum. 14, The bladder of urine.
Fig. 3. Shows the Chylopoietic Vifcera, and Or¬
gans fubfervient to them, taken out of the Body en¬
tire.
A A, The under fide of the two great lobes of the
liver. B, Ligamentum rotundum. C, The gall¬
bladder. D, Du&us cyfticus. E, Duftus hepaticus.
F, Dufti's communis choledochiis. G, Vena porta-
rum. H, Arteria hepatica. I I, The ftomach.
K K, Venae & arteriae gaftro-epiploicae, dextns Sc
finiftrae. L L, Venae & arterire coronariae ventriculi.
M, The fpleen. N N, Mefocolon, with its veflels.
O O O, Inteftinum colon. P, One of the ligaments
of the colon, which is a bundle of longitudinal mufcu-
lar fibres. Jejunum and ilium. R R, Sig¬
moid flexure of the colon with the ligament continued,
and over S, The re£tum inteftinum. T T, Levators
ani. U, Sphincter ani. V, The place to which the
proftate gland is connected. W, The anus.
Fig. 4. Shows the Heart of a Fietus at the full
time, with the Right Auricle cut open to (how
the Foramen Ovale, or pafiage between both Au¬
ricles.
a, The right ventricle, b, The left ventricle,
c c, The outer fide of the right auricle ftretched out.
d d, The pofterior fide, which forms the anterior fide
of the feptum. e, The foramen ovale, with the mem¬
brane or valve which covers the left fide, f, Vena ca¬
va inferior paffing through g, A portion of the dia¬
phragm.
Fig. 5. Shows the Heart and Large Vefiels of a Foe¬
tus at the full time.
a, The left ventricle, b, The right ventricle, c, A
part of the right auricle, d, Left auricle, e e, The
right branch of the pulmonary artery, f, Arteria
puhnonalis. g g, The left branch of the pulmonary
artery, with a number of its largeft branches difie&ed
from the lungs, h. The canalis-arteriofus. i. The
arch of the aorta, k k, The aorta defcendens. 1, The
left fubciavian artery, m. The left carotid artery,
n, The right carotid artery, o, The right fubclavian
artery, p, The origin of the right carotid and right
fubclavian arteries in one common trunk, q. The ve¬
na cava fuperior or defcendens. r. The right com¬
mon fubclavian vein, s, The left common fubclavian
vein.
N. B. All the parts defcribed in this figure are
to be found in the adult, except the canalis arteriofus-
Plate XXVIII.
Fig. 1. Exhibits the more fuperficial Lymphatic Vef¬
fels of the Lower Extremity.
A, The fpine of the os ilium. B, The os pubis.
C, The iliac artery. D, The knee. E, E, F, Branches
of the crural artery. G, The mufculus gaftrocnemius.
H, The tibia. I, The tendon of the mufculus tibia¬
lis anticus. On the out-lines, a, A lymphatic veflei
belonging to the top of the foot, b, Its firft divifion
into branches, c, c, c, Other divifions of the fame
lymphatic veflei. d, A fmall lymphatic gland, e, The
lymphatic veffels which lie between the fkin and the
mufcles of the thigh, f, f. Two lymphatic glands at
the upper part of the thigh below the groin, g, g, O-
t-her glands, h, A lymphatic veffcl which paffes by
the fide of thofe glands without comunicating with
them ; and, bending towards the infide of the groin at
(i), opens into the lymphatic gland (k). 1,1, Lymphatic
glands in the groin, which are common to the lympha¬
tic veffels of the genitals and thofe of the lower extre¬
mity. m, n, A plexus of lymphatic veffels paffing on
the infide of the iliac artery.
Fig. 2. Exhibits a Back View of the Lower Extremity,
dilfeCted fo as to fhow the deeper-feated Lymphatic
Veffels which accompany the Arteries.
A, The os pubis. B, The tuberofity of the if-
chium. C, That part of the Os ilium which was ar¬
ticulated with the os facrum. I>, The extremity of
the iliac artery appearing above the groin. E, The
knee. F, F, The two cut furfaces of the triceps
mufcle, which was divided to fhow the lymphatic vef¬
fels that pafs through its perforation along with the
crural artery. G, The edge of the mufculus gracilis.
H, The gaftrocnemius and foleus, much fhrunk by
being dried, and by the foleus being feparated from
.744 A N A T
Of the the fibth to expofe the veffels. I, The heel. K, The
Abdomen. £0{e 0f t}ie f00t. L, The fuperficial lymphatic veffels
palling over the knee, to get to the thigh. On the
out-lines ; M, The pofterior tibial artery, a, A lym¬
phatic veffel accompanying the pofterior tibial artery,
b. The fame veffel crofting the artery, c, A fmall
lymphatic gland, thro’ which this deep-feated lymphatic
veflel paffes. d, The lymphatic veffel palling under a
fmall part of the foleus, which is left attached to the
bone, the reft being removed, e, The lymphatic vef¬
fel crofting the popliteal artery, f, g, h, Lymphatic
glands in the ham, through which the lymphatic vef¬
fel paffes. i, The lymphatic veffel palling with the
crural artery, through the perforation of the triceps
mufcle. k, The lymphatic veffel, after it has paffed
the perforation of the triceps, dividing into branches
which embrace the artery (1). m, A lymphatic gland
belonging to the deep-feated lymphatic veffel. At this
place thofe veffels pal's to the fore part of the groin,
where they communicate with the fuperfidal lympha¬
tic veffels. n, A part -of the fuperficial lymphatic vef¬
fel appearing on the brim of the pelvis.
Fig. 3. Exhibits the Trunk of the Human Subject,
prepared to fhow the Lymphatic Veffels and the
Du&us Thoracicus.
A, The neck. B B, The two jugular veins.
C, The vena cava fuperior. D D D D, The fub-
clavian veins. E, The beginning of the aorta, pulled
to the left fide by means of a ligature, in order to
fhow the thoracic du6t behind it. F, The branches
arifing from the curvature of the aorta. G G, The
two carotid arteries. H H, The firft ribs, I I, The
trachea. K K, The fpine. L L, the vena azygos.
M M, The defcending aorta. N, The coeliac artery,
dividing into three branches. O, The fuperior mefen-
teric artery. P, The right crus diaphragmatis.
The two kidneys. R, The right emulgent ar¬
tery. S S, The external iliac arteries, g d. The
mufculi pfoae. T, The internal iliac artery. U, The
cavity of the pelvis. X X, The fpine of the os ilium.
YY, The groins. a, A lymphatic gland in the
groin, into which lymphatic veffels from the lower ex¬
tremity are feen to enter, b b, The lymphatic veffels
of the lower extremities pafiing under Poupart’s liga¬
ment. cc, A. plexus of the lymphatic veffels lying on
each fide of the pelvis, d, The pfoas mufcle with
lymphatic veffels lying upon its infide. c, A plexus
of lymphatics, which having paffed over the brim of
the pelvis at (c), having entered the cavity of the pel¬
vis, and received the lymphatic veffels belonging to the
vifeera contained in that cavity, next afeends, and paf¬
fes behind the iliac artery to (g). f Some lymphatic
veffels of the left fide pafiing over the upper part of
the os facrum, to meet thofe of the right fide, g. The
right pfoas, with a large plexus of lymphatics lying on
its infide. h h, The plexus lying on each fide of the
fpine. i i i. Spaces occupied by the lymphatic glands.
k, The trunk of the la&eals, lying on the under fide of
the fuperior mefenteric artery. /, The fame dividing
into two branches, one of which paffes on each fide of
the aorta ; that of the right fide being feen to enter
the thoracic du& at (;;/). m. The thoracic du6t be¬
ginning from the large lymphatics, n, The drift pafs-
icg under the lower part of the crus diaphragmatis,
N° 19.
O M Y.
SJ
Part III
and under the right emulgent artery. ♦, The thora¬
cic duft penetrating the thorax, p, Some lymphatic
veffels joining that duff in the thorax, q. The tho¬
racic duff palling under the curvature of the aorta to
get to the left fubclavian vein. The aorta being drawn
afide to Ihow the duft. r, A plexus of lymphatic vef¬
fels pafiing upon the trachearfrom the thyroide gland to
the thoracic duft. .
Of ihe:‘
Abdomenli
Plate XXVI.
Fig. 1. Reprefents the Under and Pofterior Side of the
Bladder of Urine. &c.
a, The bladder. . bb. The infertion of the ureters,
c c. The vafa deferentia, which convey the femen from
the tefticles to d d, The veficuke feminales,—and pafs
through e, The proftate gland, to difeharge themfelves
into f, The beginning of the urethra.
Fig. 2 A tranfverfe Seftion of the Penis.
gg, Corpora cavernofa penis, h, Corpus caverno-
fuin urethrae, i, Urethra, k, Septum penis. 11, The
feptum between the -corpus cavernofum urethrae and
that of the penis.
Fig. 3. A Longitudinal Seftion of the Penis.
m m, The corpora cavernofa penis, divided by o,
The feptum penis, n, The corpus cavernofum glan-
dis, which is the continuation of that of the urethra.
Fig. 4. Reprefents the Female Organs of Genera¬
tion.
a, That fide of the uterus which is next the os fa¬
crum. 1, Its fundus. 2, Its cervix, bb, The Fal¬
lopian or uterine tubes, which open into the cavity of
the uterus;—but the other end is open within the pel¬
vis, and furrounded by c c, The fimbriae, d d, The
ovaria. e, The os internum uteri, or mouth of the
womb, ff, The ligamenta rotunda, which paffes
without the belly, and is fixed to the labia pudendi.
g g, The cut edges of the ligamenta lata, which con-
netts the uterus to the pelvis, h, The infide of the
vagina, i, The orifice of the urethra, k, The cli¬
toris furrounded by (1,) The pneputium. mm, The
labia pudendi. n n, The nymphae.
Fig. 5. Shows the Spermatic Duifts of the Tefticle
filled with Mercury.
A, The vas deferens. B, Its beginning, which
forms the pofterior part of the epididymis. C, The
middle of the epididymis, compofed of ferpentine
dufts. D, The head or anterior part of the epididy¬
mis unravelled, e e e e. The whole dudfs which com-
pofe the head of the epididymis unravelled, f f, The
vafa deferentia, gg, Rete teftis. hh, Some redlili-
neal dudts which fend off the vafa deferentia. i i, The
fubftance of the tefticle.
Fig. 6. The, Right Tefticle entire, and the Epidi¬
dymis filled with Mercury.
A, The beginning of the vas deferens. B, The vas
deferens afeending towards the abdomen. C, The po¬
fterior part of the epididymis, named globus minor.
D, The fpermatic veffels inclofed in cellular fubftancc.
E, The body of the epididymis. F, Its head, named
globus major. G, Its beginning from the tefticle.
H, The body of the tefticle, inclofed in the tunica al- .
buginea.
PART
Akat omy.
Tlate XX\^.
■
Anatomy.
Plate mi.
A N A T
O M Y.
Part IV.
Of the
Thorax.
PART IV.
Of the THORAX.
74S
Of the
Thorax.
i lit rT^HE thorax, or chest, is that cavity of the
■Of the trunk which extends from the clavicles, or the
£hdt, lower part of the neck, to the diaphragm, and includes
the vital organs, which are the heart and lungs ; and
iikewife the trachea and oefophagus.—This cavity is
formed by the ribs and vertebrae of the back, covered
by a great number of mufcles, and hy the common in¬
teguments, and anteriorly by two glandular bodies
called the £raj/?r. The fpaces between the ribs are
filed up by mufcular fibres, which from their fituation
are called b.tercojlal mufcles.
Sect. I. Of the Breajls.
1 sis. The breajls may be defined to be two large conglo¬
merate glands, mixed with a good deal of adipofe
membrane. The glandular part is cofnpofed of an
infinite number of minute arteries, veins, and nerves.
The arteries are derived from two different trunks ;
one of which is called the internal, and the other the
external, mammary artery. The firft of thefe arifesfrom
the fubclavian, and the latter from the axillary.
The veins every where accompany the arteries, and
"are ditlinguifhed by the fame name. The nerves are
chiefly from the vertebral pairs. Like all other con¬
glomerate glands, the breafts are made up of a great
■many fmall diflincl glands, in which the milk is fe-
creted from the ultimate branches of arteries. The
excretory dudfs of thefe feveral glands, gradually uni¬
ting,as they approach the nipple, form the tubuli ladli-
feri, which are ufually more than a dozen in number,
and open at its apex, but have little or no communica¬
tion, as has been fuppofed, at the root of the nipple.
Thefe dudfs, in their courfe from the glands, are fur-
rounded by a ligamentary elaflic fubftanee, which ter¬
minates with them in the nipple. Both this fubftance,
and the dudts which it contains, are capable of confi-
| derable extenfion and contraction ; but in their natural
ftate are moderately corrugated, fo as to prevent an
involuntary flow of milk, unlefs the dillending force be
very great from the accumulation of too great a quan-
he whole fubftance of the nipple is very fpongy
and elaftic: its external furface is uneven, and full of
'fmall tubercles. The nipple is furrounded with a dilk
or circle of a different colour, called the areola; and on
the infide of the ft;in, under the areola, are many feba-
ceous glands, which pour out a mucus to defend the
areola and nipple: for the fkin upon thefe parts is very
thin; and the nervous papillae lying very bare, are much
expofed to irritation.
The breafts are formed for the fecretion of milk,
which is deftined for the nourifhment of the child for
fome time after its birth. This fecretion begins to
take place foon after delivery, and continues to flow for
Vol. I. Part II.
many months in very large quantities, if the woman
fuckles her child.
The operation of fu&ion depends on the principles
of the air-pump, and the flow of milk through the
lactiferous tubes is facilitated by their being ftretched
out.
The milk, examined chemically, appears to be com-
pofed of oil, mucilage, and water, and of a confider-
able quantity of fugar. The generality of phyfiolo-
gifls have fuppofed that, like the chyle, it frequently
retains the properties of the aliment and medicines ta¬
ken into the ftomach; but from fome late experi¬
ments #, this fuppofition appears to be ill founded. A
Sect. II. Of the Pleura.
The cavity of the thorax is every where lined by a 113.
membrane of a firm texture called pleura. It is compo-
fed of two diftindt portions or bags, which, by being
applied to each other laterally, form a feptum called
mediaftintim; which divides the cavity into two parts,
and is attached pofteriorly to the vertebrae of the back,
and anteriorly to the fternum. But the two laminae of
which this feptum is formed, do not every where ad¬
here to each other; for at the lower part of the thorax
they are feparated, to afford a lodgment to the heart;
and at the upper part of the cavity, they receive be¬
tween them the thymus.
The pleura is plentifully fupplied with arteries and
veins from the internal mammary, and the intercoftals.
Its nerves, which are very inconfiderable, are derived
chiefly from the dorfal and intercoftal nerves.
The furface of the pleura, like that of the perito-
nreum and other membranes lining cavities, is conftant-
ly bedewed with a ferous moifture (w), which prevents
adhefions of the vifcera.
The mediaftinum, by dividing the breaft into two ca¬
vities, obviates many inconveniences, to which we
fhould otherwife be liable. It prevents the two lobes of
the lungs from compreffing each other when we lie on
one fide; and cotifequently contributes to the freedom
of refpiration, which is di'fturbed by the leaft preffure
on the lungs. If the point of a fword penetrates be¬
tween the ribs into the cavity of the thorax, the lungs
on that fide ceafe to perform their office; becaufe the
air being admitted through the wound, prevents the
dilatation of that lobe; while the other lobe, which is
feparated from it by the mediaftinum, remains unhurt,
and continues to perform its fundlion as ufual.
Sect. II. Of the Thymus.
The thymus is a glandular fubftance, the ufe of Ii<fi
which is not perfectly afcertainfcd, its excretory duft
not having yet been difcovered. It is of an oblong
5 B figure.
(w) When this fluid is exhaled in too great a quantity, or is not properly carried off, it accumulates and con-
liitutes the hydrops pedtoris.
A N A T
figure, and is larger in the foetus and in young chil-
■ dren than in adults, being fometimes nearly effaced in
very old fubjefts. It is placed in the upper part of the
thorax, between the two laminae of the mediaftinum ;
but at firft is not altogether contained within the cavity
of the cheft, being found to border upon the upper
extremity of the fternum.
Sect. IV. Of the Diaphragm.
The cavity of the thorax is feparated from that of
the abdomen, by a flefhy and membranous feptum cal¬
led the diaphragm or midriff. The greatefl part of it
is compofed of mufcular fibres; and on this account
fyftematic writers ufually place it very properly among
the mufcles. Its middle part is tendinous, and it is
covered by the pleura above, and by the peritonaeum
below. It feems to have been improperly named fep-
tuvi tranfverfum, as it does not make a plane tranf-
O M Y.
Sect. V. Of the Trarchea.
Part IV.
The trachea, or windpipe, is a cartilaginous and
membranous canal, through which the air paffes into
the lungs. Its upper part, which is called the larynx,
is compofed of five cartilages. The uppermoft of thefe
cartilages is placed over the glottis or mouth of the
larynx, and is called epiglottis, which has been before
fppken of, as doling the paffage to the lungs in the
aft of fwallowing. At the fides of the glottis are pla¬
ced the two arytenoide cartilages, which are of a very
complex figure, not eafy to be deferibed. The ante¬
rior and larger part of the larynx is made up of two
cartilages ; one of which is called thyroides or feutifor-
mis, from its being fhaped like a .buckler; and the
other cricoides or annularis, from its refembling a ring.
Both thefe cartilages may be felt immediately under
the fkin; at the fore part of the throat, and the thy-
verfe divifion of the two cavities, but forms a kind of roides, by its convexity, forms an eminence called /s-
vault, the fore part of which is attached to the fter¬
num. Laterally it is fixed to the laft of the true ribs,
and to all the falfe ribs ; and its lower and pofterior
part is attached to the vertebrae lumborum, where it
may be faid to be divided into two portions or crura
The principal arteries of the diaphragm are derived
from the aorta, and its veins pafs into the vena cava.
Its nerves are chiefly derived from the cervical pairs.
It affords a paffage to the vena cava through its tendi¬
nous part, and to the oefophagus through its flefhy
portion. The aorta paffes down behind it between its
crura.
The diaphragm not only ferves to divide the thorax
from the abdomen, but by its mufcular ftrufture is
rendered one of the chief agents in refpiration. When
mum adami, which is ufually more confiderable in the
male than.in the female fubjeft.
All theft cartilages are united to each other by
means of very elaftic, ligamentous fibres; and are ena¬
bled, by the affiftance of their feveral mufcles, to dilate
or eontraft the paffage of the larynx, and to perform
that variety of motion which feems to point out the
larynx as the principal organ of the voice ; for when
the air paffes out through a wound in the trachea, it
produces no found.
Thefe cartilages are moiftened by a mucus, which
feems to be fecreted by minute glands fituated near
them. The upper part of the trachea is covered ante¬
riorly and laterally by a confiderable body, which is
fuppofed to be of a glandular ftrufture, and from its
fituation near the thyroid cartilage is called the thyroid
its fibres contraft, its convex fide, which is turned to- gland; though its excretory duft lias not yet been dif-
wards the thorax, becomes gradually flat, and by in-
creafing the cavity of the breaft, affords room for a
complete dilatation of the lungs, by means of the air
which is then drawn into them by the aft of infpira-
tion. The fibres of the diaphragm then relax; and as
it refumes its former ftate, the cavity of the thorax be¬
comes gradually diminifhed, and the air is driven out
again from the lungs by a motion contrary to the for¬
mer one, called exfpiration.
It is in fome meafure, by means of the diaphragm,
that we void the feces at the anus, and empty the uri¬
nary bladder. Befides thefe offices, the afts of cough¬
ing, fneezing, fpeaking, laughing, gaping, and fighing,
could not take place without its affiftance; and the
gentle preffure which all the abdominal vifeera receive
from its conftant and regular motion, cannot fail to aft
fill in the performance of the feveral funftions which
were aferibed to thofe vifeera.
covered, or its real ufe afeertained.
The glottis is interiorly covered by a very fine mem¬
brane, which is moiftened by a conftant fupply of a
watery fluid. From the larynx, the canal begins to
take the name of trachea or afpera arteria, and extends
from thence as far down as the third or fourth verte¬
bra of the back, where it divides into two branches,
which are the right and left bronchial tube. Each of
theft bronchi (y) ramifies through the fubftance of
that lobe of the lungs, to which it is diftributed, by
an infinite number of branches, which are formed of
cartilages feparated from each other like thofe of the
trachea, by an intervening membranous and ligamen¬
tary fubftance. Each of thefe cartilages is of an angu¬
lar figure ; and as they become gradually lefs and lefs
in their diameter, the lower ones are in fome meafure
received into thofe above them, when the lungs, after
being inflated, gradually collapft by the air being pufti-
ed.
(x) Anatomical writers have ufually deferibed the diaphragm as being made, up of two mufcles united by
a middle tendon ; and thefe two portions or crura form what they fpeak of as the inferior muffle, arifing from
the fides and fore part of the vertebrae.
(y) The right bronchial tube is ufually found to be fomewhat fhorter and thicker than the left; and M.
Portal, who has publifhed a memoir on the aftion of the lungs on the aorta in refpiration, obferves, that the
left bronchial tube is clofely contrafted by the aorta ; and from fome experiments he is induced to conclude,
that in the firft refpirations, the air only enters into the right lobe of the lungs. Memoires de l'Academes
Royale des Sciences, 1769.
Part IV. ANA’
Of the ed out from them in exfpiration. As the branches of
1 horax. the bronchi become more minute, their cartilages be-
J' "”v come more and more angular and membranous, till at
length they are found to be perfectly membranous, and
at laft become invifible.
The trachea is furnifhed with Selby or mufcular
fibres; fome of which pafs through its whole extent
longitudinally,-while the others are carried round it in
a circular diredtion ; fo that by the contradtion or re¬
laxation of thefe fibres, it is enabled to Ihorten or
lengthen itfelf, and likewife to dilate or contract the
diameter of its paffage.
The tmchea and its branches, in all their ramifica¬
tions, are furniihed with a great number of fmall glands
which are lodged in their cellular fubftance, and dif-
charge a mucous fluid on the inner furface of thefe tubes.
The cartilages of the trachea, by keeping it con-
ftantly open, afford a free paffage to the air, which we
are obliged to be inceflantly refpiring; and its mem¬
branous part, by being capable of contraction and di¬
latation, enables us to receive and expel the air in a
greater or lefs quantity, and with more or lefs veloci¬
ty, as may be required in Tinging or in declamation.
This membranous ftrudture of the trachea pofteriorly,
feems likewife to affift in the defcent of the food, by
preventing that impediment to its pafiage down the
oefophagus, which might be expedted if the cartilages
were complete rings.
The trachea receives its arteries from the carotid
and fubclavian arteries, and its veins pafs into the ju¬
gulars. Its nerves arife from the recurrent branch of
the eighth pair, and from the cervical plexus.
Sect. VI. Of the Lungs.
117. The lungs fill the greater part of the cavity of the
breaft. They arc of a foft and fpongy texture, and
are divided into two lobes, which are feparated from
each other by the mediaflinum, and are externally co¬
vered by a produdtion of the pleura. Each of thefe is
divided into two or threeleffer lobes; and we common¬
ly find three in the right fide of the cavity, and two in
the left.
To difcover the ftrudture of the lungs, it is required
to follow the ramifications of the bronchi, which were
defcribed in the lafl fedlion. Thefe becoming gradu¬
ally more and more minute, at length terminate in the
cellular fpaces or veficles, which make up the greatefl
part of the fubftance of the lungs, and readily commu¬
nicate with each other.
The lungs feem to pofiefs but little fenfibility.
Their nerves, which are fmall, and few in number, are
derived from the intercoftal and eighth pair. This laft
pair having reached the thorax, fends off a branch on
each fide of the trachea, called the > current, which
reafcends at the back of the trachea, to which it fur-
nifhes branches in its afcent, as well as to the ocfopha?
gus, but it is chiefly diftributed to the larynx and its
mufcles. By dividing the recurrent and fuperior la¬
ryngeal nerves at their origin, an animal is deprived of
its voice.
There are fwo feries of arteries which carry blood
to the lungs: thefe are the arterise bronchiales, and the
pulmonary artery.
^ The arterise bronchiales begin ufually by two branch-
F O M Y. 747
es ; one of which commonly arifes from the right in- Of the
tercoftal, and the other from the trunk of the aorta : f'hor:t!;- ,
but fometimes there are three of thefe arteries, and in v
fome fubjects only one. The ufe of thefe arteries is
to ferve for the nourifhment of the lungs, and their ra¬
mifications are feen creeping every where on the branch¬
es of the bronchi. The blood is brought back fronr
them by the bronchial vein into the vena azygos.
The pulmonary artery and vein are not intended for
the nourifhment of the lungs; but the blood in its
paffage through them is deftined to undergo fome
changes, or to acquire certain effential properties (from
the aftion of the air), which it has loft in its circula¬
tion through the other parts of the body. The pul¬
monary artery receives the blood from the right ven¬
tricle of the heart, and dividing into two branches, ac¬
companies the bronchi every where, by its ramifications
through the lungs; and the blood is afterwards con¬
veyed back by the pulmonary vein, which gradually
forming a confiderable trunk, goes to empty itfelf into
the left ventricle of the heart ; fo that the quantity of
blood which enters into the lungs, is perhaps greater
than that which is fent in the fame proportion of time
through all the other parts of the body.
Sect. VII. Of Rcfpiratlon.
Respiration conftitutes one ofthofefun&ionswhich tiS.
are properly termed vita!, as being effential to life ; for
to live and to breathe are in fadt fynonyunous terms.
It confifts in an alternate contra&ion and dilatation of
the thorax, by firft infpiring air into the lungs, and
then expelling it from them in exfpiration.
It will perhaps be eafy to diftinguifh and point out
the feveral phenomena of refpiration ; but to explain
their phyfical caufe will be attended with difficulty:
for it will naturally be enquired, how the lungs, when
emptied of the air, and contracted by exfpiration, be¬
come again inflated, they themfelves being perfedtly
paffive i How the ribs are elevated in oppofition to
their own natural fituation ? and why the diaphragm is
contracted downwards towards the abdomen? Were we
to affert that the air, by forcing its way into the cavity
of the lungs, dilated them, and confequently elevated
the ribs, and preffed down the diaphragm, we Ihould
fpeak erroneoufly. V/hat induces the firft infpiration,
it is not eafy to afcertain; but after an animal has once
refpired, it would feem likely that the blood, after ex¬
fpiration, finding its paffage through the lungs obftrudl-
ed, becomes a ftimulus, which induces the intercoftal
mufcles and the diaphragm to contract, and enlarge the
cavity of the thorax, in confequencel perhaps of a cer¬
tain nervous influence, which we will not here attempt
to explain. The air then ruihes into the lungs; every
branch of the bronchial tubes, and all the cellular fpa¬
ces into which they open, become fully dilated; and
the pulmonary veffels being equally diftended, the blood
flows through them with eafe. But as the ftimulus
which firft occafioned this dilatation ceafes to operate,
the mufcles gradually contradt, the diaphragm rifes up¬
wards again, and diminiflies the cavity of the cheft; the
ribs return to their former ftate; and as the air paffes
out in exfpiration, the lungs gradually collapfe, and a
refiftance to the paffage of the blood again takes place.
But the heart continuing to receive and expel the
j B 2 blood.
ANATOMY. Part IVJ
blood, tbe pulmonary artery begins again to be diftend-
ed, tbe ftimulus is renewed, and the fame procefs is
repeated, and continues to be repeated, in a regular
fucceffion during life : for though the mufcles of refpi-
ration, having a mixed motion, are (unlike the heart)
in fome meafure dependent on the will, yet no human
being, after having once refpired, can live many mo¬
ments without it. In an attempt to hold one’s breath,
the blood foon begins to diftend the veins, which are
unable to empty their contents into the heart; and we
are able only, during a very little time, to refill the fti¬
mulus to infpiration. In drowning, the circulation
feems to be Hopped upon this principle ; and in hang¬
ing, the preffure made on the jugular veins, may co¬
operate with the ftoppage of refpiration in bringing on
death.
Till within thefe few years phyfiologifts were entire¬
ly ignorant of the ufe of refpiration. It was at length
difcovered in part by the illuftrious Dr Prieftley. He
found that the air exfpired by animals was phlogiftica-
ted ; and that the air was fitter for refpiration, or for
fupporting animal life, in proportion as it was freer
from the phlogiftic principle. It had long been obfer-
ved, that the blood in palling through the lungs ac¬
quired a more florid colour. He therefore fufpedled,
that it was owing to its having imparted phlogifton to
the air: and he fatisfied himfelf of the truth of this
idea by experiments, which fhowed, that the craflamen-
tum of extravafated blood, phlogifticated air in pro¬
portion as it loft its dark colour. He farther found,
that blood thus reddened had a ftrong attradlion for very minute branches of the pulmonary velfels; upon
ufe of refpiration is to dephlogifticate the blood, it feems Of the
probable, that a like double eledlive attradlion takes Thora*»
place in this procefs ; the phlogifton of the blood be v
ing transferred to the air, and the fire contained in the
air to the blood y but with this difference, that the ca¬
pacities being equal, the whole of the extricated fire is
abforbed by the latter. The blood in this ftate circu¬
lating through the body, imbibes phlogifton, and of
courfe gives out its fire ; part only of which is abforb¬
ed by the parts furnifhing the phlogifton, the remain¬
der, as in combuftion, becoming fenfible ; and is there¬
fore the caufe of the heat of the body, or what is cal¬
led animal heat.
In confirmation of this dodlrine it may be obferved*
that the venous blood contains lefs fire than the arte¬
rial ; combuftible bodies lefs than incombuftible ones
and that air contains lefs of this principle, according
as it is rendered, by combination with phlogifton, lefs
fit for refpiration. (z).
In afcending very high mountains, refpiration is
found to become Ihort and frequent, and fometimes to
be attended with a fpitting of blood. Thefe fymptom^
feem to be occafioned by the air being too rare and
thin to dilate the lungs fufficiently ; and the blood
gradually accumulating in the pulmonary veffels, fome¬
times burfts through their coats, and is brought up by
coughing. This has likewife been accounted for in a
different way, by fuppofing that the air contained in
the blood, not receiving an equal preffure from that of
the atmofphere, expands, and at length ruptures the
phlogifton ; infomuch that it was capable of taking it
from phlogifticated air, thereby becoming of a darker
colour. From hence it appeared that the blood, in its
circulation through the arterial fyftem, imbibes a con-
fiderable quantity of phlogifton, which is difcharged
from it to the air in the lungs.
This difcovery has fince been profecuted by two very
ingenious phyfiologifts, Dr Crawford and Mr Elliot.
It had been fhown by profeffors Black and Irvine, that
different bodies have different capacities for containing
fire. For example, that oil and water, when equally
hot to the fenfe and the thermometer, contain differ¬
ent proportions of that principle; and that unequal
quantities of it are required, in order to raife thofe
fubftances to like temperatures. The enquiries of Dr
Crawford and Mr Elliot tend to prove, that the ca¬
pacities of bodies for containing fixe are diminiftied by
the addition of phlogifton, and increafed by its fepara-
tion : the capacity of calx of antimony, for example,
being greater than that of the antimony itfelf. Com-
the fame principle that fruits and animals put under
the receiver of an air-pump, are feen to fwell as the
outer air becomes exhaufted. But Dr Darwin of
Litchfield has lately publiftied. fome experiments, which
feem to prove, that no air or elaftic vapour does exift
in the blood-veffels, as has been, generally fuppofed;
and he is induced to impute the fpitting of blood which
has fometimes taken place in afcending high moun¬
tains, to accident, or to violent exertions; as it never
happens to animals that are put into the exhaufted re¬
ceiver of an air-pump, where the diminution of preffure
is many times greater than on the fummit of the high-
eft mountains.
Sect. VIII. Of the Voice.
Respiration has already been defcribed as affording
us many advantages ; and next to that of Kfe, ks moft
important ufe feems to be that of forming the voice
and fpeech. The ancients, and almoft all the moderns.
mon air contains a great quantity of fire \ combuftible have eonfidered the organ of fpeech as a kind of mufi-
 — t_ •u.m:— _ cal inftrument, which may be compared to a flute, to
an hautboy, to an organ, &c. and they argue after the.
following manner.
The trachea, which begins at the root of the tongue,,
and goes to terminate in the lungs, may be compared
to the pipe of an organ, the lungs dilating like bellows
bodies very little. In combuftion, a double elective
attradlion takes place; the phlogifton of the body be¬
ing transferred to the air, the fire contained in the air
to the combuftible body. But as the capacity of the
latter is not increafed fo much as that of the former is
diminifhed, only part of the extricated fire will be ab- _ _ _ _ - . . .
forbed by the body. The remainder therefore will raife during the time of infpiration } and as the air is drive*
the temperature of the compound ; and hence we may out from them in exfpiration, it finds its paffage ftrait-
account for the heat attending combuftion. As the ened by the cartilages of the larynx, againft which it
ftrikes»
(z) See Crawford’s Experiments and Obfervations on Animal Heat, and Elliot’s Philofophicai Obfervar-
tions.
: IV. A N A T
ftrikes. As thefe cartilages are more or lefs elaftic,
^they occafion in their turn more or lefs vibration in the
air, and thus produce the found of the voice ; the va¬
riation in the found and tone of which depends on the
O M Y.
74»
means of its fphintter is agafn contracted : but it fome- Of the
times happens, as in dyfenteries for inftancc, that the Thorax'
feces are very liquid, and have confiderable acrimony ; v
and then the irritation they occafion is more frequent,
ftate of the glottis, which, when ftraitened, produces fo as to promote their difcharge without any preffure
—f- *•—     from the diaphragm or abdominal mufcles ; and fome-
times involuntarily, as is the cafe when, the fphindter
becomes paralytic.
an acute tone, and a grave one when dilated.
The late M. Ferein communicated to the French
Academy of Sciences a very ingenious theory on the
formation of the voice. He confidered the organ of
the voice as a firing, as well as a •wind, inftrument; fo
that what art has hitherto been unable to conltrutt,
and what both the fathers Merfenne and Kircher fo
much wifhed to fee, M. Ferein imagined he had at
length difcovered in the human body. He obferves,
that there are at the edges of the glottis certain tendi¬
nous chords, placed horizontally acrofs it, which are
Sect. X. Of the Pericardium, and of the Heart
and its Auricles.
The two membranous bags of the pleura, which !4I
were defcribod as forming the mediaftinum, recede one Perirar-
from the other, fo as to afford a lodgment to a firm dhim.
membranous fac, in which the heart is fegurely lodged ;
capable of confiderable vibration, fo as to produce this fac, which is the pericardium, appears to be corn-
found, in the fame manner as it is produced by the
firings of a violin or a harpfichord : and he fuppofes
that the air, as it paffcs out from the lungs, afts as a
bow on thefe firings, while the efforts of the breaft
and lungs regulate its motion, and produce the variety
of tones. So that according to this fyflem the varia¬
tion in the voice, is not occafioned by the dilatation or
cdntraftion of the glottis, but by the diflenfion or re¬
laxation of thefe firings, the found being more or lefs
acute in proportion as they are more or lefs flretched
out. Another writer on this fubjecl fuppofes, that the
organ of voice is a double inftrument, which produces
in unifon two founds of a different nature; one by
means of the air, and the other by means of the chords
of the glottis. Neither of thefe fyflems, however, are
univerfally adopted. They are both liable to infupe-
rable difficulties ; fo that the manner in which the voice
is formed has never yet been fatisfaftorily afcertained :
we may obferve, however, that the found produced by
pofed of two tunics, united to each other by cellular
membrane.—The outer coat, which is thick, and in
fome places of a tendinous complexion, is a produdlion
of the mediaftinum the inner coat, which is extreme¬
ly thin, is reflefted over the auricles and ventricles of
the heart, in the fame manner as the tunica conjundli-
va, after lining the eye lids, is refle&ed over the eye.
This bag adheres to the tendinous part of the dia¬
phragm, and contains a coSgulable lymph, the liquor
pericardii, which ferves to lubricate the heart ancf fa¬
cilitate its motions ; and feems to be fecreted and ab-
forbed in the fame manner as it is irt the other cavities
of the body.
The arteries of the pericardium are derived from the
phrenic, and its veins pafe into veins of the fame name ;
its nerves are likewife branches of the phrenic.
The fize of the pericardium is adapted to that of
the heart, being ufually large enough to contain it
loofely. As its cavity does not extend to the fternum.
the glottis is not articulated. To effedl this, it is re- the lungs cover it in infpiration ; and as it every where
quired to pafs through the mouth, where it is differ- invefts the heart, it effectually fecures it from being in-
ently modified by the action of the tongue, which is jured by lymph, pus, or any other fluid, extravafated
either puihed againft the teeth, or upwards towards the into the cavities of the thorax,
palate ; detaining it in its paffage, or permitting it to
flow freely, by contracting or dilating the mouth.
Sect. IX. Of Dejcfiion.
By dejeftion we mean the aft of voiding the feces
at the anus ; and an account of the manner in which
this is condufted was refervedfor this part of the work,
becaufe it feemed to require a knowledge of refpiration
to be perfeftly underftood.
The inteftines were defcribed .as having a periftaltic
motion, by which the feces were gradually advancing
towards the anus. Now, whenever the feces are accu¬
mulated in the inteftinum reftum in a fufficient quan-
The heart is a hdllow mufcle of a conical ftiape, fi- isa
tuated tranfverfely between the two laminae of the me- Heart, and
diaftinum, at the lower part of the thorax; having JtslCsauricl«8‘
bafis turned towards the right fide, and its point or
apex towards the left.—Its lower furface is fomewhat
flattened towards the diaphragm. Its bafis, from
which the great veffels originate, is covered with fat,
and it has two hollow and fleftiy appendages, called
auricles.— Round thefe feveral openings, the heart
feems to be of a firm ligamentous texture, from which
all its fibres feem to originate ; and as they advance
from thence towards the apex, the fubftance of the
heart feems to become thinner.
The heart includes two cavities or ventricles, which
tity to become troublefome, either by their weight or are feparated from each other by a flefiiy feptum; one
acrimony', they excite a certain uneafinefs which in¬
duces us to go to ftool.—To effeft this, we begin by
of thefe is called the right, and the other the left, ven¬
tricle ; though perhaps, with refpeft to their fituation.
making a confiderable infpiration ; in confequence of it would be more propel* to diftinguifh them into the
which the diaphragm is carried downwards towards the anterior and pofierior ventricles.
lower belly; the abdominal mufcles are at the fame
time contrafted in obedience to the will; and the in-
The heart is exteriorly covered by a very fine mem¬
brane ; and its ftrufture is perfeftly mufcular or fiefhy,
teftines being compreffed on all fides, the refiftance of being compofed of fibres which are defcribed as paf-
the Jphintter is overcome, and the feces pafs out at the fing in different direftions ; fome as being extended
anus; which is afterwards drawn up by its longitudinal longitudinally from the bafis to the apex ; others, as
fibres, which are called kvatorcs ani, and then by taking an oblique or fpiral courfe ; and a third fort as
$ ’ teing
75°
N
O M
Par
Of the being placed in a tranfverfe dine.'’* > (. }, — Within
Thorax. two ventricles we obferve fcvefal furrows; and there
are likewife tendinous ftrings, which arife from flelhy
column# in the two cavities, and are attached to the
valves of the auricles : That the ufe of thefe and the
other valves of the heart may be underftood, it muft
be obferved, that four large vefiels pafs out from the
bafis of the heart, viz. two arteries and two veins;
and that each of thefe veffels is furnilhed with a thin
membranous production, which is attached all.round
to the borders of their feveral orifices, from whence
hanging loofely down they appear to be divided into
two or three diftinCt portions. But as their ufes in the
arteries and veins are different, fo arc they differently
difpofed. Thofe of the arteries are intended to give
way to the paffage of the blood into them from the
ventricles, but to oppofe its return : and, on the con¬
trary, the valves of the veins are conftru&ed fo as to
allow, the blood only to pafs into the heart. In cor.fe-
quence of thefe different ufes, we find the valves of
the pulmonary artery and of the aorta attached to the
orifices of thofe veffels, fo as to have their concave
furfaces turned towards the artery ; and their convex
furfaces, which mutually meet together, being placed
towards the ventricle, only permit the blood to pafs
one way, which is into the arteries. There are ufual-
ly three of thefe valves belonging to the pulmonary ar¬
tery, and as many to the aorta'; and from their figure
they are called vahula fernilunares. The communica¬
tion between the two great veins and the ventricles is
by means of the two appendages or auricles into which
• the blood is difeharged ; fo that the other valves which
may be faid to belong to the veins, are placed in each
ventricle, where the auricle opens into it. The valves
in the right ventricle are ufually three in number, and
are named valvul# tricufpidzs ; but in the left ventricle
we commonly obferve only two, and thefe are the
valvulce mitrales. The membranes which form thefe
valves in each cavity are attached fo as to projerit fome-
what forward; and both the tricufpiJes and the mitrales
are connected with the tendinous ftrings, which were
deferibed as arifing from the ftefhy column#. By the
contradtion of either ventricle the blood is driven into
the artery which communicates with that ventricle; and
-thefe tendinous ftrings being gradually relaxed as the
fides of the cavity are brought nearer to each other,
the valves naturally clofe the opening into the auricle,
and the blood neccffarily diredds its courfe into the
-then only open paffage, which is into the artery ; but
after this coutradlion, the heart becomes relaxed, the
tendinous ftrings are again ftretched out, and, drawing
the valves of the auricle downwards, the Wood is pour¬
ed by the veins into the ventricle, from whence, by
another contradtion, it is again thrown into the artery,
as will be deferibed hereafter. The right ventricle is
not quite fo long, ^though fomewhat larger, than the
left ; but the latter has more fubftance than the other;
and this feems to be, becaufe it is intended to tranfmit
the blood to the moft diftant parts of the body, where¬
as the right ventricle diftributes it only to the lungs.
The heart receives its nerves from the par vagum
and the intercoftals. The arteries which ferve for its
nourifhment are two in number, and arife from the
aorta. They furround in fome meafure the bafis of
the heart, and from this courfe are called the coronary
arteries. From thefe arteries the blood is returned by
veins of the fame name into the auricles, and even in¬
to the ventricles.
The mufcular bags called the auricles are fituated at
the balls of the heart, at the fides of each other;
and, correfponding with the two ventricles, are like
thofe two cavities diftinguilhed into right and left.
Thefe facs, which are interiorly unequal, have exter¬
nally a jagged appendix ; which, from its having been
compared to the extremity of an ear, has given them
their name of auricles.
Of
Sect. XI. Angidogy, or a Defcription of the
Blood-vejfels.
The heart has been deferibed as contra&ing itfelf,
and throwing the blood from its two ventricles into
the pulmonary artery and the aorta, and then as re¬
laxing itfelf and receiving a frelh fupply from two large
veins, which are the pulmonary vein and the vena ca¬
va. We will now point out the principal diftributions
of thefe veffels.
The pulmonary artery arifes from the right ventricle
by a large trunk, which foon divides into two confi-
derable branches, which pafs to the right and left lobes
of the^ lungs: each of thefe branches is afterwards
divided and fubdivided into an infinite number of
branches and ramifications, which extend through the
whole fubftance of the lungs; and from thefe branches
the blood is returned by the veins, which, contrary to
the courfe of the arteries, begin by very minute ca¬
nals, and gradually become larger, forming at length
four large trunks called pulmotiary veins, which termi¬
nate in the left auricle by one common opening, from
whence the blood paffes into the left ventricle. From
this fame ventricle arifes the aorta or great artery,
which at its beginning is nearly an inch in diameter :
it foon fends off two branches, the coronaries, which
go to be diftributed to the heart and its auricles. After
this, at or about the third or fourth vertebra of the
back, it makes a confiderable curvature ; from this
curvature (b) arife three arteries.; one of which foon
divides into two branches. The firft two are the left
fubclavian and the left carotid, and the third is a com¬
mon trunk to the right fubclavian and right carotid ;
though fometimes both the carotids arife diilindtly
from the aorta.
The two carotids afeend within the fubclavians, along
the fides of the trachea ; and when they have reached
the larynx, divide into two principal branches, the in¬
ternal and external carotid. The firft of thefe runs a
little
(a) Authors differ about the courfe and diftinftions of thefe fibres; and it feems right to obferve, that the
ftructure of the heart being more compadt than that of other mufcles, its fibres are not eafily feparated.
(b) Anatomifts ufually call the upper part of this curvature aorta afeendens ; and the other part of the artery
to its divifion at the iliacs, aorta defenders: but they differ about the place where this diftinction is to be in¬
troduced ; and it feems fufficiently to anfwer every purppfe, to fpeak only of the aorta and its curvature.
I
.'art IV. A N A T
F the little way backwards in a bending dire&ion ; and ha-
porax. ving reached the under part of the ear, pafies through
h’_v the canal in the os petrofum, and entering into "the
cavity of the cranium, is diilributed to the brain and
the membranes which invelope it, and likewife to the
eye. The external carotid divides into feveral branches,
which are diftributed to the larynx, pharynx, and other
j parts of the neck ; and to the jaws, lips, tongue, eyes,
temples, and all the external parts of the head.
Each fubclavian is likewife divided into a great num¬
ber of branches. It fends olf the vertebral artery,
which palfes through the openings we fee at the bot-
I tom of the tranfverfe proceffes of the vertebrae of the
. neck, and in its courfe fends off many ramifications
to the neighbouring parts. Some of its branches are
diftributed to the fpinal marrow, and after a confider-(
able inflexion it enters into the cranium, and is diftri¬
buted to the brain. The fubclavian likewife fends off
branches to the mufcles of the neck and fcapula; and
the mediaftinum, thymus, pericardium, diaphragm, the
breafts, and the mufcles of the thorax, and even of the
abdomen, derive branches from the fubclavian, which
-are diftinguifhed by different names, alluding to the
parts to which they are diftributed ; as the mammary,
the phrenic, the intercojlal, 8cc.. But notwithstanding
the great number of branches which have been deferibed
as arifing from the fubclavian, it is ftill a confiderable
artery when it reaches the axilla, where it drops its
former name, which alludes to its paffage under the
s' clavicle, and is called the axillary artery ; from which
a variety of branches are diftributed to the mufcles of
the breaft, fcapula, and arm.—But its main! trunk
taking the name of brachialis, runs along on the in fide
of the arm near the os humeri, till it reaches the joint
of the fore-arm, and then it divides into two branches.
This divifion however is different in different fubjefts ;
for in fome it takes place higher up and in others low¬
er down. When it happens to divide above the joint,
it may be confidered as a happy difpofttion in cafe of
an accident by bleeding; for fuppofing the artery to
be unfortunately pun&ured by the lancet, and that the
haemorrhage could only be flopped by making a liga¬
ture on the veffel, one branch would remain unhurt,
through which the blood would pafs uninterrupted to
the fore-arm and hand. One of the two branches of
the brachialis plunges down under the flexor mufcles,
and runs along the edge of the ulna s while the other
is carried along the outer furface of the radius, and is
eafily felt at the wrift, where it is only covered by the
common integuments. Both thefe branches commonly
unite in the palm of the hand, and form an arterial
arch from whence branches are detached to. the fin-
gers.
The aorta, after having given off at its curvature the
carotids and fubclavians which convey blood to all the
upper parts of the body, defeends upon the bodies of
the vertebras a little to the left, as far as the os facrum,
where it drops the name of aorta,, and divides into
two confiderable branches. In this courfe, from its
curvature to its bifurcation, it fends off feveral arteries
in the following order : x. One or two little arteries,
firft demonftrated by Ruyfch as going to the bronchi,
and called arter'nz brorichiales Ruyfchii, 2. The arterias
cefophagese. Thefe are commonly three or four in num-
O M Y. 7i
her. They arife from the fore-part of the aorta, and Of the
are diftributed chiefly to the cefophagus. 3. The in-Thorax'
ferior intercoftal arteries, which are diftributed between v
the ribs in the fame manner as the arteries of the three
or four fuperior ribs are, which are derived from the
fubclavian. Thefe arteries fend off branches to the
medulla fpinalis. 4. The diaphragmatic or inferior
phrenic arteries, which go to the diaphragm, ftomach,
omentum, duodenum, pancreas, fpleen, liver, and gall¬
bladder. 5. The cceliac, which fends off the coro-
nary-ftomachic, the fplenic, and the hepatic artery.
6. The fuperior mefenteric artery, which is diftributed
to the mefentery and fmall inteftines. 7. The emul-
gents, which go to the kidneys. 8. The arteries, which
are diftributed to the glandulse renales. 9. The fper-
matic. 10. The inferior mefenteric artery, which ra¬
mifies through the lower portion of the mefentery and
the large inteftines.—-A branch of this artery which
goes to the reftum is called the internal hemorrhoidal.
11. The lumbar arteries, and a very fmall branch called
the facra, which are diftributed to the mufcles of the
loins and abdomen, and to the os facrum and medulla
fpinalis.
The trunk of the aorta, when it has reached the
laft vertebra lumborum, or the os facrum, drops the
name of aorta, and feparates into two forked branches
called the iliacs. Each of thefe foon divides into two
branches ; one of which is called the internal iliac, or
hypogaftric artery, and is diftributed upon the contents
of the pelvis and upon the mufcles on its outer fide.
One branch called pudenda communis, fends fmall rami¬
fications to the end of the reftum under the name of
hemorrhoidales externe, and is afterwards diftributed
upon the penis. The other branch, the external iliac,
after having given off the circumflex artery of the os-,
ilium and the epigaftric, which is diftributed to the redli-
mufcles, paffes out of the abdomen under Poupart’s li¬
gament, and takes the name ol crural artery. It defeenda
on the inner part of the thigh clofe to the os femoris,
fending off branches to the mufcles, and then finking
deeper in the hind part of the thigh, reaches the ham,
where it takes the name of popliteal: after this it fe¬
parates into two confiderable branches; one of which
is called the anterior tibial artery ; the other divides
into two branches, and thefe arteries all go to be di¬
ftributed to the leg and foot.
The blood, , which is thus diftributed by the aorta
to all parts of the body, is brought back by the veins,-
which are fuppofed to be continued from tlxe ultimate
branches of arteriesand uniting together as they ap¬
proach the heart, at length form the large trunks, the
vena cava afeendens, and vena cava defeendens.
All the veins which bring back the blood from the
upper extremities, and from the head and breaft, pafs
into the vena cava defeendens ; and thofe which return
it from the lower parts of the body terminate in the
vena cava afeendens-; and thefe two cavas uniting to¬
gether as they approach the heart, open by one com-'
mon orifice into the left auricle.
It does not here feem to be neceffary to follow the
different divifions of the veins as we did thofe of the
arteries; and it will be fufficient to remark, that in
general every artery is accompanied by its vein, and
that both are diftinguiftied by the lame name. Butj,
ANA'
like many otker general rules, this too has its excep¬
tions (c). The veins, for inftance, which accompany
the external and internal carotid, are not called the
carotid veins, but the external and internal jugular.—
In the thorax there is a vein diitinguifhed by a pro¬
per name, and this is the azygos, or vena fine pari.
This vein, which is a pretty confklerable one, runs a-
long by the right fide of the vertebras of the back,
and is chiefly deftined to receive the ilood from the
intercoftals on that fide, and from the lower half of
thofe on the left fide, and to convey it into the vena
Cava defcendens. In the abdomen we meet with a
vein, which is {till a more remarkable one, and this is
the vena porta, which performs the office both of an
artery and a vein. It is formed by a re-union of all
the veins which come from the ftomach, /inteftines, o-
mentum, pancreas, and fpleen, fo as to cofnpofe one
great trunk, which goes to ramify through the liver ;
and after having depofited the bile, its ramifications
unite and bring back into the vena cava, not only the
blood which the vena portse had carried into the liver,
but likewife the blood from the hepatic artery. Every
artery has a vein which correfponds with it; but the
trunks and branches of the veins are more numerous
than thofe of the arteries.—The reafons for this dif-
pofition are perhaps not difficult to be explained ; the
blood in its courfe through the veins is much farther
removed from the fource and caufe of its motion, which
are in the heart, than it was when in the arteries; fo
that its eburfe is confequently lefs rapid, and enough
of it could not poffiblybe brought back to the heart
in the moment of its dilatation, to equal the quantity
which is driven into the arteries from the two ven¬
tricles, at the time they contradl; and the equilibri¬
um, which is fo effential to the continuance of life and
health, would confequently be deftroyed, if the capa¬
city of the veins did not exceed that of the arteries,
in the fame proportion that the rapidity of the blood’s
motion through the arteries exceeds that of its return
through the veins.
A large artery ramifying through the body, and
continued to the minute branches of veins, which gra¬
dually unite together to form a large trunk, may be
compared to two trees united to each other at their
tops; or rather as having their ramifications fo dif-
pofed that the two trunks terminate in one common
point; and if we farther fuppofe, that both thefe
trunks and their branches are hollow, and that a fluid
is inceffantly circulated through them, by enter¬
ing into one of the trunks and returning through
the other, we {hall be enabled to conceive how the
blood is circulated through the veffels of the human
body.
Every trunk of an artery, before it divides, is nearly
cylindrical, or of equal diameter through its whole
length, and fo are all its branches when examined fe-
parately. But every trunk feems to contain lefs blood
than the many branches do into which that trunk fe-
parates ; and each of thefe branches probably contains
N° 19.
r O M Y. Part I
lefs blood than the ramifications do into which it is the
fubdivided : and it is the fame with the veins ; the vo- Tho a*
lume of their feveral ramifications, when confidered to¬
gether, being found to exceed that of the great trunk
which they form by their union.
The return of the blood through the veins to the
heart, is promoted by the action of the mufcles, and
the pulfation of the arteries. And this return is like¬
wife greatly affilted by the valves which are to be met
with in the veins, and which conftitute one of the
great dii'lindtions between them and the arteries. Thefe
valves, which are fuppofed to be formed by the inner
coat of the veins, permit the blood to flow from the
extremities towards the heart, but oppofe its return.
They are moll frequent in the fmaller veins. As the
Column of blood increafes, they feem to become lefs
neceflary ; and therefore in the vena cava afeendens, we
meet with only one valve, which is near its origin.
The arteries are compofed of feveral tunics. Some
writers enumerate five of thefe tunics; but perhaps we
may more properly reckon only three, viz. the nervous,
mufcular, and cuticular coats. The veins are by fome
anatomifls deferibed as having the fame number of
coats as the arteries; but as they do not feem to be
irritable, we cannot with propriety fuppofe them to
have a mufcular tunic. We are aware of Dr Verf-
chuir’s experiments to prove that the jugular and fome * De
other veins poffefs a certain degree of irritability; butt^iarum
it is certain, 'that his experiments, repeated by others,
have produced a different refult; and even he himfelf4t0ia ’'
allows, that fometimes he was unable to diftinguiffi any
fueh property in the veins. Both thefe feries of vef¬
fels are nourifhed by ftiil more minute arteries and veins,
which are feen creeping over their coats, and ramifying
through their whole fubftance, and are called vafa va-
forum; they have likewife many minute branches of
nerves.
The arteries are much ftronger than the veins, and
they feem to require this force to be enabled to refill
the impetus with which the blood circulates through
them, and to impel it on towards the veins.
When the heart contradts, it impels the blood into
the arteries, and fenfibly diftends them ; and thefe vef¬
fels again contradf, as the heart becomes relaxed to re¬
ceive more blood from the auricles ; fo that the caufe
of the contradtion and dilatation of the arteries feems
to be eafy to be underftood, being owing in part to
their own contradlile power, and in part to the adfion
of the heart; but in the veins, the effedts of this im-
pulfe not being fo fenfibly felt, and the veffels them-
felves having little or no contradlile power, the blood
feems to flow in a conftant and equal llream: and this,
together with its paffing gradually from a fmall chan¬
nel into a larger one, feems to be the reafon why the
veins have no pulfatory motion, except the large ones
near the heart; and in thefe it feems to be occafioned
by the motion of the diaphragm, and by the regurgi¬
tation of the blood in the cavas.
Sect.
<c) In the extremities, fome of the deep-feated veins, and aH the fuperficial ones, take a Courfe different
from that of the arteries.
Part IV, ANA'
Of the Sect. XII. Of the A Ellon of the Heart, Auricles,
ThQr^- . and Arteries.
% *J4* The heart, at the time it contracts, drives the blood
from its ventricles into the arteries; and the arteries
being thusiilled and diftended, are naturally inclined
to contract the moment the heart begins to dilate, and
ceafes to fupply them with blood. Thefe alternate mo¬
tions of contraction and dilatation of the heart and ar¬
teries, are diftinguilhed by the names of fyjlole and dia-
fiole. When the heart is in a ftate of contraction or
fyftole, the arteries are at that inilant diftended with
blood, and in their diaftole; and it is in this ftate we
feel their pulfatory motion, which we call the pulfe.
When the heart dilates, and the arteries contraCt, the
blood is impelled onwards into the veins, through' which
it is returned back to the heart. While the heart,
however, is in its fyftole, the blood cannot pafs from
the veins into the ventricles, but is detained in the au¬
ricles, which are two refervoirs formed for this ufe,
till the, diaftole, or dilatation of the heart, takes place ;
and then the diftended auricles contraCt, and drive the
blood into the ventricles: fo that the auricles have an
alternate fyftole and diaftole as well as the heart.
Although both the ventricles of the heart contraCt
at the fame time, yet the blood paffes from one to the
other. In the fame moment, for inftance, that the
left ventricle drives the blood into the aorta, the right
ventricle impels it into the pulmonary artery, which
is diftributed through all the fubftance of the lungs.
The blood is afterwards brought back into the left ven¬
tricle by the pulmonary vein, at the fame time that
the blood is returned by the cavas, into the right ven¬
tricle, from all the other parts of the body.
This feems to be the mode of aCtion of the heart
and its veflels: but the caufe of this aCtion has, like
all other intricate and interefting fubjeCts, been differ¬
ently explained. It feems to depend on the ftimulus
made on the different parts of the heart by the blood
itfelf, which by its quantity and heat, or other proper¬
ties (d), is perhaps capable of firft exciting that mo¬
tion, which is afterwards continued through life, inde¬
pendent of the will, by a regular return of blood to
the auricles, in a quantity proportioned to that which
is thrown into the arteries.
The heart poffeffes the vis injita, or principle of ir¬
ritability, in a much greater degree than any other
mufcle of the body. The pulfe is quicker in young
than in old fubjeCts, becaufe the former are cat- par.
more irritable than the latter. Upon the fame prin¬
ciple we may explain, why the pulfe is conftantly
quicker in weak than in robuft perfons.
Sect. XIII. Of the Circulation.
C2J. After what has been obferved of the ftruChire and
aCtion of the heart and its auricles, and likewife of the
Von. I. Part II.
r O M Y. 753
arteries and veins, there feem to be but very few argu- Of the
ments required to demonftrate the circulation of the Thorax.
blood, which has long iince been eftabliftied as a medi- '
cal truth. This circulation may be defined to be a
perpetual motion of the blood, in confequence of the
aClion of the heart and arteries, which impel it through
all the parts of the body, from whence it is brought
back by the veins to the heart.
A very fatisfaCtory proof of this circulation, and a
proof eafy to be underftood, may be deduced from the
different effedls of preffure on an artery and a vein. If
a ligature, for inftance, is paffed round an artery, the
veflel fwells confiderably between the ligature and the
heart; whereas if we tie up a vein, it only becomes
filled between the extremity and the ligature, and this v
is what we every day obferve in bleeding. The liga¬
ture we pafs round the arm on thefe occafions, eom-
prefl'es the fuperficial veins; and the return of the blood
through them being impeded, they become diftended-
When the ligature is too loofe, the veins are not fuf-
ficiently compreffed, and the blood continues its pro-
grefs towards the heart; and, on the contrary, when
it is made too tight, the arteries themfelves become
compreffed ; and the flow of the blood through them
being impeded, the veins cannot be diftended.
Another phenomenon, which effeftually proves the
circulation, is the lofs of blood that every living ani¬
mal fuftains by opening only a Angle artery of a mode¬
rate fize ; for it continues to flow from the wounded
veffel till the equilibrium is deftroyed which is effential
to life. This truth was not unknown to the ancients;
and it feems ftrange that it did not lead them to a
knowledge of the circulation, as it fufficiently proves,
that all the other veffels muft communicate with that
which is opened. Galen, who lived more than 1500
years ago, drew this conclufton from it ; and if we far¬
ther obferve, that he deferibes (after Erafiftratus, who
fiouriftied about 450 years before him) the feveral valves
of the heart, and determines their dilpofition and ufes,
it will appear wonderful, that a period of near 2000
years ftiould afterwards elapfe before the true courfe
of the blood was afeertained. This difeovery, for
which we are indebted to the immortal Harvey, has
thrown new lights on phyliology and the doctrine of
difeafes, and conftitutes one of the moft important pe¬
riods of anatomical hiftory.
Sect. XIV. Of the Nature of the Blood.
Blood, recently drawn from a vein, into a bafon, *26,
would feem to be an homogeneous fluid of a red co¬
lour ( e ); but when fuffered to reft, it foon coagulates,
and divides into two parts, which are diftinguifhed by
the names of crafamentum and ferum. The craffamen-
tum is the red coagulum, and the ferum is the water
in which it floats. Each of thefe may be again fepa-
rated into two others; for the craffamentum, by being
5 C repeatedly
( d) Dr Harvey long ago fuggefted, that the blood is poffeffed of a living principle ; and Mr J. Hunter has
lately endeavoured to revive this doftrine ; in fupport of which he has adduced many ingenious arguments.
The fubjeft is a curious one, and deferves to be profecuted as an inquiry which cannot but be interefling to
phyfiologifts.
{ e ) The blood, as it flows through the arteries, is obferved to be more florid than it is in the veins; and'
this rednefs is acquired in its paffage through the lungs. Fid. left, vii.
754 A N A T
Of the repeatedly wafhed in warm water, gives out all its red
Thorax. globules, and what remains appears to be compofed of
the coagulable lymph (f), which is a gelatinous fub-
ilance, capable of being hardened by fire till it becomes
perfeftly horny : and if we expofe the ferum to a cer¬
tain degree of heat, part of it will be found to coagu¬
late like the white of an egg, and there will remain a
clear and limpid water, refembling urine both in its ap¬
pearance and fmell.
The ferum and craffamentum differ in their propor¬
tion in different conllitutions; in a ftrong perfon, the
craffamentum is in a greater proportion to the ferum
* Heivfons than in a weak one *; and the fame difference is found
impartI.to ta^e pk‘cc difeafes (g).
Sect. XV. Of Nutrition.
Jar* The variety of funtlions which we have defcribed
as being inceffantly performed by the living body, and
the continual circulation of the blood through it, muff
neceffarily occafion a conftant difiipation of the feveral
parts which enter into its compofition. In fpeaking
of the infenfible perfpiration, we obfcrved how much
was inceffantly paffing off from the lungs and the fur-
face of the (kin. The difcharge by urine is likewife
every day confiderable ; and great part of the bile, fa-
liva, &c. are excluded by ftool. But the folid, as well
as the fluid parts of the body, require a conftant re¬
newal of nutritious particles. They are expofed to the
attrition of the fluids which are circulated through
them ; and the contraction and relaxation they repeat
fo many thoufand times in every day, would neceffarily
occafion a diffolution of the machine, if the renewal
was not proportioned to the wafte.
It is eafy to conceive how the chyle formed from
the aliment is affimilated into the nature of blood, and
repairs the lofs of the fluid parts of our body; but
how the folids are renewed, has never yet been fatis-
fa&orily explained. The nutritious parts of the blood
are probably depofited by the arteries by exfudation
through their pores into the tela cellulofa; and as the
iolid parts of the body are in the embryo only a kind
of jelly, which gradually acquires the degree of con-
fiftence they are found to have when the body arrives
O M Y. Part IV.
at a more advanced age ; and thefe fame parts which Of th®
confift of bones, cartilages, ligaments, mufcles, &c.. rax‘ f
are fometimes reduced again by difeafe to a gelatinous
ftate; we may, with fome degree of probability, coh-
fider the coagulable lymph as the fource of nutrition.
If the fupply of nouriftiment exceeds the degree of
wafte, the body increafes; and this happens in infancy
and in youth : for at thofe periods, but more particu¬
larly the former one, the fluids bear a large proponion
to the folids; and the fibres being foft and yielding,
are proportionably more capable of extenfion and in-
creafe. But when the fupply of nutrition only equals
the wafte, we neither increafe nor decreafe; and we
find this to be the cafe when the body has attained its
full growth or acme: for the folids having then acqui¬
red a certain degree of firmnefs and rigidity, do not
permit a farther increafe of the body. But as we ap¬
proach to old age, rigidity begins to be in excefs, and
the fluids (h) bear a much lefs proportion to the folids
than before. The diffipation of the body is greater
than the fupply of nouriftiment; many of the fmaller
veffelsbecome gradually impervious (i) ; and the fibres
lofing their moifture and their elafticity, appear flaccid
and wrinkled. The lilies and the rofes difappear, be-
caufe the fluids by which they were produced can no
longer reach the extremities of the capillary veffels of
the flein. As thefe changes take place, the nervous
power being proportionably weakened, the irritability
and fenfibility of the body, which were formerly fo re¬
markable, are greatly diminiftied; and in advanced
life, the hearing, the eye-fight, and all the other fen-
fes, become gradually impaired.
Sect. XVI. Of the Glands and Secretions.
The glands are commonly underftood to be fmall,
roundifti, or oval bodies, formed by the convolution of
a great number of veffels, and deftined to feparate par¬
ticular humours from the mafs of blood.
They are ufually divided into two claffes; but it
feems more proper to diftinguiih three kinds of glands,
viz. the mucous, conglobate, and conglomerate.
The mucous glands, or follicles as they are moft
commonly called, are fmall cylindrical tubes continued
from
-(f) It may not be improper to obferve, that till of late the ceagulalle lymph has been confounded with the
ferum of the blood, which contains a fubftance that is likewife coagulable, though only when expofed to heat,
or combined with certain chemical fubfiances; whereas the other coagulates fpontaneoufly when expofed to the
air or to reft.
( g ) When the blood feparates into ferum and crajfamentum, if the latter be covered with a cruft of a whi-
tifh or buff colour, it has been ufually confidered as a certain proof of the blood’s being in a ftate of too great
vifeidity. This appearance commonly taking place in inflammatory difeafes, has long ferved to confirm the
theory which aferibes the caufe of inflammation to lentor and obftru&ions. But from the late Mr Hewfqn’s
experiments it appears, that when the aftion of the arteries is increafed, the blood, inftead of being more vif-
cid, is, on the contrary, more fluid than in the ordinary ftate, previous to inflammation: and that in confe-
quence of this, the coagulable lymph fuffers the red globules, which are the heavieft part of the blood, to fall
down to the bottom before it coagulates: fo that the craffamentum is divided into two parts; one of which is
found to confift of the coagulable lymph alone (in this cafe termed the huff) ; and the other, partly of this and
partly of the red globules.
( h ) As the fluids become lefs in proportion to the folids, their acrimony is found to increafe ; and this may
perhaps compenfate for the want of fluidity in the blood, by diminiftiing its cohefion.
(i) In infancy, the arteries are numerous and large in refpett to the veins, and the lymphatic glands are
larger than at any other time of life ; whereas, in old age, the capacity of the venous fyftem exceeds that of
the arteries, and the lymphatic fyftem almoft difappears.
Part IV. A -N A
Of the from the ends of arteries. In fome parts of the body,
7 k01'^- , as in the tonfils, for example, feveral of thefe follicles
v may be feen folded together in one common covering,
and opening into one common finus. Thefe follicles
are the veffels that fecrete and pour out mucus in the
mouth, cefophagus, ftomach, inteftines, and other parts
of the body.
The conglobate glands are peculiar to the lymphatic
fyftem. Every lymphatic vein paffes through a gland
of this kind in its way to the thoracic dudt. They are
met with in different parts of the body, particularly
in the axilla, groin, and mefentery, and are either fo-
litaryor in diftintt clufters.
The conglomerate glands are of much greater bulk
than the conglobate, and feem to be an alfemblage of
many fmaller glands. Of this kind are the liver, kid-
nies, &c. Some of them, as the pancreas, parotids,
&c. have a granulated appearance. All thefe conglo¬
merate glands are plentifully fupplied with blood-
Teffels; but their nerves are in general very minute,
and few in number. Each little granulated portion
furnifhes a fmall tube, which unites with other fimilar
dudls, to form the common excretory du£l of the
gland.
The principal glands, and the humours they fecrete,
have been already defcrjbed in different parts of this
work ; and there only remains for us to examine the
general llrutture of the glands, and to explain the me-
chanifm of fecreti-on. On the firft of thefe fubjedts
two different fyftems. have been formed; each of which
lias had, -and Hill continue to have, its adherents.
One of thefe fyftems was advanced by Malpighi, who
fuppofed that an artery entering into a gland ramifies
very minutely through its whole fubftance; and that
its branches ultimately terminate in a veficular cavity
or follicle, from whence the fecreted fluid paffes out
through the excretory dudt. This doftrine at firft
met with few opponents; but the celebrated Ruyfch,
who firft attempted minute injedtlons with wax, after¬
wards difputed the exiftence of thefe follicles, and af-
ferted, that every gland appears to be a continued fe~
■ries of veffels, which after being repeatedly convoluted
in their courfe through'its fubftance, at length termi¬
nate in the excretory dudt. Anatomifts are ftill di¬
vided between thefe two fyftems: that of Malpighi, how¬
ever, feems to be the beft founded.
The mode of fecretion has been explained in a va¬
riety of ways, nnd they are all perfectly hypothetical.
In fuch an inquiry, it is natural to afk, how one gland
•conftantly fepai ates a particular humour, while another
gland fecretes one of a very different nature from the
blood? The bile, for inftance, is feparated by the
Ever, and the urine by the kidneys. Are thefe fecre-
tions to be imputed to any particular difpofition in the
fluids, or is their caufe to be looked for in the folids?
It has bedn fuppofed, that every gland contains
within itfelf a fermenting principle, by which it is
enabled to change the nature of the blood it receives,
and to endue it with a particular property. So that,
according to this fyftem, the blood, as it circulates
through the kidneys, becomes mixed with the ferment¬
ing principle of thofe glands, and a part of it is con-
• . verted into urine; and again, in the liver, in the fa-
-HvaJ and other glands, the bile, the faliva, and other
T O M Y. 755
juices, are generated from a fimilar caufe. But it feems Of 'be
to be impoffible for any liquor to be confined in a'Thorax. ^
place expofed to the circulation, without being car-
ried away by the torrent of blood, eyery part of which
would be equally a fleeted; and this fyftem of fermen¬
tation has long been reje&ed as vague and chimerical.
But as the caufe of fecretion continued to be looked
for in the fluids, the former fyftem was fucceeded by
another, in which recourfe was had to the analogy of
the humours. It was obferved, that if paper is moift-
ened with water, and oil and water are afterwards
poured upon it, that the water only will be permitted
to pafs through it; but that, on the other hand, if the
paper has been previoufly foaked in oil inftead of water, '
the. oil only, and not the water, will be filtered through
it. Thefe obfervatxons led to a fuppofition, that every
fecretory organ is originally furnifhed with a humour
analogous to that which it is afterwards deftined to
feparate from the blood ; and that in confequence of
this difpofition, the fecretory veffels of the liver, for
inftance, will only admit the bilious particles of the
blood, while all the other humours will be excluded.
This fyftem is an ingenious one, but the difficulties
with which it abounds are unanfwerable: for oil and
water are immifcible ; whereas the blood, as it is cir¬
culated through the body, appears to be an homoge¬
neous fluid. Every oil will pafs through a paper
moiftened only with one kind of oil; and wine, or
fpirits mixed with water, will eafily be filtered through
a paper previoufly foaked in water. Upon the fame
principle, all our humours, though differing in their
other properties, yet agreeing in that of being perfect¬
ly mifcible with each other, will all eafily pals through
the fame filtre.—But thefe are not all the objections
to this fyftem. The humours which are fuppofed to
be placed in the fecretory veffels for the determination
of fimilar particles from the blood, mull be originally
feparated without any analogous fluid ; and that which
happens once, may as eafily happen always. Again,
it fometimes happens, from a vicious difpofition, that
humours are filtered through glands which arc natu¬
rally not intended to afford them a paffage; and when
this once has happened, it ought, according to this
fyftem, to be expeCted always to do fo : whereas this
is not the cafe ; and we are, after all, naturally led to
feek for the caufe of fecretion in the folids. It does
not feem right to aferibe it to any particular figure of
the fecretory veflels; becaufe the foft texture of thofe
parts does not permit them to preferve any conftant
lhape, and our fluids feem to be capable of accommo¬
dating themfelves to every kind of figure. Some have
imputed it to the difference of diameter in the orifices
of the different fecretory veffels. To this doftrine
objeftions have likewife been raifed; and it has been
argued, that the veffels of the liver, for inftance, would,
upon this principle, afford a paffage not only to the
bile, but to all the other humours of lefs confiftence
with it. In reply to this objection, it has been fuppo¬
fed, that fecondary veffels exift, which originate from
the firft, and permit all the humours thinner than the
bile to pafs through them.
Each of tbefe hypothefes is probably very remote
from the truth.
5C 2
EX PLANA-
756 ANA T
Of the
Por^ , EXPLANATION
This Plate rep^fentsthe Heart in fitu, all the .large
Arteries and Veins, with feme of the Mufcles, &c.
Muscles, &c.—Superior Extremity.—a, Maf-
feter. b, Complexus. C, Digattricus. d, Os hyoides.
e. Thyroid gland, f. Levator fcapulae. g, Cuculla- .
ris. hh, The clavicles cut. i, The deltoid rmifcle.
k, Biceps flexor cubiti cut. 1, Coraco-brachialis.
m, Triceps- extenfor cubiti. n, The heads of the pro¬
nator teres, flexor carpi fadiales, and flexor digitorum
fublimus, cut. o, The flexor carpi uhiaris, cut at its
extremity. p» Flexor digitorum profundus, q, Supi¬
nator radii longue, cut at its extremity, r, Ligamen-
tum carpi tranfverfale. s, Extenfores carpi radiales.
t, Latiflimus dorfi. u, Anterior edge of the ferratus
anticus major, vv, The inferior part of the dia¬
phragm. ww. Its anterior edge cut. x x, The kid¬
neys. y, Tranfverfus abdominis, z, Os ilium.
Inferior Extremity.—a, Pfoas magnus. l> I-
liacus internus. c. The flelhy origin of the tenfor va¬
ginas femoris. d d. The offa pubis cut from each other.
t, Mufculus peftineus cut from its origin. fy Short
head of the triceps addu&or femoris cut. g. The great
head of the triceps, /i, The long head cut. /, Valias
internus. k, Valias externus. /, Crureus. m. Gemel¬
lus. «, Soleus. o. Tibia, p, Peronaeus longus. q, Pe-
ronasus brevis, r. Fibula.
Heart and Blood-vessels.—A, the heart, with-
the coronary arteries and veins. B, The right auricle
of the heart. C, The aorta- afeendens. 1), The left
fubclavian artery. E, The left carotid artery. F, The
common trunk which fends off the right fubclavian and
O M Y, Part IV.
Of the
of PLATE XXIII. ThQra^ ,
right carotid arteries. G, The caret is externa. H, Ar-
teria facialis, which fends off the coronary arteries of
the lips. I, Arteria temporalis profunda. K, Aor¬
ta defeendens. L L, The iliac arteries,—which fend
off M M, The femoral or crural arteries. N. B. The
other arteries in this figure have the fame diftribution as-
the veins of the fame name : — And generally, in the
anatomical plates, the defeription to be found on the
one fide, points out the fame parts in the other,
i, The frontal vein. 2, The facial vein. 3, Vena
temporalis profunda. 4, Vena occipitalis. 5, Vena
jugularis externa. 6, Venajugularis interna, covering
the arteria carotis communis. 7, The vafcular arch on
the palm of the hand, which is formed by, 8, the radial
artery and vein, and, 9, the ulnar artery and vein.
1010, Cephalic vein, r r, Bafilic vein, that on the
right fide, cut. 12, Median vein. 13, The humeral
vein, which, with the median, covers the humeral ar¬
tery. 14 14, The external thoracic or mammary, ar¬
teries and veins. 15, The axillary vein, covering the
artery. 16 16, The fubclav-ian veins, which, with
(6 6) the jugulars, form, 17, The vena cava fupe-
rior. 18, The cutaneous arch of veins on the fore part
of the foot. 19, The vena tibialis antica, covering
the artery. 20, The vena profunda femoris, covering
the artery. 21, The upper part of the vena faphena
major. 22, The femoral vein. 23 23, The iliac
veins. 34 24, Vena cava inferior. 25 25, The renal
veins covering the arteries. 26 26, The diaphragma¬
tic veins.
PART V. Of the BPn.AIN and NERVES.
Sect.!. Of the Brain and its Tntcguments.
229. 'T'1 HE bones of the cranium were deferibed in the o-
fteological part of this work, as inclofing the brain,
and defending it from external injury : but they are not
its only protection; for wlien we make an horizontal
fection through thefe bones, we find this mafs every-
Jntegu- where furrounded by two membranes ( k), the dura and
ments of pja mater.—The firft of thefe lines the interior furface
the bra:n. o£ t](e cranjum> to which it everywhere adheres ftrong-
ly (l), but more particularly at the futures, and at the
many foramina through which veffels pafs between it
and the pericranium. The dura mater ( m ) is perfect¬
ly fmooth and inelaftic, and its inner furface is conflant-
ly bedewed with a fine pellucid fluid, which everywhere
feparates it from the pia mater. The dura mater fends*
off feveral confiderable proceffes, which divide the brain
into feparate portions, and prevent them from compref-
fing each other. Of thefe procefles there is one fupe*
rior and longitudinal, called the fahy or falciform pro~
cefs, from its refemblance to a feythe. It arifes from
the fpine of the os frontis, near the crifta galli, and ex¬
tending along in the direction of the fagittal future, to
beyond the lamboidal future, divides the brain into two
hemif-
(k) The Greeks called thefe membranes meninges; but the Arabians, fuppofing them to be the fource of all
the other membranes of the body, afterwards gave them the names qf dura and pia mater ; by which they are
now ufually diflinguiihed.
(u) In young fubjects this adhefion is greater than in adults ; but even then, in the healthy fubjefl, it is no
where eafily feparable, without breaking through fome of the minute veffels by means of which it is attached to
the bone.
(M)This membrane is commonly deferibed as confifting of two laminae; of which the external.one is fuppo-
fed to perform the office of perioffeum internum to the cranium, while the internal one forms the folds and
proceffes of the dura mater. In the natural ftate, however, no fuch feparation is apparent; like other mem¬
branes, we may indeed divide it, not into two only, but many laminae} but this divilion artificial, and depend*
«n the dexterity of the anatomiff.
Anatomy.
Plate XXDI.
://&// Jo,,//,'
'an V. A N A 1
f the hemifpherfs, A little below the lamboidal future, it
ham and jnt-0 jwo broad wings or expanfions called the
tranjverfe or lateralprocefjes, which prevents the lobes
of the cerebrum from preffing on the cerebellum. Be-
fides thefc there is a fourth, which is fituated-under
the tranfverfe proceffes, amd being continued to the
fpine of the occiput, divides the cerebellum into two
lobes.
The blood, after being diftributed through the ca¬
vity of the cranium by means of the arteries, is return¬
ed, as in the other parts of the body, by veins which
all pafs on to certain channels, fituated behind thefe fe-
veral proceffes,
Thefe canals or finufes communicate with each other,
and empty themfelves into the internal jugular veins,
which convey the blood into the vena cava. They are
in fa£t triangular veins, running through the fubftance
of the dura mater, and, like the proceffes, are diftin-
guifhed into longitudinal and lateral; and where thefe
three meet, and where the fourth procefs paffes off, we
obferve a fourth firms, which is called torcular; Hero-
hilus, who firft defcribed it, having fuppofed that the
lood at the union of thefe two veins, is, as it were, in
a prefs.
Befides thefe four canals, which were known to the
ancients, modern anatomifts enumerate many others, by
giving the appellation offinufes to other veins of the
dura mater, which for the moft part empty themfelves
into feme of thofe we have juft now defcribed. There
are the inferior longitudinal finus, the fuperior and in¬
ferior petrous finufes, the cavernous finufes, the circu¬
lar finus, and the anterior and pofterior occipital fi¬
nufes.
Thefe finufes or veins, by being conveyed through a
•thick denfe membrane, firmly fufpended, as the dura
mater is, within the cranium, are lefs liable to rupture;
at the fame time they are well fuJSported, and by run¬
ning everywhere along the inner furface of the bones,
they are prevented from preffing on the fubftance of the
brain. To prevent too great a dilatation,of them, we
find filaments (called chord# Willifi, from their having
been firft noticed by Willis) ftretched acrofs their ca¬
vities ; and the oblique manner in which the veins from
the brain run through the fubftance of the brain into
thefe channels, ferves the purpofe of a valve, which pre¬
vents the blood from turning back into the fmaller and
weaker veffels of the brain.
The pi a mater is a much fofter and finer membrane
than the dura mater ; being exceedingly delicate, tran-
fparent, and vafcular. It invefts every part of the brain,
and fends off an infinite number of elongations, which
infinuate themfelves between the convolutions, and even
into the fubltance of the brain. This membrane is
compofed of two laminse; of which the exterior one is
named tunica arachnoidea, from its thinnefs, which is
equal to that of a fpider’s web. Thefe two laminse are
intimately adherent to each other at the upper part of-
the brain, but are eafily feparable at the bafis of the
brain, and through the whole length of the medulla fpi-
nalis. The external layer, or tunica arachnoidea, ap¬
pears to be fpread uniformly over the furface of the
brain, but without entering into its furrows as the in¬
ner layer dbes ; the latter being found to infinuate it-
felf between the convolutions, and even into the inte¬
rior cavities of the braim The blood-veffels of the
' .0 .M Y- . . 757
brain are diftributed through it in their way to that or-Or the
gan, and are therefore divided into very minute rami- ^.ves™*
fications, before they penetrate the fubftance of the er S~ j
brain.
There are feveral parts included under the general The braj*
denomination of brain. One of thefe, which is of the
fofteft confiftence, and fills the greateft part of the ca¬
vity of the cranium, is the cerebrum, or brain properly
fo called. Another portion, which is feated in the in¬
ferior and pofterior part of the head, is the cerebellum;
and a third, which derives its origin from both theft,is
the medulla oblongata.
The cerebrum is a medullary mafs of a moderate con- Cerebru®,-
fiftence, filling up exaftly all the upper part of the ca¬
vity of the cranium, and divided into two hemifpheres
by the falx of the dura mater. Each of thefe hemif¬
pheres is ufually dillinguiflied into an inferior, a middle,
and a pofterior lobe. The firft of thefe is lodged on the
orbital proceffes of the os frontis ; the middle lobes lie
in the middle foffe of the bafis of the cranium, and the
pofterior lobes are placed on the tranfverfe feptum of
the os occipitis, immediately over the cerebellum, from
which they are feparated by the lateral proceffes of the
dura mater. Thefe two portions afford no diftinguifti-
ing markt>f reparation;- and on this account Haller, and
many other modern anatomifts, omit the diftinftion of
middle lobe, and fpeak only of the anterior and pofte¬
rior lobes of the brain-
The cerebrum appears to be compofed of two di-
ftinft fubftances. Of thefe, the exterior one, which is
of a greyifti or alb-colour, is called the cortex, and is
fomewhat fofter than the other, which is very white,
and is called medulla, or fubjlantia alba.
After having removed the falx, and feparated the
two hemifpheres from each other, we perceive a white
convex body, the corpus callofum, which is a portion
of the medullary fubftance, uniting the two hemifpheres
to each other, and not invefted by the cortex. By
making an horizontal incifion in the brain, on a level
with this corpus callofum, we dsfeover two oblong ca¬
vities, named the anterior or lateral ventricles, one in
each hemifphere. Thefe two ventricles, which com¬
municate with each other by a hole immediately under
the plexus choroides, are feparated laterally by a very
fine medullary partition, called feptum lucidum, from its
thinnefs and tranfparency. The lower edge of this
feptum is fixed to the fornix, which is a kind of me¬
dullary arch (as its name implies) fituated under the
corpus callofum, and nearly of a triangular lhape. An¬
teriorly the fornix fends off two medullary chords, cal¬
led its anterior crura; which feem to be united to each
other by a portion of medullary fubftance, named com-
mijfura anterior cerebri. Thefe crura, diverging from
one another, are loft at the outer fide of the lower and
fore-part of the third ventricle. Pofteriorly the fornix
is formed into two other crura, which unite with two
medullary protuberances called pedes hippocampi, and
fometimes oomua ammonis, that extend along the back-
part of the lateral ventricles. The concave edge of the
pedes hippocampi is covered by a medullary lamina, •
called corpus jbnbriatum.
Neither the edges of the fornix,, nor its pofterio?
crura, can be well diftinguiftied, till we have removed
the plexus choroides. This is a production of the pia
mater, which is fpread over the lateral ve-ntricks. Its
look
758
Of the "
Brain and
Nerves.
* Difp. de
Infundibula
f Ratio
Med.
tom. vi.
p.>71. '
A N A T O M Y.
Part Vr
loofe edges are colte&ed, fo as to appear like a vafcular
band on each Tide.
j When we have removed this plexus, we difcover fe-
veral other protuberances included in the.Literal ven¬
tricles. Tiiefe are the corpora llriata, the thalami ner¬
vorum opticorum, the tubercula quadrugemina, and the
pineal-gland.
'£h.z cvrpcra Jlriata arc two curved oblong eminences,
that extend along the anterior part of the lateral ven¬
tricles. They derive their name from their llriated ap¬
pearance, which is owing to an intermixture of the cor¬
tical and medullary fubftances of the brain. The tha-
lami ntrvoruvi opticorum, are fo called, becaufe the op¬
tic nerves arife chiefly from them, and they are like-
wife compofed both of the cortex and medulla. They
are feparated from the' corpora ftriata only by a kind
of medullary chord, the geminum centrum femi-circu-
lare. The thalami are nearly of an oval fliape, and are
lituated at the bottom of the upper cavity of the late¬
ral ventricles. They are clofely united,, and at their
■convex part feem to become one body.
Anteriorly, in the fpace between the thalami, we
obferve an orifice by which the lateral ventricles com¬
municate, and another leads down from this, under the
different appellations of foramen commune antcrius, vul¬
va, iter ad infundibulum, but more properly iter ad ter-
tium ventrkulum; and the feparation of the thalami
from each other pofteriorly, forms another opening or
-interftice called amis. This has been fuppofed to com¬
municate with the third ventricle; but it does not, the
bottom of it being flmt up by the pia mater. The
back-part of the anus is formed by a kind of medullary
band, which connects the thalami to each other, and is
called commijfura pojlerior cerebri.
Behind the thalami and commiffura pofterior, we
obferve a fmall, foft, greyiib, and oval body, about the
fize of a pea. This is the glandula pinealis; it is de-
feribed by Galen under the name of conarioti, and has
been rendered famous by Defcartes, who fuppofed it
to be the feat of the fold. Galen teems formerly to
have entertained the fame opinion. Some modern
writers have, with as little reafon, imagined that the
foul is placed in the corpus callofum.
The pineal gland reils upon four remarkable emi¬
nences, difpofed in pairs, and feated immediately below
it. Thefe tubercles, which by the ancients were called
tefles and nates, have, fince the time of Window, been
more commonly named tubercula quadrugemina.
Under the thalami we obferve another cavity, the
third ventricle, which terminates anteriorly in a fmall
medullary canal, the infundibulum, that leads to the
glandula pituitaria. It has been doubted, whether the
infundibulum is really hollow ; but fome late experi¬
ments on this part of the brain * by Profeffor Murray
of Upfal, clearly prove it to be a medullary canal, fur-
rounded by both laminae of the pia mater. After free¬
zing the brain, this channel was found filled with ice ;
and de Haen tells f us, he found it dilated, and filled
with a calcareous matter (n).
The foft fpongy body in which the infundibulum
terminates, was by the ancients fuppofed to be of a Of the mr
glandular ftruefure, and deftined to filter the ferofity of
the brain. Spigelius pretended to have difeovered its 'N' rv''s' Mfr-
excretory duft, but it feerns certain that no fuch daft |M|
exifts. It is of an oblong fhape, compofed, as it were,
of two lobes. In ruminant animals it is much larger
than in man.
From the pofterior part of the third ventricle, we fee
a fmall groove or channel, defeending obliquely back¬
wards. This channel, which is called the aquedutt of
Sylvius, though it was known to the ancients, opens
into another cavity of the brain, placed between the
cerebellum and medulla oblongata, and called the fourth
ventricle. 133 ■[
The cerebellum, which is divided into two. lobes, is Cerebellum}:
commonly fuppofed to be of a firmer texture than the
cerebrum ; but the truth is, that in the greater number
jof fubjedls, there appears to be no fenfible difference ia
the confiftence of thefe. two parts. It has more of the
conical than of the medullary fubftance in its compoii-
tion.
The furrow that divides the two lobes of the cere¬
bellum leads anteriorly to a procefs, compofed of me¬
dullary and cortical fubftances, covered by the pia ma¬
ter ; and which, from its being divided into numerous
furrows, refembling the rings of the earth-worm, is
named prorefus vermiformis. This procefs forms a
kind of ring in its courfe between the lobes.
The furface of the cerebellum does not afford thofe
.circumvolutions which appear in the cerebrum ; but
inllead of thefe, we obferve a great number of minute
furrows, running parallel to each other, and nearly in
a tranfverfe direction. The. pia mater infinuates itfelf
into thefe furrows.
When we cut into the fubftance of the cerebellum,
from above downwards, we find the medullary part
running in a kind of ramifying courfe, and exhibiting
an appearance that has gotten the name of arbor vitce.
Thefe ramifications unite to form a medullary trunk ;
the middle, anterior, and moft confiderable part of
which forms two proceffes, the crura cerebelli, which
unite with the crura cerebri, to form the medulla ob¬
longata. The reft furniftres two other proceffes, which
lofe themfelves under the nates, and thus unite the
lobes of the cerebellum to the pofterior part of the ce¬
rebrum. Under the nates we obferve a tranfverfe me¬
dullary line, or linea alba, running from one of thefe
proceffes to the other ; and between them we find a
very thin medullary lamina, covered with the pia ma¬
ter, which the generality of anatomifts have (though
feemingly without reafon) confidered as a valve formed
for doling the communication between the fourth ven¬
tricle and the aqiuedudlus Sylvii. Yieuffens named it
valvula major cerebri. |
The medulla oblongata is fituated in the middle, Medulla m
lower, and pofterior part of the cranium, and may be oblongata. J
confidered as a produ&ion or continuation of the
whole medullary fubftance of the cerebrum and cere¬
bellum, being formed by the union of two confiderable
medullary proceffes of the cerebrum, called crura cere¬
bri.
(n) The under part of it, however, appears to be impervious ; at leaft no inje&ion that can be depended o*
has been made to pafs from it into the glandula pituitaria without laceration of parts.
itrt V. ANATOMY. 759
the bri, with two other fmaller ones from the cerebellum,
am and were iufl; now fpoken of under the name of cru-
'rv'^s' ra cerebelli.
The crura cerebri arife from the middle and lower
part of each hemifphere. They are feparated from each
1, other at their origin, but are united below, where they
terminate in a middle protuberance, the pons Varolii,
fo called, becaufe Varolius compared it to a bridge.
This name, however, can convey no idea of its real
appearance. ' It is, in fact, nothing more than a me-
I dullary protuberance, nearly of a femi-fpherical ihape,
which unites the crura cerebri to thofe of the cere¬
bellum.
Between the crura cerebri, and near the anterior
|; edge of the pons Varolii, are two tubercles, compofed
externally of medullary, and internally of cineritious,
fubftance, to which Euftachius firft gave the name of
l|s eminent! te mamillares.
Along the middle of the pofterior furface of the me-
|j dulla oblongata, where it forms the anterior part of
the fourth ventricle, we obferve a kind of furrow
which runs downwards and terminates in a point. A-
bout an inch above the lower extremity of this fiffure,
I* feveral medullary filaments are to be feen running to¬
wards it on each fide in an oblique dire&ion, fo as to
| give it the appearance of a writing-pen; hence it is
R; called calamus fcriptorius.
From the polterior part of the pons Varolii, the me-
|lp dulla oblongata defcends obliquely backwards ; at its
Sr fore-part, immediately behind the pons Varolii, we ob-
ferve two pair of eminences, which were defcribed by
II Eullachius, but received no particular appellation till
the time of Vieuffens, who gave them the names of
corpora olivaria and corpora pyramidalia. The former
jj) ^re the outermoft, being placed one on each fidew
I t They are nearly of an oval fhape, and are compofed
I ■ of medulla, with ftreaks of cortical fubftance. Be-
j|t tween thefe are the corpora pyramidalia, each of
vdiich terminates in a point. In the human fubjeft
lij thefe four eminences are fometimes not eafily dittin-
135 guilhed.
Jfeclulla The medulla fpinalis, or fpinal marrorw, which is
liljtoalis. the name given to the medullary chord that is extend-
|j; ed down the vertebral canal, from the great foramen
of the occipital bone to the bottom of the laft lumbar
\it vertebra, is a continuation of the medulla oblongata.
Like the other parts of the brain, it is invefted by the
dura and pia mater. The firft of thefe, in its paffage
out of the Cranium, adheres to the foramen of the os
occipitis. Its connexion wuth the ligamentary fub¬
ftance that lines the cavity of the fpine, is only by
[1 means of cellular membrane ; but between the feveral
vertebrae, where the nerves pafs out of the fpine, it
fends off prolongations, which adhere ftrongly to the
vertebral ligaments. Here, as in the cranium, the
dura mater has. its finufes or large veins. Thefe are
5
two in number, and are feen running on each fide of^f the
the medullary column, from the foramen magnum of^T*1”^
the os occipitis to the lower part of the os facrum. ^ 
They communicate together by ramifying branches at
each vertebra, and terminate in the vertebral, interco-
ftal, and facral veins.
The pia mater is connedted with the dura mater by
means of a thin tranfparent fubftance, which from its
indentations between the fpinal nerves has obtained
the name of ligamentum denticulatum. It is fomewhat
firmer than the tunica arochnoidea, but in other re-
fpedts refembles that membrane. Its ufe is to fupport
the fpinal'marrow, that it may not affedl the medulla
oblongata by its weight.
The fpinal marrow itfelf is externally of a white co¬
lour ; but upon cutting into it we find its middle-part
compofed of a darker coloured mafs, refembling the
cortex of the brain. When the marrow has reached
the firft lumbar vertebra, it becomes extremely narrow',
and at length terminates in an oblong protuberance ;
from the extremity of which the pia mater fends off
a prolongation or ligament, refembling a nerve, that
perforates the dura mater, and is fixed to the os coc-
Cygis* .... . .
The medulla fpinalis gives rife to 30 or 31 pair of
nerves, but they are not all of the fame fize, nor do
they all run in the fame diredtion. The upper ones
are thinner than the reft, and are placed almoft tranf-
verfely: as we defcend we find them running more
and more obliquely downwards, till at length their
courfe is almoft perpendicular, fo that the lowermbft
nerves exhibit an appearance that is called cauda equina,
from its refe-mblance to a horfe’s tail.
The arteries that ramify through the different parts,
of the brain, are derived from the internal carotid and
from the vertebral arteries. ; The medulla fpinalis is
fupplied by the anterior and pofterior fpinal arteries,
and likewife receives branches from the cervical, the
inferior and fuperior intcreoftal, the lumbar, and the fa¬
cial arteries.
Sect. II. Of the Nerves.
The nerves are medullary chords, differing from - *3^*
each other in fize, colour, and confiftence, and deri¬
ving their origin from the medulla oblongata and me¬
dulla fpinalrs. There are 39, and fometimes 40, parr
of thefe nerves; nine (o) of which originate from the
medulla oblongata, and 30 or 31 from the medulla fpi¬
nalis. They appear to be perfectly inelaftic, and like¬
wife to poffefs no irritability. If we irritate mufcular
fibres, they immediately contraft; but nothing of this;
fort happens ifwTe irritate a nerve. They carry with
them a covering from the pia mater; but derive no tu¬
nic from the dura mater, as hath been generally, tho*
erroneoufly, fuppofed, ever fince the time of Galen ( p.),
ths
(o) It has been ufual to defcribe ten pair of nerves as arifing from the medulla oblongata ; but as the tenth
pair arife in the fame manner as the other fpinal nerves, Santorini, Heifter, Haller, and others, feem very pro¬
perly to have claffed them among the nerves of the fpine.
(p) Baron Haller and Profeffor Zinn feem to have been the firft who demonftrated, that the dura mater is
reflefted upon and adheres to the periofteum at the .edges of the foramina that afford a paffage to the nerves o.ut>
of the cranium and vertebral canal, or is foon loft in the cellular fubftance.
A N A T
the outer covering of the nerves being in faft nothing
more than cellular membrane. This covering is very
„ thick where the nerve is expofed to the action of
mufcles; but where it runs through a bony canal, or is
fecure from preffure, the cellular tunic is extremely thin,
or altogether wanting. We have inftances of this in
the portio mollis tif the auditory nerve, and in the nerves
of the heart.
By elevating, .carefully and gently, the brain from
the balls of the cranium, we find the firft nine pair a-
rifing in the following order : i. The nervi olfactorii,
diftributed through the pituitary membrane, which
conftitutes the organ of fmell. 2. The optici, which
go to the eyes, where they receive the impreffions of
vifible objects. 3. The oculorum motores, fo called
hecaufe they are diftributed to the mufcles of the eye.
4. The pathetic!, diftributed to the fuperior oblique
mufcles of the eyes, the motion of which is exprelfive of
certain paffions of the foul. 5. The nerves of this pair
foon divide into three principal branches, and each of
thefe has a different name. Its upper divifion is theop-
thalamicus, which is diftributed to various parts of the
eyes, eye-lida, fore-head, nofe, and integuments of
the face. The fecond is called the maxillaris fuperior,
and the third maxillaru inferior; both which names al¬
lude to their diftribution. 6. The abduciores; each
of thefe nerves is diftributed to the abductor mufcle of
the eye, fo called, becaufe it helps to draw the globe
of the eye from the nofe. 7. The auditorii (c>_), which
are diftributed through the organs of hearing. 8. The
par vagum, which derives its name from the great
number of parts, to which it gives branches both in
the thorax and abdomen. 9. The linguales, or hypo-
gloffi, which are diftributed to the tongue, and appear
to contribute both to the organ of tafte and to the
motions of the tongue (r).
It has already been obferved, that the fpinal mar¬
row fends off 30 or 31 pair of nerves; thefe are chiefly
diftributed to the exterior parts of the trunk and to
the extremities. They are commonly diftinguilhed in¬
to the cervical, darfal, lumbar, and fttcral nerves. The
cervical, which pal's out from between the feveral ver¬
tebrae of the neck, are eight (s) in number ; the dor-
ial, twelve ; the lumbar, five; and the facral, five or fix;
O M Y. Parc Vi-
the number of the latter depending on the number of Of the jf(
holes in the os facrum. Each fpinal nerve at its ori- :
gin is compofed of two fafciculi of medullary fibres. •Werv^' ja_
One of thefe fafciculi arifes from the anterior, and the
other from the pofterior,furface of the medulla. Thefe
fafciculi are feparated by the ligamentum denticulatum;
after which we find them contiguous to one another.
They then perforate the dura mater, and unite to form
a conftderable knot or ganglion. Each of thefe gan¬
glions fends off two branches; one anterior, and the 0-
ther pofterior. The anterior branches communicate
with each other at their coming out of the fpine, and
likewifefend off one, and fometimes more branches, t®
affill in the formation of the intercoftal nerve.
The.knots or ganglions of the nerves juft now fpo-
ken of, are not only to be met with at their exit from 1|
the fpine, but likewife in various parts of the body.
They occur in the nerves of the medulla oblongata, aa
well as in thofe of the fpine. They are not the effects
of difeafe, but are to be met with in the fame parts of
the fame nerves, both in the foetus and adult. They
are commonly of an oblong lhape, and of a greyilh co-
Ipur, fomewhat inclined to red, which is perhaps ow¬
ing to their being extremely vafcular. Internally we
are able to diftinguifh fomething like an intermixture of fl
the nervous filaments.
Some writers have confidcred them as fo many little
brains; Lancifi fancied he had difeovered mufcular
fibres in them, but they are certainly not of an irritable
nature. A late writer. Dr Johnftone *, imagines they * Efay i
are intended to deprive us of the power of the will overt!}e ufe °f^ I
certain parts, as the heart, for inftance: but if this^
hypothefis were well founded, we fhould meet with Nerves. “
them only in nerves leading to involuntary mufcles;
whereas it is certain, that the voluntary mufcles re¬
ceive their nerves through ganglions. Do&or Monro,
from obferving the accurate intermixture of the minute
nerves which compofe them, confiders them as new
fources of nervous energy -f. j Ohfervs
The nerves, like the blood-vefiels, in their courfe Hms on t).
through the body, communicate with each other; Nervous
each of thefe communications conftitutes what is call-
ed a plexus, from whence branches are again detached
to different parts of the body., Some of thefe arecon-
ftant
(q_) This pair, foon after its entrance into the meatus auditorius internus, feparates into two branches. One
of thele is of a very foft and pulpy cpnfiftence, is called the portio mollis of the feventh pair, and is fpread over
the inner part of the ear. The other paffes out through the aqueduft of Fallopius in a firm chord, which is
diftinguiflied as the portio dura, and is diftributed to the external ear and other parts of the neck and face.
(r) Heifterhas fummed up the ufes of thefe nine pair of nerves in the two following L?.tin verfes:
“ Olfaciens, cernens, oculofjue movens, patienfjue,
“ Guftans, abducens, audienfque, vaganfque, loquenfque.,i
(s) Befides thefe, there is another pair called accejforii, which arifes from the medulla fpinalis at its begin*
ring; and afeending through the great foramen of the os occipitis into the cranium, paffes out again clofe to
the eighth pair, with which, however, it does not unite ; and it is afterwards diftributed chiefly to the mufcles
of the neck, back, and fcapula. In this courfe it fends off filaments to different parts, and likewife communicates
with feveral other nerves. Phyfiologifts are at a lofs how to account for the lingular origin and courfe of thefe
nervi accefforii. The ancients confidered them as branches of the eighth pair, diftributed to mufcles of the fca¬
pula : Willis likewife confidered them as appendages to that pair, and on that account named them accejforii.
They are fometimes called the fpinal pair; but as this latter name is applicable to all the nerves of the fpine xn-
difcriminately, it feems better to adopt that given by Willis.
Part V,
Of the
Brain and
Nerves.
A N A T
Kant and confiderable enough to be diftinguifhed by
particular names, as the femilunar plexus; the pulmo¬
nary plexus; the hepatic, the cardiac. See.
It would be foreign to the purpofe of this work, to
follow the nerves through all their dillributions; but it
may be remembered, that in deferibing' the different
vifeera, mention was made of the nerves diftributed to
them. There is one pair, however, called the inter-
cqjlal, or great fympathetic nerve, which feems to re¬
quire particular notice, becaufc it has an almoft univer-
fal connexion and correfpondence with all the other
nerves of the body. Authors are not perfectly agreed
about the origin of the intercoflal; but it may perhaps
not improperly be deferibed, as beginning from fila¬
ments of the fifth and fixth pair; it then paffeS out of
the cranium, through the bony canal of the carotid,
from -whence it defeends laterally clofe to the bodies of
the vertebrae, and receives branches from almoft all the
vertebral nerves; forming almoft as many ganglions in
its courfe through the thprax and abdomen. It fends
off an infinite number of branches to the vrfeera in
thofe cavities, and forms feveral plexus with the
branches of the eighth pair or par vagum.
That the nerves are deftined to convey the principles
of motion and fenfibility to the brain from all parts of
the fyftem, there can be no doubt; but how thefe ef¬
fects are produced, no one has ever yet been able to
determine. The inquiry has been a conftant fource of
hypothefis in all ages, and has produced fome ingeni¬
ous ideas, and many erroneous pofitions, but with¬
out having hitherto afforded much fatisfadtory infor¬
mation.
O M Y. 761
Some phyfiologifts have confidered a trunk of nerves l116
as a folid chord, capable of being divided into an infi-
nite number of filaments, by means of which the im- ■ . A . »
preflions of feeling are conveyed to the fenforium com¬
mune. Others have fuppofed it to be a canal, which af¬
terwards feparates into more minute channels; or, per¬
haps, as being an affemblage of many very fmall and
diilindt tubes, connefted to each other, and thus form¬
ing a cylindrical chord. They who contend for their
being folid bodies, are of opinion, that feeling is occa-
fioned by vibration; fo that, for inftance, according to
this fyftem, by pricking the finger, a vibration would
be occafioned in the nerve, diftributed through its fub-
ftance; and the effects of this vibration, when extended
to the fenforium, would be an excital of pain. But
the inelafticity, the foftnefs, the connection, and the fi-
tnation of the nerves, are fo many proofs that vibra¬
tion has no (hare in the caufe of feeling.
Others have fuppofed, that in the brain and fpinal
marrow, a very fubtile fluid is fecreted, and from
thence conveyed through the imperceptible tubes,
which they confider as exifting in the nerves. They
have farther fuppofed, that this very fubtHe fluid, to
which they have given the name of animal fpirits, is fe¬
creted in the cortical fubftance of the brain and fpinal
marrow, from whence it paffes through the medullary
fubftance. This, like the other fyftem, is founded
altogether on hypothefis; but it feems tj^be an hypo¬
thefis derived from much more probable principles, and
there are many ingenious arguments to be brought ia
its fupport.
EXPLANATION of PLATE XXIV.
Fig. 1. Reprefents the Inferior part of the Brain;
—the Anterior part of the whole Spine, including the
Medulla Spinalis;—with the origin and large portions
of all the Nerves.
A A, The anterior lobes of the cerebrum. BB,The
lateral lobes of the cerebrum. C C, 1 he twm lobes of
the cerebellum. D, Tuber annulare. E, The paf-
fage from the third ventricle to the infundibulum.
F, The medulla oblongata, which fends off the me¬
dulla fpinalis through the fpine. G G, That part of
the os occipitis which is placed above (H H) the
tranfverfe ' proceffes of the firft cervical vertebra.
11, &c. The feven cervical vertebrae, with their in¬
termediate cartilages. RK, &c. The twelve doffal
vertebrae, with their intermediate cartilages. L L, &c.
The five lumbar, vertebrae, with their intermediate
^cartilages. M, The os facrum. N, The os coc-
cygis.
Nerves.—11, The firft pair of nerves, named ol-
fadory, which go to the nofe. 2 2, The fecond pair,
named optic, which goes to form the tunica retina of
the eye. 3 3, The third pair, named motor oculi; it
fupplies moft of the mufeks of the eye-ball. 44, The
fourth pair, named pathetic,—which is wholly fpent
upon the mufculus trochkaris of the eye. 5 5, The
fifth pair divides into three branches.—The firft, na¬
med opthalmic, goes to the orbit, fupplies the lachry¬
mal gland, and fends branches out to the forehead and
nofe.—The fecond, named fuperier maxillary, fupplies
Vol. I. Part II.
the teeth of the upper jaw, and fome of the mufeks of
the lips.—The third, named inferior maxillary, is fpent
upon the mufeks and teeth of the lower jaw, tongue,
and mufeks of the lips. 6 6, The lixth pair,- which,
after fending off the beginning of the intercoftal of
great fympathetic, is fpent upon the abductor oculi.
7 7, The feventh pair, named auditory, divides into
two branches.—The largeft, named portio mollis, is
fpent upon the internal ear.—The fmalkft,/wri<j dura,
joins to the fifth pair within the internal ear by a re-
fledted branch from the fecond of the fifth ; and with¬
in the tympanum, bya branch from the third of the fifth,
named chorda tympani.—Vid. fig. 3. near R. 8 8, &c.
The eighth pair, named par vagum,—which accompanies
the intercoftal, and is fpent upon the tongue, larynx,
pharynx, lungs, and abdominal vifeera. 9 9, The ninth
pair, which are fpent upon the tongue. 10 to, &c.
The intercoftal., or great fympathetk, which is feen
from the fixth pair to the bottom of the pelvis on each
fide of the fpine, and joining with all the nerves of the
fpine ;—in its progrefs fupplying the heart, and, with
the par vagum, the contents of the abdomen and pel¬
vis. 11 11, The accefforius, which is fpent upon
the fternockido-maftoidxus and trapezius mufeks.
12 12, The firft cervical nerves;—13 13, The fecond
cervical nerves ;—both fpent upon the mufeks that lie
on the neck, and teguments of the neck and head.
14 14, The third cervical nerves, which, after fending
off (I £ 15, &c.) the phrenic nerves to the diaphragm,
5 D fupply
762 A N A T
Of the fupply the mufcles and teguments that lie on the fide
Brain and cf t}ie nec^ ancj top of the fhoulder. 1616, The bra-
. CrV^'' chial plexus, formed by the fourth, fifth, fixth, fe-
venth cervicals, and firft dorfal nerves,—which fupply
the mufcles and teguments of the fuperior extremity.
1717, The twelve dorfal, or proper intercoftal nerves,
which are fpent upon the intercoftal mufcles and fome
of the large mufcles which lie upon the thorax.
1818, The five lumbar pairs of nerves, which fupply
the lumbar and abdominal mufcles, and fome of the
teguments and mufcles of the inferior extremity.
19 19, The facro-fciatic, or pofterior crural nerve,
formed by the two inferior lumbar, and three fuperior
of the os facrum. This large nerve fupplies the greateft
part of the mufcles and teguments of the inferior ex¬
tremity. 20, The ftomachic plexus, formed by the
eighth pair. 21 21, Branches of the folar or caeliac
plexus, formed by the eighth pair and intercoftals,
which fupply the ftomach and chylopoietic vifcera.
22 22, Branches of the fuperior and inferior mefente-
ric plexufes, formed by the eighth pair and interco-
O M Y.
Part V.
ftals, which fupply the chylopoietic vifcera, with part of the
of the organs of urine and generation. 23 23, Nerves ^.ve^
which accompany the fpermatic cord. 24 24, The hy-
pogaftric plexus, which fupplies the organs of urine
and generation within the pelvis.
Fig. 2, 3-, 4, 5. Show different Views of the Infe¬
rior part of the Brain, cut perpendicularly through
the Middle,—with the Origin and large Portions of
all the Nerves which pafs out through the Bones of
the Cranium,— and the three firft Cervicals.
A, The anterior lobe. B, The lateral lobe of the
cerebrum. C, One of the lobes of the cerebellum.
D, Tuber annulare. E, Corpus pyramidale, in the
middle of the medulla oblongata. F, The corpus oli-
vare, in the fide of the medulla oblongata. G, The
medulla oblongata. H, The medulla fpinalis.
Nerves.—1 2345678 and 9, Pairs of nervesi
10 10, Nervus accefforius, which comes from—x I, 1%
and 13, the three firft cervical nerves.
P A R T VI. Of the S E N S E S, and their ORGANS.
437. TN treating of the fenfes, we mean to confine our-
felves to the external ones of touch, tajle, fmelling,
hearing, and vijion. The word fenfe, when applied to
thefe five, feems to imply, not only the fenfation ex¬
cited in the mind by certain impreffions made on the
body, but likewife the organ deftined to receive and
tranfmit thefe impreffions to the fenforium. Each of
thefe organs being of a pecuhar ftrufture, is fufcep-
tible only of particular impreffions, which will be
pointed out as we proceed to defcribe each of them fe-
parately.
Sect. I. Of Touch.
The fenfe of touch may be defined to be the faculty
of diftinguifhing certain properties of bodies by the feel.
In a general acceptation, this definition might perhaps
not improperly be extended to every part of the body
pofleffed of fenfibility (x), but it is commonly con¬
fined to the nervous papillae of the cutis, or true fkin,
which, with its appendages, and their feveral ufes, have
been already defcribed.
The exterior properties of bodies, fuch as their fo-
lidity, "moifture, inequality, fmoothnefs, drynefs, or
fluidity", and likewife their degree of heat, feem all to
be capable of making different impreffions on the pa¬
pillae, and confequently of exciting different ideas in the
fenforium commune. But the organ of touch, like all
the other fenfes, is not equally delicate in every part of
the body, or in every fubjeft; being in fome much
more exquifite than it is in others.
Sect. II. Of the Tajle.
The fenfe of tafte is feated chiefly in the tongue4 i39*
the fituation and figure of which are fufficiently known.
Gn the upper furface of this organ we may obferve
a great number of papillse, which, on account of their
difference in fize and fhape, are commonly divided into
three claffes. The largeft are fituated towards the ba¬
lls of the tongue. Their number commonly varies
from feven to nine, and they feem to be mucous fol¬
licles. Thofe of the fecond clafs are fomewhat fmaller,
and of a cylindrical lhape. They are moil numerous
about the middle of the tongue. Thofe of the third
clafs.are very minute, and of a conical lhape. They.
are
(x) In the courfe of this article,, mention has often been made of the fenfibility or infenfibility of different
parts of the body : it will therefore, perhaps, not be amifs to obferve in this place, that many parts which were
formerly fuppofed to poffefs the moft exquifite fenfe, are now known to have but little or no feeling, at leaft in
a found Hate ; for in an. inflamed ftate, even the bones, the moft infenfible parts of any, become fufceptible of
the moft painful fenfations. This curious difcovery is due to the late Baron Haller. His experiments prove,,
that the bones, cartilages,, ligaments, tendons, epidermis, and membranes, (as the. pleura, pericardium, dura
and pia mater, periofteum, &c.), may in a healthy ftate be confidered as infenfible. As fenfibility depends on
the brain and nerves, of courfe different parts will poffefs a greater or lefs degree of feeling, in proportion as
they are fupplied with a greater or fmaller number of nerves. Upon this principle it is, that the Ikin, mufcles,
ftomach, inteftines, urinary bladder, ureters, uterus, vagina, penis, tongue, and retina, are extremely fenfibley
while the lungs and glands have only an obfcure degree of feeling.
anatomy. JPlafeAXLV.
[ Part Vf, ANA
I Gf the are very numerous on the apex and edges of the tongue,
< Senfea. an(j haw been fuppofed to be formed by the extremi-
v " ties of its nerves.
We obferve a line, the linen lingua median a, run¬
ning along the middle of the tongue, and dividing it as
it were into two portions. Towards the bafis of the
tongue, we meet with a little cavity, named by Mor¬
gagni foramen caecum, which feems to be nothing more
than a common termination of fome of the excretory
dufts of mucous glands fituated within the fubftance of
the tongue.
| We have already obferved, that this organ is every
where covered by the cuticle, which, by forming a re¬
duplication, called the freenum, at its under part,
ferves to prevent the too great motion of the tongue,
and to fix it in its fituation. But, befides this at¬
tachment, the tongue is conne&ed by means of its
mufcles and membranous ligaments, to the lower jaw,
the os hyoides, and the llyloid proceffes.
The principal arteries of the tongue are the linguales,
which arife from the external carotid. Its veins empty
themfelves into the external jugulars. Its nerves arife
Jfrom the fifth, eighth, and ninth, pair.
The variety of tafi.es feems to be occafioned by the
different impreffions made on the papillae by the food.
The different ftate of the papillae with refpect to their
moifture, their figure, or their covering, feems to
|| produce a confiderable difference in the tafte, not only
in different people, but in the fame fubjedl, in ficknefs
and in health. The great ufe of the tafte feems to be
to enable us to diftinguifti wholefome and falutary food
from that which is unhealthy ; and we obferve that
many quadrupeds, by having their papillae (u) very
large and long, have the faculty of diftingujfiring fla¬
vours with infinite accuracy.
||\ Sect. III. Of Smelling.
*40. The fenfe of fmelling, like the fenfe of tafte, feems
intended to direft us to a proper choice of aliment,
and is chiefly feated inV;the nofe, which is diftinguilhed
into its external and internal parts. The fituation and
figure of the former of thefe do not feem to require a
definition. It is .compofed of bones and;cartilages, co¬
vered by mufcular fibres and by the common integu¬
ments. The bones make up the upper portion, and
the cartilages the lower one. The feptum narium, like
the nofe, is likewife in part bony, and in part cartila-
gipous. Thefe bones and their connections were de-
fcribed in the ofteology.
The internal part of the nofe, befides the offa ipon-
giofa, has fix cavities or finufes, the maxillary, the
frontal, and the fphenoid, which were all defcribed with
the bones of the head. They all open into the no-
ftrils; and the nofe likewife communicates with the
mouth, larynx, and pharynx, pofteriorly behind the
velum palati.
All thefe feveral parts, which are included in the in¬
ternal divifion of the nofe, viz. the inner furface of the
noftrils, the lamellae of the offa fpongiofa, and the finu-
T o M Y. 763
fes, are lined by a thick and very vafcular membrane, Of the
which', though not unknown to the ancients, was firft Senfes- ,
well defcribed by Schneider *, and is therefore now * I)e Ca_
commonly named membrana pituitaria Schneideri. This tarrbo, lib.
membrane is truly the organ of fmelling ; but its real iii.
ftmfture does not yet feem to be perfectly underftood.
It appears to be a continuation of the cuticle, which
lines the inner furface of the mouth. In fome parts
of the nofe it is fmooth and firm, and in others it is
loofe and fpongy. It is conftantly moiftened by a mu¬
cous fecretion; the finer parts of which are carried off
by the air we breathe, and the remainder, by being re¬
tained in the finufes, acquires confiderable confiftence.
The manner in which this mucus is fecreted has not
yet been fatisfaclorily afcertained ; but it feems to be
by means of mucous follicles.
Its arteries are branches of the internal maxillary and
internal carotid. Its veins empty themfelves into the
internal jugulars. The firft pair of nerves, the olfac¬
tory, are fpread over every part of it, and it likewife
receives branches from the fifth pair.
After what has been faid of the pituitary membrane,
it will not be difficult to conceive how the air we draw
in at the noftrils, being impregnated with the effluvia
of bodies, excites in us that kind of fenfation we call
fmelling. As thefe effluvia, from their being exceed¬
ingly light and volatile, cannot be capable in a fmall
quantity of making any great impreffion on the extre¬
mities of the olfactory nerves, it was neceffary to give
confiderable extent to the pituitary membrane, that by
this means a greater number of odoriferous particles
might be admitted at the fame time. When we wifii
to take in much of the effluvia of any thing, we natu¬
rally clofe the mouth, that all the air we infpire may
pafs through the noftrils ; and at the fame time, by
means of the mufcles of the nofe, the noftrils are dila¬
ted, and a greater quantity of air is drawn into them.
In many quadrupeds, the fenfe of fmelling is much
more extenfive and delicate than it is in the human
fubjeft; and in the human fubjeA it feems to be more
perfect the lefs it is vitiated by a variety of fniells. It
is not always in the fame ftate of perfection, being na¬
turally affedted by every change of the pituitary mem¬
brane, and of the lymph.with which that membrane is
moiftened.
Sect. IV. Of Hearing.
Before we undertake to explain the manner in which 141,
we are enabled to receive the impreffions of found, it »
will be neceffary to defcribe the ear, which is the organ
of hearing. It is commonly diftinguiftied into external
and, internal. The former of thefe divifions includes
all that we are able to difcover without diffedtion, and
the meatus auditorius, as far as the tympanum j and *
the latter, all the other parts of the ear.
The external ear is a cartilaginous funnel, covered
by -the common integuments, and attached, by means
of its ligaments and mufcles, to the temporal bone.
Although capable only of a very obfcure motion, it is
5 D 2 found
(u) Malpighi’s defcription of the papilla:, which has been copied by many anatomical writers, feems to have
been taken chiefly from the tongues of fheep.
764 A N A T
Of the found to have feveral mufcles. Different parts of it
t Senfe?- are diftinguifhed by different names ; all its cartikgi-
* " nous part is called ala or iving, to diftinguifhr it from
the foft and pendent part below, called the lobe. Its
outer circle or border is called Mix, and the femicircle
within this, crntihslix. The moveable cartilage placed
immediately before the meatus auditorius, which it
may be made to clofe exaftly, is named tragus; and
an eminence oppofite to this at the extremity of the
antihelix, is called antitragus. The concha is a confi-
derable cavity formed by the extremities of the helix
and antihelix. The meatus auditorius, which at its
opening is cartilaginous, is lined with a very thin mem¬
brane, which is a continuation of the cuticle from the
furface of the ear.
In this canal we find a yellow wax, which is fecreted
by a number of minute glands or follicles, each of
which has an excretory dudt. This fecretiou, which
is at firft of an oily confidence, defends the membrane
of the tympanum from the injuries of the air; and by
its bitternefs, prevents minute infeds from entering in¬
to the ear. But when from negleft or difeafe it accu¬
mulates in too great a quantity, it fometimes occafions
deafnefs. The inner extremity of the meatus is clofed
by a very thin tranfparent membrane, the membrana
tympani, which is fet in a bony circle like the head of
a drum. In the laft century Rivinus, profeffor at L.eip-
fic, fancied he had 'difeovered a hole in this mem¬
brane, furrounded by a fphinder, and affording a paf-
fage to the air, between the external and internal ear.
Gowper, Heifter, and fome other anatomifts, have ad¬
mitted this fuppofed foramen, which certainly does not
exift. Whenever there is any opening in the membra¬
na tympani, it may be confidered as accidental. Un¬
der the membrana tympani runs a branch of the
fifth pair of nerves, called chorda tympani; and beyond
this membrane is the cavity of the tympanum, which
is about feven or eight lines wide, and half fo many
in depth; it is femifpherical, and every where li¬
ned by a very fine membrane. There are four open¬
ings to be obferved in this cavity. It communi¬
cates with the mouth by means of the Eufiachian
tube. This canal, which is in part bony and in
part cartilaginous, begins by a very narrow opening
at the anterior and almoft fuperior part of the tympa¬
num, increafing in fize as it advances towards the pa¬
late of the mouth, where it terminates by an oval open¬
ing. This tube is every where lined by the fame mem¬
brane that covers the infide of the mouth. The real
- ufe of this canal does not feem to have been hitherto
fatisfaftorily afeertained ; but found would feem to
be conveyed through it to the membrana tympani, deaf
perfons being often obferved to Men attentively with
their mouths open. Oppofite to this is a minute paf-
fage, which leads to the finuofities of the maftoid pro-
cefs; and the two other openings, which are in the in¬
ternal procefs of the os petrofum, are the feneftra ova-
Es, and feneftra rotunda, both of which are covered by
a very fine membrane.
There are three diftinA bones in the cavity of the
tympanum; and thefe are the malleus, incus, and ftapes.
O M Y. Part VI.
Befides thefe there is a fourth, which is the os orlieu- Of the
lare, confidered by fome anatomifts as a procefs of the Scnfes‘ ,
ftapes, which is necelfarUy broken off by the violence v ~~nf
we are obliged to ufe in getting at thefe bones ; but
when accurately confidered, it feems to be a diftindt
bone.
The malleus is fuppofed to refemble a hammer, be¬
ing larger at one extremity, which is its head, than it
is at the other, which is its handle. The latter is at¬
tached to the membrana tympani, and the head of the
bone is articulated with the incus.
The incus, as it is called from its fhape, though it
feems to have lefs refemblance to an anvil than to one
of the dentes molares with its roots widely feparated
from each other, is diftinguifhed into its body and its
legs.' One of its legs is placed at the entry of the ca¬
nal which leads to the maftoid procefs ; and the other,
which is fomewhat longer, is articulated with the ftapes,
or rather with the os orbiculare, which is placed be¬
tween them.
The third bone is very properly named Jlapes, being
perfeftly fhaped like a ftirrup. Its bafis is fixed into
the feneftra ovalis, and its upper part is articulated*
with the os orbiculare. What is called the fenefira ro¬
tunda, though perhaps improperly, as it is more oval
than round, is obferved a little abo^e the other, in an
eminence formed by the os petrofum, and is clofed by
a continuation of the membrane that lines the inner
furface of the tympanum. The ftapes and malleus are
each of them furnifhed with a little mufcle, the ftape-
deus and tenfor tympani. The firft of thefe, which is
the fmalleft in the body, arifes from a little cavern in
the pofterior ^nd upper part of the cavity of the tym¬
panum ; and its tendon, after palling through a hole
in the fame cavern, is inferted at the back part of the
head of the ftapes. This mufcle, by drawing the ftapes
obliquely upwards, affifts in ftretching the membrana
tympani.
The tenfor tympani (x), or internus mallei as it is
called by fome writers, arifes from the cartilaginous
extremity of the Euftachian tube, and is inferted into-
the back part of the handle of the malleus, which it
ferves to pull inwards, and of courfe helps to ftretch
the membrana tympani.
The labyrinth is the only part of the ear which re¬
mains to be deferibed. It is fituated in the os petro¬
fum, and is feparated from the tympanum by a parti¬
tion which is every where bony, except at the two fe-
neltras. It is compofed of three parts ; and thefe are
the veftibulum, the femicircular canals, and. the coch¬
lea.
The vejtihulum is an irregular cavity, much fmaller
than the tympanum, fituated nearly in the centre of the
os petrofum, between the tympanum, the cochlea, and
the femicircular canals. It is open on the fide of the
tympanum by means of the feneftra ovalis, and com¬
municates with the upper portion of the cochlea by an
oblong foramen, which is under the feneftra avalis,
from which it is feparated only by a very thin par¬
tition.
Each of the three femicircular canals forms about
half
(x) Some anatomifts deferibe three mufcles of the malleus; but only this one feems to deferve the name of
mufcle j what are called the externus and oblitjuus mllei, feeming to be ligaments rather than mufcles.
Part VI. A N A T
Of the half a circle of nearly a line in diameter, and running
. Senfes. ;n a different direftion, they are diftinguifhed into
" v vertical, oblique, and horizontal. Thefe three canals
open by both their extremities into the veftibulum;
but the vertical and the oblique being united together
at one of their extremities, there are only five orifices
to be feen in the veftibulum.
The cochlea is a canal which takes a fpiral courfe,
not unlike the ftiell of a fnail. From its bafis to its
apex it makes two turns and a half; and is divided in¬
to two canals by a very thin lamina or feptum, which
is in part bony and in part membranous, in fuch a
manner that thefe two canals only communicate with
each other at the point. One of them opens into the
veftibulum, and the other is covered by the membrane
that clofes the feneftra rotunda. The bony lamella
which feparates the two canals is exceedingly thin, and
fills about two thirds of the diameter of the canal.
The reft of the feptum is compofed of a moft delicate
membrane, which lines the whole inner furface of the
cochlea, and feems to form this divifion in the fame
manner as the two membranous bags of the pleura, by
’ being applied to each other, form the mediaftinum.
Every part of the labyrinth is furniftied with a very
delicate periofteum, and filled with a watery fluid, fe-
creted as in other cavities. This fluid tranfmits to the
nerves the vibrations it receives from the membrane
clofing the feneftra rotunda, and from the bafis of the
ftapes, where it refts on the feneftrum ovale. When
this fluid is collefted in too great a quantity, or is
comprefled by the ftapes, it is fuppofed to efcape
through two minute canals or aquedufts, lately defcri-
* Be aqua- bed by Dr Cotunni *, an ingenious phyfician at
duaibus Au- Naples. One of thefe aqueducts opens into the bot-
ris Humana ^om Qf the veftibulum, and the other into the cochlea,
1760. ^ near the feneftra rotunda. They both pafs through
the os petrofum, and communicate with the cavity of
the cranium where the fluid that paffes through them
is abforbed ; and they are lined by a membrane which
is fuppofed to be a production of the dura mater.
The arteries of the external ear come from the tem¬
poral and other branches of the external carotid, and
its veins pafs into the jugular. The internal ear re¬
ceives branches of arteries from the bafilary and caro¬
tids, and its veins empty themfelves into the finufes of
the dura mater, and into the internal jugular.
The portio mollis of the feventh pair is diftributed
through the cochlea, the veftibulum, and the femi-
circular canals ; and the portio dura fends off a branch
to the tympanum, and other branches to the external
ear and parts near it.
The fenfe of hearing, in producing which all the
parts we have defcribed affift, is occafioned by a cer¬
tain modulation of the air collefted by the funnel-like
ftiape of the external ear, and conveyed through the
meatus auditorius to the membrana tympani. That
found is propagated by means of the air, is very eafily
proved by ringing a bell under the receiver of an
air-pump j the found it affords being found to diminifh
O M Y. 7^1
gradually as the air becomes exhaufted, till at length the
it ceafes to be heard at all. Sound moves through the Seilfes‘ ,
air with infinite velocity 5 but the degree of its motion
feems to depend on the ftate of the air, as it conftant-
ly moves fafter in a denfe and dry, than it does in a
moift and rarefied air. See Slcotiftics, n° 20.
That the air vibrating on the membrana tympani
communicates its vibration to the different parts of
the labyrinth, and by means of the fluid contained in
this cavity affefts the auditory nerve fo as to produce
found, feems to be very probable; but the fituation*
the minutenefs, and the variety of the parts which
compofe the ear, do not permit much to be advanced
with certainty concerning their mode of aftion.
Some of thefe parts feem to conftitute the immediate-
organ of hearing, and thefe are all the parts of the
veftibulum : but there are others which feem intended
for the perfeftion of this fenfe, without being abfo-
lutely effential to it. It has happened, for inftance*
that the membrana tympani, and the little bones of the
ear, have been deftroyed by difeafe/ without depriving
the patient of the fenfe of hearing (y).
Sound is more or lefs loud in proportion to the
ftrength of the vibration ; and the variety of founds
feems to depend on the difference of this vibration
for the more quick and frequent it is, the more acute
will be the found, and vice verja.
Before we conclude this article, it will be right to
explain certain phenomena, which will be found to have
a relation to the organ of hearing.
Every body has, in confequence of particular founds,
occafionally felt that difagreeable fenfation which is
ufually called Jetting the teeth on edge: and the caufe
of this fenfation, may be traced to the communication
which the portio dura of the auditory nerve has with
the branches of the fifth pair that are diftributed to
the teeth, being probably occafioned by the violent
tremor produced in the membrana tympani by thefe
very acute founds. Upon- the fame principle we may
explain the ftrong idea of found which a perfon has
who holds a vibrating firing between his teeth.
The humming which is fometimes perceived in the
ear, without any exterior caufe, may be occafioned
either by an increafed aftion of the arteries in the ears,
or by convulfive contraftions of the mufcles of the
malleus and ftapes, affefting the auditory nerve in
fuch a manner as to produce the idea of found. An
ingenious philofophical writer * has lately difcovered, * EUlofs^
that there are founds liable to be excited in the ear by
irritation, and without any affiftance from the vibra-J-^ ol'^bT
tions of the air. Senfu of
Vijlon ani
Sect. V. Of Vifum f.
The eyes, which eonftitute the organ of vifion, are ^
fituated in two bony cavities named orbits, where they
are furrounded by feveral parts, which are either in¬
tended to proteft them from external injury, or to af¬
fift in their motion.
The
(y) This obfervation has led to a fuppofition, that a perforation of this membrane may in fome cafes of
deafnefs be ufeful; and Mr Chefelden relates, that, fome years ago, a malefaftor was pardoned on condition
that he fhould fubmit to this operation j but the public clamour railed againft it was fo great, that it was-
thought right not to perform it.
A N A T
The globe of the eye is immediately covered by two
eye-lids or palpebrae, which are compofed of mufcular
fibres f covered by the common integuments, and
lined by a very fine and fmooth membrane, which is
from thence extended over part of the globe of the eye,
and is called tunica conjundiva. Each eye-lid is carti¬
laginous at its edge ; and this border, which is called
tar Jus, is furnilhed with a row of hairs named cilia or
eye-lajloes
The cilia ferve to protect the eye from infe&s and
minute bodies floating in the air, and likewife to mo¬
derate the a&ion of the rays of light in their paflage
jto.the retina. At the roots of thefe hairs there are
febaceous follicles, firll noticed by Meibomiua, which
•difcharge a glutinous liniment. Sometimes the fluid
they' fecrete has too much vifcidity, and the eye-lids
become glued to each other.
The upper border of the orbit is covered by the
.eye-brows or fupercilia, which by means of their two
mufcles are capable of being brought towards each o-
ther, or of being carried upwards. They have been
confidered as ferving to protect the eyes, but they are
-probably intended more for ornament than utility (z).
The orbits, in which the eyes are placed, are fur-
nifhed with a good deal of fat, which affords a foft
■bed on which the eye performs its feveral motions.
The inner angle of each orbit, or that part of it .
which is nearthe nofe, is called cant bus, major, or the
great angle; and the outer angle, which is on the op-
pofite fide of the .eye, is the canthus minor, or little
The little reddilh body which we obferve in the
great angle of the eye-lids, and which is called carun-
cula lachrymalis, is fuppofed to be of a glandular ftruc-
ture, and, like the follicles of the eye-lids, to fecrete
an oily humour. But its ftrufture and ufe do not
feem to have been hitherto accurately determined.
The furface of the eye is conftantly moiltened by a very
fine limpid fluid called the tears, which is chiefly, and
^perhaps wholly, derived from a large gland of the con¬
glomerate kind, fituated in a fmall depreflion of the
os frontis near the outer angle of the eye. Its excre¬
tory dudls pierce the tunica conjun&iva juft above the
cartilaginous borders of the upper eye-lids. When
the tears were fuppofed to be fecreted by the carun-
cule, this gland was called glandula innominata; but
now that its ftrufture and ufes are afcertained, it very
properly has the name of glandula lachrymalis. The
tears poured out by the dudfs of this gland are, in a natu¬
ral and healthy ftate, inceffantly fpread over the furface of
the eye, to keep it clear and tranfparent, by means of
the eye-lids, and as conftantly pafs out at the oppofite
corner of the eye or inner angle, through two minute
orifices, the punfta lachrymalia(A) ; being determined
into thefe little openings by a reduplication of the tu¬
nica conjundliva, ftiaped like a crefcent, the two points
O M Y. Pan VI.
of which anfwer to the punfta. This reduplication is the
named membrana, or valvula femilunaris. Each of, S€n(cs‘ ,
thefe pundta is the beginning of a fmall excretory tube, v
through which the tears pafs into a little pouch or re-
fervoir, the facculus lachrymalis, which lies in an ex¬
cavation formed partly by the nafal procefs of the os
maxillare fuperius, and partly by the os unguis. The
lower part of this fac forms a dudt called the duftus ad
naref, which is continued through a bony" channel,
and opens into the nofe, through which the tears are
occafionally difcharged (b).
The motions of the eye are performed by fix muf¬
cles; four of v/hich are ftraight and two oblique. The
ftraight mufcles are diftinguifhed by the names of ele¬
vator, deprejjor, addudor, and abdudor, from their fe¬
veral ufes in elevating and depreffing the eye, drawing
it towards the nofe-, or carrying it from the nofe to¬
wards the temple. All thefe four mufcles arife from
the bottom of the orbit, and are inferted by flat ten¬
dons into the globe of the eye. The oblique mufcles
are intended for the more compound motions of the
eye. The firft of thefe mufcles, the obliquus fuperior,
does not, like the other four mufcles we have defcribed,
arife from the bottom of the orbit, but from the edge
of the foramen that tranfmits the optic nerve, which
feparates the origin of this mufcle from that of the
others. From this beginning it pafles in a ftraight
line towards a very fmall cartilaginous ring, the fitua-
tion of which is marked in the ikeleton by a little hol¬
low in the internal prbitar procefs of the os frontis.
The tendon of the mufcle, after palling through this
ring, is inferted into the upper part of the globe of
the eye, which it ferves to draw forwards, at the fame
time turning the pupil downwards.
The obliquus inferior arifes from the edge of the or¬
bit, under the opening of the duftus lachrymalis; and
is inferted fomewhat pofteriorly into the outer fide of
the globe, ferving to draw the eye forwards and turn
the pupil upwards. When either of thefe two mufcles
afts feparately, the eye is moved on its axis; but when
they aft together, it is comprelfed both above and be¬
low. The eye itfelf, which is now to be defcribed,
with its tunics, humours, and component parts, is
nearly of a fpherical figure. Of its tunics, the con-
junftiva has been already defcribed as a partial cover¬
ing, reflefted from the inner furface of the eye-lids
over the anterior portion of the eye. What has been
named albuginea cannot properly be confidered as a
coat of the eye, being in fadt nothing more than the,,
tendons of the ftraight mnfcles fpre^d over fome parts
of the fclerotica.
The immediate tunics of the eye, which are to be
demonftrated when its partial coverings, and all the
other parts with which it is furrounded, are removed,
are the fclerotica, cornea, choroides, and retina.
The fclerotica, which is the exterior coat, is every
where
:{z) It is obfervable, that the eye-brows are peculiar to the human fpecies.
(a) It fometimes happens, that this very pellucid fluid, which moiftens the eye, being poured out,through
the excretory dufts of the lachrymal gland fafter than it can be carried off through the punfta, trickles down
the cheek, and is then ftriftly and properly called tears.
(b) When the duftus ad nares becomes obftrufted in confequence of difeafe, the tears are no longer able to
/ppfs into the noftrils ; the facculus lachrymalis becomes diftended; and inflammation, and fometimes ulceration,
taking place, conftitute the difeafe called ffula lachrymaiis.
Part Vf. A N A T
Of the where white and opaque, and is joined at its anterior
Seiifes. edge to another, which has more convexity than any
' v other part of the globe, and being exceedingly tranf-
parent, is called cornea (c). Thefe two parts are per¬
fectly different in their ftruCture; fo that fome anato-
mifls fuppofe them to be as diltinft from each other as
the glafs of a watch is from the cafe into which it is
fixed. The fclerotica is of a compaft fibrous ftruCture;
the cornea, on the other hand, is compofed of a great
number of laminae united by cellular membrane. By
macerating them in boiling water, they do not feparate
from each other, as fome writers have afferted ; but
the cornea foon foftens, and becomes of a glutinous
confiftence.
The ancients fuppofed the fclerotica to be a conti-
M Y.
a very thin vafcular membrane. This membrana pu-
pillaris commonly difappears about the feventh month. ,
On the under fide of the iris we obferve many mi¬
nute fibres, called ciliary procejjes, which pafs in radii
or parallel lines from the circumference to the centre.
The contraction and dilatation of the pupil are fuppo¬
fed to depend on the aCtion of thefe proceffes. Some
have confidered them as mufcular, but they are not of
an irritable nature; others have fuppofed them to be
filaments of nerves : but their real ttruCture has nevetj
yet been clearly afeertained.
Befides thefe ciliary proceffes, anatomifts ufually
fpeak of the circular fibres of the iris, but no fuch
feem to exift.
The pofterior furface of the iris, the ciliary proceffes.
nuation of the dura mater. Morgagni and fome other and part of the tunica choroides, are covered by a black
modern writers are of the fame opinion ; but this point
is difputed by Winflow, Haller, Zinn, and others.
The truth feems to be, that the fclerotica, though not
a production of the dura mater, adheres intimately to
that membrane.
The chroicles is fo called becaufe it is furnilhed with
a great number of veffels. It has likewife been named
uvea, on account of its refemblance to a grape. Many
modern anatomical writers have confidered it as a pro¬
duction of the pin mater. This was likewife the opi-
mucus for the purpofes of accurate and diftinCt vifion ;
but the manner in which it is fecreted, has not been
determined.
Immediately under the tunica choroides we find the
third and inner coat, called the retina, which feems to
be merely an expanfion of the pulpy fubftance of the
optic nerve, extending to the borders of the cryftalline
humour.
The greateft part of the globe of the eye, within
thefe feveral tunics, is filled by a very tranfparent and
a of the ancients; but the ftrength and thicknefs of gelatinous humour of confiderable confiftence, which,
the choroides, when compared with the delicate ftruc-
ture of the pia mater, are fufficient proofs of their be¬
ing two diftinCt membranes.
The choroides has of late generally been deferibed
as confifting of two laminae ; the innermoft of which
has been named after Rujfch, who firft deferibed it.
It is certain, however, that Ruyfch’s diftinCtion is ill
founded, at leaft with refpeCl to the human eye, in
which we are unable to demonftrate any fuch ftruCfure,
although the tunica choroides of fheep and fome other
quadrupeds may eafily be feparated into two layers.
The choroides adheres intimately to the fclerotica
round the edge of the cornea; and at the place of this
union we may obferve a little whitiih areola, named
ligamentum ciliare, though it is not of a ligamentous
nature.
They who fuppofe the choroidea to be compofed of
from its fuppofed refemblance to fufed glafs, is called
the vitreous humour. It is invefted by a very fine and
delicate membrane, called tunica vitrea, and fometimes
arachnoides.—It is fuppofed to be compofed of two
laminae; one of which dips into its fubftance, and by
dividing the humour into cells adds to its firmnefs.-
The fore-part of the vitreous humour is a little hollow¬
ed, to receive a very white and tranfparent fubftanca
of a firm texture, and of a lenticular and fomewhat
convex ftiape, named the cryftalline humour. It is in¬
cluded in a capfula, which feems to be formed by a fe-
paration of the two laminae of the tunica vitrea.
The fore-partof the eye is filled by a very thin and
tranfparent fluid, named the. aqueous humour, which oc¬
cupies all the fpace between the cryftalline and the
prominent cornea.!—That part of the choroides which
called the iris, and which comes forward to form
two laminae, deferibe the external one as terminating the pupil,'appears to be fufpended as it were in this
in. the ligamentum ciliare, and the internal one as ex¬
tending farther to form the iris, which is the circle we
humour, and has occafioned this portion of the eye to
be diftinguiftied into two parts. One of thefe, which.
are able to diftinguiih through the cornea: but this is the little fpace between the anterior furface of the
part is of a very different ftrufture from the choroides
fo that fome late writers have perhaps not improperly
confidered the iris as a diftinft membrane. It derives
its name from the variety of its colours, and is perfo¬
rated in its middle. This perforation, which is called
the pupil ox fight of the eye, is dofed in the foetus by
cryftalline and the iris, is called the pojlerior chamber;
and the other, which is the fpace between the iris and
the cornea, is called the anterior chamber of. the eye (d).
Both thefe fpaces are completely filled with the aque¬
ous humour (e).
The eye receives-its arteries from the internal caro¬
tid
(c) Some writers, who have given the name of cornea to all this outer coat, have named what is here and
moft commonly called fclcrotica, cornea opaca; and its anterior and tranfparent portion, cornea lucida.
(p) I am aware that fome anatomifts, particularly Lieutaud, are of opinion, that the iris is every where in
clofe contact with the cryftalline, and that it is of courfe right to fpeak only of one chamber of the eye; but as
this does not appear to be the cafe, the fituation of the iris and the two chambers of the eye are here deferibed
in the ufual way.
(e) When the cryftalline becomes opaque, fo as to prevent the paffage of the rays of light to the retina, it
eonftitutes what is called a cat avail; and the operation of couching ccnfifts in removing the difeafed cryftalline
2 from
768 A N A ■:
Of the tid, tliroagl* the foramina optica ; and its veins pafs
, Senfes, the foramina lacera, and empty themfelves in-
* to the lateral finufes. Some of the ramifications of
thefe veffels appear on the inner farface of the iris,
where they are feen to make very minute convolutions,
which are fufficiently remarkable to be diftinguiflied by
the name of circulus arteriefus, though perhaps im¬
properly, as they are chiefly branches of veins.
The optic nerve paffes in at the pofterior part of the
eye, in a confiderable trunk, to be expanded for the
purpofes of vifion, of which it is now univerfally fup-
pofed to be the immediate feat. But Meflrs Mariotte
and Mery contended, that the choroides is the feat of
this fenfe ; and the ancienis fuppofecl-frhe cryftalline to
be fo. Befides the optic, the eye receives branches
from the third, fourth, fifth, and fixth pair of nerves.
The humours of the eye, together with the cornea,
are calculated to rcfradt and converge the rays of light
in fuch a manner as to form at the bottom of the eye
a diftinct image of the objedt v/e look at; and the
point where thefe rays meet is called the focus ol
the eye. On the retina, as in a camera obfcura, the
objedt is painted in an inverted pofition; and it is Only
by habit that we are enabled to judge of its true fi¬
xation, and likewife of its diftance and magnitude.
EXPLANATION
' O M Y. Part VI
To a young gentleman who was born blind, and who Of the
was couched by Mr Chefelden, every objedt (as he ex- Seilf'e3-
prefled himfelf) feemed to touch his eyes as what he ~
felt did his Hein; and he thought no objects fo agreeable
as thofe which were fmooth and-regular, although for
fome time he could form no judgment of their fhape,
or guefs what it was in any of them that was pleafing
to him.
In order to paint obje&s diftin&ly on the retina,
the cornea is’required to have fuch a degree of con¬
vexity, that the rays of light may be collected at a cer¬
tain point, fo as to terminate exaftly on the retina.—•
If the cornea is too prominent, the rays, by diverging
too foon, will be united before they reach the retina,
as is the cafe with near-fighted people or myopes; and
on the contrary, if it is not fufficiently convex, the rays
will not be perfectly united when they reach the back-
part of the eye; and this happens to long-fighted
people or prejbi, being found conftantly to take place
as we approach to old age, when the eye gradually
flattens (f). Thefe defefts are to be fupplied by
means of glafles He who has too prominent an eye,
will find his vifion improved by means of a concave
glafs; and upon the fame principles, a convex glafs will
be found ufeful to a perfon whofe eye is naturally too flat.
of PLATE XXVII.
Figure i. Shows the Lachrymal Canals, after the
Common Teguments and Bones have been cut away.
a. The lachrymal gland, b, The two pundta lachry-
malia, from which the two lachrymal canals proceed
to c, the lacrymal fac. d, The large lachrymal dudt.
e, Its opening into the nofe. f, The caruncula la-
chrymalis. g. The eye-ball.
Fig. 2. An interior View of the Coats and Humours
of the Eye.
a a a a, The tunica fclerotica cut in four angles, and
turned back, bbbb, The tunica choroides adhering
to the infide of the fclerotica, and the ciliary veflels
are feen palling over—c c. The retina, which covers
the vitreous humour. d d, The ciliary procefles,
which were continued from the choroid coat, e e, The
iris, f, The pupil.
Fig. 3. Shows the Optic Nerves, and Mufcles of
the Eye.
a a, The two optic nerves before they meet, b, The
two optic nerves conjoined, c. The right optic nerve,
d, Mufculus attollens palpebrse fuperioris. e, Attol-
lens oculi. f, Abduftor. g g, Obliquus fuperiof, or
trochlearis. h, Adduclor. i, The eye-ball.
Fig. 4 Shows the Eye-ball with its Mufcles.
a. The optic nerve, b, Mufculus trochlearis. c, Part
of the os frontis, to which the trochlea or pully is fix¬
ed, through which,—d, The tendons of the trochlearis
pafles. e, Attollens oculi. f, Addudlor oculi.
g, Abdu&or oculi. h, Obliquus inferior, i, Part of
N° 20. 3
the fuperior maxillary bone to which it is fixed,
k. The eye-ball.
Fig. 5. Reprefents the Nerves and Mufcles of the
Right Eye, after part of the Bones of the Orbit have
been cut away.
A, The eye-ball. B, The lachrymal gland.
C, Mufculus abductor oculi. D, Attollens. E, Leva¬
tor palpebne fuperioris. F, Depreflbr oculi. G, Ad-
duftor. H, Obliquus fuperior, with its pulley. I, Its
infertion into the fclerotic coat. K, Part of the obli
quus inferior. L, The anterior part of the os frontis
cut. M, The crifta galli of the ethmoid bone. N, The
pofterior part of the fphenoid bone. O, Tranfverfe
fpino’us procefs of the fphenoid bone. P, The caro¬
tid artery, denuded where it pafles through the bones.
Q^The carotid artery within the cranium. R, The
ocular artery.
Nerves.—a a, The optic nerve. b, The third
pair.—c, Its joining with a branch of the firft branch
of the fifth pair, to form 1, the lenticular ganglion,
—which fends off the ciliary nerves, d. e e, The
fourth pair, f, The trunk of the fifth pair, g, The
firft branch of the fifth pair, named ophthalmic.—
h, The frontal branch of it. i, Its ciliary branches,
along with which the nafal twig is fent to the nofe.
k, Its branch to the lachrymal gland. 1, The lenticu¬
lar ganglion, m, The fecond branch of the fifth pair,
named fuperior maxillary, n, The third branch of the
fifth pair, named inferior maxillary, o, The fixth pair
from its bed in the vitreous humour. In this operation the cornea is perforated, and the aqueous humour
efcapes out of the eye, but it is conftantly renewed again in a very ftxort time. The manner however in which
it is fecreted, has not yet been determined.
(f) Upon this principle, they who in their youth are near-fighted may expedl to fee better as they advance
in life, as their eyes gradually become more flat.
b* Oft
ANA'I'OM'.'.
Tlate XXm.
1 1
Part VI.
ANATOMY.
I Of-the
| Senfes.
of nerve?,—-which fends off p, The beginning of the
great fympathetie. q. The remainder of the fixth
pair, fpent on c, The abductor oculi.
Fig. 6. Reprefents the head of a youth, where the
upper part of the cranium is fawed off,—to fhow the
upper part of the brain, covered by the pia mater, the
veflels of which are minutely filled with wax.
A A, The cut edges of the upper part of the cra¬
nium. B, The two tables and intermediate diploe.
B B, The two hemifpheres of the cerebrum. C C. The
incifure made by the falx. D, Part of the tentorium
cerebello fuper expanfum. E, Part of the falx, which
is fixed to the crifta galli.
Fig. 7. Reprefents the parts of the External Ear,
with the Parotid Gland and its Duet,
a a, The helix, b, The antihelix, c, The anti¬
tragus. d, The tragus, e, The lobe of the ear. f,
The cavitas innominata. g, The fcapha. h, The
concha. i i,’The parotid gland, k, A lymphatic
gland, which is often found before the tragus. 1, The
duft of the parotic gland.- m, Its opening into the
mouth.
Fig. 3. A view of the pofterior part of the external
ear, meatus auditorius, tympanum, with its fmall bones,
and Euftachian tube of the right fide.
a, The back part of the meatus, with the fmall ce¬
ruminous glands, b, The incus, c, Malleus, d, The
chorda tympani. e, Membrana tympani. f. The
Euftachian tube, g, Its mouth from the fauces.
Fig. 9. Reprefents the anterior part of the right
external ear, the cavity of the tympanum—its fmall
bones, cochlea, and femicircular canals.
a, The malleus, b, Incus with its long leg, refting
upon the ftapesi c, Membrana tympani. d, e, The
Euftachian tube, covered by part of—f f, The muf-
culus circumflexus palati. 1, 2, 3, The three femicir¬
cular canals. 4, The veftible. 5, The cochlea. 6,
The portio mollis of the feventh pair of nerves.
Fig. 10. Shows the Mufcles which compofe the
fleihy fubftance of the Tongue,
a a, The tip of the" tongue, with fome of the pa¬
pillae minimae b, The root of the tongue, c. Part
of the membrane of the tongue, which covered the
epiglottis. d d, Part of the mufculus hyo-gloffus.
e, The lingualis. f, Genio-gloffus. g g, Part of the
ftylo-gloffus.
ANA
1; Anaxagoras Anatomy of Plants. See Plants.
j —/— Anatomy of Brutes. See Comparative Anatomy.
ANAXAGORAS, one of the moft celebrated phi-
lofophers of antiquity, was born at Clazomene in Ionia
about the 70th Olympiad. He was difciple of Anaxi¬
menes ; and gave up his patrimony, to be more at lei-
fure for the ftudy of philofophy. He went firft to
Athens, and there taught eloquence; after which,
having put himfelf under the tuition of Anaximenes,
he gave leffons in philofophy in the fame city. Thefe
lie only gave to fome particular friends and difciples,
and with extreme caution. This, however, did not pre¬
vent, but rather was the caufe of, his being accufed
of impiety, and thrown into prifon, notwithftanding
the credit and influence of Pc mles, who was his dif¬
ciple and intimate. Having been condemned to exile,
he calmly yielded to the efforts of envy, and opened
fchool at Lampfacum, where he was extremely honour¬
ed during the remainder of his life, and ftill more af¬
ter his death, having had ftatues ere&ed to his memo¬
ry. He is faid to have made fome prediAions relative
to the phenomena of nature, upon which he wrote fome
treatifes. His principal tenets may be reduced to the
following:—All things were in the beginning confu-
fedly placed together, without order and without mo¬
tion. The principle of things is at the fame time one
and multiplex, which obtained the name of homcemeries,
or fimilar particles, deprived of life. But there is be-
fide this, from all eternity, another principle, namely
an infinite and incorporeal fpirit, who gave thefe par¬
ticles a motion ; in virtue of which, fuch as are homo-
geneal united, and fuch as were heterogeneal feparated
according to their different kinds. In this manner all
things being put into motion by the fpirit, and fimilar
things being united to fuch as were fimilar, fuch as
1 had a circular motion produced heavenly bodies, the
lighter particles afeended, thofe which were heavy de-
Vo l. I- Part II.
ANA
feended. The rocks of the earth, being drawn up by Anaxarchus
the force of the air, took fire, and became ftars, be- ||
neath which the fun and moon took their ftations. ■Anaxime-
Thus he did not look upon the ftars as divinities. Kes‘ .
ANAXARCHUS, a philofopher of Abdera, high¬
ly efteemed by Alexander the Great. His end was
peculiarly tragical: having the misfortune to fall into
the hands of the enemy, they pounded him alive in a
mortar.
ANAXIMANDER, a famous Greek philofopher,
born at Miletus in the qzd olympiad, in the time of Po¬
lycrates tyrant of Samos. He was the firft who pub¬
licly taught philofophy, and wrote upon philofophical
fubjeAs. He carried his refearches into nature very
far for the time in which he lived. It is faid, that he
difeovered the obliquity of the Zodiac, was the firft
who publilhed a geographical table, invented the gno¬
mon, and fet up the firft fun-dial in an open place at La¬
cedaemon. He taught, that infinity of things was the
principal and univerfal element; that this infinite al¬
ways preferred its unity, but that its parts underwent
changes; that all things came from it; and that all
were about to return into it. Accordingtaall appear¬
ance, he meant by this obfeure and indeterminate prin¬
ciple the chaos of the other philofophers. He afferted,
that there are an infinity of worlds ; that the ftars are
compofed of air and fire, which are carried in their -
fpheres, and that thefe fpheres are gods ; and that the
earth is placed in the midft of the univerfe, as in a com¬
mon centre. He added, that infinite worlds were the
produA of infinity, and that corruption proceeded from
reparation.
ANAXIMENES, born at Miletus, an eminent
Greek philofopher, friend, fcholar, and fucceffor of
Anaximander. He diffufed fome degree of light upon
the obfeurity of his mailer’s fyftem. He made the fir ft
principle of things to confift in the air, which.he con-
5 E iidered
A N C [ 770 ] A N C
Anaxime- fidered as immenfe or infinite, and to which he afcribed
n.fs a perpetual motion. He afferted, that all things which
Anceftors. proceeded from it were definite and circumfcribed ; and
-y—— that this air, therefore, was God, fince the divine
power refided in it and agitated it. Coldnefs and moi-
flure, heat and motion, rendered it vifible, and dreffed
it in different forms, according to the different degrees
of its condenfation. All the elements thus proceed
from heat and cold. The earth was, in his opinion,
one continued flat furface. ^
Anaximenes, the fon of Ariftocles of Lampfacus,
an orator, the difciple of Diogenes the Cynic, and of
Zoilus the railer againfl Homer. He was preceptor
to Alexander of Macedon, and followed him to the
wars. Alexander being incenfed againft the people of
Lampfacus, they fent this philofopher to intercede for
them. Alexander knowing the caufe of his coming,
fwore that he would do the very reverfe of whatever he
defired of him. Anaximenes begged of him to deftroy
Lampfacus. Alexander, unwilling to break his oath,
and not able to elude this flratagem, pardoned Lamp¬
facus much againft his will.
ANAXIMANDRIANS, in the hiftory of philo-
• fophy, the followers of Anaximander; the moft an¬
cient of the philofophical atheifts, who admitted of no
other fubftance in nature but matter.
ANAZARBUS (Pliny), Anazarba (Stephanus);
a town of Cilicia, on the river Pyramus, the birth
place of Diofcorides, and of the poet Oppian. It
was fometimes called Cafarea, in honour either of
Auguftus or of Tiberius. The inhabitants are called
Anazarleni (Pliny), and on coins Anazarbeis, after
the Greek idiom. It was deftroyed by a dreadful
earthquake in the year 525, along with feveral other
important cities : but they were all repaired at a vaft
expence by the emperor Juftin ; who was fo much af-
* fe&ed with their misfortune, that, putting off the dia-
.dem and purple, he appeared for feveral days in fack-
cloth.
ANBERTKEND, in the eaftern language, a ce¬
lebrated book of the Brachmans, wherein the Indian
philofophy and religion are contained. The word
in its literal fenfe denotes the ciftern wherein is
the water of life. The anbertkend is divided into 50
beths, or difcourfes, eadi of which confifts of ten
chapters. It has been tranflated from the original In¬
dian into Arabic, under the title of Moral al Maani,
q. d. the man onu of intelligence.
ANCAR ^.NO, a town of Italy, in the march of
Ancona, fituated in E. Long. 14. 54. N. Lat. 42. 48.
ANCASTER, a town of Lincolnfhire, fituated in
W. Long. 30. N. Lat. 52. 30. It gives title of duke
to the noble family of Bertie.
ANCENIS, a town of France, in the province of
Britany. W. Long. 1.9. N. Lat. 47. 20.
ANCESTORS, thofe from whom a perfon is de-
fcended in a ftraight line. The word is derived from
the Latin ancejfor, contracted from antecejfor, q. d.
goer before.
Moft nations have paid honours to their anceftors.
It was properly the departed fouls of their forefathers
that the Romans worfhipped under the denominations
of lares, letnures, and houfehold gods. Hence the an¬
cient tombs were a kind of temples, or rather altars,
wherein oblations were made by the kindred, of the Anceftors,
deceafed. —y—J
The Ruffians have ftill their anniverfary feafts in me¬
mory of their anceftors, which they call roditoli Jabot,
q. d. kinsfolk’s fabbath, wherein they make formal vifits
to the dead in their graves, and carry them provifions,
eatables, and prefects of divers other kinds. They
interrogate them, with loud lamentable cries, What
they are doing ? How they fpend their time ? What
it is they want ? and the like.
The Qjjojas, a people of Africa, offer facrifices of
rice and wine to their anceftors before ever they under¬
take any confiderable aftion. The anniverfaries of
their deaths are always kept by their families with
great folemnity. The king invokes the foul of his
father and mother to make trade flourifti and the chace
fucceed.
The Chinefe feem to have diftinguifhed themfelves
above all other nations in the veneration they bear
their anceftors. By the laws of Confucius, part of
the duty which children owe their parents confifts in
worftiipping them when dead. This fervice, which
makes a confiderable part of the natural religion of
the Ghinefe, is faid to have been inftituted by the em¬
peror Kuh, the fifth in order from the foundation of
that ancient empire. Bibl, Un. tom. vii. The Chinefe
have both a folemn and ordinary worfhip which they
pay their anceftors. The former is held regularly twice
a-year, viz. in fpring and autumn, with much pomp.
A perfon who was prefent at it gives the following ac¬
count of the ceremonies on that occafion : The Sacri¬
fices were made in a chapel well adorned, where there
were fix altars furniflied with cenfers, tapers, and flow¬
ers. There were three minifters, and behind them two
young acolites. The three former went with a pro¬
found filence, and frequent genuflexions towards the
five altars, pouring out wine : afterwards they drew
near to the fixth, and when they came to the foot of
the altar, half bowed down, they faid their prayers
with a low voice. That being finiflied, the three mi¬
nifters went to the altar, the officiating prieft took up
a veffel full of wine, and drank ; then he lifted up the
head of a deer or goat; after which taking fire from
the altar, they all lighted a bit of paper j and the mx-
nifter of the ceremonies turning towards the people,
faid with a high voice, that he gave them thanks in
the name of their anceftors for having fo well honour¬
ed them; and in recompence he promifed them, on
their part, a plentiful harveft, a fruitful iffue, good
health, and long life, and all thofe advantages that are
mdft pleafing to men.
The Chinefe give their anceftors another fimplcr
and more private worftiip. To this end they have in
their houfes a niche or hollow place, where they put
the names of their deceafed fathers, and make prayers
and offerings of perfumes and fpices to them at certain
times, with bowing, &c. They do the like at their
tombs.
The Jews fettled in China are faid to worfhip their
anceftors like the heathens, and with the fame cere¬
monies, except that they offer not fwine’s flefh. Near
their fynagogue they have a hall, or court of anceftors,.
wherein are niches for Abraham, Ifaac, &c. The Je-
fuits alfo conformed,, and were permitted by their ge¬
neral;
A N G
[ 7?i 1
A N C
Anchilops neral to conform to this and many other fuperftitious was never ufed but in extreme danger; whence facram Anchor.
cuftoms of the Chinefe.
There is one peculiarity of another kind, wherein
the Chinefe {how their regard for their anceftors ; in
proportion as any of their defeendants are preferred to
a higher degree or dignity, their dead aneeftors are at
the fame time preferred and ennobled with them. The
kings Ven, Van, Veu,Van, and Cheu, Cum, who were
defeended from vaflal kings, when they mounted the
imperial throne, raifed their anceftors from the vaflal
or depending ftate wherein thefe had lived to the dig¬
nity of emperors; fo that the fame honours were for
the future rendered them as if they had been emperors
of China. The fame example was followed by the
fubfequent kings, and now obtains among the grandees
and litex-ati; all now worfliip their anceftors, accord¬
ing to the rank which they themfelves hold in the
world. If the fon be a mandarin and the father only
a doftor, the latter is buried as a doctor, but facrificed
to as a mandarin. The like holds in degradations,
where the condition of the fathers is that of their
fons.
ANCHILOPS, contrarian, and eye;
in medicine, denotes an abfeefs, or collection of mat¬
ter, between the great angle of the eye and the nofe.
If fuffered to remain too long, or unflcilfully managed,
it degenerates, the ftagnating humours corrupt, and
an ulcer is produced. When the tumor is broke, and
anchor am folvere, is proverbially applied to fuch as are
forced to their laft refuge.
The anchors now made are contrived _fo as to fink
into the ground as foon as they reach it, and to hold
a great ftrain before they can be loofened or diflodged
from their ftation. They are compofed of a (hank, a
ftock, a ring, and two arms with their flukes. The
ftock, which is a long piece of timber fixed acrofs the
fhank, ferves to guide the flukes in a diredtion perpen¬
dicular to the furface of the ground; fo that one of
them finks into it by its own weight as foon as it falls,
and is ftill preferved fteadily in that pofition by the
ftock, which, together with the {hank, lies flat on the
bottom. In this fituation it muft neceflarily fuftain a
great effort before it can be dragged through the earth
horizontally. Indeed this can only be effedted by the
violence of the wind or tide, or both of them, fome-
times increafed by the turbulence of the fea, and act¬
ing upon the {hip fo as to ftretch the cable to its ut-
moft tenfion, which accordingly may diflodge the an¬
chor from its bed, efpecially if the ground be foft and
oozy, or rocky. When the anchor is thus displaced, it
is faid, in the fea-phrafe, to come home.
That the figure of this ufeful inftrument may be
more clearly underftood, let us fuppofe a long maffy
beam of iron eredted perpendicularly, h, at the lower'
end of which are two arms, d e, of equal thicknefs
Plate
XXIX,
the tears flow involuntarily, whilft the os lacrymale is with the beam (ufually called theonly that they _
not carious, it is an cegylops ; but when the ulcer is of taper towai'ds the points, which are elevated above the
a long {landing, deep, fetid, and the os lacrymale be¬
comes carious, it is a fijiula. The cure is by reftric-
tion and excifion, tying it at the root on the glandula
lacrymalis, and, when ready, cutting it off. See
Surgery*-/W<?x.
ANCHISES, in fabulous hiftory, a Trojan prince,
defeended from Dardanus, and the fon of Capys. Ve¬
nus made love to him in the form of a beaxxtiful nymph ;
and bore him zEneas, the hei-o of Virgil’s iEneid.
ANCHOR [anchora, Lat. from ayxv?*, Greek), a
heavy, ftrong, crooked inftrument of ii’on, dropped
from a {hip into the bottom of the water, to retain her
in a convenient ftation in a harbour, road, or river.
horizontal plane at an angle of 30 degrees,
dined to the {hank at an angle of 60 degrees; on the
upper part of each arm (in this pofition) is a fluke or
thick plate of iron, g h, commonly fhaped like an
ifofceles triangle whofe bafe reaches inwards to the mid¬
dle of the arm. On the upper end of the {hank is fix- '
ed the ftock tranfverfely with the flukes ; the ftock is
a long beam of oak, f in two parts, ftrongly bolted,
and hooped together with iron rings. See alfo N° 2.
Clofe above the ftock is the ring a, to which the cable
is fattened, or bent: the ring is curioufly covered with
a number of pieces of ftiort rope, which are twitted
about it fo as to form a very thick texture or covei-ing
The moft ancient anchors are faid to have been of called the puddening, and ufed to preferve the cable
ftone ; and fometimes of wood, to which a great quan- from being fretted or chafed by the h
tity of lead was ufually fixed. In fame places, baikets
full of ftones, and facks filled with fand, were employ-
Every flxip has, or ought to have, three principal
anchors, with a cable to each, viz. the ftxeet, maitrejfe-
ed for the fame ufe. All thefe were let down by cords ancre, (which is the anchora facra of the ancients); the
into the fea, and by their weight ftayed the courfe of bell bower, fecond ancre ; arid fmall bower, ancre d'af-
the ftxip. Afterwai-ds they wei-e compofed of iron,
and furniftied with teeth, which, being fattened to the
bottom of the fea, preferved the veffel immoveable;
w hence oM>k and dentes are frequently taken for an¬
chors in the Greek and Latin poets. At firft there was
only one tooth, whence anchors were called 'TE?0fcl<“°‘
but in a flxprt time the fecond was added by Eupala-
mus, or Anacharfis, the Scythian philofophex-. The an¬
chors with two .teeth were called a^iZonoi, Qr ;
and from ancient monuments appear to have been much
the fame with thofe ufed in our days, only the tranf-
yerfe piece of wood npon their handles (the ftock) is
wanting in all of them. Every Ihip had feveral an-
qhors; one of which, furpaffing all the reft in bignefs
grid ftrength, was peculiarly termed ,ff* or facra, and
fourche, fo called from their ufual fituation on the {hip’s
bows. There are hefides fmaller anchors, for removing
a {hip from place to place in a harbour or river, where
there may not be room or wind for failing ; thefe a.e
the ftream-anchor, ant re de toue ; the kedge and grap-
pling, grapin : this laft, however, is chiefly defigned
for boats.
Method of Making Anchors. The gpodnefs of the
anchor is a point of great importance. Great care is
therefore to be taken, that the metal it is made of be
neither too foft nor too brittle; the latter rendering it
liable to break and the former to ftraiten.
The {hank, arms, and flukes, are firft forged fepa-
rately ; then the hole is made at one end of the ftiank
for the ring, which being alfo previoufly forged, is
5 E 2 put
A N C [772
i Anchor. pnt Jnto tKe hole of the lhank, and the two ends (hut
v together. After which the arms are (hut to the (hank,
one after the other, and the anchor is iiniftied.
Proof is made of anchors, by'railing- them to a
great height, and then letting them fall again on a
kind of iron block placed acrofs for the purpofe. To
try whether the flukes will turn to the bottom and
take hold of the ground, they place the anchor on an
even furface, with the end of one of the flukes, and
one of the ends of the flock reftjng on the furface ; in
cafe the anchor turns, and the point of the fluke rifes
upwards, the anchor is good.
In England, France, and Holland, anchors are made
of forged iron ; but in Spain they are fometimes made
of copper, and likewife in feveral parts of the South
Sea.
For the proportions of anchors, according to Man-
waring, the fliank is to be thrice the length of one of
the flukes, and half the length of the beam. Accord¬
ing to Aubin, the length of the anchor is to be four
tenths of the greateft breadth of the Ihip ; fo that the
fhank, e. gr. of an anchor in a veflel 30 feet wide, is
to be 12 feet long. When the fliank is, for inflance,
eight feet long, the two arms are to be feven feet long,
meafuring them according to their curvity. As to the
degree of purvity given the arms, there is no rule for
it; the workmen are here left to their own diferetion.
The latter writer obferves, that the anchor of a large
heavy veflel is fmaller, in proportion, than that of a
lefler and lighter one. The reafon he gives is, that
though the lea employs an equal force againft a fmall
A N
Feet.
c
■pounds.
681
778
884
1000
1124
l250
I4°5
1562
1728
1906
2097
2 too
2515
2742
2986
3242
25I<
3796
4096
4426
4742
5088
5451
. 5832
M. Bouguer, in his Traite de Navire, dire&s to
take the length of the fliank in inches, and to divide
the cube of it by 1160 for the weight. The reafon
is obvious; becaufe the quotient of the cube of 201
veflel as againft a great one, fuppofing the extent of inches, which is the length of an anchor weighing
wood upon which the water afts to be equal in both,
yet the little veflel, by reafon of its fuperior lightnefs,
does not make fo much refiftance as the greater; the
deleft whereof muft fee fupplied by the weight of the
anchor.
7000 lb. divided by the weight, is 1160; and there¬
fore, by the rule of three, this will be a common di-
vifor for the cube of any length, and a Angle opera¬
tion will fufflee.
The fame author gives the following dimenfions of
From thefe, and other hydroftatic principles, the the feveral parts of an anchor. The two arms gene-
following table has been formed; wherein is fhown,
by means of the fliip’s breadth within, how many feet
the beam or fliank ought to be long, giving it four-
tenths or two-fifths of the fliip’s breadth within : by
which proportion might be regulated the length of the
rally form the arch of a circle, whofe centre is three-
eighths of the fliank from the vertex, or point where
it is fixed to the flunk ; and each arm is equal to the.
fame length, or the radius ; fo that the two arms to¬
gether make an arch of 120 degrees:, the flukes are
other parts of the anchor. In this table is reprefented half the length of the arms, and their breadth two-
likewife the weight an anchor ought to"'be for a ftiip fifths of the faid length. With i*efpeft to the thick-
from eight feeet broad to 45,. increafing by one foot’s nefs, the circumference at the throat, or vertex of the
breadth; fuppofing that all anchors are fimilar, or that fliank, is generally made about the fifth part of its
their weights are as the cubes of the lengths of the length, and the fmall end two thirds of the throat;
fhanks.
Feet.
8
9
rFeet..
3r
34
4
4t
4t
Sr
Sr
6
6}
64
7r
7r
the fniall end of the arms of the flukes, three-fourths
Pounds.. of the circumference of the fliank at the throat. Thefe
  dimenfions fliould be bigger, when, the iron is of a bacb
33- quality, efpecially if caft iron is ufed inftead of forged
47 iron.
64 Anchor, the fituation of a (hip which rides by
84 her anchor in a road or haven, &c. Plate XXIX. fig. 1..
£ 1 o N° 3. reprefents the fore part of a fliip as riding in
140. this fituation. See alfo Buoy-Rope.
175*, To fijk the Anchor, to draw up the flukes upon the.
216 fliip’s fide after it is catted. See the articles Davit
262. and Fish.
314 To fleer the Ship to her Anchor, is to fteer the fliip’s
373 head towards the place where the anchor lies when they
439 are heaving the cable into the fliip; that the cable may
y 12 thereby enter the haufe with lels refiftance, and the
592- fliip advance towards the anchor with greater facility.
Arciiqr-'-
A N C L 773 1 A N C
Anchor AmcHOR-Ground is a bottom which is neither too trees; fo that in fame woods where it abounds, the Anchufa
Anchufa ^eeP’ too ihallow, nor rocky; as in the firft the cable
...   bears too nearly perpendicular, and is thereby apt to
jerk the anchor out of the ground ; in the fecond, the
fhip’s bottom is apt to ftrike at low water, or when
the fea runs high, by which die is expofed to the dan¬
ger of finking ; and in the third, the anchor is liable
to hook the broken and pointed ends of rocks, and
tear away its flukes, whilft the cable, from the fame
caufe, is conltantly in danger of being cut through as
it rubs on their edges.
Anchor, in architefture, is a fort of carving, fome-
what refembling an anchor. It is commonly placed
as part of the enrichments of the boultins of capitals
of the Tufcan, Doric, and Ionic orders, and alfo of
the boultins of bed-mouldings of the Doric, Ionic,
and Corinthian cornices, anchors and eggs being car¬
ved alternately through the whole building.
Anchors, in heraldry, are emblems of hope, and
are taken for fuch in a fpiritual as well as a temporal
fenfe.
Anchorage, in law, is a duty upon (hips for the
life of the port or harbour where they call anchor.
' ANCHOVY, in ichthyology, the Dnglifh name of
the clupea encraficolus. See Clupea.
ANCHOVY-pear. See Grias.
ANCHUSA, Alkanet or Bogloss: A genus of
the monogynia order belonging to the pentandria clafs
of plants; and in the natural method ranking under
the 41ft order, Afperifilite. The calyx is a quinque-
partite perianthium,- oblong and perlillent: The corolla
is monopetalous and funnel-fhaped, the throat clofed
with fcales: The Jlamina confift of five fiiort filaments;
the anthers oblong and covered: Thehas four
germina, a filiform ftylus, and obtufe fligma: There
is no pericarpium, the calyx containing the feeds in its
bofom: The feeds are four, oblong, gibbous, and en¬
graven at the bale.
Species. 1. The officinalis, or greater garden-buglofs,
is a native of France and of the warmer parts of Europe,
but will thrive well enough in Britain ; but the roots
feldom continue longer than two years in this country,
unlefs they happen to grow in rubbiffi, or out of an
old wall, where they will live three or four years.
2. The anguftifolia, or perennial wild borage, grows to
the height of two feet when cultivated in gardens ; but
in thofe places where it grows wild is feldom more than
a foot and an half high. The leaves of this fort are
narrow; the fpikes of flowers come out double, and
have no leaves about them ; the flowers are fmall, and
of a red colour. The roots will continue two years in
a poor foil. 3. The undulata, or Portugal buglofs,
is a biennial plant, which grows to the height of two
feet, and fends out many lateral branches. The flow¬
ers are of a bright blue colour, and grow in an imbri¬
cated fpike. 4. The orientalis, or ealtern buglofs, is
a native of the Levant; but hardy enough to bear the
open air in Britain, if it hath a dry fandy foil. It
is a perennial plant,, with long trailing branches which
lie on the ground. The flowers are yellow, and about
the fize of the common buglofs, and there is a fuccef-
fion of thefe on the fame plants great part of the year.
5. The virginiana, or puccoon, grows naturally in the
woods of North America; and being an early plant,
' generally flowers before the new leaves come out on the
ground feems entirely covered with its yellow flowers. An].jenti_
It is a perennial plant, which feldo.n rifes a foot high " h
in good ground, but not above half that height where
the foil is poor. The flowers grow in loofe fpikes
upon fmooth ftalks. 6. The iemp: rvirens, or ever¬
green borage, is a very hardy perennial plant, with
weak trailing branches. It grows naturally in fome
parts of Britain and Spain. The flowers are blue, and
come out between the leaves on the fpike, like the
fourth fort. They appear during a great part of the
year. 7. The cretica, or warted bnglofs of Crete, is
a low trailing annual plant, whofe branches feldom ex¬
tend more than fix inches. The flowers are fmall, of a
bright blue colour, and are colledted into fmall bunch¬
es at the extremity of the branches. The plants pe-
rifli foon after their feeds are ripe. 8. The tinCloria,
or true alkanet, grows naturally in the Levant, but is
equally hardy with the firft fpecies.' The flowrers grow
in long fpikes, coming out imbricaiim, like the tiles of
a houfe.
Culture1. All the fpecies of anchufa may be propa¬
gated by feeds; which Ihould be fown, either in the
fpring or autumn, upon a bed of light fandy earth; and
when the plants are Itrong enough to be removed, they
muft be planted on beds at two feet diftance from one
another, and watered, if the feafon requires it, till they
have taken root; after which they will require no other
care than to keep them free from weeds.
Medicinal Ufes, See. The flowers of the firft fpecies
have obtained the name of cordial flowers; to which
they have no other title than that they moderately cool
and foften, without offending, the palate or ftomach;
and thus, in warm climates, or in hot difeaf s, may in
fome meafure refielh the patient. The root of the tinc-
toria is likewife ufed, not as poffeffed of any medici¬
nal virtue, but on account of its imparting an elegant
red colour to oily fubftances ; fa is frequently direc¬
ted as a colouring ingredient for ointments, plafters, &c.
As the colour is confined to the cortical part, the fmall
roots are to be preferred, as having proportionably
more bark than the large ones. The alkanet root which
grows in England is greatly inferior to what comes
from abroad.
ANCHYLOBLEPHARON. See Ancyloble-
PHARON.
ANCHYLOPS. See Anchilops..
ANCHYLOSIS. See Ancylosis.
ANCIENT, or Antient, a term applied to things
which exifted long ago; thus we fay,, ancient nations,
ancient cuftoms, &c. See Antiquities.
Ancient, fometimes denotes elderly, or of long
Handing, in oppofition. to young, or new; thus we fay,
an ancient barrifter, ancient buildings.
Ancient,, in a military fenfe,. denotes either the
enfign or colours.
Ancient, in fliips of war,, the ftreamer or flag
borne in the ftern.
ANCIENT demesne, in Englilh’law, is a tenure,
whereby all manors belonging to the crown in William
the Conqueror’s and St Edward’s time were held.
The numbers, names, See. hereof were entered by the
Conqueror, in a book called Domefday Book, yet re¬
maining in the Exchequer ; fo that fuch lands as by
that book appeared to have belonged to the crown at
that
A N C C 774 1 A N C
Anclenty, that time, are called ancient detnefne.—The tenants in
Anciilon. anc;ent demefne are of two forts; one who hold their
' v lands frankly by charter; the other by copy of court-
roll, or by the verge, at the will of the lord, according
to the cuitom of the manor. The advantages of this
tenure are, i. That tenants holding by charter cannot
be rightfully impleaded out of their manor; and, when
they are, they may abate the writ, by pleading the te¬
nure. 2. They are free from toll for all things relating
to their livelihood and hufbandry ; nor can be impan-
nelled on any inqueft.—Thefe tenants held originally
by plowing the king’s land, plafhing his hedges, and
the like fervice, for the maintenance of his houfehold ;
and it was on this account that fuch liberties were gi¬
ven them, for which they may have writs of nionjira-
vcrunt to fuch as take the duties of toll, &c.—No
lands are to be account' . ancient demefne, but fuch as
are held in focage. Whether land be ancient demefne
or not, (hall be tried by the Book of Domesday.
ANCIENTY, in fome ancient ilatutes, is ufed for
elderihip or feriiority. The elder lifter can demand no
more than her other lifters, belide the chief mefne, by
reafon of her ancienty.. This word is ufed in the fta-
tute of Ireland, 14 Hen. III.
ANCILLON (David), a minifter of the reformed
church at Metz, where he was born the 17th of March
1617. He ftudied from the ninth or tenth year of his
age in the Jefuits college, where he gave fuch proofs
of his genius, that the heads of the fociety tried every
means to draw him over to their religion and party ;
but he continued firm againft their attacks. ' He went
to Geneva in 1623; and ftudied divinity under Span-
heim, Diodati, and Tronchin, who conceived a very
great elleem for him. He left Geneva in April 1641,
and offered himfelf to the fynod of Charenton in order
to take upon him the office of a minifter : his abilities
were greatly admired by the examiners, and the whole
affembly were fo highly pleafed with him, that they
gave him the church of Meaux, the moft: confiderable
then unprovided for. Here he acquired a vaft reputation
for his learning, eloquence, and virtue, and was even
highly refpected by thofe of the Roman-catholic com¬
munion. He returned to his own country in the year
1653, where he remained till the revocation of the e-
di£t of Nantes in 1685. He retired to Francfort after
this fatal blow; and having preached in the French
church at Hanau, the whole congregation were fo edi¬
fied by it, that they immediately called together the
heads of the families, in order to propofe that he might
be invited to accept of being minifter there. The pro-
pofition was agreed to; and he began the exercife of his
miniftry in that church about the end of the year 1685.
His preaching made fo great a noife at Hanau, that
the profeffors of divinity, and the German and Dutch
minifters, attended his fermons frequently: the count of
Hanau himfelf, who had never before been feen in the
French church, came thither to hear Mr Anciilon :
they came from the neighbouring parts, and even from
Francfort; people who underftood nothing of French
flocked together with great eagernefs, and faid they
loved to fee him fpeak. This occafioned a great jea-
loufy in the two other minifters; which tended to make
his fituation uneafy. He therefore went to Berlin ;
where he met wuth a kind reception from his highnefs
the elector, and was made minifter of the city. Here Anclam
he had the pleafure of feeing his eldeft fon made judge *!
and director of the French in the fame city, and his o- Ancoaa‘ .
ther fon rewarded with a penfion and entertained at the ]
univerfity of Francfort upon the Oder. He had like-
wife the fatisfaftion of feeing his brother made judge
of all the French in the ftates of Brandenburg; and Mr
Cayart his fon-in-law, engineer to his ele&oral high¬
nefs. He enjoyed thefe agreeable circumftances, and
feveral others, till his death, which happened at Berlin
the 3d of September, 1692, when he was 75 years of
age.—Mr Ancillon having got a confiderable fortune by
marriage, was enabled thereby to gratify his paffion
for books; his library was accordingly very curious
and large, and he increafed it every day with all that
appeared new and important in the republic of letters,
fo that at laft it was one of the nobleft collections in the
hands of any private perfon in the kingdom. He pub-,
liftied a book, in quarto, in which the whole difpute
concerning Traditions is fully examined: he alfo wrote
an apology for Luther, Zuinglius, Calvin, and Beza,
and feveral other pieces.
ANCLAM, a ftrong town of Germany, in the cir¬
cle of Upper Saxony, and duchy of Pomerania, re- ,
markable for its excellent paftures. It is feated on the
river Pene. E. Long. 14. 5. N. Lat. 54 10.
ANCLE, or Ankle. See Ankle.
ANCONA (marquifate of), a province in the pope’s
territories in Italy. It lies between the gulph of Ve¬
nice and mount Appenine, which bound it on the
north; Abruzzo on the eaft; the duchy of Spoletto,
and that of Urbino, on the weft. The air is indiffe¬
rent; but the foil is fruitful, particularly in hemp and
flax; and there is great plenty of wax and honey. It
contains feveral large towns, as Fermo, Loretto, Re-
canati, Macerata, Jefi, Tolentino, Afcoli, Ofimo, St
Severino, Monte Alto, Camerino, and Ripatranfone,
which are all archiepifcopal or epifcopal fees.
Ancona, a fea-port town of Italy, the capital of the
marquifate of that name, and the fee of a bifliop. It
was formerly the fineft port in all Italy, being built by
the emperor Trajan, about the year 115; but was al-
moft ruined, and its trade loft: however, it has again
begun to revive. Its harbour is the beft in all the
pope’s dominions. The town lies round it on two hills;
one of which is at the point of Cape St Syriaco, from
whence there is a delightful profpeft. On the other
ftands the citadel, which commands the town and har¬
bour. The ttreets of this city are narrow and uneven;
and the public and private buildings inferior to thofe of
the other great towns in Italy. The cathedral is a low
dark ftrufture; and though the front is covered with
fine marble, the architecture has neither beauty nor re- jl|
gularity. The church of St Dominic, and that of the
Francifcans, have each an excellent picture of Titian.
The exchange, where the merchants meet, is a hand-
fome fquare portico, in which is an equeftrian ftatue
of Trajan, who firft built the port. At the four cor¬
ners are four other ftatues. The triumphal arch of Tra¬
jan remains almoft entire, with its infcription. The
common people in this town are a little particular and
fantaftical in their drefs, but the better fort follow the
French mode. It is a great thoroughfare from the
north of Italy to Loretto; which renders provifions very
dear.
A N C [ 775 1 A N C
dear. The tide does not rife here above a foot, and
near the Mediterranean it is fcarce vifible. E. Long.
15. 5. N. Lat. 43. 36.
ANCONES, in architefture, the corners or quoins of
walls, crofs-beams, or rafters.—Vitruvius calls the con-
foles by the fame name.
ANCONY, in the iron-works, a piece of half-
wrought iron, of about three quarters of 100 weight,
and of the lhape of a bar in the middle, but rude and
unwrought at the ends. The procefs for bringing the
iron to this flate is this: They firft melt off a piece
from a fow of caft iron, of the proper fize ; this they
hammer at the forge into a mafs of two feet long, and
of a fquare (hape, which they call a bloom; when this
is done, they fend it to the finery; where, after two or
-three heats and workings, they bring it to this figure,
and call it an ancony. The middle part beat out at the
finery, is about three feet long, and of the fhape and
thicknefs the whole is to be; this is then fent to the
chafer)', and there the ends are ■'wrought to the fhape
of the middle, and the whole made into a bar. See
Bar.
ANCORARUM urbs, A,xuf«v nuxtr, a city in
the Nomos Aphroditopolites, towards the Red Sea;
fo called becaufe there was in the neighbourhood a ftone
quarry, in which they hewed ftone anchors (Pto¬
lemy) before iron anchors came to be ufed. The gen-
tilitious name is Ancyropolites, (Stephaaus).
ANCOURT (Florent-Cartond’),an eminentFrench
actor and dramatic writer, born at Fontainbleau, Oc¬
tober 1661. Fie ftudied in the Jefuits college at Paris,
under father de la Rue; who, difcovering in him a re¬
markable vivacity and capacity for learning,. was ex¬
tremely defirous of engaging him in their order; but
Ancourt’s averfion to a religious life rendered all his
efforts ineffectual. After he had gone through a courfe
of philofophy, he applied himfelf to the civiklaw, and
was admitted advocate at 17 years of age. But falling
in love with an aCtrefs, he was induced to go upon the
ftage, and he married her. As he had all the qualifi¬
cations neceffary for the theatre, he foon greatly diftin-
guifhed himfelf: and not being fatisfied with the ap-
plaufe only of an aCtor, he began to write pieces for
the ftage; many of which had fuch prodigious fuccefs,
that moft of the players grew rich from the profits of
them. His merit in this way procured him a very fa¬
vourable reception at court; and Lewis XIV. ftiowed
him many marks of his favour. His fprightly conver-
fation and polite behaviour made his company agreeable
to all the men of figure both at court and in the city,
and the moft confiderable perfons were extremely plea-
fed to have him at their houfes Having taken a jour¬
ney to Dunkirk, to fee his eldeft daughter who lived
there, he took the opportunity of paying his compli¬
ments to the eleCtor of Bavaria, who was then at Bruf-
fels: this prince received him with the utmoft civility;
and having detained him a confiderable time, difmiffed
him with a prefent of a diamond valued at 1000 pi-
ftoles: he like wife rewarded him in a very generous^
manner, when, upon his coming to Paris, Ancourt com-
pofed an entertainment for his diverfion. Ancourt be¬
gan at length to grow weary of the theatre, which he
quitted in Lent 1718, and retired to his eftat%of Cour-
celles le Roy, in Berry, where he applied himfdf whol¬
5
ly to devotion, and compofed a tranflation of David’s
Pfalms in verfe, and a facred tragedy, which were ne¬
ver printed. He died the 6th of December, 1726, be-
ing 65 years of age.—The plays which he wrote are
52 in all; moft of which were printed feparately at the
time when they were firft reprefented: they were after¬
wards colleCfed into five volumes, then into feven, and
at laft into nine. This laft edition is the moft complete-
ANCRE, a fmall town of France, in Picardy, with
the title of a marquifate, feated on a little river of the
fame name. E. Long. 2. 45. N. Lat. 49. 59.
ANGUS martius, the fourth king of the Ro¬
mans, fucceeded by Tullius Hoftilius, 639 years before
Chrift. He defeated the Latins, fubdued the Fide-
nates, conquered the Sabines, Volfcii, and Veientines,
enlarged Rome by joining to it mount Janicula, and
made the harbour of Oltia. He died about 615 years
before the Chriftian asra.
ANCYLE, in antiquity, a kind of fhield that fell,
as was pretended, from heaven, in the reign of Numa
Pompilius; at which time, likewife, a voice was heard
declaring that Rome fhould be miftrefs of the world as
long as (he fhould preferve this holy buckler. It was
kept with great care in the temple of Mars, under the
direction of twelve priefts; and left any fhould attempt
to fteal it, eleven others were made fo like, as not to
be diftinguifhed from the facred one. Thefe ancylia
were carried in proceffion every year round the city of
Rome.
Ancyle, in furgery. See Ancylosis.
ANCYLOBLEPHARON, (from Tj'-wx©. lent,
and Pmpxpov an eye-licl); a difeafe of the eye, which;
clofes the eye-lids. Sometimes the eye-lids grow to¬
gether, and alfo to the tunica albuginea of the eye,.
from careleffnefs when there is an ulcer in thefe parts.-
Both thefe cafes are ca)\z&ancyloblepharon by the Greeks.
This diforder muft be diftinguilhed from that coalition-
of the eye-lids which happens from vifcid matter glu¬
ing them together. If the cohefion is on the cornea,
the fight is inevitably loft. This hath fometimes hap¬
pened in the fmall-pox. If there is only a growing to¬
gether of the eye-lids, they may be feparated with the
fpecillum, and pledgets kept between them to prevent
their re-union. If the eye-lids adhere to the eye, they,
are to be feparated by a fine-edged knife ; and their
re-union is to be prevented by a proper ufe of injec¬
tions, and lint placed between them, after dipping it ia
fome proper liniment.
ANCYLOGLOSSUM, from ayxuxof crooked, and
y-Kucraa. the tongue); a contraffion of the ligaments of
the tongue. Some have this imperfedlion from ‘their
birth, others from fome difeafe. In the firft cafe, the
membrane which fupports the tongue is too fhort or
too hard: in the latter, an ulcer under the tongue, heal¬
ing and forming a cicatrix, is fometimes the caufe 1
Thefe fpeak with fome difficulty. The ancylogloffi by •
nature are late before they fpeak ; but when they be¬
gin, they foon fpeak properly. Thefe we call tongue-
tied. Mauriceau (ays, that in this cafe it is a fmall mem¬
branous produdlion, which extends from the fraenulum
to the tip of the tongue, that hinders the child from,
fucking, &c. He juftly condemns the cruel pradfice
among nurfes, of tearing this membrane with their,
nails; for thus ulcers are fometimes formed, which are
of
AND [ 776 ] AND
Ancylofis of difficult cure: he advifes to fnip it with fciffars in
II two or three places, taking care not to extend the
■ ^n a^man‘ points of the fciffars fo far as the fraenulum. The in-
flances rarely occur which require any kind of affift-
ance ; for if the child can thrufl the tip of its tongue
to the outer edge of its lip, this difeafe does not exiil;
and if the tongue is not greatly reftrained, the fraenu¬
lum will ftretch by the child’s fucking and crying.
ANCYLOSIS, in furgery, implies a diftortion or
fliffnefs of the joints, caufed by a fettlement of the hu¬
mours, or a diitenfion of the nerves, and therefore re¬
medies of a mollifying and relaxing nature are re¬
quired.
ANCYRA, the capital of Galatia, (Livy, Pliny,
Ptolemy) ; at no great diftance from the river Halys,
(Livy) : faid to be built by Midas, king of Phrygia,
and to take its name from an anchor found there, (Pau-
fanias). It was greatly improved by Auguflus, deem¬
ed the fecond founder of it, as appears from the Mar-
mor Ancyranum. It is now called Angara, or Angoura.
IE. Long. 330. Lat. 41. 20.
ANCYSTRUM, in botany: A genus of the digy-
nia order, belonging to thediandria clafsof plants; the
eflential characters of which are : The calyx is a fmgle-
leaved, four-toothed perianthium, four-awn’d, the awns
terminated with crofs-barbs : The corolla is four-cleft;
the ftigma pencil’d.
ANDABATiE, in antiquity, a fort of gladiators,
who, mounted on horfeback or in chariots, fought
hoodwinked, having a helmet that covered their eyes.
ANDALUSIA, is the moft weftern province of
Spain, having Eftremadura and La Mancha on the
north ; the kingdom of Granada, the Araks of Gibral¬
tar, and the Ocean, on the eaA and fouth ; and, on the
weft, the kingdom of Algarva in Portugal, from which
it is feparated by the river Guadiana. It is about 182
miles long, and 150 broad. The chief cities and towns
are Seville the capital, Baeza, Gibraltar, Corduba, Ca¬
diz, Medina Sidonia, Jaen, Port St Mary, &c. It is
the beft, moft fruitful, and the richeft part of all Spain.
There is a good air, a Perene fky, a fertile foil, and a
great extent on the fea-coaft fit for commerce.
, New Andalusia, a diviiion of the province of Ter¬
ra Firma in South America, whofe boundaries cannot
be well ascertained, as the Spaniards pretend a right to
coufitries in which they have never eftablifhed any fet-
tlements. According to the moft reafonable limits, it
extends in length 500 miles from north to fouth, and
about 270 in breadth from eaft to weft. The interior
country is woody and mountainous, variegated with fine
valleys that yield corn and pafturage. The produce of
the country confifts chiefly in dying-drugs, gums, me¬
dicinal roots, brazil wood, fugar, tobacco, and fome
Valuable timber. To this province alfo belonged five
valuable pearl-fifheries. The capital of New Andalu-
fia is Comana, Cumana, or New Corduba, fituated in
N. Lat. 9. 55. about nine miles from the north fea.
Here the Spaniards laid the foundation of a town in
the year 1520. The place is ftrohg by nature, and_
fortified by a caftle capable of making a vigorous de¬
fence ; as appeared in the year 1670, when it was af-
faulted by the bucaneers, who were repulfed with very
great flaughter.
ANDAMAN or Andeman Ifiands, in the Eaft
Indies, fituated about 80 leagues diftance from Tanaf-
. N° 20.
ferim on the coaft of Siam. They are but little known; Andante
only the Eaft India fhips fometimes touch at them, and ^ndgrfon
are fupplied by the natives with rice, herbs, and fruits: ‘ v '
the inhabitants are by fome reprefented as an harmlefs
iuoffenfive race of men, and by others .as cannibals.
E. Long. 92. o. N. Lat. from io°. to 15°.
ANDANTE, in muiic, fignifies a movement mode¬
rately flow, between largo and allegro.
AND EC A VI, (Tacitus) ; Andegavi, (Pliny) ;
Andes, (Caefar); Andi, (Lucan): A people of Gal¬
lia Celtica, having the Turones to the call, the Namne-
tes to the weft, the Pi&ones to the fouth, and the Au-
lerci Coenomani to the north: now Anjou.
ANDEGAVI, or Andegavus, a town of Gallia
Celtica, (Pliny, Ptolemy); now Anglers. Called Jn-
decavi, (Tacitus). W. Long; 30. Lat. 47. 30.
ANDELY, a town of Normandy in France, parted
in two by a paved caufeway. Here is a fountain to
which pilgrims flock from all parts, to be cured of
their diforders, on the feaft-day of the faint to which
it is dedicated. It is 20 miles-S. E. of Rouen, and
five N. W. of Paris. E. Long. 1. 30. N. Lat. 49.
20.
ANDENA, in old writers, denotes the fwath made
in mowing of hay, or as much ground as a man could
ftride over at once.
ANDEOL (St), a town of France, in the Vivarez,
five miles S. of St Viviers, whofe biihop formerly re-
fided there. E. Long. 2. 50. N. Lat. 44. 24.
ANDERAB, the moft fouthern city of the pro¬
vince of Balkh, poflefled by the Ufbeck Tartars. It
is very rich and populous, but a place of no great
ftrength. The neighbouring mountains yield excel¬
lent quarries of lapis lazuli, in which the Bukhars
drive a great trade with Perfia and India.—This city
is fituated at the foot of the mountains dividing the do¬
minions of the Great Mogul and Perfia from Great
Bukharia. As there is no other way of crofting thefe
mountains but by the road through this city, all tra¬
vellers with goods muft pay 4 per cent. On this ac¬
count the Khan of Balkh maintains a good number of
foldiers in the place.
ANDERNACHT, a city of Cologne, in the circle
of the Lower Rhine. It is fituated in a plain on the
river Rhine ; and is fortified with a wall, caftle, and
bulwarks. It has a trade in ftone jugs and pitchers,
which are fent to the mineral waters at Dunchftein.
There are three monafteries here, and feveral churches.
E. Long. 7. 4. N. Lat. 50. 27.
ANDERO (St), a fea-pott town in the bay of Bif-
cay, in Old Caftile, feated on a fmall peninfula. It is
a trading town, and contains about yco houfes, two
parifh-churches, and four mouafteries. Here the Spa¬
niards build and lay up fome of their men of war. W.
Long. 4. 30. N. Lat, 43. 20.
ANDERSON (Sir Edmund), a younger fon of an
ancient Scotch family fettled in Lincolnftiire. He
was fome time a Undent of Lincoln college, Oxford ;
and removed from thence to the Inner Temple, where
he applied himfelf diligently to the ftudy of the law,
and became a barrifter. In the 9th of queen Eliza¬
beth he was both lent and fummer reader, and in the
16th double reader. He was appointed her majefty’s
ferjeant at law in the 19th year of her reign; and fome
time after, one of the juftices of affize. In 1582 he
1 ‘ was j
AND L 777 1 AND
Anderfon, was made lord chief juftice of the common pleas, and
, An^e8- in the year following was knighted. He held his of-
~v fice to the end of his life, died in the year 1605, and
was buried at%Eyworth in Bedfordfhire. He was an
able, but punctilious lawyer ; a fcourge to the Puri¬
tans ; and a ftrenuous fupporter of the eftablifhed
church. His works are, 1. Reports of many princi¬
pal cafes argued and adjudged in the time of queen E-
lizabeth, in the common bench. Land. 1644, fol.
2. Refolutions and judgments on the cafes and matters
agitated in all the courts of Weftminfter, in the latter
end of the reign of queen Elizabeth. Publilhed by
John Goldlborough, Efq; Lond. 1653, 4to. Befides
thefe, there is a manufcript copy of his Readings ftill
in being.
Anderson (Adam), a native of Scotland, was
brother to the reverend James Anderfon, D. D. editor
of the Diplomat a Scotix and Royal Genealogies, many
years fmce minifter of the Scots Prefbyterian church
in Swallow ftreet, Piccadilly, and well known in thofe
days among the people of that perfuafion relldent in
London by the name of Birtiop Anderfon, a learned
but imprudent man, who loll a confiderable part of his
property in the fatal year 1720. He married, and had
ilfue a fon, and a daughter who was the wife of an officer
in the army.
Adam Anderfon was for 40 years a clerk in the
South Sea Houfe; and at length arrived to his acme
there, being appointed chief clerk of the Stock and
and New Annuities, which office he retained till his
death. He was appointed one of the truRees for
eftablifhing the colony of Georgia in America; and
was alfo one of the court of affiftants of the Scots cor¬
poration in London. The time of the publication of
lus “ Hillorical and Chronological Deduction of
Trade and Commerce,” a work replete with ufeful in¬
formation, was about the year 1762. He was twice
married; by the firll wife he had iflue a daughter,
married to one Mr Hardy, an apothecary in the Strand,
who are both dead without iffue; he afterwards be¬
came the third hulband of the widow of Mr Coulter,
formerly a wholefale linen-draper in Corn-hill, by whom
he had no iffue. She was, like him, tall and graceful;
and her face has been thought to have fome refem-
blance to that of the ever-living countefs of Defmond,
given in Mr Pennant’s firft Tour in Scotland. Mr An¬
derfon died at his houfe in Red Lion ftreet, Clerken-
well, January 10. 1775. He had a good library of
books, which were fold by his widow,, who furvived
him feveral years, and died in 1781.
ANDES, a great chain of mountains in South A-
merica, which running from the moft northern part of
Peru to the ftraits of Magellan, between 3 and 4000
miles, are the longeft and moll remarkable in the
World. The Spaniards call them the Cordillera de lot
Andes; they form two ridges, the lowermoft of which
is overfpread with woods and groves, and the upper-
moll covered with everlafting fnow. Thofe who have
been at the top, affirm, that the Iky is always ferene
and bright ; the air cold and piercing; and yet fo thin,
that they were fcarce able to breath, and the refpiration
was much quicker than ordinary; and this is attended
with reaching and vomiting; which, however, has
been confidered by feme as merely accidental. When
they looked downwards, the country was hid bv the
Vol. X. Part II.
clouds that hovered on the mountain’s Tides. The Andes,
mountains juft mentioned, which have been frequently v
afcended, are much inferior in height to many others
in this enormous chain. The following is the account
given of the mountain called Pichincha, by the mathe¬
maticians fent by the kings of France and Spain to
make obfervations in relation to the figure of the earth.
Soon after our artifts arrived at Quito, they deter¬
mined to continue the feries of the triangles for mea-
furing an arch of the meridian to the S. of that city:
the company accordingly divided themfelves into two
bodies, confifting of French and Spaniards, and each ;
retired to the part affigned them. Don George Juaa
and M. Godin, who were at the head of one party,
went to the mountain of Pambamarca; while M.
Bougeur, de la Condamine, and Don Ulloa, together
with their affillants, climbed up to the higheft fummit
of Pichincha. Both parties fuffered extremely, as well
from the feverity of the cold as from the impetuofity
of the winds, which on thefe heights blow with incef-
fant violence ; difficulties the more painful, as they
had been little ufed to inch fenfations. Thus in the
torrid zone, nearly under the equinodtial, where it is
natural to fuppofe they had moft to fear from the heat,
their greatell pain was caufed by the exceffivenefs of
the cold.
Their firft fcheme for ftielter and lodging in thefe
uncomfortable regions, was to pitch a field-tent for
each company ; but on Pichincha this could not be
done from the narrownefs of the fummit: they were
therefore obliged to be contented with a hut fo fmall
that they could hardly all creep into it. Nor will this
appear ftrange, if the reader confiders the bad difpofi-
tion and fmallnefs of the place, it being one of the
loftieft crags of a rocky mountain, 10O fathoms above
the higheft part of the defart of Pichincha. Such was
the fituation of their manfion, which, like all the other
adjacent parts, foon became covered with ice and fnow.
The afcent up this ftupendous rock, from the bafe, or /
the place where the mules could come, to their habita¬
tion, was fo craggy as only to be climbed on foot; and
to perform it coft them four hours continual labour and
pain, from the violent efforts of the body, and the tub-
tility of the air; the latter being fuch as to render re¬
fpiration difficult.
The ftrange manner of living to which our artifts
were reduced during the time they were employed in
a geometrical menfuration of fome degrees of the me¬
ridian, may not perhaps prove unentertaining to the
•reader; and therefore the following account is given
as a fpecimen of it. The defart of Pichincha, both
with regard to the operations performed there and its
inconveniences, differing very little from others, an
idea may be very eafily formed of the fatigues, hard-
Ihips, and dangers, to which they were continually
expofed during the time they were profecuting the en-
terprife, with the condutt of which they had been ho¬
noured. The principal difference between the feveral
defarts confifted in their greater or leffer diftance from
places where they could procure provifions; and in the
inclemency of the weather, which was proportionate to
the height of the mountains, and the feafon of the
year.
They generally kept within their hut. Indeed they
were obliged to do this, both on account of the in-
y F tenfengfs
AND [7
tenfenefs of the cold, the violence of the.wind, and
' their being continually involved in fo thick a fog, that
an object at fix or eight paces was hardly difcemible.
When the fog cleared up, the clouds by their gravity
moved nearer to the furface of the earth, and on all
fides furrounded the mountains to a vaft diftance, re-
prefenting the fea, with their rock like an ifland in the
centre of it. When this happened, they heard the
horrid noifes of the tempefts, which then difcharged
themfelves on Quito and the neighbouring country.
They faw the lightenings ifliie from the clouds, and
heard the thunders roll far beneath them: and whilft
the lower parts were involved in tempefts of thunder
and rain, they enjoyed a delightful ferenity ; the wind
was abated, the Iky clear, and the enlivening rays of
the fun moderated the fe verity of the cold. But their
circumftances were very different when the clouds rofe :
their thicknefs rendered refpiration difficult; the fnow
and hail fell continually; and the wind returned with
all its violence; fo that it was impoffible entirely to
overcome the fears of being, together with their hut,
blown down the precipice, on whofe edge it was built,
or of being buried under it by the daily accumulations
of ice and fnow.
The wind was often fo violent in thefe regions, that
its velocity dazzled the fight, whilft their fears were
increafed from the dreadful concuffions of the preci¬
pice, caufed by the fall of enormous fragments of
rocks. Thefe cruffies were the more alarming, as no
other noifes are heard in thefe defarts : and during the
night, their reft, which they £0 greatly wanted, was
frequently difturbed by fuch fudden founds. When
the weather was any thing fair with them, and the
clouds gathered about fome of the other mountains
which had a connexion with their obfervations, fo that
they could not make all the ufe they defired of this in¬
terval of good weather, they left their hut to exercife
themfelves. Sometimes they defoended to fome fmall
diftance; and at others, amufed themfelves with roll¬
ing large fragments of rocks down the precipice ; and
thefe frequently required the joint ftrength of them all,
though they often faw the fame effected by the mere
force of the wind. But they always took care in their
excurfions not to go fo far out,, but that on the leaft
appearance of the clouds gathering about their cottage,
which often happened very fuddenly, they could regain
their fhelter. The door of their hut was fattened with
thongs of leather, and on the infide not the fmalleft
crevice was left unftopped ; befide which, it was very
compaftly covered with ftraw: but, notwithftanding all
their care, the wind, penetrated through.. The days
were often little better than the nights; and all the
light they enjoyed was that of a lamp or two, which
they kept continually burning.
Though their hat was fmall, and crowded with in¬
habitants, befide the heat of the lamps; yet the intenfe-
nefs of the cold was fuch, that every one of them was
obliged to have a chafing diffi of coals. Thefe precau¬
tions would- have rendered the rigour of the climate
fupportable, had not the imminent danger of periffiing
by being blown down the precipice roufed them, every
time it fnowed, to encounter the feverity of the out¬
ward air, and fally out with (hovels to free the roof of
their hut from the mattes of fnow which were gather¬
ing on it. Nor would it, without this precaution, have
78 ] AND
been able to fupport the weight. They were not in- Andes-
deed without fervants and Indians; but thefe were fo v*->
benumbed with the cold, that it was with great diffi¬
culty they could get them out of a fmall tent, where
they kept a continual fire. So that all our artifts could
obtain from them was to take their turns in this la¬
bour ; and even then they went very unwillingly about
it, and confequently performed it (lowly.
It may eafily be conceived what this company fuf-
fered from the afperities of fuch a climate. Their feet
were fwelled ; and fo tender, that they could not even
bear the heat; and walking was attended with extreme
pain. Their hands were covered with chilblains; their
bps fwelled and chopped; fo that every motion in
fpeaking, or the like, drew blood; confequently they
were obliged to ftri& taciturnity, and little difpofed to
laugh, as, by caufing an extenfion of the lips, it produ¬
ced fuch fiffures as were very painful for two br three,
days after.
Their common food in this inhofpital region- was
a little_rice boiled with fome flefh or fowl, procured
from Quito ; and, inftead of fluid water,, their pot was
filled with ice; they had the fame refource with re¬
gard to what they drank ; and while they were eating,
every one was obliged to keep his plate over a chafing-
diffi of coals, to prevent his provifions from freezing-
The fame was done with regard to the water. At
firft they imagined the drinking ftrong liquors would
diffufe a heat through the body, and confequently ren¬
der it lefs fenfible of the painful (harpnefs of the cold ;
but, to their furprife, they felt no manner of ftrength
in fuch liquors, nor were they any greater prefervativs
againft the cold than the common water.
At the fame time, they found it impoffible to keep
the Indians together. On their firft feeling of the
climate, their thoughts were immediately turned on
deferting their matters. The firft inftance they had of
this kind, was fo unexpefted, that, had not one, of a
better difpofition than the reft, (laid and acquainted
them of their defign, it might have proved of very bad
confequence. The affair was this: There being on the
top of the rock no room for pitching a tent for the In¬
dians,. they ufed every evening to retire to a cave at the
foot of the mountain ; where, befide a natural diminu¬
tion of the cold, they could keep a continual fire; and,
confequently, enjoyed more comfortable quarters than
their matters. Before they withdrew at night, they
fattened, on the butfide, the door of the hut, which was
fo low that it was impoffible to go ia or out without
(looping ; and as every night the hail and fnow which
had fallen formed a wall againft the door, it was the
bufinefs of one or two of the Indiana to come early and
remove this obftrudlion. For though the negro fervants
were Lodged in a little tent, their hands and feet were fo
covered with chilblains, that they would rather have
fuffered themfelves to have been killed than move. The
Indians therefore came conftantly up to difpatch this
work betwixt nine or ten in the morning : but they
had not been there above four or five days, when they
were not a little alarmed to fee ten, eleven, and twelve
o’clock come, without any news of their labourers; when
they were relieved by the honed fervant mentioned above,
who had withftood the fedudlion of his countrymen,
and informed his matters of the defertion of the four
others. As foon as the fnow was cleared away front
AND [7
Andes, the door, they difpatched the Indian to the corregidor
of Quito, who with equal difpatch fent other Indians,
threatening to chaftife them feverely if they were want¬
ing in their duty.
But the fear of punifliment was not fufficient to in¬
duce them to fupport the rigour of this fituation ; for
within two days they deferted. The corregidor there¬
fore, to prevent any other inconvenience, fent four In¬
dians under the care of an alcalde, and gave orders for
their being relieved every fourth day.
Twenty-three tedious days our artifts fpent on this
rock, viz. to the 6th of September, and even without
any poffibility of finiihing their obfervations of the
angles: for when it was fair and clear weather with
them, the others, on whofe fummits the fignals which
formed the triangles for meafuring the degrees of the
meridian, were hid in the clouds ; and when thofe were
clear, Pichincha was involved in clouds. It was there¬
fore neceffary to ere ft their fignals in a lower fituation,
and in a more favourable region. This, however, did
not produce any change in their habitation till the be¬
ginning of December; when, having finiihed the ob¬
fervations which particularly concerned Pichincha,
they proceeded to others; but with no abatement ei¬
ther of inconveniences, cold, or fatigue ; for the pla¬
ces where they made their obfervations being necefla-
rily on the higheft parts of the defarts, the only refpite
in which they enjoyed fome little eafe was during the
fhort interval of paffing from one to the other.
In all their ftations fubfequent to that on Pichincha,
during their fatiguing menfuration of the degrees of
the meridian, each company lodged in a field-tent,
which, though fmall, they found lefs inconvenient than
the hut on Pichincha; though at the fame time they
had more trouble, being oftener obliged to clear it
from the fnow, as the weight of it would otherwife
have demolifhed the tent. At firft, indeed, they pitch¬
ed it in the mod flickered places; but on taking arefo-
iution that the tents themfelves fliould ferve for fignals,
to prevent the inconvenience of having others of wodd,
they removed them to a more expofed fituation, where
the impetuofity of the winds fometimes tore up the pi¬
quets, and blew them down.
Though this mountain is famous for its great height,
k is confiderably lower than the mountain of Cotopaxi:
but it is impoffible to conceive the coldnefs of the fum-
mit of the lad-mentioned mountain from that felt on
this ; fince it mud exceed every idea that can be form-
ed by the human mind, tho’ they are both feated in the
midd of the torrid zone. In all this range of mountains,
there is faid to be a condant inferior boundary, beyond
which the fnow‘never melts: this boundary, in the
midd of the torrid zone, is faid by fome to be 2434 fa¬
thoms above the level of the fea ; by others, only 2400
feet. The fnow indeed falls much lower, but then it
is fubjedl to be melted the very fame day. It is affirm¬
ed, that there are in the Andes 16 volcanoes or burn¬
ing mountains, which throw out fire and fmoke with a
terrible noife. The height of Chimborazo, faid to be
the highed peak of the Andes, has been determined by
geometrical calculations to be 20,282 feet. But the
great differences between the calculators of the height
of mountains in other parts of the world, mud very
much diminifli the credit of fuch calculations. Indan-
oes of this we have already given under the article JEi-
79 ] AND
na. No lefs remarkable are the differences concerning Andes
the height of the peak of Teneriffe; which, according An(jj.a(ja
to the calculations of Varenius, is three miles and three  n ra a*
quarters, or 19,800 feet; according to thofe of Dr He-
berden, it is only 15,396 feet; and according to thofe
of M. Feuille, is no more than 13,128 feet. From
thefe fpecimens, we can fcarce avoid concluding, that all
the methods hitherto invented for calculating the exa£h
height of mountains are infufficient.
As all or mod rivers have their fource in mountains,
it is no wonder a great number run down the fides of the
Andes. Some hurry along with a prodigious rapidity;
while others form beautiful cafcades, or run thro’ holes
in rocks, which look like bridges of a dupendous
height. There is a public road through the mountains,
1000 miles in length, part of which runs from Quito
to Cufco.
Andes, a hamlet of Mantua in Italy, the birth¬
place of Virgil. Hence the epithet Andinus (Silius
Italicus). Now called Pietola, two miles to the wed
of Mantua.
ANDETIHUM; Andretium (Strabo); Ande-
crium, or Andrecium (Ptolemy) : An inland town
of Dalmatia. The genuine name is Andetrium (In-
feription). It is deferibed as fituated near Salonae, on
a naturally drong and inacceffible rock, furrounded with
deep valleys, with rapid torrents; from which it ap¬
pears to be the citadel now called Clijfa. E. Long. 17.
46. Lat. 43. 20.
ANDEUSE, a city of Languedoc in France, fitua¬
ted in E. Long. 3. 40. and N. Lat. 43. 4.5.
ANDOMADUNUM; Andomatunum (Ptole¬
my); and Antematunum (Antonine); Civitas
Lingonum (Tacitus) : A city of Gallia Belgica ;
now Langres in Champagne, fituated on an eminence
(which feems to judify the termination dunum), on the
borders of Burgundy, at the fprings of the Marne. Ta¬
citus calls an inhabitant Lingon. E. Long. 5, 22.
N. Lat. 48. o.
ANDOVER, a large market-town in Plampflure,
on the London road. It is feated on a branch of the
river Ted, and fends two members to parliament. It
has feveral inns, which afford good accommodation for
travellers; and has a market on Saturday, well docked
with provifions. It is governed by a bailiff, a deward,
a recorder, ten approved men, and twenty-two capital
burgeffes, who yearly choofe the bailiff, and he clefts
two ferjeants at mace to attend him. The living is a
vicarage, valued at 1711. 4s. 4d. in the king’s books,;
W. Long. o. 56. N. Lat. 51. 20.
ANDRADA (Diego de Payva d’), or Andra-
dius, a learned Portuguefe, born at Conimbria, who
didinguifhed himfelf at the council of Trent, where
king Sebadian fent him as one of his divines. There
is fcarce any Catholic author who has been more quo¬
ted by the Protedants than he, becaufe he maintained
fome opinions a little extravagant concerning the fal-
vation of the Heathens. Andrada was edeemed an
excellent preacher. His fermons were publiflied in
three parts, the fecond of which was tranflated into
Spanifli by Benedift de Alcoran. Many encomiums
have been bedowed upon Andrada. Oforius, in his
preface to the “Orthodox Explanations of Andradius,”
gives him the charafter of a man of wit, vad applica¬
tion, great knowledge in the languages, with all the
5 F 2 zeal
AND
Andfachne real and eloquence neceffary to a good preacher; and
Rofweidus fays, that he brought to the council of
. ea' Trent the underftanding of a moft profound divine, and
the eloquence of a confummate orator.
ANDRACHNE, Bastard Orpine : A genus of
the gynandria order, belonging to the moncecia clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
38th order, Tricoccue. The chara&ers are : The male
calyx confifts of five leaves ; the corolla has five petals;
and the Jlamir.a, which are alio five in number,, are in-
ferted into the ftylus : The female calyx is divided in¬
to five leaves ; there is no corolla', the Jlyli are three ;
and the capfule is trilocular, containing three feeds.
Species. 1. The telephonies, or herbaceous trailing
andrachne, is a low plant, whofe branches trail upon
the ground. The leaves are final], of an oval fiiape,
fmooth, and of a fea-green colour. It is found wild in
fome parts of Italy and the Archipelago; but is a plant
of no great beauty, and therefore feldom cultivated.
2. The fruticofa, or ihrubby baltard orpine, is a native of
China and fome places of America, where it rifes 12 or
14 feet high. The leaves are fpear-fhaped, pointed, and
fmooth; and under them are produced the footfialks of
the flowers, which are fmallj and of a herbaceous
white colour. 3. The arborea, with a tree-like Italk.
This fpecies was difcovered by the late Dr William
Houfton, growing naturally at Campeachy. It has a
itrong woody item, which rifes more than 20 feet high,
and fends out. many branches on every fide. This has
not yet flowered in Britain. A fourth fort is alfo men¬
tioned by Mr Millar as railed by him from feeds fent
from Jamaica. It agrees in general with the third fort;
but the leaves are fomewhat like the laurel, only much
larger..
Culture. The firft fpecies may be raifed, by fowing
the feeds in March, on a moderate hot-bed. The plants
may be removed into fmall pots, and plunged into ano¬
ther very moderate hot-bed, to bring them forward;
but in mild weather they fhould have plenty of air ad¬
mitted to them, and be frequently refreftied with wa¬
ter. Ih June they will produce flowers, and the feeds
will ripen in Auguft and September.—The other fpe¬
cies are very tender, and therefore mull be kept con-
Itantly in the bark-ftove. It is very difficult to procure
good feeds of thefe forts; the covers often containing
nothing, though they appear very fair outwardly. Of
all the feeds fent over by Dr Houfton, only one was
found to contain a kernel, fo that only one plant was
produced.
ANDRAPODISMUS, in ancient writers, the
felling of perfon's for flaves. Hence alfo andrapodijles,
a, dealer in flaves, more particularly a kidnapper, who
fteals men or children to fell them; a crime for which
tlie Theffalians were noted.
ANDRAPODOCAPELI, in antiquity, a kind of
dealers in flaves. The andracodocapeli had a particular
procefs for taking off moles and the like disfigurements
on the faces of the flaves they kept for fale, by rub¬
bing them with bran. At Athens, feveral places in
the forum were appointed for the fale of flaves. Up¬
on the firft day of every month, the merchants called
Avff>u*oSoKtt*>i\oi brought them into the market, and ex-
pofed them to fale ; the crier Handing upon a ftone e-
redted for that purpofe, called the people together.
ANDREA (St), a fmall village on the Malabar
AND
coaft in the Eaft Indies, founded originally by the Por- Andrei, j j,
tuguefe. It takes its name from a church dedicated to Andreas*, | *
St Andrew, and ferved by the priefts of St Thomas.— , " f |
On the ftiore of St Andrea, about half a league out in
the fea, lies Mud-bay, a place which few in the world
can parallel. It is open to the wide ocean, and has nei¬
ther ifland nor bank to break the force of the billows,
which come rolling with great violence from all parts,
in the fouth-weft monfoons: but on this bank of mud
they lofe themfelves in a moment; and fhips lie on it
as fecure as in the beft harbour, without motion or di-
fturbance. It reaches about a mile along ftiore, and
has been obferved to fhift its place from the northward
about three miles in . 30 years. From St Andrea to
Krangan6r, about 12 leagues to the fouth, the water
has the bad property of caufing fwellings in the legs of
thofe who drink it conilantly. Some it affefts in one
leg, and fome in both. It caufes no pain, but itch¬
ing ; nor does the fwelled leg feem heavier to the
owner than the fmall one, though fome have been feen
a yard in circumference at the ancle. The Romifh
legends impute the caufe of this diftemper (for which
no preventative or cure hath been hitherto found) to
a curfe laid by St Thomas upon his murderers and
their pofterity; though, according to the Romans
themfelves, St Thomas was killed by the Tillinga priefts
at Meliaphur, on the coaft of Coromandel, about 400
miles diftant, and where the natives have not this di¬
ftemper.
ANDREAS (John), a celebrated canonift in the
14th century, was born at Mugello, near Florence;
and was profeffor of canon-law at Padua, Pifa, and af¬
terwards at Bologna. It is faid that he macerated his
body with falling ; and lay upon the bare ground every
night for 20 years together, covered only with the Ik in
of a bear. This is attefted by very good authors; but
if the ftory which Poggius tells of him in his Jells be
true, he mull afterwards have relaxed much of this
continency : “ Joahnem Andream, (fays he), do£lo-
rem Bonnonienfem, cujus fama admodum vulgata eft,
fubagitantem ancillam domefticam uxor deprehendit:
re infueta ftupefacfta mulier in virum verfa, Ubi nunc,
ait, Joannes, eft fapientia veftra ? ille nil amplius locu-
tus, In vulva iftius, refpondit, loco admodum fapien-
tise accommodato.” The French tranflation of this
perhaps will not be difpleafing.
I Jean, dit Andre, fameux D cieur des Loix,
Fut pris un jou> au pechc d'amourette :
11 acolloit une j une foubrette.
Sa femme vint, fit unjigne de creix.
Ho bo, dit elle, ejl ce vous ? non je penfe :
Vous, dont par tout pp vante la prudence.
Qu ijl devenu cet efprit ft fubtil?
Le bon Andre, pourJuivantfon ti'goce,
j Honteux pourtani, ma foi, repondit-il.
Prudence, efprit, tout gift dans cette fojfe.
Since it is agree*) that John Andreas had a baflard,
this ftory is at the bottom very probable; and it was
perhaps with the mother of Banicontius that his wife
found him. Andreas had a beautiful daughter, named
Novella, whom he loved extremely : and he is faid to
have inftru£led her fo well in all parts of learning, that
when he was engaged in any affair which hindered him
from reading lectures to his fcholars, he fent his daugh¬
ter in his room ; and left her beauty Ihould prevent the
at-
[ 780 ]
AND [ 781 ] AND
attention of the hearers, (he had a little curtain drawn
' before her. To perpetuate the memory of this daugh¬
ter, he intitled his commentary upon the Decretals of
Gregory IX. the Novella. He married her to John
Calcjerinus, a learned canonill. The firft work of An¬
dreas was bis Glofs upon the Sixth Book of the De¬
cretals, which he wrote when he was very young. He
wrote alfo Glofles upon the Clementines ; and a Com¬
mentary in regulas Sexti, which he intitled Mercu-
riales, becaufe he either engaged in it on Wednefdays
(diebus Mercurii,) or* becaufe he inferted his Wednef¬
days difputes in it. He enlarged the Speculum of
Durant, in the year 1347. This is all which MrBayle
mentions of his writings, though he wrote many more.
Andreas died of the plague at Bologna, in 1348, after
he had been a profeffor 45 years ; and was buried in
the church of the Dominicans. Many eulogiurfis have
been bellowed upon him; He has been called Arch’dac-
tor decretorum : In his epitaph, Rabbi cl otto rum ; lux,
cenfer norniaque morum; “ Rabbi of the do&ors, the
light, cenfor, and rule of manners:” And it is faid,
that Pope Boniface called him lumen niundi, “ the
light of the world.”
Andreas (John) was born a Mahometan, acXativa
in the kingdom of Valencia, and fucceeded his father
in the dignity of alfaqui of that city. He was en¬
lightened with the knowledge of the Chriftian religion
by being prefent at a fermon in the great church of
Valencia on the day of Alfumption of the blefled Vir¬
gin, in the year 1487. Upon this he defired to be
baptized; and, in memory of the calling of St John
and St Andrew, he received the name John Andreas.
ti Having received holy orders (fays he), and, from
an alfaqui and a Have of Lucifer, become a prieft and
minifter of Chrill; I began, like St Paul, to preach
and publilh the contrary of what I had erroneoufly be¬
lieved and afferted; and, with the affiftance of Al¬
mighty God, I converted at firft a great many fouls of
the Moors, who were in danger of hell, and under the
dominion of Lucifer, and conducted them into the way
of falvation. After this, I was fent for by the moft
eatholic princes king Ferdinand and queen Ifabella,
in order to preach in Granada to the Moors of that
kingdom, which their majefties had conquered: by
God’s bleffing on my preaching, an infinite number of
Moors were brought to abjure Mahomet,, and to turn
to Chrift. A little after this, I was made a canon by
their grace ; and font for again by the moft Chriftian
queen Ifabella to Arragon, that I might be employed
in the converfion of the Moors of thofe kingdoms, who
flill perfifted in their errors, to the great contempt and
diihonour of our crucified Saviour, and the prodigious
lofs and danger of all Chriftian princes. But this ex¬
cellent and pious defign of her Majefty was rendered
ineffe&ual by her death.” At the defire of Martin
Garcia, biihop of Barcelona, he undertook to tranf-
late from the Arabic* into the language of Arragon,
the whole law of the Moors ; and after having finiihed
this undertaking, he compofed his famous work oiThe
Confufion of the Sett of Mabumed : it contains twelve
chapters, wherein he has colledfted the fabulous ftories,
impoftures, forgeries, ' brutalities, follies, obfeenities,
abfurdities, impoffibilities, lies, and contradictions,
which Mahomet, in order to deceive the fimple people,
has difperfed in the writings of that fed, and especial¬
ly in the alcoran, which, as he fays, was revealed to
him in ont night by an angel, in the city of Meke ;
though in another place he contradifts himfelf, and af¬
firms that he was 20 years in compofmg it. Andreas
tells us, he wrote this work, that not only the learned
amongft Chriftians, but even the common people, might
know the different belief and doctrine of the Moors;
and on the one hand might laugh and ridicule fuch in-
folent and brutal notions, and on the other might la¬
ment their blindnefs and dangerous condition. This
book, which was publifhed at firft in Spanifh, has been
tranflated into feyeral languages ; all thofe who write a-
gainft the Mahometans quote it very much.
ANDREINI (Ifabella), a native of Padua, was an
excellent poetefs, and one of the beft comedians in Ita¬
ly, towards the beginning of the 17th century. The
Intent! of Pavia thought they did their fociety an ho¬
nour by admitting her a member of it; and fhe, in ac¬
knowledgment of this honour, never forgot to mention-
amongft her titles that of Academica Infanta: her
titles were thefe, “ Ifabella Andreini, comica gelofa^
academica infanta, detta 1’accefia.” She was alfo a wo¬
man of extraordinary beauty ; which, added to a fine
voice, made her charm both the eyes and ears of the
audience. She died of a mifearriage, at Lyons, the
10th of June, 1604, in the 42ft year of her age. Her
death being a matter of general concern and lamenta¬
tion, there were many Latin and Italian elegies print--
ed to her memory : feveral of thefe pieces were placed
before her poems in the edition of Milan, in 16054
Befides her fonnets, madrigals, fongs, and eclogues,,
there is a paftoral of hers intitled Myrtilla, and letters,
printed at Venice in 1610. She ftmg extremely welR-
played admirably on feveral inftruments, underftood
the French and Spanilh languages, and was not unac¬
quainted with philofophy.
ANDRELINUS (Publius-Fauftus), born at Forli
in Italy. He was a long time profeffor of poetry and
philofophy in the univerfity of Paris. Lewis XII. of
France made him his poet laureat 5 and Erafmus tells-
us he was likewife poet to the queen. His pen was not
wholly employed in making verfes ; for he wrote alfo
moral and proverbial letters in profe, which were print¬
ed feveral times. His poems, which are chiefly in La- -
tin, are inferted in Vol. L. of the Delicia Poet arum Ita-
lorum. Mr De la Monnoie tells us, “ that Andrelinus,.
when he was but 22 years old, received the crown of
laurel: That his lefve-verfes, divided into four books,,
intitled Lhia, from the name of his miftrefs, were e-
fteemed fo fine by the Roman Academy, that they ad¬
judged the prize of the Latin elegy to the author.”
He died in 1518. This author’s manner of life was
not very exemplary; yet he was fo fortunate, fays E-
rafmus, that though he took the liberty of rallying the
divines, he was never brought into trouble about it.
ANDREW (St), the apoftle, born at Bethfaida in
Galilee, brother to Simon Peter. He had been a dif-
ciple of John the baptift, and followed Jefus upon the
teftimony given of him by the baptift, (John i. 30, 37,
&c.) He followed our Saviour with another of John’s
difciples, and went into the houfe where Jefus lodged j
here he continued from about four o’clock in the after¬
noon till it was night. This was the firft difeiple
whom our Saviour received into his train. Andrew
introduced his brother Simon, and they paffed a day
with.
AND [7
Anlie'-v, wit a Clirift, after which they went to the marriage in
Andrew s. Cana [id. ii.), and at lad returned to their ordinary
occupation. Some months after, Jefus meeting them
while they were both filhing together, called them to
him, and promifed to make them fifhers of men. Im¬
mediately they left their nets, followed him, (Matt. iv.
*9.) and never afterwards feparated from him.
After our Saviour’s afcenfion, his apoltles having
determined by lot what parts of the world they (hould
feverally take, Scythia and the neighbouring countries
fell to St Andrew, who according to Eufebius, after
he had planted the gofpel in feveral places, came to
Patras in Achaia, where, endeavouring to convert the
proconful iEgeas, he was by that governor’s orders
fcourged, and then crucified. The particular time of
his fuffering martyrdom is not known ; but all the an¬
cients and modern martyrologies, both of the Greeks
and Latins, agree in celebrating his feftival upon the 30th
of November. His body was embalmed, and decently
interred at Patras by Maximilla, a lady of great quali¬
ty and eftate. Afterwards it was removed to Conllan-
linople by Conftantine the Great, and buried in the
great church, which he had built to the honour of the
apollles. There is a crofs to be feen at this day in the
church of St Viftor at Marfeilles, which is believed by
the Romanifts to be the fame that St Andrew was fa¬
ttened to. It is in the lhape of the letter X, and is inclo-
fed in a filver flirine. Peter Chryfologus fays, that he
was crucified upon a tree ; and the fpurious Hippoly-
tus aflures us it was an olive-tree.
Andrew, or Knights of St Andrew, an order of
knights, more ufually called the order of the thiftle.
(See Thistle.)
Knights of St Andrew, is alfo an order inftituted by
Peter the Great of Mufcovy in 1698; the badge of
which is a golden medal; on one fide whereof is re-
prefented St Andrew’s crofs, with thefe words, Cazar
Pierre monarque de tout la RuJJie. This medal, being
fattened to a blue ribbon, is fufpended from the right
ihoulder.
St Andrew's Crofs, one in form of the letter X.
^See Cross.)
St Andrew's Day, a feftival of the Chriftian church,
celebrated on the 30th of November, in honour of the
apoftle St Andrew.
ANDREW’S (St), a town of Fifefhire in Scotland,
once the metropolis of the Piftifti kingdom, lying in
W. Long. 2. 25. N. Lat. 56. 18. If we may credit
legend, St Andrew’s owes its origin to a lingular ac¬
cident. St Regulus (or St Rule, as he is likewife cal¬
led), a Greek of Achaia, was warned by a vifion to leave
his native country, and vifit Albion, an ille placed in
the remoteft part of the world; and to take with him
the arm-bone, three fingers, and three toes, of St An-
, drew. He obeyed, and fet fail with his companionsj
but had a very tempeftuous paflage. After being totted
for fome time on a ftormy fea, he was at laft Ihipwrecked
on the coafts ofOtholania, in the territories of Hergu-
ftus king of the Pitts, in the year 370. On hearing
of the arrival of the ftrangers, with their precious re-
litts, the king immediately gave orders for their recep¬
tion, afterwards prefenting the faint with his own pa¬
lace, and building near it the church, which ftill bears
the name of St Regulus.
At this time the place was ftyled Mucnf, or the
S2 ] AND
land of hoars : all round was foreft, and the lands be- Andrew’*,
flowed on the Saint were called Byrehid. The boars
equalled in fize the ancient Erymanthian; as a proof
of which, two tulles, each fixteen inches long and four
thick, were chained to the altar of St Andrew’s. St
Regulus changed the name to Kilrymont; and eftablilh-
ed here the firft Chriftian priefts of the country, called
Culdees. This church was fupreme in the kingdom of
the Pitts ; Ungus having granted to God and St An¬
drew, that it Ihould be the head and mother of all the
churches in his dominions. He alfo diretted that the
crofs of St Andrew Ihould become the badge of the
country. In 518, after the conqueft of the Pitts, he
removed the epifcopal fee to St Andrew’s, and the Bi-
fhop was ftyled maximus Scotorum epifeopus. In 1441,
it was eretted into an archbilhopric by Sextus IV. at
the interceffion of James III. In 1606, the priory was
fupprefled ; and, in 161-j, the power of eleftion was
transferred to eight bilhops, the principal of St Leo¬
nard’s college, the archdeacon, the vicars of St An¬
drew’s, Leuchars, and Coupar. This fee contained the
greateft part of the fhire of Fife, with a part of Perth,
Forfar, and Kincardine (hires, and a great number of
parilhes, churches, and chapels in other diocefes.
The town of St Andrew’s was erefted into a royal
borough by David I. in the year 1140, and their pri¬
vileges afterwards confirmed. The charter of Mal¬
colm II. is preferved in the tolbooth; and appears writ¬
ten on a bit of parchment, but the contents equally
valid with what would at this time require whole fleins.
Here alfo are kept the filver keys of the city; which,
for form’s fake, are delivered to the king, if he fhould
vifit the place, or to a vittorious enemy, in token of
fubmiflion. In this place, likewife, is to be feen the
monftrous ax which, in 1646, took off the heads of Sir
Robert Spotfwood and other diftinguifhed loyalifts.
The town underwent a fiege in 1337; at which time
it was poffeffed by the Englifh, and other partizans of
Baliol; but the loyalifts, under the Earls of March and
Fife, made themfelves matters of it in three weeks, by
the help of their battering machines.
St Andrew’s is now greatly reduced in the number of
its inhabitants; at prefent fcarcely exceeding 2000. It
is impofiible to afeertain the fum when it was the feat
of the primate : all that can be known is, that during
the period of its. fplendor, there were between 60 and
70 bakers ; but now 9 or 10 are fufficient for the place.
It is a mile in circuit, and contains three principal-
ftreets. On entering the weft port, a well-built ftreet,
ftraight, and of a vaft length and breadth, appears ; but
fo grafs-grown, and prefenting fuch a dreary folitude,
that it forms the perfett idea of having been laid wafte
by the peftilence.
The cathedral of St Andrew’s was founded by Bi-
fhop Arnold in 1161, but did not attain its full mag¬
nificence till 13x8. Its length from eaft to weft was
370 feet; that of the tranfept, 322. But tho’ this vaft;
pile was 157 years in building, John Knox, in June
1559, effetted its demolition in a Angle day ; and fo
effettually has it been deftroyed, that nothing now re¬
mains but part of the eaft and weft ends, and of the
fouth fide.
Near the eaft end is the chapel of St Regulus; the
tower of which is a lofty equilateral triangle, of 20 feet
each fide, and 10.3 feet high ; the body of the chapel
remains,
Andrew’s, remains, but the two fide-chapels are ruined. The with the cruel martyrdom of George Wifliart, who was Andrew’*.
" arches of the windows and doors are round, and fome burnt on a fpot beneath
AND
[ 783 ]
AND
even more than femicircles;
antiquity.
a undoubted proof of their
In the church of St Salvator is a moft beautiful tomb
of bifhop Kennedy, who died, an honour to his family.
The priory was founded by Alexander I. in 1122 ; in 1466. The Gothic work is uncommonly elegant,
and the monks (canons regular of St Auguftine) were Within the tomb were difeovered fix magnificent maces.
brought from Scone, in 1140, by Robert, Bifhop of this
fee. By an aft of parliament, in the time of James I.
the prior had precedence of all abbots and priors, and
on the days of feftival wore a mitre and all epifcopal
ornaments. Dependent on this priory were thofe of inftruments of the paffion.
which had been concealed here in troublefome times.
One was given to each of the other three Scotch uni-
verfities, and three are preferved here. In the top is
reprefented our Saviour ; around are angels, with the
Lochleven, Portmoak, Monimufk, the Ifle of May, and
Pittenweem, each originally a feat of the Culdees. The
revenues of the houfe were vaft, viz. In money 2237 1.
2 s. 1 o j d.; 38 chaldrons, 1 boll, 3 firlots of wheat :
With thefe are fhown fome filver arrows, with large
filver plates affixed to them, on which are inferib'ed the
arms and names of the noble youth, viftors in the an¬
nual competitions in the generous art of archery, which
132 ch. 7 bolls of bear; 1 >4 ch. 3 bolls t peck of were dropt but a few years ago; and golf is now the
meal; 151 ch. 10' bolls 1 firlot ! peck and a half of reigning game. That fport, and foot-ball, were for-
oats ; 3 ch. 7 bolls of peas and beans: 480 acres of merly prohibited, as ufelefs and unprofitable to the pu-
land alfo belonged to it. Nothing remains of the
priory except the walls of the preeinft, which flrow its
vaft extent. In one part is a moft artlefs gateway,
formed only of feven ftones. This inclofure begins
near the cathedral, and extends to the ffiore.
The other religious houfes were, one of Dominicans,
blic; and at all 'weapon fchaiuings, or reviews of the
people, it was ordered, that fute-ball and golfe be utter¬
ly cryed doivn, and that bonu-markes be maid at ilk pa-
rijh kirk, a pair of butts and fchutting be ufed; and
that ilk man fchutte fex Jhottes at leaf, under the paine
to be raiped upon them that cummis not, at leaf tvod
founded, in 1274, by Bifhop Wifhart; another of Ob- pennyes to be given to them that cummis to the beiv-markes
fervantines, founded by Bifhop Kennedy, and finifhed ta drinke.
by his fucceffor Patrick Graham in 1478 ; and, accor¬
ding to fome, the.Carmelites had a fourth.
Immediately above the harbour ftood the collegiate
church of Kirk-heugh, originally founded by Conftan-
tine III. who, retiring from the world, became here a
The celebrated univerfity of this city was founded in
1411, by bifhop Wardlaw ; and the next year he ob¬
tained from Benedift III. the bull of confirmation. It
confifted once of three colleges.' 1. St Salvator’s, found¬
ed in 1458, by Bifhop Kennedy. This is ahandfome
Culdee. From its having been firft built on a rock, it building, with a court or quadrangle within : on one
s ftyled, Pnzpoftura Sand a Marine de rupe.
fide is the church, on another the library; the third con-
On the eaft fide of the city are the poor remains of tains apartments for ftudents: the fourth is unfinifhed.
the caftle, on a rock overlooking the fea. This fortrefs
was founded, in 1401, by Bifhop Trail, who was bu¬
ried near the high altar of the cathedral, with this An¬
gular epitaph:
Hie fuit ecclefig direfta columna, fenefr a
Lucida, thuribuhm reddens, campuna fonoret.
This caftle was the refidence of cardinal Beaton;
who, after the death of George Wifhart, apprehending
fome danger, caufed it to be fortified fo ftrongly as to
2. St Leonard’s college was founded by prior Hep¬
burn, in 1522. This is now united with the laft, and
the buildings fold, and converted into private houfes.
3. The new, or St Mary’s college, was eftablifhed by
archbifhop Hamilton in 1553; but the houfe was buik
by James and David Bethune, or Beaton, who did not
live to complete it. This is faid to have been the fite
of a fchola illufris long before the eftablifhment even of
the univerfity; where feveral eminent clergymen taught,
gratis, the fciences and languages. But it was called
be at that time deemed impregnable. In this fortrefs, the new college, becaufe of its late ereftion into a divi-
however, he was furprized and affaffinated by Norman nity college by the archbifhop.
Lefly with 15 others. They feized on the gate of the
caftle early in the morning of May 29,1546; it having
been left open for the workmen who were ftnifhing the
fortifications : and having placed centinels at the door
The univerfity is governed by a chancellor, an office
originally defigned to be perpetually veiled in the arch-
bifhops of St Andrew’s; but fince the reformation, he
is elefted by the two principals, and the profeffors of
ef the cardinal’s apartment, they awakened his nume- both the colleges,
rous domeftics one by one ; and, turning them out of The reftor is the next great officer; towhofe care is
the caftle, they without violence, tumult, or offering committed the privileges, difeipline, and ftatutes of the
an injury to any other perfon, inflifted on Beaton the univerfity. The Colleges have their reftors, and pro¬
death he juftly merited. The confpirators were im- feffors of different fciences, who are indefatigable in
mediately befieged in this caftle by the regent, earl of their attention to the inftruftion of the ftudents, and to
Arran; and notwithftanding they had acquired no great¬
er ftrength than 150 men, they refifted all his efforts
for five months. This, however, was owing to the un-
that effential article their morals. This place poffeffes
feveral very great advantages refpefting the education
of youth. The air is pure and falubrious; the place for
fkilfulnefs of the befiegers more than to the ftrength of exercife, dry and extenfive; the exercifes. themfelves are
the place or the valour of the befieged ; for in 1547 healthy and innocent. The univerfity is fixed in a pe-
the caftle was reduced and demolifhed. The entrance ninfulated country; remote from all commerce with the
of it is ftill to be feen ; and the window is fhown, out world, the haunt of diffipation. From the fmallnefs of
of which it is faid the cardinal leaned to glut his eyes the fociety every ftudent’s charafter is perfeftly known-.
No
AND C 784 1 AND
Andrew’s. No little irregularity can b; committed, but it is in-
flant]y difcovered and checked: vice cannot attain a
head in this place, for the incorrigible are never per¬
mitted to remain the corrupterS of the reft.
The trade of St Andrew’s was once very confider-
abk. So late as the reign of Charles I. this place had
30 or 40 trading veflels, and carried on a confiderable
herring and white fiftiery, by means of buffes, in deep
water; which fifheries had for ages been the grand
fource of their commerce, wealth, and fplendor. Af¬
ter the death of the king, this whole cc«ft, and St An¬
drew’s in particular, became a fcene of murder, plun¬
der, and rapine : every town fuffered in proportion to
its magnitude and opulence. Nor were thofe hypocri¬
tical ruffians fatisfied with the fliipping, merchandife,
plate, cattle, and whatever came w'ithin their fight;
they alfo laid the whole coaft under contribution. St
Andrew’s was required to pay 10001. but the inhabi¬
tants not being able to raife that fum after being thus
plundered, the general compounded for 5001. which
was raifed by a loan at intereft, and hath remained a
burden upon the corporation, it is believed, ever fince.
The harbour is artificial, guarded by piers, with a
narrow entrance, to give fhelter to veflels from the vio¬
lence of a very heavy fea, by the encroachments of
which it has fuffered much. The manufadlureS this
city might in former times poffefs, are now reduced to
one, that of golf-balls; which, trifling as it may feem,
maintains a great number of people. It is, how’ever, com¬
monly fatal to the artifts; for the balls are made by
Huffing a great quantity of feathers into a leathern cafe,
by help of an iron rod", with a wooden handle, preffed
againft the breaft, which feldom fails to bring on a
confumption.
Andrews (Lancelot), bifhop of Winchefter, was
"born at London in 1555, and educated at Cambridge.
After feveral preferments, he was made bifhop, firft of
Chiehefter, then of Ely, and, in 1618, was raifed to
the fee of Winchefter. This very learned prelate, who
was diftinguifhed by his piety, charity, and integrity,
may be juftly ranked w-ith the beft preachers and com-
pleteft fcholars of his age; he appeared to much great¬
er advantage in the pulpit than he does now in his
works, which abound with Latin quotatiqns and trivial
•witticifms. His fermons, though full of puns, were
iuited to the tafte of .the times in which he lived, and
were confequently greatly admired. He was a man of
polite manners and lively converfation; and could quote
Greek and Latin authors, or even pun, with king James.
There is a pleafant ftory related of him 'in the life of
•Waller.the poet. When that gentleman was young, he
bad the curiofity to go to court, and flood in the circle
to fee king James dine; where, among other company,
there fat at table two bifhops, Neale and Andrews.
The king propofed aloud this queftion, Whether he
might not take his fubjefts money when he needed it,
without all this formality of parliament ? Neale replied,
41 God forbid you fhould not; for you are the breath
of our noftrils.” Whereupon the king turned, and faid
to the bifhop of Winchefter, “ Well, my lord, vvhat
Jay you ?” “ Sir (replied the bifhop), I have no fkill
to judge of parliamentary cafes.” The king anfwer-
ed, “ No put-offs, my lord ; anfwer me prefently.”
Then, Sir (faid he), I think it lawful for you to take
iny brother Neale’s money, for he offers it.” Mr Wal¬
ler fays, the company waspleafed with this anfwer, but
the wit of it feemed to affedl the king ; for a certain
lord coming foon after, his majefty cried out, “ O, my
lord, they fay you lig with my lady.” “ No, Sir (fays
his lordfhip, in confufion), but I like her company
becaufe fhe has fo much wit.” “ Why then (fays the
king) do not you lig with my lord of Winchefter
there ?”—This great prelate was in no lefs reputation
and efteem with king Charles I. than he had been with
his predeceffors. He died at Winchefter-houfe in
Southwark, September 27, 1626, in the 71ft year of
his age; and was buried in the parifh-church of St Sa¬
viour’s, where his executors eredled to him a very fair
monument of marble and alabafter, on which is an Ele¬
gant infeription, in Latin, written by one of his cha¬
plains. Mr Milton alfo, at 17 years of age, wrote a
beautiful elegy on his death, in the fame language. Bi¬
fhop Andrews had, 1. A (hare in the tranflation of the
Pentateuch, and the hiftorical books from Jofhua to the
firft book of Chronicles exclufively. He alfo wrote,
2. Tortura Torti, in anfwer to a work of cardinal Bel-
larmine, in which that cardinal aflumes the name of
Matthew Tortus. 3. A Manual of Private Devotions;
and, 4. A Manual of Direftions for the Vifitation of
the Sick; befides the Sermons and Trails, in Englilh
and Latin, publilhed after his death.
ANDRIA, in Grecian antiquity, public entertain¬
ments firft inftituted by Minos of Crete; and, after his
example, appointed by Lycurgus at Sparta, at which
a whole city or a tribe affifted. They were managed
with the utmoft frugality, and perfons of all ages were
admitted, the younger fort being obliged by the law¬
giver to repair thither as to fchools of temperance and
fobriety.
Andria, is a city and a bifhop’s fee in the territory
of Bari, in the kingdom of Naples. It is pretty large,
well peopled, and feated in a fpacious plain, four miles
from the Adriatic coaft. E. Long. 17. 4. N. Lat.
4x. ry.
ANDRISCUS, a man of mean extradlion, who,
pretending to be the fon of Perfeus laft king of Mace¬
donia, took upon him the name of Philip, for which
rcafon he was called Pfeudo-Phihppus, the Falfs Philip.
After a complete victory over Juventus, the Roman
Praetor fent againft him, he affumed kingly power, but
exercifed it with vaft cruelty. At laft, the Romans
obliged him to fly into Thrace, where he was betrayed
and delivered into the hands of Metellus. This vic¬
tory gained Macedonia once more into the power of
the Romans, and to Metellus the name of Macedonian,
but coft the Romans 25,000 men. Andrifcus adorned
the triumph of Metellus, walking in chains before the
general’s chariot.
ANDROAS, or Androdamas, among ancient na-
turalifts, a kind of pyritae, to which they attributed cer¬
tain magical virtues.
ANDROGEUS, in fabulous hiftory, the fon of
Minos king of Crete, was murdered by the Athenian
youth and thofe of Megara, who envied his being al¬
ways vidlor at the Attic games. But Minos having
taken Athens and Megara, obliged the inhabitants to
fend him an annual tribute of feven young men and as
many virgins, to be devoured by the Minotaur ; but
Thefeus delivered them from that tribute.
ANDROGYNES, in natural hiftory, a name gi-
N° 2p.
AND C 785 ] AND
ven to thofe living creatures which, by a monftrous for¬
mation of their generative parts, feem (for it is only
teeming) to unite in themfelves the two fexes, that of
the male and. of the female. This lufu 7iaturtz> this
defeT, or perhaps redundancy, in the animal-ftru&ure,
is defcribed by medical authors in the following man¬
ner. ‘ There is a depravation in the ftructure of the
‘ parts intended by nature for propagation, when, be-
‘ fides thofe concealed parts that are found neceffary
‘ for the difcharge of prolific functions, the pudenda
1 of the other fex likewife appear. This monftrous
‘ production of nature is diverfiiied in four different
* ways; of which three appear in males and one in fe~
* males. In men, the female pudendum, cloathed with
* hair, fometimes appears contiguous to the perinseum;
‘ at other times, in the middle of the fcrotum; at other
‘ times, which conftitutes the third diverfity, through
* that part itfelf which in the midtlof the fcrotum ex-
‘ hibits the form of a pudendum, urine is emitted.
‘ Near that part which is the teft of puberty, and a-
* bove the pudendum, even in females, the mafculine
‘ genitals appear in fome, confpicuous in all their three
* forms, one refembling the viretram or yard, the other
‘ like the two tefticles: but for the moft part it hap-
* pens, that, of the two inftruments of generation, one
^ is feeble and inert; and it is extsemely rare that both
1 are found fufiiciently valid and proper for feats of
* love; nay, even in a great many, both thefe mem-
‘ bers are deficient and impotent, fo that they can per-
‘ form the office neither of a male nor of a female.’
With refpedt to'them, it appears, from a collation
of all the circumftances which have been obferved by
oaturalifh worthy of credit, that there is no fuch thing
as a perfeCt androgyne, or real hermaphrodite; that
is to fay, a living creature which, by its unnatural, or
rather preternatural ftruCture, poffefles the genuine
powers of both fexes, in fuch a manner as to be qua¬
lified for performing the functions of either with fuc-
fcefs: the irregularity of their fabricatipn almolt always
confifts in fomething fuperfluous added to one of the
two fexes, which gives it the appearance of the other,
without bellowing the real and charaCteriltical diltinc-
tion; and every hermaphrodite is almoll always a very
woman. Since this monltrous exhibition of nature is
not fuch as to abrogate the rights or deltroy the cha¬
racter of humanity amongft human beings, this invo¬
luntary misfortune implies no right to deprive thofe
upon whom it is irifliCted by nature,, of the privileges
natural to every citizen ; and as this deficiency is no
more infeCtious than any other corporeal mutilation, it
is not eafy to fee1 why marriage fhould be prohibited to
one of thefe unhappy beings, merely on account of its
equivocal appearance, which aCts in the character of its
prevailing fex. If fuch a creature, by the defeCt of its
conftruction, Ihould be barren; this does not infer any
right of dilfolving the marriage which it may have con¬
tracted, more than the fame fterility proceeding from
any caufe whether known or unknown, if his or her
confort Ihould not on that account require.a divorce.
Jt is only the licentious abufe either of one or the other
fix which can be fubjeCted to the animadverfion of the
police. See Hermaphrodite.
Such are the fentimentsof the authors of the French
Encyclopedic. After all, we cannot forbear to add,
that from fuch heterogeneous matches nature feems to
Vol. I. Part IL
• recoil with Innate and inextinguilhable horror. Nor arc
any of thefe invincible averfionsdmplanted in our frame
without a final caufe worthy of its Author. We would
gladly alk thefe free-thinking gentlemen, In cafes where
the fexes are fo unnaturally confounded, how the jro-
lice can, by its molt fevere and rigorous animadverfions,
either deteCt or prevent thofe licentious abufes againft
which they remonftrate ? Since, therefore, an evil fo
baneful to human fociety could no otherwife be pre¬
vented than by the fanftion of Nature againft fuch hor¬
rible conjundtions, the inftindtive antipathy which they
infpire was highly worthy of her wifdom and purity.
Androgynes, in ancient mythology, creatures of
whom, according to the fable, each individual poffelfed
the powers and characters of both fexes, having two
heads, four arms, and two feet. The word itfelf is
compounded of two Greek radical words; in ge¬
nitive a male; and yum, a female. Many of the
rabbinical writers pretend, that Adam was created
double, one body being male, the other female, which
in their origin not being effentially joined, God after¬
wards did nothing but feparate them.
The gods, fays Plato in-his Banquet, had formed
the ftrudture of man round, with two bodies and two
fexes. This fantaftic being, poflefiing in itfelf the
whole human fyftem, was endowed with a gigantic
force, which rendered it infolent, infomuch that it
refolved to make war againft the gods. Jupiter, ex-
afperated, was going to deftroy it; but, forry at the
fame time to annihilate the human race, he fatisfied him-
felf with debilitating this double being, by disjoining
the male from the female, and leaving each half to fub-
fill with its own powers alone. He affigned to Apollo
the talk of repolifiring thefe two half bodies, and of
extending their (kins fo that their whole furface might
be covered. Apollo obeyed, and faftened it at the um-
hiiicus .• If this half ftiould ftill rebel, it was once more
to be fubdivided by another fedlion, which would only
leave it one of the parts of which it was then conftitu-
ted; and even this fourth of a man was to be anni¬
hilated, if it ftiould perfift in its obftinacy and mifehief.
The idea of thefe androgynes might well be borrowed
from a paflage in Mofes, where that hiftorian of the
birth and infancy of nature deferibes Adam as calling
Eve bone of his bone zn&fiejh of his flefh. However this
may be, the fable of Plato has been ufed with great
ingenuity by a French poet, who has been rendered al~
moft as confpicuous by his misfortunes as by his verfes.
With , the ancient philofopher, he attributes the pfo-
penfity which attrafts one of the fexes towards the o-
ther, to the natural ardour which each half of the an~
drogynes feels for reunion ; and their inconftancy, to the
difficulty which each of the feparated parts encounters
in its efforts to recover its proper and original half.
If a woman appears to us amiable, we inftantly ima¬
gine her to be that moiety with whom we ftiould only-
have conftituted one whole, had it not been for the in-
folence of oar original double-fexed progenitor-:
The heart, with fond credulity imprefs’d.
Tells us the half is found, and hopes for reft;
But ’tis our curfe, that fad experience ftiows,
We neither find our half, nor gain repofe.
ANDROGYNOUS, in zoology, an appellation
given to animals which have both the male and female
5 G fex
Anilrfl.
gynes, ‘
Androgy-
A N
Androides. fex in the fame individual.
» plied to fuch plants as bear both male and female
flowers on the fame root.
ANDROIDES, in mechanics, a human figure)
which, by certain fprings or other movemests, is ca-
D [ 786 ] AND
•In botany, the term is ap- clock-work. It was divided into 15 equal parts, which Androidcs^
by means of pegs, preffing upon the ends of 15 differ- '
ent levers, caufed the other extremities to afcend. Se¬
ven of thefe levers direfted the fingers, having wires
and chains affixed to their afcending extremities, which
pable of performing fome of the natural motions of a being attached to the fingers, caufed them afcend :
living man. The motions of the human body are more
complicated, and confequently more difficult to be imi¬
tated, than thofe of any other creature ; whence the
conftrudtion of an andro 'tdes, in fuch a manner as to
imitate any of thefe aftions with tolerable exaftnefs,
is juftly fuppofed to indicate a greater fkill in mecha¬
nics than any other piece of workmanfhip whatever.
proportion as the other extremity was preffed down by
the motion of the cylinder, and vice verfa. Thus the
afcent or defceht of one end of a lever produced a fimi-
lar afcent or defcent in the correfponding finger, by
which one of the holes of the flute was occafionally
opened or flopped, as by a living performer. Three
of the levers ferved to regulate the ingrefs of the air.
A very remarkable figure of this kind appeared in being contrived fo as to open and {hut, by means of
Paris, in the year 1738. It reprefented a flute-player,
and was capable of perfortning many different pieces
of mufic on the German flute ; which, confidering the
difficulty of blowing that inftrument, the different con-
traftions of the lips neceffary to produce the diftindtions
between the high and low notes, and the complicated
motions of the fingers, muft appear truly wonderful.
This machine was the invention of M. Vaucanfon,
member of the Royal Academy of Sciences; and a par¬
ticular defcription of it was publifhed in the Memoirs
of the Academy for that year.
The figure itfelf was about five feet and an half in
height, fituated at the end of an artificial rock, and pla¬
ced upon a fquare pedeftal four feet and an half high
and three and an half broad. The air entered the body
by three pipes feparated one from the other. It was
valves, the three refervoirs of air above mentioned, fo
that more or lefs ftrength might be given,- and a higher
or lower note produced as occafion required. The lips
were, by a fimilar mechanifm, diredted by four levers,
one of which opened them, to give the air a freer paf-
fage ; the other contra died them ; the third drew them
backward; and the fourth puflied them forward. The
lips were projected upon that part of the flute which
receives the air ; and, by the different motions already
mentioned, modified the tone in a proper manner.—
The remaining lever was employed in the diredtion of
the tongue, which it eafily moved fq as to fhut or o-
pen the mouth of the flute.
Thus we fee how all the motions neceffary for a
German-flute-player could be performed by this ma¬
chine ; but a confiderable difficulty ftill remains, name-
conveyed to them by nine pair of bellows, three of ly, how to regulate thefe motions properly, and make
which were placed above and fix below. Thefe were each of them follow in juft fucceffion. This, however,
made to expand and contradt regularly in fucceffion, by was effedted by the following Ample method. The
means of an axis of fteel turned round by fome clock- —J"i——r  J-1 ,:-J * :—
work. On this axis were different protuberances at
proper diftances, to which were fixed cords thrown o-
ver pullies, and terminating in the upper boards of the
bellows, fo that, as-the axis turned, thefe boards were
alternately railed and let down. A contrivance was alfo
ufed to prevent the difagreeable hiffirig fluttering noife
ufually attending the motion of bellows. This was by
making the cord, by which the bellows was moved,
prefs, in its defcent, upon one end of a fmaller lever,
the other end of which afcending forced open the fmall
leathern valve that admitted the air, and kept it fo, till,
the cord being relaxed by the defcent of the upper
board, the lever fell, and the air was forced out. Thus
the bellows performing their functions conftantly with-
. out the leaft hilling or other noife by which it could be
judged in what manner the air was conveyed to the ma¬
chine. The upper boards of three of the pairs of bel¬
lows were preffed down by a weight of four pounds,
that of three others by a weight of two pounds, and
thofe of the three remaining ones by nothing but their
own weight.
The three tubes, by which the air entered, termina¬
ted in three fmall refervoirs in the trunk of the figure.
There they united, and, afcending towards the throat,
formed the cavity of the mouth, which terminated in
two fmall lips adapted- in fome meafure to perform^their
proper functions. Within this cavity alfo was a fmall
moveable tongue; which by its play, at proper periods,
admitted the air, or intercepted its paffage to the flute.
The fingers, lips, and tongue, received their pro¬
extremity of the axis of the cylinder was terminated on
the right fide by an endlefs fcrew, confifting of twelve
threads, each placed at the diftance of a line and an
half from the other. Above this fcrew was fixed a
piece of copper, and in it a fteel pivot, which, falling
in between the threads of the fcrew, obliged the cy¬
linder to follow the threads, and, inftead of turning
diredtly round, it was continually pufhed to one fide.
Hence, if a lever was moved, by a peg placed on the
cylinder, in any one revolution, it could not be moved
by the fame peg in the fucceeding revolution, becaufe
the peg would be moved a line and an half beyond it
by the lateral motion of the cylinder. Thus, by an ar¬
tificial difpofition of thefe pegs in different parts of
the cylinder, the ftatue was made, by the fucceffive e~
levation of the proper levers, to exhibit all the different
motions of a flute-player, to the admiration of every¬
one who faw it.
The conftruftion of machines capable of imitating
even the mechanical aftions of the human body, fhow
exquifite fkill; but what {hall we fay of one capable,
not only of imitating aftions of this kind, but of act¬
ing as external eircumftances require, as though it were
endowed with life and reafon? This, neverthelefs,
has been done. M. de Kempelen, a gentleman of Pref-
burg in Hungury, excited by the performances of M.
de Vaucanfbn, at firft endeavoured to imitate them,
and at laft far excelled them. This gentleman con-
ftrudled an Androides capable of playing at-chefs ! —
Every one who is in the leaft acquainted with this game
muft know, that it is fo far from being mechanically
per directions by means of a fteel cylinder turned by. performed,.as to require a greater exertion of the judg¬
ment
AxEMOSCOrE
xVXC H O K
Plate XKJ&.
C\/
Jy. (3.
Anemometer
An Grins Textraeis
2.
ATsrrmo meba
/^h/uru/dta .
AND [ 787 ] AND
'oides' ment and rational faculties than is fufficient to accom- of them equal to the laft mentioned one. See the ar- Androlepfy
plifh many matters of greater importance. An attempt tide Automaton. II
therefore, to make a wooden chefs-player, muft appear ANDROLEPSY, in Grecian antiquity, an a&ion AndJ°mc*
as ridiculous as to make a wooden preacher or coun- allowed by the Athenians againtt fuch as prote&ed  t‘-i—,«
fellor of ftate. That this machine really was made, perfons guilty of murder. The relations of the decea-
however, the public have had ocular demonftration. fed were empowered to feize three men in the city or
The inventor came over to Britain in 1783, where he houfe whither the malefa&or had fled, till lie were ei¬
ther furrendered, or fatisfa&ion made fome way or o-
ther for the murder.
ANDROMACHE, the wife of the valiant He&or,
the mother of Aftyanax, and daughter of Eton king
remained above a year with his automaton.
It is a figure as large as life, in a Turkifh drefs, fit¬
ting behind a table with doors, of three feet and a half
in length, two in d^pth, and two and a half in height.
The chair on which it fits is fixed to the table, which of Thebes in Cilicia. After the death of Hedtor and
runs on four wheels. The automaton leans its right
arm on the table, and in its left hand holds a pipe :
with this hand it plays after the pipe is removed. A
chefs-board of 18 inches is fixed before it. This table.
the deftru&ion of Troy, ftie married Pyrrhus; and af¬
terwards Helenus the fon of Priam, with whom fhe
reigned over part of Epirus.
ANDROMEDA, in aftronomy, a northern Con¬
or rather cupboard, contains wheels, levers, cylinders, ftellation, behind Pegafus, Caffiopeia, and Perfeus. It
and other pieces of mechanifm ; all which are publicly reprefents tire figure of a woman chained ; and is
■difplayed. The veftments of the automaton are then fabled to have been formed in memory of Andromeda,
lifted over its head, and the body is feen full of fimilar daughter of Cepheus and Caffiopeia, and wife of Per-
wheels and levers. There is a little door in its thigh, feus, by whom (he had been delivered from a fea-monfter,
which is likewife opened; and with this, and the table to which (he had been expofed to be devoured for her
alfo open, and the automaton uncovered, the whole is mother’s pride. Minerva tranflated her into the heavens.
wheeled about the room. The doors are then (hut,
and the automaton is ready to play; and it always
takes the firft move.
At every motion the wheels are heard; the image
moves its head, and looks over every part of the chefs'*
board. When it checks the queen, it drakes its head
twice, and thrice in giving check to the king. It
The ftars in the conftellation Andromeda in Ptole¬
my’s catalogue are 23, in Tycho’s 22, in Bayer’s 27,
in Mr Flamfted’s no fefs than 84.
Andromeda, the name of a celebrated tragedy of
Euripides, admired by the ancients above all the other
compofitions of that poet, but now loft.
It was the reprefentation of this play, in a hot fum-
likewife (hakes its head when a falfe move is made, re- mer day, that occafioned that epidemic fever, or phren-
places the piece, and makes its own move ; by which zy, for which the Abderites are often mentioned, where-
means the adverfary lofes 1
Mr de Kempelen remarks as the mod furprifing cir-
cumftance attending his automaton, that it had been
in they walked about the ftreets, rehearfing verfes, and
adting parts of this piece. See Abdera.
Andromeda, or Marjh Cyjlus: A genus of the
exhibited at Prefburg, Vienna, Paris, and London, to monogynia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of
thoufands, many of whom were mathematicians and plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
chefs-players, and yet the fecret by which he governed i8th order, Bicornes. The characters are : The calyx
the motion of its arm was never difcovered. He prided is a quinquepartite perianthium, fmall, coloured, and
himfelf folely on the conftrudtion of the mechanical perfiftent: The Corolla is monopetalous, campanulated,
powers, by which the arm could perform ten or twelve and quinquefid, with reflected divifions: The Jlamina
moves. It then required to be 'wound up like a watch, confift of ten fubulated filaments, (horter than the co-
after which it was capable of continuing the fame num¬
ber of motions.
rolla; the antherse two-horned and nodding : The pi-
Jlillum has a roundifti germen; a cylindric ftylus larger
The automaton could not play unlefs Mr de Kem- than the (lamina, and perfiftent; and an obtufe ftigma:
pelen or his fubftitute was near it to direCt its moves.
A fmall fquare box, during the game, .was frequently
confulted by the exhibitor; and herein confided the
fecret, which he faid he could in a moment commu¬
nicate. He who could beat Mr de Kempelen was,
of courfe, certain of conquering the automaton. It
was made in 1769. His own account of it
The pericarpium is a roundi(h five-cornered capfule,
with five cells and five valves: The feeds are very nu¬
merous, roundiih, and gloffy.
Species. 1. The polifolia is a low plant, growing
naturally in bogs in the northern countries. It is dif¬
ficultly preferved in gardens' ; and, being a plant of no
great beauty, is feldom cultivated. 2. The mariana, a
“ C’eft une bagatelle qui n’eft pas fans merite du cote native of North America. It is a low (hrub, fending
du mechanifme, mais les effets n’en paroiffent fi mer- out many woody ftalks from the root, which are gar-
velleux que par la hardiefle de Pidee, & par 1’heureux niftied with oval leaves placed alternately; .the flowers
chioz des moyens employes pour faire illufion.” are collected in fmall bunches, are of an herbaceous co-
The ftrongeft and beft-armed loadftone was allowed lour, and (haped like thofe of the ftrawberry-tree. They
, 1 1 .1 ' 1 • . v   r,t..    r j . uni .• • _
to be placed on the machine by any of the fpeClators.
As the inventor of this admirable piece of mechanifm
■hath not yet thought proper to communicate to the
appear in June and July. 3. The paniculata* is a na- » pja[c
live of Virginia and .Carolina, growing in moift places. XXIX.
The plants ufually arrive at the height of ten feet, with fig. 2.
public the means by which it is aftuated, it is in vain thin leaves fet alternately, and having their edges fine-
for any, except thofe who are exquifitely flailed
ly ferrated. The flowers are tubulous, fmall, and of
chanics, to form conjeftures concerning them.—Many a greenifli white, clofely fet horizontally on one fide of
other curious imitations of the human body', as well as the (lender ftalks. Thefe flowers are fucceeded by ber-
;that of other animals, have .been exhibited, .though none ries, which open when ripe ; and divide into five fec-
5 G 2 tions,
AND [ 788 ] AND
Andromeda tions, inclofing many fmall feeds» 4. The arborea is
H’ a native of the fame countries, where it is called the
1 n ^°na' fbrrel-tree. It grows to the height of 20 feet, with a
trunk ufually five or fix inches thick. The branches
are flender, thick fet with leaves like thofe of the pear-
tree. From the ends of the branches proceed many
flender flalks, on one fide of which hang many fmall
white flowers like thofe of the ftrawberry-tree. 5. The
calyculata, is a native of Siberia, and likewife of North
America. It grows on mofly land, and is therefore
very difficult to keep in gardens. The leaves are fha*
ped like thofe of the box-tree, and are of the fame con¬
fluence, having feveral fmall punctures on them. The
•flowers grow in fhort fpikes from the extremity of the
branches. They are produced Angle between two leaves,
are of a white colour, and a cylindrical or pitcher-like
fhape. There are ten other fpecies.
Propagation and culture. All thefe forts, except
four, are hardy plants. The fourth fpecies requires
to be Iheltered from froft in winter, but. in the fummer
fhould be frequently watered.
The above plants fucceed bell upon boggy and moift
grounds. You mull procure the feeds from the places
where they grow naturally; a year before which a
boggy or the moiftefl: part of your garden fliould be
dug, and the roots of all weeds cleared off. As the weeds
begin to rife, fo conftantly fliould the ground be again
dug, and fea or drift fand fliould be plentifully mixed
with the natural foil. By this management till the
feeds arrive, the ground being made tolerably fine, the
feeds ftiould be fown very fliallow in the moift or boggy
land; or if the land fliould be fo boggy that it cannot
be eafily worked fo as to be proper for the recep¬
tion of the feeds, then let a fufficient quantity of foil
from a frefli pafture, mixed with drift fand, be laid
over the bog, and let the feeds be fown therein. The
bog will in time abforb this foil, but the feeds will
come up ; and this is the moll effectual method of
procuring plants of this kind from feeds. The firtt
year after they come up they fliould be (haded in very
hot weather ; and after that they will require little or
no care. Another method of increafing thefe ftirubs
is by layers or fuckers; fo that whoever has not the
conveniency of procuring the feeds from abroad, fliould
get a plant or two of the forts he molt likes. Thefe
he fliould plant in a boggy fituation, and in a very
little time he will have increafe enough ; for they throw
out fuckers in prodigious plenty, and, if they like the
fituation, to a great diilance. Thefe may be taken
off, and planted where they are to remain.
AND RON, in Grecian antiquity, denotes the a-
partment in houfes defigned for the ufe of men; in
which fenfe it ftands oppofed to Gyneeceum.—The
Greeks alfo gave their dining-rooms the title of andron,
becaufe the women had no admittance to feafts with the
men.
ANDRONA, In ancient writers, denotes a ftreet,
or public place, where people met and converfed toge¬
ther. In fome writers,, androna is more exprefsly ufed
for the fpace between two houfes; in which fenfe, the
Greeks alfo ufe the term a^avar, for the way or paf-
fage between two apartments.
Androna is alfo ufed, in ecclefiaftical writers, for
that part in churches deflined for the men. Anciently
it was the cultom for the men and women to havefepa-
rate apartments in places of worfhip, where they per- Andmnicus
formed their devotions afunder ; which method is ftill II
religioufly obferved in the Greek church. The Andros. ^
-or androna, was in the fouthern fide of the church, and
the womens apartment on the northern. ■
ANDRON1CUS I. emperor of the Eafl, caufed
Alexius II. who had been put under his care, to be
ftrangled ; and then took poffeffion of the throne of
Conltantinople in 1183: but the people, becoming ex-
afperated at his cruelties, proclaimed Ifaac Angeliis em¬
peror, and put Andronicus in irons : they then thruft
out his eyes; and, having, led him through the city in
an ignominious manner, hanged him.
/Jndronicvs of Cyrrhus, built at Athens an o&agon
tower, with figures carved on each fide, reprefenting
the eight principal winds. A brafs triton at the fum-
mit, with a rod in its hand, turned round by the wind,
pointed to the quarter from whence it blew. From
this model is derived the cuftom of placing weather¬
cocks on ffeeples.
ANDROPHAGI, in ancient geography, the name
of a nation wdiofe country, according to Herodotus,
w'as adjacent to Scythia. Their name, compounded of
two Greek words, fignifi.es man-eaters. Herodotus
does not inform us whether their manner of fubfifting
correfponded with their name ; whether they were io
favage as to eat human flefli. See the article An¬
thropophagi. They are reprefented, however, as
the moft barbarous and fierce of all nations. They
were not governed by laws: the care of their cattle,
was their chief employment. Their drefs was like
that of the Scythians ; and they had a language pecu¬
liar to themfelves.
ANDROPOGON, or Man’s-beard, in botany:
A genus of the monoecia order, belonging to the po-
lygamia clafs ; and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 4th order, Gramina. The hermaphrodite calyx
is a one-flowered bivalved glume: The corolla is a
bivalved glume awn’d at the bafe: The Jlamina confift
of three capillary filaments; the antherie are oblong
and bifurcated: The pifilium has an oval gennen
with two capillary ftyli coalefced, and villous fligmata:
There is no pericarpium : The feed is one, folitary,
and covered. The male calyx, corolla, and flamina,
the fame with the hermaphrodite; but the corolla
without the awn.—There are above 18 fpecies. Of
thefe the moft remarkable is the nardus, which produ¬
ces the Indian nard or fpikenard of the fliops. The
fpikenard, as brought from the Eaft Indies, is a con¬
geries of fmall fibres iffuing from one head,, and mat¬
ted clofe together, fo as to form a bunch about the fize
of the finger, with fome fmall fixings at the oppofite
end of the head. The matted fibres (which are the
parts chofen for medicinal purpofes) are fuppofed by
fome to be the head nr fpike of the plant, by others
the root: they feem rather to be the remains of the
withered ftalks, or the ribs of the leaves: fometimes en¬
tire leaves and pieces of ftalks are found among them::
w7e likewife now and then meet with a number of thefe
bunches iffuing from one root. Spikenard has a warm,-
pungent, bitterhh tafte ; and a ftrong ’not very agree¬
able friiell. It is ftomachic and carminative ; and faid
to be alexipharmac, diuretic, and emmenagogue ; but
at prefent it is very little employed.
ANDROS, one of the ancient Cyclades, lying be*
tweea
AND [ 789 ] AND
Andros, tween Tenedos and Euboea: being one mile diftant
from the former, and ten from the latter The an¬
cients gave it various names, viz. Cauros, Tafia, No-
nagria, Epagris, Antandros, and Hydrulia. The
name of Andros it received from one Andrews, ap¬
pointed, according to Diodorus Siculus, by Rhada-
manthus, one of the generals, to govern the' Cyclades,
after they had of their own accord fubmitted to him.
As to the name of Antcnd’ cs, the fame author tells
us, that Afcanius the fon of ./Eneas, being taken pri-
foner by the Pelafgians, gave them this ifland for his
•ranfom, which on that account was called Antandros,
or “ delivered for one man.” The name of Hydrufta it
obtained in common with other places well fupplied
with water. It had formerly a city of great note,
bearing the fame name, and fituated very advanta-
geoufly oii the brow of an hill, which commanded the
whole coaft. In this city, according to Strabo and
Pliny, hood a famous temple dedicated to Bacchus.
Near this temple, Mutianus, as quoted by Pliny, tells
us, there was a fpring called the gift of Jupiter; the
water of which had the tafte of wine in the month of
January, during the feafts of Bacchus, which laded fe-
ven days. The fame author adds, that the waters, if
carried to a place whence the temple could not be feen,
lod their miraculous tade. Paufanius makes no men¬
tion of this fpring ; but fays, that, during the fead of
Bacchus, wine flowed, or was at lead by the Andrians
believed to flow, from the temple of that god. The
prieds, no doubt, found their account in keeping up
this belief, by conveying, through fecret conduits, a
great quantity of wine into the temple.
The Andrians were the fird of all the iflan'ders who
joined the Perlians at the time Xerxes invaded Greece;
and therefore Themidodes, after the victory at Sala-
mis, refolved to attack the city of Andros, and oblige
the inhabitants to pay large contributions for the main¬
tenance of his fleet. Having landed his men on the
ifland, he Cent heralds to the magidrates, acquainting
them, that the Athenians 'were coming againd them
with two powerful divinities, perfuafon and fores; and
therefore they mud part with their money by fair
means x>r foul. The Andrians replied, that they like-
wife had two mighty deitiesewho were very fond of
their ifland, viz poverty and impofibility; and therefore
could give no money. Themidocles, not fatisfled with
this anfwer, laid liege to the town ; which he probably
made himfelf mader of and dedroyed, as we are in¬
formed by Plutarch, that Pericles, a few years after,
ftnt thither a colony of 250 Athenians. It was, how¬
ever, foon retaken by the Pcrfians; and, on the over¬
throw of that empire by Alexander the Great, fubmit¬
ted to him, along with, the other iflands:. On his death
it fided with Antigonus, who was driven out by Ptole¬
my. The fucceflors of the lad mentioned prince held
it to the times of the Romans ; when Attains, king of
Pergamus, befieged the metropolis at the head of a
Roman army; and, having taken it, was by them put
in pofleflion of the whole ifland. Upon the death of
Attains, the republic claimed this ifland, as well as his
other dominions, in virtue of his lad will.
Andros isnqwfubjeft totheTurks;andcohtainsatown
of the fame name, with a great many villages. It is the
mod fruitful ifland in all the Archipelago, and yields a
great quantity of Hk..- Thereare faid to be about 6000
inhabitants, befldes thofe of the villages Arni and A mol- Andros
deos, who are about two hundred, have a different lan- . §
■guage and cudoms, and are called Albanois. There ATld''Umj
are feven monaderies, a great number of churches, and
a cathedral for the bifhops of the Roman catholic per-
fuafion ; but mod of the inhabitants are of the Greek
communion. The Jefuits had a houfe and a church in
this ifland ; but they were forced to quit them long
ago. Here are fome delightful valleys ; but the air is
bad, and the water of the city worfe. The women
would be agreeable enough, if it was not for their drefs,
which is very unbecoming ; for they duff out their
clothes without the lead regard to their fhape: but the
Albanefe women make a much better appearance. The
peafants make wicker-bafkets, wherewith they fupply
the greated part of the Archipelago. They have all
forts of game in the woods and mountains, but know
not how to take them for want of guns. Their prin¬
cipal food is goats flefh ; for there is no fifh to be met
with on their coads. When they are lick, they are ob¬
liged to let the difeafe take its natural courfe, having
neither phyiician nor furgeon on the ifland. A cadi,
aflided by a few of the principal perfons of the ifland,
has the management of civil affairs, and his refidence is
in the cable : an aga, who prefides over the military
force, lives in a tower without the city. About two
miles from the prefent town are dill to be feen the ruins
of a drong wall with the fragments of many columns,
chapiters, bafes, broken datues, and feveral inferiptions,
fome of which mention the fenate and people of An¬
dros, and the prieds of Bacchus; from which it is pro¬
bable that this was the fite of the ancient city. E.
Long. 25. 30. N. Lat. 37. 50.
ANDROS (anc. geog.), an ifland in the Irilh fea
(Pliny), called Hedros by Ptolemy: Now Bardfey,
didant about a mile from the coab of North Wales.
ANDROS AGE: A genus of the monogynia or¬
der, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants; and in
the naturah method ranking under the 21b order,.
Precise. The effential charafters are, The male calyx
is five-leaved; the corolla is five-petal’dy the bamina
are five, inferted on the rudiment of the dylus: The
female calyx is five-leav’d; the corolla is-wanting; the
dyli are three ; the capfule is trilocular; the feeds are
two. Of this genus Dr Linnssus reckons fix
Species. 1. The maxima grows naturally in Audria-
and Bohemia, among the corn. It hath broad leaves,-
which fpread near the ground; from the centre of thefe
the footdalks arife, which are terminated by an umbel
of white flowers like thofe of the auricula/ Thefe ap¬
pear in April and M;;y, and the feeds ripen in June ;
foon after which the plants perifli. 2. The feptentrio-
nalis, villofa, carnea, and ladtea, grow naturally on the
Alps and Helvetia^ mountains, as alfo in Siberia. They ,
are much fmaller than the former, feldom growing more
than three inches high. Of the other fpecies> called
the elongata, we have no particular defeription.
Culture. Thefe plants are propagated by feeds,.
which fl>buld be fown foon after they are ripe, other-
wife th'ey feldbm come up the fame year. If per¬
mitted to fcatter, they will grow better than when they
are fown.
AND RUM, a kind of hydrocele, to which the peo¬
ple of Malabar are very fubjeft.—Its origin is derived
from the vitious ouality of the country waters, impreg-
natei
A N E [ 790 ] A N E
Andryala natcd with corrofive muriatic falts, the fource of moil
Anduze ot*ler difeafes that infeft the Malabarians. Its figns,
1 or fymptoms, are an eryfipelas of the fcrotum, return¬
ing every new moon, by which the lymphatics, being
eroded, pour a ferous faline humour into the cavity of
the fcrotum. The andrum is incurable; thofe once
feized with it have it for life : but it is not dangerous,
nor very troublefome, to thofe ufed to it; tho1 fome-
times it degenerates into an hydrofarcocele. The me-
ithod of prevention is by a. heap of fand fetched from a
river of the province Mangatti, and ftrowed in the
wellg. This is pradtifed by the rich. As to the cure,
■they have only a palliative one; which is by incifion,
or tapping, and drawing off the water from the fcro-
-tum, once in a month or two.
ANDRYALA, downy sow-thistle: A genus
■of the polygamia asqualis order, belonging to the fyn-
genefia clafs of plants; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 49th order, Compofttte-femiflofculus. The
effential characters are: The receptacle is villous; the
calyx is many-parted, fubequal, and rounded; and the
pappus is Ample and feffile.
Species. 1. The integrifolia is an annual plant,
•growing naturally in the fouth of France, Spain, and
Italy. It, rifes to the height of a foot and an half,
with woolly branching ftalks. The flowers are produ¬
ced in fmall cluflers at the top of the ftalks. They are
yellow, and like thofe of the fow-thiftle; fo do not
make any great appearance. 2. The ragufina is a na¬
tive of the Cape of Good Hope. The leaves are ex¬
tremely white, and much-indented on their edges. The
Hower-ftalks grow about a foot high, having fmall
clufters of yellow flowers, which appear in July. The
feeds fometimes ripen in Britain, but not always. 3.The
Janata is a native of Sicily and of the country round
Montpelier. The lower leaves are indented and wool¬
ly, but thofe on the ftalks are entire. It feldom rifes
more than a foot high, fupporting a few yellow flowers
.at top. 4. The finuata grows in Spain and Portu¬
gal : the leaves are broader, longer, and more downy,
than either of the other forts ; the flower-ftalks rifing
more than a foot high. They branch into feveral foot-
ftalks, each fuftaining one large yellow flower, fha-
ped like thofe of hawk-weed, which are fucceeded by
oblong black feeds covered with down.
Culture. All thefe plants are eafily propagated by
feeds, whichfhould be fown in autumn, where they are
•to remain, and will require no other culture than to
:thin them where they are too clofe, and to keep them
•free from weeds. The third fort muft have a light dry
foil, or it will not live in this country.
ANDUXAR, a city in the province of Andalufia,
in Spain, feated on the Guadalquiver. It is pretty
large, indifferently rich, and defended by a good
caftle. It is adorned with handfome churches and feve¬
ral religious houfes, and inhabited by many families of
high rank. The land about it abounds in corn, wine,
.oil, honey, and fruit of all forts; and the inhabitants
carry on a confiderable trade in filk. W. Long. 4. 2.
-N.Lat. 37.45.
ANDUZE, a town of France in lower Languedoc,
feated on the river Garden. It carries on a confider¬
able trade in ferges and woollen clpth. E.Long. 3.42.
Jtf. Lat. 43. 39.
ANEAU (Bartholomew), a native of Bourges in Anean
France, a man of eminent learning in the 16th century, H
educated under Melchior Volmar, He was profeffor at Ane™°me'
Lyons, where he propagated the dodlrines of the Re- ■ - -1— /
formation fecretly for a long time: but on the feftival
of the Holy Sacrament 1565, as the proceffion was
palling on towards the college, there was a large ftone
thrown from one of the windows upon the Hoft and
prieft who carried it. The people, enraged at this,
broke into the college, and affaffmated Mr Aneau,
whom they imagined to have been the occafion, and
the college itfelf was ftiut up next day by order of the
city.
ANECDOTE, Anecdota, a term ufed by fome
authors, for the titles of Secret Hiflories; but it more
properly denotes a relation of detached and interefting
particulars. The word is Greek, q. d. things
ml yet knonv?i qx hitherto kept fecret. Procopius gives
this title to a book which he publilhed againft Juftini-
an and his wife Theodora; and he feems to be the on¬
ly perfon among the .ancients who has reprefented
princes fuch as they are in their domeftic relation.—•
Varillas has publilhed Anecdotes of the Houfe of Me-
dicis.
Anecdotes is alfo an appellation given to fuch
works of the ancients as have not yet been publilhed.
In which fenfe, M. Muratori gives the name Anecdota
Greeca to feveral writings of the Greek fathers, found
in the libraries, and firft publilhed by him.—F.Martene
has given a Thefaurus Anecdota ruin Nevus, in folio,
5 vols.
ANEE, in commerce, a meafure for grain, ufed in 1
fome provinces of France. At Lyons, it fignifies alfo
a certain quantity of wine, which is the load an afs can
carry at once: which is fixed at 80 Englilh quarts,
wine-meafure.
ANEMOMETER, in mechanics, implies a machine
for meafuring the force and velocity of the wind.'
Various machines of this kind have been invented at
different times, and by different perfons. The follow¬
ing has been often experienced, and found to anfwer the
intention.
An open frame of wood, ABCDEFGHI *, is fup- * Plate
ported by the fliaft or arbor I. In the two crofs-pieces XXIX.
H K, L M, is moved a horizontal axis QM, by means 3’-
of the four fails, ah, cm. Of, gh, expofed to the wind
in a proper manner. Upon this axis is fixed a cone of
wood, MNO ; upon which, as the fails move round, a
weight R, or S, is raifed by a ftring round its fuper^
fices, proceeding from the fmaller to the larger end
N O, Upon this larger end or bafe of the cone, is
fixed a rocket wheel k, in whofe teeth the click X falls,
to prevent any retrograde motion from the depending
weight.
The ftru£lure of this machine fufficiently fliows that
it may be accommodated to eftimate the variable force
of the wind ; becaufe the force of the weight will con¬
tinually increafe as the ftring advances on the conical
furface, by a fling at a greater diftance from the axis
.of motion; confequently, if fuch a weight be added
on the fmaller part M, as will juft keep the machine
in equilibrio in the weakeft wind, the weight to be
raifed, as the wind becomes ftronger, will be increafed
in proportion^ and the diameter of the cone N O may
5 ^
A N E [ 791 ] A N E
Anemone, be fo large in comparifon to that of the fmaller end at
^ M, that the ftrongeft wind fliall but juft raife the
■ weight at the greater end.
If, for example, the diameter of the axis be to that
of the bafe of the cone NO as, 1 to 28 ; then, if S
be a weight of one pound at M on the axisi it will be
equivalent to 28 pounds when railed to the greater end:
if therefore, when the wind is Wealteft, it fupports one
pound on the axis, it muft be 28 times as ftrong to.
raife the weight to the bafe of the cone. If therefore a
line of fcale of 28 equal parts be drawn on the fide of
the cone, the ftrength of the wind will be indicated by
that number on which the fixing refts.
ANEMONE, wind-flower : A genus of the po-
lygnia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants;,
and, in the natural method, ranking under the 26th or¬
der, Multiftliqiie. It has its name from the Greek
u'tifi©', fignifying the wind; becaufe the flower is fup-
pofed not to open unlefs the wind blows.—The cha¬
racters are : There is no calyx : The corolla confifts of
petals of two or three orders, three in each feries, ob-
longifli : The ftamina confift of numerous capillary fi¬
laments ; the anthers didymous and ereft. The pi-
Jlillum has numerous germina collected into a head ;
the ftyli are pointed ; the ftigmata bbtufe : There is
no pericarpium; the receptaculum is globular : -.The
feeds are very numerous.
Of this genus Dr Linnsus enumerates 21 fpecies
but thofe valuable on account of the beauty of their
flowers are only the following. 1. The nemorofa,
which grows wild in the woods in many parts of Britain,
where it flowers in April and May. The flowers are
white, purple, or reddiflr purple, fometimes Angle, and
fometimes double, fo that they make a pretty appear¬
ance. 2. The appennina is likewife a native of Britain,
growing in woods. The flowers of this fpecies, like
the laft, are fometimes Angle, and fometimes double
their colours are white, blue, or violet. They appear
in April. 3. The coronaria. 4. The hortenfis. Thefc
two are natives of the Levant, particularly of the Ar¬
chipelago iflands, where the borders of the fields are co*
vered with them of the moft beautiful colours. When
they grow wild, the flowers are/Commonly Angle ; but
by culture they are greatly improved: they become
large and double, making fome of the greateft orna¬
ments of gardens. Their principal colours are red,
white, purple, and blue; fome of them are finely varie¬
gated with red, white, purple, and many intermediate
(hades of thefe colours.
Culture. The firft and fecond forts may be propa¬
gated by taking up their roots when the leaves decay,,
and tranfplanting them in wildernefles, where they
will thrive and increafe greatly, if they are not difturb-
ed. The two laft forts require a good deal of care,
and ample directions for their culture.—The foil in.
which thefe flowers will thrive extremely, may be com-
pofed in the following manner: Take a quantity of
freftr untried earth (from a common or fome other pa-
ftureland) that is of a light fandy loam or hazel mould,,
obferving not to take it above ten. inches deep below the
furface ; and if the turf be taken with it, the better,
provided it hath time to rot thoroughly before it is
ufed : mix this with a third part of rotten cow-dung,
and lay it in a heap, keeping it turned over at leaft once
a month for eight or ten months, the. better to mix it,
and rot the dung and turf, and to let it have the ad van- Anemone,
tages of the free air. In doing this work, be careful v—
to rake out all great ftones, and break the clods ; but
by no means fift or fcreen the earth, which has been
found very hurtful to many forts of roots. This earth
fiiouldbe mixed twelve months before it is ufed, if pof-
fible : but if conftrained to ufe it fooner, it muft be the
oftener turned over, to mellow and break the clods;
obferying to rake out all the parts of the green fwaird
that are not quite rotten, before it is ufed, as they would
be prejudicial to the roots if fuffered to remain. The
beginning of September is a proper feafon to prepare
the beds for planting, which (if in a wet foil) fliould-
be raifed with this fort of earth fix or eight inches above
the furface of the ground, laying at the bottom fome
of the rakings of the heap to drain off the moifture ;.
but, in a dry foil, three inches above the furface will be
fufficient: this compoft flrould be laid at leaft two feet
and a half thick, and in the bottom there ftiould be a-
bout four or five inches of rotten neats dung, or the
rotten dung of an old melon or cucumber bed. The
beds muft be laid (if in a wet foil) a little round, to
(hoot off the water; but in a dry one, nearer to a le¬
vel. In wet land, where the beds are raifed above the
furface, it will be proper to fill up the paths between
them, in winter, either with rotten tan or dung, to pre¬
vent the froft from penetrating into the fides of the beds,
which otherwife may deftroy their roots. The earth .
fliould be laid in the beds at leaft a fortnight or three
weeks before the roots are planted, and a longer time
would be yet better, that it may fettle ; and when they
are planted, ftir the upper part of the foil about fix
inches deep, with a fpade; then rake it even and fmootli,
and with a flick draw lines each way of the bed at fix
inches diftance,' fo that the whole may be in fquares,.
that the roots may be planted regularly ; then with
three fingers make a hole in the centre of each fquare,
about three inches deep, laying therein a root with the.
eye uppermoft ; and when the bed.is finiihed, with the.
head of a rake draw the earth fmooth, fo as to cover:
the crown of the roots about two inches thick..
The beft feafon for planting thefe roots, if for for¬
ward flowers, is about the latter end of September,,
and for thofe of a middle feafon any time in Oftober :.
but obferve to perform this work, if pofiible, at or near
the time of fome gentle ihowers ; for if planted when,
the ground is perfectly dry, and there Ihould no rain,
fall for three weeks or a month after, the roots will be.
very apt to grow mouldy upon the crown ; and if once
they get this diftemper, they feldom come to good after,.
As all the fine varieties of thefe flowers were firft ob¬
tained from feeds, fo no good florift that hath garden-
room fliould negledi to fow them ; in order to which,,
he flrould provide himfelf with, a quantity of good roots,
of the Angle (or what the gardeners call poppy ') ane-
monies, of the beft colours, and fuch as have ftrong
ftems and large flowers, but. efpecially fuch as have more,
leaves than common, and alfo other good properties
thefe fliould. be planted early, that they may have.,
ftrength to produce good feeds, which will be ripe in
three weeks or a month’s time after the flowers are pall ;;
when the feeds, muft be carefully gathered, otherwife.'
jthey will be blown away in a fliort time, as being in—
clofed in a downy fubftance. You muft preferve this
feed till the beginning of Auguft, when you, may ei¬
ther:
A N E [ 792 ] A N E
Antmom. ther fovv it in pots, tubs, or a well-prepared bed of light
  earth : in the doing of it you muft be careful not to
let your feeds be in heaps ; to avoid which, the bell
method is to mix them with a little fine fand, and,
when fown, gently ftreak the bed with a ilrong hair-
brufli.
In about two months after fowing, the plants will
begin to appear, if the feafon has proved favourable.
The firft winter after their appearing above ground,
they are fubjeft to injuries from hard frofts, or too
much wet, againft both of which you mull equally de¬
fend them : for the froll is -very apt to loofen the earth,
fo that the young plants are often turfTPd out of the
ground, after which a fmall froft will dellroy them ;
and too much wet often rots their tender roots, fo that
all your former trouble may be loll in a Ihort time for
want of care in this particular: nor is any thing more
dellrudlive to thofe tender plants than the cold black
frolls and winds of February and March, from which
you muft be careful to defend them, by placing a low
reed-fence on the north and call fides of the bed, which
may be moveable, and only faftened to a few Hakes to
iupport it for the prefent, and may be taken quite a-
-way as the feafon advances, or removed to the fouth
and weft fides of the bed, to fcreen it from the vio¬
lence of the fun, which often,impairs thefe plants when
young. As the fpring advances, if the weather ftiould
prove dry, you muft gently refrelh them with water,
which will greatly • ftrengthen your roots ; and when
the green leaves are decayed, if your roots are not too
thick to remain in the fame bed another year, you muft
-clear off all the weeds and decayed leaves from the bed,
and fift a little more of the lame prepared good earth,
about a quarter of an Inch thick over the furface, and
obferve to keep them clear from weeds during the fum-
mer feafon, and at Michaelmas repeat the fame earth¬
ing ; but as thefe roots fo left in the ground will come
up early in the autumn, the beds fnould be carefully
covered in frofty weather, otherwife their leaves will be
injured, whereby the roots will be weakened, if not
deftroyed. If your roots fucceed well, many of them
will flower the fecond year, when you may feleCt all
fuch as you like, by marking them with a ftick r but
yon ftrould not deftrqy any of them till after the third
year, when you have teen them blow ftrong, at which
time you will be capable to judge of their goodnefs 5
for until the roots have acquired ftrength, the flowers
will not fhow themfelves to advantage.
The Angle (or poppy) anemonies will flower moft
part of the winter and ffn-mg* when the feafons are fa¬
vourable, if they are planted in a warm fituation, at
which time they make a fine appearance; therefore de-
ferve a place in every flower-garden, efpecially as they
require little culture- There are fome fine blue colours
amongft thefe Angle anemonies, which, with the fear-
lets and reds, make a beautiful mixture 5 and as thefe
begin flowering is January or February, when the wea¬
ther is cold, they will continue a long time in beau¬
ty, provided the froft is not too fevere, or if they are
covered with mats. The feeds of thefe are ripe by the
middle or end of May ; and muft be gathered daily as
they ripen, otherwife they will be foon blown away by
the winds.
Floraed -cattle, when removed from the higher
grounds into Woods and woody paftures, frequently eat
1
the wood-anemone; and, according to Linraurt and Anemone,
Gunner, many obfervations have proved that it caufes Anemoi-
the bloody flux among them;. , , coi'e-
Sea- Mnemokr. See ■Animal-Fhtver. v
ANEMOSCOPE, a machine that (hows either the
courfe or'velocity of the wind. (See alfo the article
Wind-QxvGE.)
The machine which fhows the courfe of the wind,
or from what point of the compafs it blows, confifts
of an index moving about an upright circular plate,
like the dial of a clock, on which the 32 points of
the compafs are drav^n inftead of the hours. The in¬
dex, which points to the divifions on the dial, is turned
by a horizontal axis, having a trundle-head at its ex¬
ternal extremity. This trundle-head is moved by a'
cog-wheel on a perpendicular axis ; on the top of which
a vane is fixed, that moves with the courfe of the wind,
and puts the whole machine in motion. The whole
contrivance is extremely fimple; and nothing required
in the conftfu&ion, but that the number of cogs in the
wheel, and rounds in the trundle head, be equal; be-
caufe it is neceffary, that, when the vane moves, entire •
ly round, the index of the dial alfo make a complete
revolution.—An anemofeope of this kind is placed in
one of the turrets of the queen’s palace. The anemo¬
feope, calculated for indicating the force or velocity
of the wind, is the fame with what moft writers call an
anemometer; and we have accordingly deferibed one
of thofe machines under that article. We fir all here
add another, contrived by the late Mr Pickering, and
publifhed in the Philojophical Tranfaftions, N° 473.
This anemofeope is a machine four feet and a quarter
high, confifting of a broad and weighty pedeftal, a
pillar faftened into it, and an iron axis of about half
an inch diameter faftened into the pillar. Upon this
axis turns a wooden tube ; at the top of which is pla¬
ced a vane, of the fame materials, 21 inches long, con¬
fining of a quadrant, graduated, and ftrod with an iron
rim, notched to each degree 4 and a counterpoife of
wood, as in the figure, on the other. Through the
centre of the Quadrant runs an iron pin, upon which
are faftened two fmall round pieces of wood, which
ferve as moveable radii to deferibe the degrees upon
the quadrant, and as handles to a velum or fail, whofe
pane is one foot fquare, made of canvas, llretched up¬
on four battens, and painted. On the upper bat¬
ten, next to the fhod rim of the quadrant, is a fmall
fpring which catches at every notch correlponding to
each degree, as the wind fhall, by prefling againft the
fail, raife it up; and prevents the falling back of the fail,
upon leffening of the force of the wind. At the bot¬
tom of the wooden tube, is an iron index, which moves
round a circular piece of wood faftened to the top of
the pillar on the pedeftal, on which are deferibed the
32 points of the compafs. The figure of this machine
is given on Plate XXIX. fig. 4. where a is the pe¬
deftal ; b, the pillar on which the iron axis is fitted ; c,
the circle of wood, on which are deferibed the 32 points
of the compafs; e, the wooden tube upon its axis ;
the velum; g, the graduated quadrant; b, the coun¬
terpoife of the vane. The adjoining figure reprefents
the velum, which takes off: « is the plane of the velum ;
b, the fpring; c c, the wooden radii; d, d, the holes
through which the pin in the centre of the quadrant
goes. Its ufes are the following.
j. Ha-
A N E [ 79.1 1 A N G
Having a circular motion round the iron axis, lour, in fhape nearly oval, convex on one fide, and Aneurifiu
flat on the other. Their tafte is moderately warm and H
pungent; their fmell aromatic, but not of the moftu^a2>a,t
;reeable kind. Several preparations of them are kept
and being furniflied with a vane at top, and index at
l the bottom, when once you have fixed the artificial car¬
dinal points, defcribed on the round piece of wood on
the pillar, to the fame quarters of the heavens, it gives in the fliops. They are recommended as a carminative,
a faithful account of that quarter from which the
wind blows. 2. By having a velum or fail elevated by
the wind along the arch of the quadrant to an height
proportionable to the power of the column of wind
in flatulent colics, proceeding from a cold caufe or a
vifcidity of the juices.—2. Offennel both the feeds and
roots are ufed in medicine. The feeds of both the
fennels have an aromatic fmell, and a moderately warm
prefiing againft it, the relative force of the wind, and pungent tafte : thofe of the fweet fennel are in fla¬
ks comparative power, at any two times of examina¬
tion, may be accurately taken. 3. By having a fpring
vour moft agreeable, and have alfo a confiderable de¬
gree of fweetnefs; hence our colleges have directed the
fitted to the notches of the iron with which the qua- ufe of thefe only. They are ranked among the four
drant is (hod, the velum is prevented from returning greater hot feeds, and not undefervedly looked upon as
hack upon the fall of the wind ; and the machine gives good ftomachics and carminatives. A Ample water ia
the force to the higheft blaft, fince the laft time of exa- prepared from them in the (hops ; they are ingredients
mination, without the trouble of watching it.
The ingenious contriver of this machine tells us,
alfo in the compound fpirit of juniper, and fome other
officinal compofitions. The root is far lefs warm, but
that he carefully examined what dependence may be has more of a fweetifh tafte, than the feeds: it is one
had upon it, during the ftorms of February 1743-4,
and found that it anfwered exceeding well; for that,
in fuch winds as the failors call violent forms, the ma¬
chine had fix degrees to fpare for. a more violent guft,
before it comes to a horizontal pofition. It is cer-
of the five roots called openers; and has fometimes been
direfted in aperient apozems. Boerhaave fays, that
this root agrees in tafte, fmell, and medical qualities,
with the celebrated ginfeng of the Chinefe; from which,
however, it appears to be very confiderably different.-—
tainly to be depended upon in ordinary-weather, the The leaves of fennel are weaker than either the roots
velum being hung fo tenderly as to feel the moft gentle
breeze. There is however reafon to fear, that the ex-
pofing the anemofeope to all winds for a continuance,
muff diforder it, efpecially irregular blafts and fqualls.
It mav not therefore be amifs, in violent weather, for the
obferver to take the tube with its vane and velum in his
or feeds, and have very rarely been employed for any
medicinal ufe.
ANEURISM, in furgery, a throbbing tumor, di-
ftended with blood, and formed by a dilatation or rup¬
ture of an "artery. See Surgery-Index.
ANGARI, or Angarii, in antiquity, denote pu-
hand, in order to know the force of the wind; and, blic couriers, appointed for the carrying of meffages.
when he has finifhed his obfervations, to carry the ma¬
chine into the houfe, till the violence of the Itorm is
abated, when it may be replaced in its former fitua-
tion.
The ancient Perlians, Budasus obferves, had their
ay-yupuiv <?,«».*«; which was a fet of couriers on horfe-
back, polled at certain ftages or diftances, always in
readinefs to receive the difpatches from one, and fprw
ANETHUM, dill and fennel : A genus of the ward them to another, with wonderful celerity, anfwer*
digynia ’ order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of ing to what the moderns call pofls, q. d. pofiti, as being-
plants ; and, in the natural method, ranking under the
45th order, Umbellat<e. The effential characters are :
The fruit is oval, compreffed, ftriated; and the petals
{five) are involute, entire, and very (hort.
Species, 1. The graveolens, or dill, is an annual
plant: the root is long, (lender, and white : the leaves
are divided into a multitude of fine, long, narrow feg-
ments like thofe of fennel, but of a bluifti green colour,
and lefs ftrong fmell. The (talk is round and firm,
growing to the height of four feet, with yellow flow¬
ers in moderately large umbels. 2. The feniculum, or
fennel; of which there are two varieties, the common
and the fweet. The fweet fennel is fmaller in all its
parts than the common, except the feeds, which are
confiderably larger. The feeds of the two forts differ
likewife in (hape and colour; thofe of the common are
roundifti, oblong, flattifh on one fide, and protuberant
on the other, of a dark almoll blackifti colour; thofe
of the fweet are longer, narrower, notfo fiat, generally
crooked, and of a whitifh or pale yellowifti colour. Both
forts are cultivated in our gardens : the common is a
perennial plant: the fweet fennel perifties after it has
given feed ; nor do its feeds come to fuch perfection
in this climate as thofe which we receive from Ger¬
many.
Medicinal Ufes. I. Of the firft fpecies, dill, only
the feeds are ufed. They are of a pale yellowifn co-
Vol. I. Part II.
pofted at certain places or ftages.—The angari were
alfo called by the Perfians aflanda; by the Greeks
bn account of the long journeys they made
in one day, which according to Suidas amounted not to
lefs than 1500 ftadia.
ANGARIA, in Roman antiquity, a kind of pub¬
lic fervice impofed on the provincials, which confided
in providing horfes and carriages for the conveyance of
military (lores, and other public burdens. It is fome¬
times alfo ufed for a guard of foldiers, pofted for the
defence of a place. In a more general fenfe, it is ufed
for any kind of oppreffion or fervices performed thro'
compulfion.
ANGAZYA, one of the Comorra iflands, lying
between the north end of Madagafcar and the coaft
of Zanguebar in Africa, from Lat. io° to 150 S. It
is inhabited by Moors, who trade with divers parts of
the continent, in cattle, fruits, and other commodities
of the ifland ; which they exchange for callicoes and
other cotton cloths. The houfes here are built of (lone,
and lime made of calcined oyfter-fliells; with which
the walls and roof are plaftered in a very elegant man¬
ner. The government of Angazya is a pure arift^cra-
cy ; the ifland being fubjeft to 10 lords, who have all
the title of Sultan. The people are very careful of
their women ; never permitting (Irangers to fee them,-
without permiffion from a fultan, or an order which
5 H the
A N G [ 794 ] A N G
Angeioto- the ftranger brings with him. Many of them read and
my> write Arabic with great facility; andfome even under-
■ ‘ Hand Portuguefe, which they learn from their inter-
courfe with Mofambique, whither they trade in veifels
of 40 tons burthen.
ANGEIOTOMY, in forgery, implies the opening
a vein dr artefy, as in bleeding ; and confequently in¬
cludes both arteriotomy and phlebotomy.
ANGEL, a fpiritual intelligent fubftance, the firfl
in rank and dignity among created beings. The word
Angel is Greek, and fignifies a Meffenger : the Hebrew
iNbo fignifies the fame thing. The angels are in Da¬
niel (chap. iv. ver. 13, &o.) called O"^', or Watchers,
from their vigilance : for the fame reafon they are, in
the remains we have of the prophecy attributed to E-
noch, named Egregori; which word imports the fame
in Greek.
Angels, therefore, in the proper fignification of the
word, do not import the nature of any being, but only
the office, to which they are appointed, efpecially by
way of meffage, or intercourfe between God and his
creatures ; in which fenfe they are called the miniflers
of God, who do his pleafure, and minijlring fpirits fent
forth to minifter for them who fhall be heirs of falva-
tion. That there are fuch beings as we call angels,
that is, certain permanent fubftances, invil\ble, and im¬
perceptible to our fenfes, endued with underftanding
and power fuperior to that of human nature, created by
God, and fubjeft to him as the fupreme Being ; mi-
niftring to his divine providence in the government of
the world by his appointment, and more efpecially at¬
tending the affairs of mankind ; is a truth fo fully at-
tefled by Scripture, that it cannot be doubted. Nay,
the exigence of fuch invifible beings was generally
acknowledged by the ancient heathens, though under
different appellations: the Greeks called them damans;
and the Romans genii, or lares. Epicurus feems to
have been the only one among the old philofophers
who abfolutely rejected them. Indeed, the belief of
middle intelligences influencing the affairs of the world,
and ferving as minifters or interpreters between God
and man, is as extenfive as the belief of a God; having
never, fo far as we know, been called in queftion by
thofe who had any religion at all.
When crea- The creation of angels is not indeed exprefsly men-
te<1, tioned by Mofes in the firft of Genefis, yet it is gene¬
rally confidered by judicious expofitors as implied. The
reafon why the facred hiftorian is filent on this fubjeft,
is fuppofed by Berrington to be the natural pronenefs
* On the of the gentile world, and even of the Jews, to idolatry *.
Creation, An(l ft is thought, if they worshipped mere material
See a'lfo Se- elements> which was the cafe, much more might they
verianus on be inclined to worfhip fuch fuperior and fublime beings
the Crea- as angels. But a better reafon is perhaps given by o-
tion. ther writers, viz: that this firft hiftory was purpofely
and principally for information concerning the vifible
world; the invifible, of which we know but in part,be-
t Affem- *ng referved for a better life f.
hly'sAnnot. On what day they were created has been matter of
on Gen i. conjecture. It is a point on which learned men have
5°; w , differed. The Socinians, indeed, hold, fays Bifhop
p J05 °r 5’ HopkinsJ, that it was long before the account given by
Mofes, but it muft have been within the fix days crea¬
tion ; becaufe, as we are informed, that within this
fpace God made heaven and earth,, and all things that
5
are therein. Ail the writers that we have feen on Angel,
this fubjeCf, think they were included in the firft day’s"“v " 1
work, when the heavens were framed.
It has been thought by fome perfonj, that the words
of Job, “ When the morning ftars fang together, and
all the fons of God ftiouted for joy,” militate againft
the creation of angels within the fix days. About the
meaning of thefe words, however, expofitors are not
agreed; but admitting that they refer literally to an¬
gels, Dr Lightfoot, Caryl, and others, fee no diffi¬
culty in the paflage. The Doftor thinks they were
created on the-firft day, with the heavens ; and that
they were fpeftators of God’s works in the other parts
of creation, and praifed and magnified the Lord for
his works all along ; finging and fhouting when God
laid the foundation of the earth, as the Jews did at the
laying the foundation of the temple, Ezra iii.
On a fubjeft of this nature, it would be imprudent
to indulge a fpirit of conjecture : Scripture is the only
ftandard by which truth and error can be tried, and to
this we muft ultimately appeal. It is acknowledged
that Mofes has not exprefsly mentioned angels by name;
yet, as we have remarked, their creation is undoubted¬
ly implied : for the heavens muft include all that are in
them ; and therefore it is that the divine penman fays,
in the conclufion of his narrative, “ Thus the heavens
and the earth were finiflred, and all the hoft of them.”
Of the hafts of heaven, the angels muft form a confider-
able part; they are exprefsly called the heavenly hqft,
and the armies of heaven, Dan. iv. 35. Luke ii. 13. And
if divine authority be admitted as decifive, the reafons
adduced by Jehovah for the fanftification of a fabbath,
demonftrate that they did not exift previous to the crea¬
tion of the heavens. It is, furely, aflerted with pro¬
priety, that in fn< days the Lord made heaven and earth,
the fea, and all that in them is. Similar to which is a
declaration of the divine hiftorian relating to the fame
faft.—“ And God blefied the feventh day and fanfti-
fied it; becaufe that in it he had refted from all his
work which God created and made,” Gen. ii. 3. Now
if angels exifted prior to the fix days of creation, the
language of Mofes is far from being accurate and in¬
telligible ; and efpecially when it is confidered that the
obfeurity might have been removed by adding, “ from
all the work which God had then created and made.”
But if angels were created before the heavens, where
could they exift ? For, as thelearned Gill|| has remark- || Bod.
ed, though angels have no bodies, and fo are not in Divin.vol.L
place circumfcriptively; yet as they are creatures, P’
they muft have an ubi, a fomewhere in which they are
definitively; fo that they are here, and not there, and
much lefs everywhere: Now where was there an ubi, a
fomewhere, for them to exift in, before the heavens and
the earth were made ? It is moft reafonable, therefore,
to conclude, that as God prepared an habitation for all
the living creatures before he made them; as the fea
for the fifties, the expanfe, or air, for the fowls, and the*
earth for men and beafts ; fo he made the heavens firft,
and then the angels to dwell in them.”
That this was the fa£t, will appear very evident, if
the words of Mofes be impartially confidered. “ In
the beginning (fays he), God created the heavens and
the earth ;” which words muft refer to either the be¬
ginning of creation or of time: if to the former, and
angels previoufly exifted,, the language is neither inteH-
ligibk
A N G E 795 1 A N G
Angel. Ugible nor conformable to truth: if to the latter, the
** difficulty remains; for what is time but the meafure of
created exiftence. “ Time (fays the judicious Char-
* Works, nock* ) began with the foundation of the world: before
vol. i. 11 z. the beginning of the creation and the beginning of
time, there could be nothing but eternity; nothing but
what was uncreated, that is, nothing but what was with¬
out beginning.” But if angels were in a pre-exiftent
ftate, the hiftorian’s language is unaccountably ftrange
and inaccurate: for if the phrafe in the beginning,
which is remarkably emphatical, refer to the creation
of the heavens and the earth only, they are unhappily
exprelfed; fo expreffed, indeed, as to convey no mean¬
ing to thofe who confider words as the vehicle of
thought, and as intended to exprefs clearly to others
the meaning of the writer. For the natural obvious
fenfe isasfollows—“In the beginning of the creation of
the heavens and the earth, God created the heavens and
the earthwhich language is not only, a departure
from that perfpicuity and precition which diftinguifn all
his narrations, but entirely irrational and abfurd.
That the words in the beginning refer to the firfl
creation, cannot be doubted, if it be remembered that
Jehovah himfelf founds a claim to eternity on this very
ground : “ Before the day was, I am he.”—“ Before
the mountains were brought forth, or ever thou hadft
formed the earth and the world, even from everlafting
to everlafting, thou art God.” Ifa. xliii. 13. Pf. ix. 2.
See alfo Prov. viii. 22, 23, &c. Now there could be
no propriety in this kind of reafoning, if angels or any
other creature cxifted before the creation of the world,
becaufe all claims to eternity from fuch premifles would
apply even to Gabriel as well as to Jehovah. “ Before
the world was,” is, in Scripture language, a phrafe
always expreffive of eternity; and on this principle the
evangelift John afferts the divinity of Jefus Chrift in
the firft chapter of his hiftory. For this purpofe he
alludes to the words of Mofes, and introduces his di¬
vine mafter to notice by celebrating the firft aft of
his creative power. “ In the beginning (fays lie)
§ Family was the Word ;” that is, Dr Doddridge remarks <J, be-
Expofitor. fore the foundation of the world, or the firft produc-
tion of any creature : and Dr Sherlock j; is clearly of
Proof.T/ opinion, that the words, in their moft common and
Chrift’s ufual acceptation, figijify the firft creation of all things,
Divin. p. an(i are a demonftration of the divinity of Chrift J.
alfo WWt Of the fame mind was Dr Owen. He fays, that if
by on John phrafe beginning, does not abfolutely and formally
i. x. exprefs eternity, yet it doth a pre-exiftence to the whole
creation, which amounts to the fame thing; for no¬
thing can pre-exift before all creatures but the nature
of God, which is eternal, unlefs we fuppofe a creature
before the creation of any. But what is meant by this
expreffion is fully declared by other paffages of Scrip¬
ture : “ I was fet up from everlafting, before the be¬
ginning, or ever the earth was;” “ Glorify thou me
with thine own felf, with the glory which I had with
thee before the world was;” both which paflages not
only explain the texf, but undeniably prove the pre- Angel,
exiftence of Chrift the fon ol God *. It Ihould be re- ~
membered, that, in the pafiage under confideration, Trinity,
the Evangelift’s argument for the divinity of Jefusp. 43.
Chrift is grounded on his pre-exifting the creation of the
world; and it is confequently aiferted, that he is the
creator of all things : but if angels had a being before
the period to which he alludes, the argument lofes all
its force, and no more proves the divinity of Chrift
than the divinity of an angel (a).
If, therefore, the words of Mofes be impartially
viewed in their obvious natural meaning, and compared
with other paflages of Scripture, that relate to the fame
fubjeft, we have no doubt but every unprejudiced
mind will perceive, that as he intended to give a fum-
mary hiftory of the creation of all things both in hea¬
ven and in earth, he has done it in language intelli¬
gible and accurate, and in terms fufficiently explicit.
As to the nature of thefe beings, we are told, that'Their na-
they are fpirits: but whether pure fpirits divefted of a]l ture>PowerJ
matter, or united to fome thin bodies, or corporeal ve- mcat &c>
hides, has been*a controverfy of long ftanding. Not
only the ancient philofophers, but fome of the Chri-
ftian fathers were of opinion, that angels were cloathed
with ethereal, or fiery, bodies, of the fame nature with
thofe which we (hall one day have when we come to
be equal.to them. But the more general opinion, e-
fpecially of later times, has been, that they are fub-
ftances entirely fpiritual, though they can at any time
aflume bodies, and appear in human or other fhapes.
That the angelical powers and abilities vaftly excel
thofe of man, cannot be denied, if we confider, that
their faculties are not clogged or impeded, as ours
are, by any of thofe imperfections which are infepara-
ble from.corporeal being: fo that their underftandings
are always in perfeft vigour ; their inclinations regu¬
lar ; their motions ftrong and quick ; their aftions ir-
refiftible by material bodies, whofe natural qualities
they can controul, or manage to their purpofes, and
occafion either bleflings or calamities, public or pri¬
vate, here below; inftances of which are too numerous
to mention.
Befides their attendance on God, and their waiting
and executing of his commands, .they are alfo prefumed
to be employed in taking care of mankind and their
concerns: and that every man had fuch a tutelar or
guardian angel, even from his birth, was a firm belief
and tradition among the Jews; and our Saviour him¬
felf feems to have been of the fame fentiment. The
heathens were alfo of the fame perfuafion, and thought
it a crime to negleft the admonitions of fo divine a
guide. Socrates publicly confeffed himfelf to be un¬
der the direftion of fuch an angel, or daemon, as
feveral others have fince done. And in this tutelar
genius of each perfon they believed his happinefs and
fortune depended. Every genius did his beft for the
intereft of his client; and if a man came by the worft,
it was a fign the ftrength of his genius was inferior to
5 H 2 that
(a) Of this Socinus and his followers were aware ; and therefore artfully endeavoured to evade the force of
the apoftle’s reafoning, by interpreting the phrafe in the beginning either in a.figurative fenfe, or as referring to
the beginning of John the Baptift’s miniftry. We will only fubjoin, that we do not remember to have feen any
writer deviate from the primary obvious meaning of the palfage, who had not fome hypothefis to fupport inimi¬
cal to truth.
A N G
f 796 ]
A N C
that of his opponent, that is, of an inferior order ;
" and this was governed by chance. There were fome
genii, whofe afcendent was fo great over others, that
their very prefence entirely difconcerted them ; which
was the cafe of that of Auguftus in refpeft of that of
Marc Anthony; and for the fame reafon, perhaps, fome
perfons have wit, and fpeak well, when others are ab-
fent, in whofe prefence they are confounded, and out
of countenance. The Romans thought the tutelar
genii of thofe who attained the empire, to be of an
eminent order; on which account they had great ho¬
nours fhown them. Nations and cities alfo had their fe-
veral genii. The ancient Perfians fo firmly believed
the miniftry of angels, and their faperintendance over
human affairs, that they gave their names to their
months, and the days of their month ; and affigned
them diftinil offices and provinces: and it is from them
the Jews confefs to have received the names of the
months and angels, which they brought with them
when they returned from the Babylonifh captivity.
After which, we find, they alfo affigned charges to the
angels, and in particular the patronage of empires and
nations; Michael being the prince of the Jews, as
Raphael is fuppofed to have been of the Perfians.
The Mahometans have fo great a refpeft for the
angels, that they account a man an infidel who either
denies their exiftence, or loves them not. They believe
them to be free from fin, enjoying the prefence of God,
to whom they are never difobedient: that 'they have
fubtile pure bodies, being created of light; and have
no diftinftion of fexes, nor do they need the refrefh-
ment of food or fleep. They fuppofe them to have dif¬
ferent forms and offices : that fome adore God in feve-
ral poftures ; others fing his praifes, and intercede for
men ; fome carry and encompafs his throne ; others
write the actions of men, and are affigned guardians to
them.
As the numbers of thefe celeftial fpirits are very
great, it is likewife reafonable to believe that there
are feveral orders and decrees among them ; which is
alfb confirmed by Scripture ; whence fome fpeculative
men have dittributed them into nine orders, according
to the different names by which they are there called ;
and reduced thofe orders into three hier archies, as they
<jall them ; to the firft of which -belong feraphim, che¬
rubim, and thrones; to the fecond, dominions, virtues,
and powers; and to the third, principalities, arch-an-
gels, and angels. They imagine farther, that there
are fome who conftantly refide in heaven ; others who
are miniicers, and fent forth, as there is occafion, to
execute the orders they receive from God by the for¬
mer. The Jews reckon but four orders or companies
of angels, each headed by an arch-angel; the firft or- Angeh
der being that of Michael, the fecomf of Gabriel, the v—-*
third of Uriel, and the fourth of Raphael: but though
the Jews believe them to be four, yet it feems there
were rather feven. The Perfians alfo held, there were
fubordinate degrees among the angels.
Although the angels were originally created perfect, Of the fa!-
good, and obedient, to their Matter’s will, yet fome oflen angeb*
them finned, and kept not their firft eftate, but left
their habitation; andfo, of the moft bleffed and glorious,
became the moft vile and miferable of all God’s crea¬
tures. They were expelled the regions of light, and
caft down to hell, to be referved in everlafting chains
under darknefs, until the day of judgment. With
heaven they loft their heavenly difpofition, which de¬
lighted once in doing good and praifing God ; and fell
into a fettled rancour againft him, and malice againft
men : their inward peace was gone; all defire of doing
good departed from them ; and, inftead thereof, re¬
vengeful thoughts and defpair took pofleffion of them,
and created an eternal hell within them.
When, and for what offence, thefe apoftate fpirits fell
from heaven, and plunged themfelves into fuch an a-
byfs of wickednefs and wo, are queftions very hard,
if not impoffible, to be determined by any clear evi¬
dence of Scripture. As to the time, we are certain
that it could not be before the fixth day of creation ;
becaufe on that day it is faid, God faw every thing
that he had made, and behold it was very good but
that it was not long after is very probable, as it muft
have preceded the fall of our firft parents. Some have
imagined it to have been after; and that carnality, or
lulling to converfe with women upon earth, was the fin
which ruined them : an opinion (b) built on a mifta-
ken interpretation of Scripture, as if angels were
meant by the fans of God who are faid to have begotten
the mighty men of old on the daughters of men. O-
thers have fuppofed, that the angels, being informed,
of God’s intention to create man after his own image,
and to dignify his nature by Chrift’s affuftiing of It,
and thinking their glory to be eclipfed thereby, en¬
vied man’s happinefs, and fo revolted: and with this
opinion that of the Mahometans has fome affinity ;
who are taught, that the devil, who was once one of
thofe angels who are neareft to God’s prefence, and
named Azazil, forfeited paradife for refufing to pay
homage to Adam at the command of God. But on
what occafion foever it firft Ihowed itfelf, pride feems
to have been the leading fin of the angels ; who, ad¬
miring and valuing themfelves too much on the ex¬
cellence of their nature and the height of their ftation,
came at length to entertain fo little refpeft for their
Creator,
(b) This opinion feems to have been originally occafioned by fome copies of the Septuagint, which, in the
days of St Auttin, had in this place the angels of God. Laftantius fuppofes the angels, who were guilty of this
enormity, had been fent down by God to guard and take care of mankind; and being endued with free-will,
were charged by him not to forfeit the dignity of their celeftial nature, by defiling themfelves with the corrup¬
tions of the earth ; but that the devil at length enticed them to debauch themfelves with women. He adds,
that, being not admitted into heaven by reafon of the wickednefs into which they had plunged themfelves,
they fell down to the earth, and became the devil’s minifters ; but that thofe who were begotten by them, be¬
ing neither an'gels nor men, but of a middle nature, were not received into hell, no more than their parents
were into heaven. Hence arofe two kinds of daemons, celeftial and terreftrial. Thefe are unclean fpirits, the
authors of whatever evils are committed, and whofe prince is the devil. From Renee .very probably proceeded
the notions of Incubi, or daemons who are fuppofed to1 have carnal knowledge of women.
A N G
■A»gel Creator, as to be guilty of downriglit rebellion and
[ 797 1
A N G
•Angelica, apoftafy.
very fmall, and greenifh. 2. The arch-angelica k a na- ■
tive of Hungary and Germany. The leaves are much ,
It is certain from Scripture, that thefe fallen angels larger than thofe of the former, and the flowers are t
was in great numbers, and that there were alfo fome
order and fubordination preferved among them; one
efpecialiy being confidered as their prince, and called
-by feveral names, Beelzebub, Satan, or Sammael by
the Jews; Aharimam, by the Perfians; and Eblis, by
the Mahometans. Their conftant employment is not
only doing evil themfelves, but endeavouring by all
arts and means to feduce and pervert mankind, by
tempting them to all kind of fin, and thereby bringing
them into the fame defperate ftate with themfelves.
yellow. 3. The fylveftris grows naturally in moift
meadows, and by the fides of rivers, in many parts of
Britain ; fo is feldom admitted into gardens. 4. The
atro-purpurea canadenfis; 5. The lucida canadenfis :
Thefe are natives of North America, but have neither
beauty nor ufe.
Culture. The common angelica delights to grow in
a moift. foil: the feeds fliould be fown foon after they
are ripe. When the plants come up about fix inches
high, they ftrould be tranfplanted very wide, as their
Angel is likewife a title given to bifnops of feverai leaves fpread greatly. If they are planted on the fides
churches. In this fenfe is St Paul underftood by fome
authors, where he fays, Women ought to he covered in
the church, hecaufe of the angels. The learned Dr
Prideaux obferves, that the minifter of the fynagogue,
who officiated in offering up the public prayers, being
the mouth of the congregation, delegated by them as
their reprefentative, meffenger, or angel, to fpeak to
God in prayer for them, was therefore, in the He¬
brew language, called the angel of the church; and
from thence the bilhops of the feven churches of Afia
are, by a name borrowed from the fynagogue, called
the angels of thofe churches.
Angel, in commerce, the name of a gold coin for¬
merly current in England. It had its name from the
figure of an angel reprefented upon it, weighed four
pennyweights, and was twenty-three and a half carats
fine. It had different values in different reigns ; but
is at prefent only an imaginary fum, or money of ac¬
count, implying, ten (hillings.
Angel~ Fijh, in ichthyology, a fpecies of fqualus.
See Squalus.
ANGELIC, or Angelical, fomething belonging
to, or that partakes of, the nature of angels. We fay
of ditches or pools of water, about three feet diftance,
they will thrive exceedingly.
Medicinal Ufes. For the purpofes of medicine,
Bohemia and Spain produce the belt kinds of angeli¬
ca. The London college diredt the roots brought from
Spain to be alone made ufe of. Angelica roots are
apt to grow mouldy, and be preyed upon by infedts,
unlefs thoroughly dried, kept in a dry place, and fre¬
quently aired. It is probable that the roots vvhicE
are fubjedi to this inconvenience might be preferved,
by dipping them in boiling fpirit, or expofing them to
its (team, after they are dried.
All the parts of angelica, efpecialiy the root, have
a fragrant aromatic fmell, and a pleafant bitterifh
warm tafte, glowing upon the lips and palate for a long
time after they have been chewed. The flavour of the
feeds and leaves is very peri (liable, particularly that of
the latter, which, on being barely dried, lofe the greateft:
part of their tafte and fmell: the roots are more tena¬
cious of their flavour, though even thefe lofe part of
it upon keeping. The frelh root, wounded early in
the fpring, yields an odorous, yellow juice, which,
(lowly exficcated, proves an elegant gummy refin, very
■elical life, &c. St Thomas is ftyled the angelical rich in the virtues of the angelica. On drying the
on...  v.—1 .1... o root, this juice concretes into diftindl moleculae, which,
on cutting it longitudinally, appear diftributed in little -
veins : in this ftate, they are extradled by pure fpirit,
but not by watery liquors.
Angelica is one of the moft elegant aromatics of
European growth, though little regarded in the pre¬
fent pradlice. The root, which is the moft efficacious
part, isufedinthe aromatic tindlure; and the ftalks
make an agreeable fweet-meat.
ANGELICS (An-gelici), in 'church-hiftory, an
ancient fed! of heretics, fuppofed by fome to have got
this appellation from their exceffive veneration of an¬
gels ; and by others, from their maintaining that the
dottor. The angelical falutation is called by the Ro-
maniits Avs Maria; fometimes (imply angelur.
Angelic Garment f Angelica veftis), among our an-
ceftors, was a monkifh garment, which laymen put on
a little before their death, that they might have the
benefit of the prayers of the monks. It was from them
called angelical, becaufe they were called angeli who by
thefe prayers aninuefalnti fuccurrehant. Hence, where
we read the phrafe inonachus ad Juccurrendum in our
old books, it muft be underftood of one who had put
on the habit when he was at the point of death.
ANGELICA : A genus of the digynia order, be¬
longing to the pentandria clafs of plants; and in the
natural method ranking under the 45th order, Umbel- world was created by angels.
latee. The effential charadters are: The fruit isround-
i(h, angled, folid, with refledted ftyli; the corolke are
equal, and the petals incurvated.
Species. 1. The fativa, or common angelica, which
is cultivated in gardens for medicinal ufe, and likewife
for a fweetmeat, grows naturally in the northern coun¬
tries. The root of this fpecies is brown, oblong, and
an inch or two thick, fragrant, and acrid. The leaves
are very large, compofed of pinnated foliola, of an
oblong oval figure, dentated at the edge, and the odd
leaf at the end of the pinna lobated; the ftalk is round,
Angelics is alfo the name of an order of knights,
inftituted in 1191, by Angelus Flavius Commenus em¬
peror of Conftantinople.
Angelics is alfo a congregation of nuns, founded
at Milan in 1534, by Louifa Torelli, countefs of Gua-
ftalla. They obferve the rule of St Auguftine.
ANGELITES, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a fedl of
Chriftian heretics, in the reign of the emperor Anafta-
fius, and the pontificate of Symmachus, about the year
494, fo called from Angelium, a place in the city of
Alexandria, where they held their firft meetings. They
ftriated, and as thick as a child’s arm. The umbels were called likewife Severites, from one Severus, who
are very large, and of a globofe figure; the flowers was the head of their fed; as alfo Theodofians, from
A N G • C 798 ] A N G
Angelo, one among them named Theodofius, whom they made
Angelos, p0pe at Alexandria. They held, that the perfons of
the Trinity are not the fame ; that none of them ex-
ills of himfelf, and of his-own nature ; but that there
is a common god or deity exilling; in them all, and
that each is God, by a participation of this deity.
ANGELO (Michael.). There were five celebrated
Italian painters of this name, who flourilhed in the 16th
and 17th centuries; but the two moll diftinguilhed of
them are thefe.—^Eirft, Michael Angelo Buonarroti,
who was a moll incomparable painter, fculptor, and
ardiiteft, born in 1474, in the territory of Arezzi in
Tufcany. He was the difciple of Dominico Ghirlan¬
daio ; and erected an academy of painting and fculpture
in Florence, under the proteftion of Lorenzo di Me-
dicis; which, upon the troubles of that heufe, was obli¬
ged to remove to Bologna. About this time he made
an image of Cupid, which he carried to Rome, broke
off one of its arms, and buried the image in a place he
knew would foon be dug up, keeping the arm by him.
It was accordingly found, and fold to Cardinal St Gre¬
gory for an antique ; until Michael, to their confulion
and his own credit, difeovered his artifice, and con¬
firmed it by the deficient arm which he produced: it
is rather unufual for the manufacturers of antiques to
be fo ingenuous. His reputation was fo great at Rome,
that he was employed by pope Sixtus to paint his cha¬
pel ; and by the command of Pope Paul III. executed
his moll celebrated piece The laji judgment. He has
the chara&er of being the greateft defigner that ever
■lived; and it is univerfally allowed that no painter ever
underftood anatomy fo well. He died immenfely rich
at Rome, in 1564.—Secondly, Michael Angelo de
Caravaggio, born at that village in Milan, in 1569.
He was at firft no more than a bricklayer’s labourer :
but he was fo charmed with feeing fome painters at
work, that he immediately applied himfelf to the art;
and made fuch a progrefs in a few years, that he was
admired as the author of a new ftyle in painting. It
was obferved of Michael Angelo Buonarotti, that he
was incomparable in defigning, but knew little of co¬
louring ; and of Caravaggio, that he had as good a
gout in colouring as he had a bad one in defigning.
There is one picture of his in the Dominican church
at Antwerp, which Rubens ufed to call his mafter. It
is faid of this painter, that he was fo llrangely conten¬
tious, that the pencil was no fooner out of his hand
but his fword was in it. He died in 1609.
ANGELO (St.) a fmall but ftrong town of Italy,
in the Capitanata. There are feveral other towns and
caftles of the fame name in Italy, and particularly the
caftle of St Angelo at Rome. E. Long. 15. 56. N. lat.
ANGELOS (tos), a province of Mexico, the an¬
cient republic of Tlafcala, of which a city called Tlaf-
cala was once the capital, That city is now reduced
to an inconfiderable village, and has given place to
another called Puebla des los Angelos, or the city of
Angels. It is fituated in W. Long. 103. 12. and
N. Lat. 19. 13. It was formerly an Indian town;
but in 1530 was entirely abandoned by the natives, on
account of the cruelties of the Spaniards. A fuc-
ceeding viceroy of Mexico, by a milder treatment,
recalled them ; and the town is now exceedingly rich
and populous, fo as even to vie with Mexico itfelf in
magnificence. It is fituated on the river Zacatula, in Angelot,
a fine valley, about 25 leagues to the eaftward of Me- Anger-
xico. In the middle is a beautiful and fpacious fquare, v
from whence run the principal ftreets in diredl lines,
which are croffed by others at right angles. One fide
is almoft entirely occupied by the magnificent front of
the cathedral; while the other three confifts of piaz¬
zas, under which are the (hops of tradefmen. The
city is the fee of a bilhop, fuffragan. to the archbifhop
of Mexico, and we may form a judgment of the wealth
of the place by the revenue of the cathedral and chap¬
ter, which amounts to 300,000 pieces of eight annual¬
ly. It muff be remembered, however, that in all po-
pilh countries the wealth of the laity by no means
bears the fame proportion to that of the clergy, as in
Britain, What contributes greatly to encreafe the
riches of this province is, that here is fituated the city
or Vera Cruz, the natural centre of all the American
treafures belonging to Spain. See Vera Cruz.
ANGELOT, an ancient Englifh gold coin, ftruck
at Paris, while under fubjedtion to the Engliih. It
was thus called from the figure of an angel fupporting
the fcutcheon of the arms of England and France.
There was another coin of the fame denomination
ftruck under Philip de Valois.
Angelot is alfo ufed in commerce to denote a fmall,
fat, rich fort of cheefe, brought from Normandy.
Skinner fuppofes it to have been thus called from the
name of thq'perfon who firft made it up in that form,
and perhaps ftamped it with his own name. Menage
takes it to ha>ve been denominated from the refemhlapce
it bears to the Englilh coin called angelot. It is made
chiefly in the Pays de Bray, whence it is alfo denomi¬
nated angelot de Bray. It is commonly made in vats,
either fquare or (haped like a heart.
ANGER, a violent paffion of the mind, confifting
in a propenfity to take vengeance on the author of
fome real or fuppofed injury done the offended party.
Anger is either deliberative or inffindtive ; and the
latter kind is ralli and ungovernable, becaufe it operates
blindly, without affording time for deliberation or
forefight. Bifliop Butler very juftly obferves, that an¬
ger is far from being a felfilh pafiion, fince it is natu¬
rally excited by injuries offered to others as well as to
purfelves ; and was defigned by the Author of nature
not only to excite us to adl vigoroufly in defending
ourfelves from evil, but to intereft us in the defence or
refeue of the injured and helplefs, and to raife us above
the fear of the proud and mighty oppreffor.
Neither, therefore, is all anger linfuf: hence the
precept, “ Be ye angry and fin not.”—It becomes fin-
ful, however, and contradidls the rule of feripture, when
it is conceived upon flight and inadequate provoca¬
tions, and when it continues long. It is then contrary
to the amiable fpirit of charity, which “ fuffereth long,
and is not eafily provoked.” Hence thefe other pre¬
cepts, “ Let every man be flow to anger;” and, “ Let
not the fun go down upon your wrath.”
Thefe precepts, , and all reafoning indeed upon the
fubjeft, fuppofe the paffion of anger to be within our
power: and this power confifts not fo much in any fa¬
culty we have of appealing our wrath at the time (for
we are paffive under the fmart which an injury or af¬
front occafions, and all we can then do is to prevent
its breaking out into adlion), as in fo mollifying our
minds
ookm.
t'ii.
i tP- 7-
A N G [ 799 ] A N G
minds by habits of juft refle&ion, as to be lefs irritated
by impreffions of injury, and to be fooner pacified.
As reflexions proper for this purpofe, and which
may be called the Jedatives of anger, the following are
fuggefted by Archdeacon Paley in his excellent treatife
of Moral and PoliticalPhilofopky*—“ The pofiibility of
miftaking the motives from which the conduX that of¬
fends us proceeded ; how often czrr offences have been
the effeX of inadvertency, when they were miftaken for
malice ; the inducement which prompted our adverfary
to aX as he did, arid how powerfully the fame induce¬
ment has, at one tijne or other, operated upon our-
felves ; that he is fuffering perhaps under a contrition,
which he is aftiamed, or wants opportunity, to confefs;
and how ungenerous it is to triumph by coldnefs or in-
fult over a fpirit already humbled in fecret; that the
returns of kindnefs are fweet, and that there is neither
honour nor virtue nor ufe in refilling them—-for fome
, perfons think themfelves bound to cherilh and keep a-
live their indignation, when they find it dying.away of
itfelf. We may remember that others have their paf-
lions, their prejudices, their favourite aims, their fears,
their cautions, their interefts, their fudden impulfes,
their varieties of apprehenfion, as well as we: we may
recolleX what hath fometimes paffed in our own minds,
when we have got on the wrong fide of a quarrel, and
imagine the fame to be palfing in our adverfary’s mind
now; when we became fenfible of our milbehaviour,
what palliations we perceived in it, and expeXed others
to perceive; how we were affeXed by the kindnefs, and
felt the fuperiority, of a generous reception and ready
forgivenefs ; how perfecution revived. our fpjrits with
our enmity, and feemed to juftify the conduX in our-
felves which we before blamed. Add to this, the in¬
decency of extravagant anger; how it renders us, whilft
it lads, the fcorn and fport of all about us, of which it
leaves us, when it ceafes, fenfible and alhamed; the in¬
conveniences and irretrievable mifconduX into which
our irrafcibility has fometimes betrayed us ; the friend-,
Ihips it has loft us; the diftreffes and embarraffmentsin
which we have been involved by it, and the fore re¬
pentance which on one account or other it always
coils us.
“ But the fefleXion calculated above all others to al¬
lay that haughtinefs of temper whi^Ji is ever finding out
provocations, and which renders anger fo impetuous,
is that which the gofpel propofes ; namely, that we
ourfelves are, or Ihortly fhall be, Tuppliants for mercy
and pardon at the judgment-feat of God. Imagine our
fecret fins all difclofed and brought to light; imagine
us thus humbled and ejjpofed; troubling under the
hand of God; calling ourfelves on his compaffion ;
crying out for mercy—imagine fuch a creature to talk
of fatisfaXion and revenge, refufing to be intreated,
difdaining to forgive, extreme to mark and to refent
what is done amifs : imagine, I fay, this; and you can
hardly feign to yourfelf an inllance of more impious Anger,
and unnatural arrogance.” y—
PHyficians and naturalifts afford inftances of very
extraordinary effeXs of this paffion. Borrichius cured
a woman of an inveterate tertian ague, which had baf¬
fled the art of phyfic, by putting the patient in a furious
fit qF anger. Valencia made ufe of the fame means, with
the like fuccefs, in a quartan ague. The fame paffion
has been equally falutary to paralytic, gouty, and even
dumb perfons; to which laft it has fometimes given
the ufe of fpeech. Etmuller gives divers inllances of
very Angular cures wrought by anger; among others,
he mentions a perfon laid up in the gout, who, being
provoked by his phyfician, flew upon him, and was
cured: It is true, the remedy is fomewhat dangerous-
in the application, when a patient does not know how
to ufe it. with moderation. We meet with feveral in¬
llances of princes to whom it has proved mortal; e. g*
Valentinian the firll, Wencefias, Matthius Cor-vinus
king of Hungary, and others.- There are alfo inftances
wherein it has produced the epilepfy, jaundice, cholera-
morbus, diarrhoea, &c. In faX, this paffion is of fuch
a nature, that it quickly throws the whole nervous fyf-
tem into preternatural commotions, by a violent llric-
ture of the nervous and mufcular parts; and furprifing-
ly augments not only the fyllole of the heart and of
its contiguous veffels, but alfo the tone of the fibrous
parts in the whole body. It is alfo certain, that this
paffion, by the fpafmodic ItriXure it produces in the
parts,' exerts its power principally on the ftomach and
inteftines, which are highly nervous and membranous
parts ; whence the fymptoms are more dangerous, in
proportion to the greater confent of the ftomach and
intellines, with the other nervous parts, and almoft
with the whole body.—The unhappy influence of an¬
ger likewife, oh the biliary and hepatic duXs, is very
furprifing; fince by an intenfe conftriXion of thefe,
the liver is not only rendered fcirrhous, but Hones alfo
are often generated in the gall-bladder and biliary
duXs: thefe accidents have fcarcely any other origin
than an obftruXion of the free motion and efflux of the
bile, by means of this violent ftriXure. From fuch a
ftriXure of thefe duXs likewife proceeds the jaundice,
which in procefs of time lays a foundation for calculous
concretions in the gall-bladder. Laffly, by increafing
the motion of the fluid, or the fpafms of the fibrous
parts, by means of anger, a larger quantity of blood is
propelled with an impetus to certain parts ; whence it
happens that they are too much diftended, and the ori¬
fices of the veins diftributed there opened. It is evi¬
dent from experience, that anger- has a great tendency
to excite enormous hsemorrhagies, either from the nofe,
the aperture of the pulmonary artery, the veins of the.
anus; or in women, from the uterus, efpecially in thofe
previoufly accuftomed and difpofed to fuch evacua--
tions.
END OF THE FIRST VOLUME.
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Page. col. line.
5 2 63
— — penult. '
11 1 55
136
208
247
337
561
646
75 2
25
39
54
*9
52
- penult.
28
marg. 1
him,> -
“ to nor”
Bodelian”
“ Maiemen”
burrow”
“ %• 3;”
“ principle”
“ ufe to be formerly fet” -
“ our interpreter”
“ took place. The”
‘ Venerum”
CORRECTED^
“ to him.”
“ nor.”
“ Bodleian.”
“ Maimon:”
“barrow.”
“ fig. 6.”
“ principal.”
“ fhould be firmly fet."
“ the interpreter.”
“ took place, the”
“ Venarum.”
Hate.
I.
II.
2d II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
2d VII.
VIIL
}
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
X’
DIRECTIONS for placing the PLATES of VOL. L
i
3
11. ■)
HI.}
(Part II. continued.)
Page.
632
644
647
694
695
696
698
724
756
762
768
786
Tin all, 31 Plates.J
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5